THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1937


Table of Contents

List of Tables

PREFACE.

IN this, the 45th issue of the “New Zealand Official Year-Book,” a further measure of expansion has been found possible, though the volume is still appreciably smaller in size than the 1926–31 issues.

The treatment of certain subjects assuming an added importance has been broadened. In particular, the section on Labour Laws and Allied Legislation has been considerably expanded to include a descriptive summary of the principal laws coining under this heading as amended by legislation enacted in the 1936 session of Parliament. The introductory historical comment to this section has also been widened in scope. The Building and Construction Section has been rewritten, a short historical account of progress in this sphere of economic activity being included, while certain new analyses of building costs are given. The references to recent developments in agricultural policy, included for the first time in the 11(36 issue, have been brought up to date by the inclusion of descriptive summaries of recent legislative measures and other Governmental actions of import in this connection.

New sections appearing for the first time are a section on Broad-easting—replacing brief references previously included in the Postal and Telegraphic Section—and a section on Consumption of Commodities. In view of the world-wide attention being directed to problems of nutrition, it was felt that the statistical treatment of the latter subject, previously included in the Miscellaneous Section was no longer adequate.

While every care has been taken to ensure accuracy in the subject-matter presented, the range of subjects covered in the volume is such that occasional lapses may have occurred. Again, the necessity of condensation in order to keep the size of the book within reasonable limits may have caused, in places, obscurities in exposition or inadequacies of treatment. I shall be glad to hear of any such Haws which may have escaped notice in the preparation of the Year-Book.

I wish again to record my appreciation of the assistance rendered by members of my staff and by officers of other Government Departments. In particular, my thanks are due to Mr. G. E. F. Wood, M.A.. who has carried out the exacting editorial duties on this occasion: and, in addition, has personally written most of the new letterpress.

J. W. BUTCHER.

Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Department, Wellington, New Zealand, 15th December. 1936.

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

[Following are certain important statistical data for later periods than are included in the body of the Year-Book. The page numbers relate to the appropriate pages in this Year-book containing more complete information in respect of earlier periods.]

POPULATION (pp. 830–853):—

Estimated population (inclusive of Maoris but exclusive of Cook and other Pacific Islands)—

As at 30th September—
 1935.1936.
* Excess of imports.
  Males795,846800,052
 Females766,273776,457
Totals1,562,1191,577,109
MIGRATION (pp. 836–842):—1st April to 31st October—
1935.1936.
  Passenger arrivals12,08714,944
  Passenger departures14,49616,894
Vital Statistics (pp. 48–102):—1st January to 30th September—
1935.1930.
 Numbers— 
  Births17,81218,459
  Deaths9,1599,790
  Marriages8,6889,994
  Infant deaths564578
Corresponding yearly rates—  
  Births (per 1,000 mean population)15·9916·54
  Deaths (per 1.000 mean population)8·228·70
  Marriages (per 1,000 mean population)7·828·94
  Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births)31·0631·29
Total Trade (pp. 171–178):—1935.1936.
££
 Commodity exports— 
  October2,845,9502,507,301
  Ten months ended 31st October38,739,17548,608,907
  Twelve months ended 31st October44,148,04356,408,113
 Commodity imports— 
  October3,602,6463,947,222
  Ten months ended 31st October30,058,66335,758,312
  Twelve months ended 31st October35,578,38842,016,916
Excess of exports— 
  October—756.696*—1,379,921*
  Ten months ended 31st October8,680,51212,850,595
  Twelve months ended 31st October8,569,65514,391,197

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS (pp. 183–184. 195–196).

 Twelve Months ended 31st October.
 1935.1936.
 Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
  £ £
Butter (cwt.)2,653,86811,892,1002,788,59815,422,572
Cheese (cwt.)1,751,5294,290,7201,644,5204,899,475
Frozen meats— 
  Beef (cwt.)857,924988,230753,3801,015,390
  Lamb (carcasses)2,574,4478,060,9072,661,7198,583,106
  Mutton (carcasses)1,011,8241,811,610906,6121,713,722
  Pork (cwt.)491,6651,328,150607,9951,584,273
Wool (bales)628,2066,764,075907.78612,910,614
Gold (oz.)170,5801,429,807175,5111,463,479
Timber (sup. ft.)41,243,333381,59230,393,097289,497

IMPORTS (PRINCIPAL ITEMS) (pp. 209–215).

Twelve months ended 31st October
 1935.1936.
 ££
Sugar665,011672,225
Tea624,305752,254
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes694,830756,335
Hosiery210,327220,695
Miscellaneous apparel and ready-made clothing1,111,3541,210,287
Miscellaneous drapery333,484344,851
Boots and shoes480,920482,071
Cotton, silk, and artificial silk piece-goods.2,073,7812,746,209
Woollen piece-goods640,414784,143
Paints and varnishes305,948390,779
Iron and steel: Bar, bolt, and rod271,048367,656
Electrical machinery (including wireless apparatus)1,540,3902,098,699
Timber405,911401,989
Printing-paper511,787688,460
Motor-spirit1,073,4881,521,720
AGRICULTURE (pp. 344–355):—1935–36.1936–37 (ESTIMATES).
 ACRES.ACRES.
AREAS SOWN (P. 345)—
  WHEAT252,423222,000
  OATS.. 363,296295,000
  BARLEY27,77725.300
  POTATOES22,95823,300
PASTORAL PRODUCTION (pp. 356–378):—1935–36.1936–37. (ESTIMATE).
 Wool production (greasy basis), lb316,500,000295,000,000

FACTORY PRODUCTION—CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES (pp. 437–444).

Industry. 1934–35.1935–36.
* Excluding establishments exclusively engaged in malting.
Meat freezing and preserving—
  Total persons engagedNo.7,5947,692
  Salaries and wages paid£1,535,5261,634,185
  Value of output£16,856,57717,514,049
   Added value£2,946,9923,058,566
Grain-milling—
  Total persons engagedNo.756728
  Salaries and wages paid£169,641164,546
  Value of output£2,320,6112,302,061
   Added value ..£544,381493,681
Biscuit, confectionery, and sugar-boiling works—
  Total persons engaged ..No.2,5912,862
  Salaries and wages paid ..£273,078314,717
  Value of output ..£1,481,5751,688,191
   Added value£734,421813,122
Breweries and malthouses*
  Total persons engaged ..No.797868
  Salaries and wages paid ..£201,957218,907
  Value of output (including beer duty) ..£1,708.0221,925,877
   Added value ..£720,376834,053
Soap and candle works—
  Total persons engaged ..No.513492
Salaries and wages paid ..£86,81789,187
  Value of output ..£536,235574,191
   Added value ..£299,695296,128
Tanning—
  Total persons engaged ..No.531543
  Salaries and wages paid ..£100,668104,888
  Value of output ..£492,604519,157
   Added value ..£198,454210,692
Superphosphates and chemical fertilizers—
  Total persons engaged ..No.644690
  Salaries and wages paid ..£138,257149,020
  Value of output ..£1,358,1081,360,123
   Added value ..£511,552539,428
Boot and shoe manufacturing—
  Total persons engaged ..No.2,5412,788
  Salaries and wages paid ..£344,504360,684
  Value of output ..£1,102,9501,140,646
   Added value ..£540,663534,340
Woollen mills—
  Total persons engaged ..No.2,5322,632
Salaries and wages paid ..£345,591360,782
Value of output ..£1,048,8491,005,830
   Added value£588,448592,741
Hosiery factories—
  Total persons engaged ..No.9981,012
  Salaries and wages paid ..£111,551114,379
  Value of output ..£440,089461,653
   Added value ..£214,178248,236
Transport (pp. 235–287):— Twelve Months ended October—
Shipping (pp. 235–242)—1935.1936.
* As at 30th September.
  Overseas inwardsNumber611641
 Tonnage2,564,7832,875,570
  Overseas outwardsNumber622640
 Tonnage2,599,4572,842,918
Railways (pp. 243–253)—   
  Net ton-miles runNumber427,000,000476,000,000
  Passenger journeysNumber20,028,86820,918,590
  Operating revenue £ 6,057,7786,616,411
  Operating expenditure £ 5,222,3005,908,103
Road (pp. 261–276)—   
  Motor-vehicles licensed* 192,844217,782
 Six Months ended 30th September
 1935.1936.
Consolidated Fund (pp. 408–470):—££
  Revenue10,198,82811,456,511
  Expenditure11,738,42813,645,470

OTHER PRINCIPAL STATISTICAL SERIES.

Item. 1035.1036.
* Fall due mainly to operation of Dairy Industry Account (see p. 335).
Prices index numbers (pp. 645–665):—   
Retail— Month of October.
Food (1926–30 = 1000) 875892
All groups (1926–30 = 1000) 853876
Wholesale—All groups (1909–13 = 1000) 14341426
Export—All groups (1909–13 = 100O) 11971262
Share prices—All groups (1926 = 1000) 1014957
Mortgages registered (pp. 013–616)£1,574,6621,670,811
Mortgages discharged (pp 613–616)£1,799,2131,777,999
Land-transfers registered (p. 307)£1,520,6791,623,410
Pensions (pp. 509–526):—   
 Old-age—   
  Number 41,84047,743
  Annual value£1,776,4142,475,000
 War—   
  Number 22,11723,435
  Annual value£1,352,4741,519,000
 Family allowances—   
  Number 11,98710,316
  Annual value£147,090145,000
Banking:—   
 Trading banks—   
  Debits, weekly average (excluding Government), (p. 562)£11,930,13114,782,859
  Ratio of advances to deposits (p. 560)Per cent.77·0075·96
 Reserve Bank— 9th November.
  Net reserve ratio (p. 554)Per cent.99·0978·71*
 Reserve—   
  Gold (p. 554)£2,801,7322,801,789
  Exchange (p. 554)£16,948,05216,360,745
  Net note circulation (p. 563)£6,453,5427,915,330
  26th October.
Overseas funds of banks (p. 563)£33,976,15731,451,278
  24th October.
Number of unemployed males (p. 709) 58,48146,140

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS DEPARTMENT.

Title.Latest No.Month of Issue.Price per Copy.Postage (extra).

* £1 1s. per annum (post free).

† No Census taken In 1931.

‡ Out of print.

   S.d.d.
Now Zealand Official Year-Book1937Jan., 1937766
Annual Statistical Reports—     
 Population and Buildings1934–35Aug., 1935262
 Vital Statistics1934Dec., 1935505
Justice1935July, 1930262
Trade and Shipping (Part I)1935July, 19362006
Trade and Shipping (Part 11)1935Dec, 1930364
Agricultural and Pastoral Production1934–35Nov., 1935262
Factory and Building Production1934–35Mar., 1930363
Insurance1934Mar., 1930202
Miscellaneous (Prices, Wage-rates and Hours of Labour, Unemployment, Industrial Accidents, Tramways, Banking, Building Societies, Bankruptcy, Commercial Afforestation, Statistical Summary)1934Feb., 1936404
  Appendix (Incomes and Income-tax)1934–35May, 1936101
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand (published annually)1936Aug., 1936766
Monthly Abstract of Statistics  26*1
Volumes of Census Results (published quin-quennially) 
Geographical Distribution1926May, 1927464
Dependencies192GFeb., 1927161
Ages1926Nov., 1928202
Conjugal Condition1920Feb., 1929262
Orphan Children and Dependent Children1920Mar., 1929202
Race Aliens1926Feb., 1929202
Native-born and Foreign-born1920May, 1929202
Religious Professions1926Nov., 1928202
Industrial and Occupational Distribution1926Mar., 1930303
Unemployment from Sickness and other Causes1926Sept., 1930200
Incomes1926May, 1930362
Families and Households1926April, 1931202
Dwellings1926Feb., 1931302
Maori and Half-caste Population1926Mar., 1929303
Public Libraries and Places of Worship1926Mar., 1927161
Poultry1926Mar., 1927161
General Report1926April, 1931503

NOTE.—This list is subject to revision from time to time. Publications are obtainable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

Chapter 1. SECTION I.—DESCRIPTIVE.

NEW ZEALAND.—AREA, LOCATION, AND BOUNDARIES.

THE Dominion of New Zealand consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. These may be classified as follows:—

(a) Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general principal purposes:—

 Square Miles
North Island and adjacent islets44,281
South Island and adjacent islets58,092
Stewart Island and adjacent islets670
Chatham Islands372
Total103,415

In all further references in this volume, unless the context indicates the contrary, Chatham Islands and Stewart Island are included with the South Island.

(b) Outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847:—

 Square Miles.
Three Kings Islands3
Auckland Islands234
Campbell Island44
Antipodes Islands24
Bounty Islands
Snares Islands1
Solander Island

(c) Islands (total area, 293 square miles) annexed to New Zealand:—

Kermadec Islands, annexed in 1887 (area, 13 square miles).

Cook and other Pacific Islands, annexed in 1901:—

Cook Islands (area, 150 square miles)—

Rarotonga.Aitutaki.
MangaiaMauke (or Parry).
Atiu.Takutea.
Mitiaro.Manuae and Te-Au-o-Tu (Hervey Islands).

Islands outside the Cook Group (area, 130 square miles)—

Niue (or Savage).Rakahanga (or Reirson).
Palmerston (or Avarau).Pukapuka (or Danger).
Penrhyn (or Tongareva).Suwarrow (or Anchorage).
Manihiki (or Humphrey).Nassau.

The total area of the above is 104,015 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue the aggregate area appears as 66,390,196 acres—i.e., 103,735 square miles. This covers not only the Dominion proper, but also the outlying islands and the Kermadecs. All areas given are necessarily approximations.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30'S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then Colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Group of islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned in the following schedule, were included as from the 11th June, 1901:—

A line commencing at a point at the intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and proceeding due north to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 170th degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; and thence due east to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich.

By mandate of the League of Nations the New Zealand Government also now administers the former German possession of Western Samoa; and, jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, holds the League's mandate over the Island of Nauru.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea (in the Antarctic regions), with the adjacent islands and territories, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887. and named the Ross Dependency. The Governor-General of New Zealand is Governor of the Ross Dependency and is vested with the administration of the dependency. The dependency is uninhabited.

By Imperial Orders in Council of the 4th November, 1925, the Union or Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofu, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them, a total area of only four square miles) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and power in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of the 8th March, 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

MOUNTAINS.

The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.). Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Others include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island contains much more mountainous country than is to be found in the North. Along almost its entire length runs the mighty chain known as the Southern Alps, rising to its culmination in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.). No fewer than seventeen peaks of the Southern Alps attain a height of over 10,000 ft. Owing to the snow-line being low in New Zealand, many large and beautiful glaciers exist. The Tasman Glacier (Southern Alps), which has a total length of over eighteen miles and an average width of one mile and a quarter, is the largest. On the west coast the terminal faces of the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers are but a few hundred feet above sea-level.

The following list has been compiled from various sources, and does not purport to be free of omissions:—

Mountain or Peak.Height (Feet).
North Island
Ruapehu9,175
Egmont8,260
Ngauruhoe7,515
Kaikoura Ranges
Tapuaenuku9,465
Alarm9,400
Southern Alps
Cook12,349
Tasman11,475
Dampier Silberhorn11,287
Silberhorn10,757
Lendenfeldt10,450
David's Dome10,443
Malte Brun10,421
Torres10,376
Teichelmann10,370
Sefton10,354
Haast10,294
Elie de Beaumont10,200
Douglas Peak10,107
La Perouse10,101
Haidinger10,059
De la Beche10,058
The Minarets10,058
Aspiring9,975
Hamilton9,915
Glacier Peak9,865
Aiguilles Rouges Nazomi9,731
Nazomi9,716
Darwin9,715
Chudleigh9,686
Annan9,667
Lowe9,656
Haeckel9,649
Le Receveur9,562
Goldsmith9,532
Big Mae9,511
Conway Peak9,510
Bristol Top9,508
Walter9,507
Grey9,490
Green9,307
Hutton9,297
D'Archiac.9,279
Bell9.276
Hochstetter Dome9,258
Earnslaw9,250
Nathan9,200
Barnicoat9,183
Sibbald9,181
Arrowsmith9,171
Spencer9,167
The Footstool9,073
Rudolf9,039
The Dwarf9,025
Darran Range
Tutoko9,691
Madeline9,042

The 1931 issue of the Year-Book contained a list, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude. In this issue, the list of South Island mountains is restricted to a minimum of 9,000 ft. altitude.

RIVERS.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand by Professor R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum.

Space in this issue is, however, available only for a list of the more important rivers, with their approximate lengths, the latter being supplied by the Department of Lands and Survey. Figures in parentheses indicate the approximate discharge, in cubic feet. per minute.

NORTH ISLAND

Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—Miles.
Piako650
Waihou (or Thames)90
Rangitaiki95
Whakatane60
Waiapu55
Waipaoa50
Wairoa50
Mohaka8O
Ngaururoro85
Tukituki65
Flowing into Cook Strait—
Ruamahanga70
Hutt35
Otaki30
Flowing into Cook Strait—contd.Miles.
Manawatu (over 600,000)100
Rangitikei115
Turakina65
Wangaehu85
Wanganui (over 500,000)140
Waitotara50
Patea65
Flowing into the Tasmanian Sea— 
Waitara65
Mokau75
Waikato (over 800,000)220
Wairoa (over 250,000)95
Hokianga40

SOUTH ISLAND

Flowing into Cook Strait-Miles.
Aorere45
Takaka45
Motueka75
Wai-iti30
Pelorus40
Wairau105
Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean-
Clarence125
Conway30
Waiau110
Hurunui90
Waipara40
Ashley55
Waimakariri (low water 80,000; normal flood 500,000)93
Selwyn55
Rakaia95
Ashburton67
Rangitata75
Opihi50
Pareora35
Waihao45
Waitaki135
Kakanui40
Shag45
Taieri125
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—ctd. Mies.
Clutha (over 2,000,000)210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait- 
Mataura120
Oreti105
Aparima65
Waiau115
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
Cleddau and Arthur20
Hollyford50
Cascade40
Arawata45
Haast6O
Karangarua30
Cook25
Waiho20
Wataroa35
Wanganui35
Waitaha25
Hokitika40
Arahura35
Taramakau45
Grey75
Buller (nearly 1,000,000)105
Mokihinui30
Karamea45
Heaphy25

LAKES.

An article on the Jakes of New Zealand, also by Professor R. Speight, will be found in the 1932 Year-Book. The more important lakes are stated below.

Lake.Length, in Miles.Greatest Breadth, in Miles.Area, in Square Miles.Drainage Area, in Square Miles.Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per Second.Height above Sea-level, in Feet.Greatest Depth, in Feet.
North Island.
Taupo25172381,2505,0001,211534
Rotorua63215842091584
Rotoiti10¾1426500913230
Tarawera1575 1,032285
Waikaremoana12211287722,015846
Wairarapa104271,250....64
South Island.
Rotoiti5286 1,997228
Rotoroa78146..1,470..
Brunner5416145..280357
Kanieri5811..422646
Coleridge1131870..1,067680
Tekapo124325805,0002,323620
Pukaki105315156,0001,588..
Ohau103234245,0001,720..
Hawea205485185,7001,062..
Wanaka30475960..922..
Wakatipu5231121,16213,0001,0161,242
Te Anau3361321,32012,660694906
Manapouri12656416. .3961,458
Monowai1211251700600..
Hauroko203251951,800611..
Poteriteri17217162..96..
Waihola1⅛2,200..(Tidal)52
Ellesmere1610107½745..(Tidal)45

MINERAL WATERS AND SPAS.

The hot springs of the North Island form one of the most remarkable features of New Zealand. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some three hundred miles; but the principal seat of hydro thermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces at Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1880, the neighbourhood was deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints—are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognized by the Government, and it is dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

There are also several small hot springs in the South Island, the best known being those at Hanmer. In addition to the major spas of Rotorua and Te Aroha, which are controlled by the Department of Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and Publicity, and of Hanmer, administered by the Department of Health, there are numerous smaller resorts which have been developed by private or municipal enterprise. In many other instances the springs are wholly or mainly undeveloped.

In his book “The Hot Springs of New Zealand,” Dr. A. S. Herbert, O.B.E., M.D., gives the following grouping of the better-known waters corresponding roughly to their mineral-water classification:—

Sulphur waters: Rotorua, Hanmer, Taupo, Wairakei, Waiotapu.

Alkaline waters: Te Aroha.

Saline waters: Helensville, Waiwera, Tarawera.

Iodine waters: Morere, Te Puia.

Calcium carbonated waters: Kamo.

Simple thermal waters: Okoroire and the Waikato springs.

The following article is by the Government Balneologist, Dr. J. D. C. Duncan, M.B., Ch.B. (Edin.), Member of the International Society of Medical Hydrology, Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society:—

INTRODUCTORY.

It has been acknowledged by the leading hydrologists in Europe that New Zealand possesses the most valuable mineral waters in existence. Not only are these mineral waters interesting from a tourist's point of view, but they are, because of their medicinal value, of great therapeutic importance, and, as a Dominion asset, worthy of the deepest scientific consideration.

From the spectacular aspect only a brief mention need be made in this article, as a full description of springs, geysers, and mud-pools has been given in Dr. Herbert's book, “The Hot Springs of Now Zealand”—a book that presents a comprehensive and vivid picture of the main manifestations of thermal activity in New Zealand.

Dealing with the medical-scientific aspect of the mineral waters, the space of this article will permit only the shortest account of the treatments; and, as the Rotorua Spa is of premier importance, the article will be confined almost entirely to its operations.

Since and as the result of experience gained during the war, the subject of hydrotherapy has been recreated on modern scientific lines, and the actions of thermal mineral waters have been investigated, both chemically and physiologically, in determining their therapeutic value in the treatment of disease.

TREATMENT ESTABLISHMENTS.

The principal treatment establishments are the Main Bathhouse and the Ward Baths.

In the Main Bathhouse are a series of private bathrooms, slipper and step down, each with its dressing-room attached, and a couch for packing purposes. The baths are arranged for either “Priest” or “Rachel” waters, with under current douches and showers. There are, also, deep “Priest” pools at suitable temperatures for the treatment of chronic cases.

Off the main hall are treatment-rooms where massage and every variety of physiotherapeutic treatment can be given, and, in either wing of the building, a complete establishment for Aix-Vichy douche massage.

The Ward Bathhouse is a handsome new block of buildings which has replaced the old Pavilion Bathhouse. This building, divided into convenient sections for service and control, consists of a large main hall, swimming-pools, hot “Rachel” “pools”, “Old Priest” and “Radium” Dr. A. S. Herbert, O.B.E., M.D., gives the following grouping of the better-known waters corresponding roughly to their mineral-water classification:—

Sulphur waters: Rotorua, Hanmer, Taupo, Wairakei, Waiotapu.

Alkaline waters: Te Aroha.

Saline waters: Helensville, Waiwera, Tarawera.

Iodine waters: Morere, Te Puia.

Calcium carbonated waters: Kamo.

Simple thermal waters: Okoroire and the Waikato springs.

The following article is by the Government Balneologist, Dr. J. D. C. Duncan, M.B., Ch.B. (Edin.), Member of the International Society of Medical Hydrology, Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society:—

INTRODUCTORY.

It has been acknowledged by the leading hydrologists in Europe that New Zealand possesses the most valuable mineral waters in existence. Not only are these mineral waters interesting from a tourist's point of view, but they are, because of their medicinal value, of great therapeutic importance, and, as a Dominion asset, worthy of the deepest scientific consideration.

From the spectacular aspect only a brief mention need be made in this article, as a full description of springs, geysers, and mud-pools has been given in Dr. Herbert's book, “The Hot Springs of Now Zealand”—a book that presents a comprehensive and vivid picture of the main manifestations of thermal activity in New Zealand.

Dealing with the medical-scientific aspect of the mineral waters, the space of this article will permit only the shortest account of the treatments; and, as the Rotorua Spa is of premier importance, the article will be confined almost entirely to its operations.

Since and as the result of experience gained during the war, the subject of hydrotherapy has been recreated on modern scientific lines, and the actions of thermal mineral waters have been investigated, both chemically and physiologically, in determining their therapeutic value in the treatment of disease.

TREATMENT ESTABLISHMENTS.

The principal treatment establishments are the Main Bathhouse and the Ward Baths.

In the Main Bathhouse are a series of private bathrooms, slipper and step down, each with its dressing-room attached, and a couch for packing purposes. The baths are arranged for either “Priest” or “Rachel” waters, with under current douches and showers. There are, also, deep “Priest” pools at suitable temperatures for the treatment of chronic cases.

Off the main hall are treatment-rooms where massage and every variety of physiotherapeutic treatment can be given, and, in either wing of the building, a complete establishment for Aix-Vichy douche massage.

The Ward Bathhouse is a handsome new block of buildings which has replaced the old Pavilion Bathhouse. This building, divided into convenient sections for service and control, consists of a large main hall, swimming-pools, hot “Rachel” “pools”, “Old Priest” and “Radium” baths, and a block of private “Rachel” baths.

At the back of these buildings is an attractive sunken courtyard, with fountain and formal garden, surrounded on three sides by verandas, and on the fourth by an open pergola facing the lake. In this courtyard garden patients and visitors can bask in the sunshine, protected from prevailing winds.

The swimming-pools, open to the air, are spacious baths lined with white tiles and having douches, showers, and convenient dressing-cubicles. These provide recreational facilities for patients and visitors.

The “Radium” and “Priest” baths, built on the pumice bed of the soil, contain some of the most important therapeutic waters in existence, and are invaluable in the treatment of heart conditions and cases of nervous debility. In connection with these baths are comfortable rest-rooms and convenient massage establishments.

The private baths are of the porcelain, slipper variety, and step-down tiled baths—the latter designed for helpless or crippled patients.

The swimming-pools of the new Blue Bath afford one of the most attractive playgrounds for visitors to Rotorua. There are two pools, set in T form with a colonnade between. The larger pool, 100 ft. by 40 ft., with a depth of 4 ft 6 in. to 9 ft., has unique diving-platforms. This pool is lighted under the water by twenty are lamps, which give a beautiful luminous effect to the water. The smaller pool, 70 ft. by 36 ft., is a safe and enjoyable playground for children of any age. Both pools are lined with white tiles. Convenient dressing and shower rooms surround the pools. At the entrance a luxurious lounge provides a resting-place for bathers, and above this an attractive tea-room serves refreshments to its patrons.

MINERAL WATERS.

The mineral waters which have been harnessed for therapeutic use at the Rotorua Spa are of two main varieties—viz., the “Rachel,” which is an alkaline, sulphuretted water, emollient to the skin, and sedative in reaction; and the “Priest,” or free-acid water, which, due to the presence of free sulphuric acid, is mainly stimulating and tonic in reaction. There is, in addition to the foregoing, a valuable silicious mud similar to that found in Pistany, in Czechoslavakia, which, in its own sphere in hydrotherapy, exerts its influence as a curative agent.

However, it is in the “Priest” waters that one finds one's most valuable ally in the treatment of arthritis, fibrositis (the so-called rheumatic affections), and cases of nervous debility. The “Rachel” and mud baths are used mostly in those cases of fibrositis where the condition requires a softening effect; and in the types where pain is a manifest symptom these baths are invaluable as soothing and sedative agents.

REACTIONS IN THE BATH.

In these natural acid baths the reactions are mainly stimulating, with increased hyperemia in the parts submerged, and marked lessening of pain and swelling in the affected joints and tissues. Those waters containing free carbonic-acid gas are used for the cases of fibrositis in which the circulation requires the stimulating action of gaseous baths.

The “New Priest” waters, containing approximately 16·80 grains per gallon of free sulphuric acid, are utilized in the form of open pools, deep step-down baths, and slipper baths. They are prescribed at a suitable temperature for the individual case.

The “Old Priest” waters, containing a much lower degree of free acid (3·77 grains to the gallon), and of varying temperatures (from 84° F. to 102° F.), are used for treatment at their source. The waters percolating through their pumice-bed, are confined in pools, and contain free carbonic acid gas bubbling through the water.

The very strong “Postmaster” waters are confined within pools on the natural pumice-bed, and, by a primitive arrangement of wooden sluice-valves, are maintained at three ranges of temperature—viz., 104° 106°, and 108° F. They contain 22·29 grains of free sulphuric acid to the gallon, and are strongly counter-irritant in their reactions.

INDICATIONS AND TECHNIQUE.

In such a brief account as this one can deal only in generalizations, and the forms of treatment mentioned must necessarily be subject to wide variations. In any form of hydro-therapeutic treatment the regime must be adapted to the individual manifestations of the disease, and no routine rules or regulations can be laid down in spa operations.

The “New Priest” waters are, for the most part, prescribed for patients suffering from subacute or chronic fibrositis, subacute or chronic gout, and the various forms of arthritis. Except in cases of marked debility, those patients are given graduated baths, at temperatures ranging from 102° to 104° F, from ten to fifteen minutes daily. Most of the baths are fitted with a subaqueous douche having a pressure of 25 lb. to the square inch, which is directed under water on the affected tissues. The bath is usually followed by a light or hot pack, according to the needs of the case.

The subthermal “Old Priest” waters (temperature 84° F.), containing a high degree of free carbonic-acid gas, are particularly valuable in the treatment of functional nervous disease, and the methods of administration are similar to those obtaining at Nauheim (Germany). The reactions are markedly stimulating through the sympathetic nervous system, and bring about, by reflex action, a tonic effect on the heart.

The “Postmaster” baths are used in the treatment of the more chronic forms of fibrositis, arthritis deformans, and gout, requiring a more or less heroic type of procedure. They are usually prescribed in combination.—i.e., a certain time in each pool, commencing with the lowest temperature. The hyperæmic reaction is most marked, and in many of the cases where pain is a predominant symptom there is a temporary paralysis of the surface nerves, as well as a strong reflex excitation of the heart. For this reason these baths are not given to patients suffering from cardiac weakness.

The mud baths being highly impregnated with silica, which has a bland, sedative effect on the tissues, are particularly indicated in cases of acute or subacute neuritis, gout, and certain skin conditions. The action of these baths is to induce an active hyperæmia in the patient with an actual absorption of free sulphur, which is present in considerable quantity. Also the radio-activity of this medium (0·185 per c.c.) is possibly an active factor in the therapeutic action of these baths. In some of the cases undergoing mud-bath treatment the effect has been almost miraculous—instant relief from pain; reduction of swelling caused by inflammatory exudates—and such patients have been able to discard crutches or other adventitious aids and to walk with more or less normal comfort.

Perhaps, of more recent date, the most efficacious effects of mud treatments have been manifested in cases of skin conditions—notably psoriasis: cases which have resisted all forms of drug treatment have cleared up in an almost magical manner; and so frequently have such cures been effected that one believes that the silicious mud of Rotorua has some markedly specific action as a therapeutic agent.

The treatment of gout depends entirety on the individual manifestations. In certain subacute and chronic types fairly high temperatures (104° to 106° F., with hot packs) of “Priest” water are employed, in order to hasten the absorption of exudates and the elimination of uric acid. In cases of acute gout more sedative measures are pursued, such as “Rachel” baths at neutral temperatures, local mud packs, and rest. As soon as the conditions permit, these patients are changed over to acid water baths. Cases of chronic gout exhibiting metabolic stagnation sometimes receive considerable benefit from the counter-irritant effects of the strongly acid “Postmaster” waters.

ACCESSORY TREATMENTS.

Separate establishments, containing the most modern apparatus of sprays, douches, hot steam, &c, are available for wet massage and treatments of the Aix-Vichy type.

The massage-rooms are fitted with the latest installations of electrical equipment—Bristowe tables, diathermy, high frequency, Bergonie chair, X-ray, Schnée baths, Greville hot air, and other apparatus for carrying out the most up-to-date methods of electrical-therapeutic treatments.

The baths are administered by a trained staff of attendants, and the massage, electrical-therapy, and douches carried out by a qualified staff of operators.

In every respect the hydrotherapy treatments aim at a restoration of function, and the measures employed are, for the most part, re-educative.

SANATORIUM AND GENERAL STATISTICS.

In connection with the Rotorua Spa is a sanatorium of seventy beds, where patients whose finances are restricted can receive treatment at an exceedingly moderate cost. The institution consists of cubicles and open wards. Thermal baths and massage-rooms in the building provide for the more helpless type of invalid.

From sixty thousand to eighty thousand baths are given annually, and about thirty thousand special treatments—massage, electrical therapy, &c.—are administered each year at the Rotorua Spa. The usual course of treatment lasts from four to six weeks, and the high percentage of cures and improvements testifies to the value of the thermal, mineral waters and the hydro-therapeutic treatments obtaining in this Dominion.

GEOLOGY.

The following article on the geology of New Zealand was prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.R.S.N.Z., Director of the Geological Survey:—

INTRODUCTION.

New Zealand is a small country, but its geological history is as complex and as ancient as that of a continent. Land, though from age to age it varied greatly in area, outline, and elevation, must have persisted in the New Zealand area from the oldest Palæzoic or earlier. Long periods during which gentle regional oscillations and warpings, aided by the slow-acting forces of denudation, brought about gradual changes were interrupted by great revolutions, when earth-stresses ridged the crust into mountains and quickly altered the whole configuration of the land and sea-floor. For New Zealand the important geological periods are those that followed the two latest mountain-building movements—the Kaikoura deformation of late Tertiary time, and the Hokonui deformation of the early Cretaceous. The deposits laid down in the intervening period of relative crustal stability cover a large proportion of the land, and contain all the coal and most of the limestone of the Dominion. The soils on which grow the forests, pastures, and crops are of post-Tertiary age, and the great bulk of the gold has been won from deposits formed during the same period.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE STRATIGRAPHY.

The oldest known fossiliferous rocks in New Zealand are the Ordovician slates and greywackes of west Nelson and south-west Otago. Lower unfossiliferous beds of the same great system extend southward from the northern area and outcrop in the Westport, Reefton, Greymouth, Ross, and Okarito districts. Above the fossil-bearing beds, but probably also of Ordovician age, are the black phyllites, quartzites, and marbles which outcrop continuously from Takaka to Mount Owen, and are again exposed in the upper basins of the Matakitaki, Maruia, and Grey Rivers. The similar rocks of western Otago probably also belong to this group. The complex of gneisses and schists of the same region, intruded by acid and basic plutonics, and usually considered of Archaean age, resembles the part of the Ordovician strata of western Nelson that has been similarly invaded and metamorphosed and may well be of early Palaeozoic age. Different authorities assign the mica, chlorite, and quartz schists of Central Otago to ages that range from the Archaean to the Triassic. They are certainly Palaeozoic or older, since they grade upward into greywackes that, at Clinton, contain Permian fossils.

Devonian rocks are certainly known only in the Baton, Wangapeka, and Reefton districts. These beds, fossils from which have lately been examined in England, cover only small areas. Rut the old Geological Survey mapped wide tracts of country in Nelson and Otago, covered with beds of the Te Anau Series, as Devonian, and the correlation may well be correct, though the rocks are entirely unfossiliferous.

The Maitai Series, which forms the ranges on the south-east side of the Nelson lowlands, are probably of Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous age. Their position in the time scale and their correlation with rocks in other parts of New Zealand have provoked much discussion. Permian strata, as already stated, occur in Otago, where the area they cover may be considerable.

Richly fossiliferous late Triassic rocks are known in the Kawhia-Mokau district, near the City of Nelson, and at several localities in Canterbury and Otago. Except in Nelson and Canterbury, strata that contain fossils referable to several stages of the Jurassic succeed without observed unconformity. The broad belt of greywacke and argillite that forms the mountains of Canterbury and Marlborough, and continues as a narrower belt through Wellington to northern Hawke's Ray, is usually referred to the Trias-Jura. Similar rocks outcrop in the centre of the North Island and at many points in North Auckland. There are Upper Triassic molluscs in these beds at several localities, and the vertebra of a saurian with Triassic rather than Permian affinities was found near Wellington. Lithologically the greywackes and argillites of this vast series differ somewhat from the rocks of similar type belonging to the Jurassic and Maitai series; they are therefore thought to be of older Triassic age, but may well range into the Permian. The schists occurring with them in the Kaimanawa, Kaikoura, Moorhouse, and Kirkliston Ranges are probably older.

The thick conglomerates conformably overlying the younger Jurassic shales of the Port Waikato, Kawhia, and Coromandel regions belong to either the youngest Jurassic or the oldest Cretaceous. Strata of early and middle Cretaceous age occur east of the main axis of New Zealand at several points from Marlborough to East Cape. Late Cretaceous beds are much more widely distributed, being known in North Auckland and in many localities along the eastern side of both Islands. They contain thick layers of black shale that give many indications of oil, which, however, has not yet been found in commercial amount. The oldest known workable coal-seams in New Zealand, those at Broken River, Malvern Hills, Shag Point, and Kaitangata, and perhaps some near Greymouth, are in young Cretaceous beds.

Tertiary rocks form the greater part of the North Island and are widely distributed in the South. As a whole they are weaker and more readily weathered than the older strata, and hence have given rise to less rugged country, now mostly cleared and grassed and forming productive pastoral land.

Eocene rocks are present in North Auckland, and probably also in the Gisborne, Hawke's Ray, and east Wellington districts. In the South Island they occur on the West Coast and in Canterbury and Otago, in which regions they contain valuable coal-seams worked at Westport, Reefton, Greymouth, Mount Somers, and Milton. Of the same age are the auriferous “cements” of the Tuapeka district that greatly enriched the gravels of the neighbouring streams and are themselves worked for gold.

In Oligocene time the maximum subsidence during the Tertiary occurred, and but little of the New Zealand area remained above sea-level at its close. The thick limestones of the Oamaru district and the contemporaneous limestone prominent in many parts of New Zealand are the younger deposits of this age. The older beds contain the extensive coal-measures of the North Auckland, Waikato, Charleston, and other coalfields.

Miocene strata cover large areas in both islands, and also outcrop in the Wanganui, Gisborne and Hawke's Bay regions. In north Taranaki, the Murchison basin, and parts of the West Coast thick coal-measures of this age contain workable scams of brown coal.

During the Pliocene the New Zealand area, which had been intermittently rising since the close of the Oligocene, was greatly elevated and deformed. The earth blocks from which the present mountains have been carved were uplifted from, or from near, sea-level, and New Zealand as it now is was roughly shaped out. In the South Island the deposits of this period are chiefly gravels deposited in structural depressions; but in the North, and especially in its southern half, there are thick and extensive shoal-water marine sediments. These, and the underlying Miocene strata, are the source of the petroleum found at New Plymouth.

The Pleistocene was a period of regional oscillation. While the land was high the mountains of the South Island were intensely glaciated, and great ice-streams, carrying vast bodies of debris, descended into the low country; after the highlands had been reduced in height through both denudation and decided subsidence the glaciers rapidly retreated, and are today represented by comparatively small remnants far in the mountains. While the ice was melting, the rivers of the South Island were unusually active in transporting waste to the lowlands and the sea. At this time, too, as well as somewhat earlier, the volcanoes of the North Island ejected an abundant supply of fragmentary material, much of which was borne away by the streams and used in building plains.

The deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age are in New Zealand of greater economic importance than those of all other ages. The plains, river-flats, and low lands generally were formed or profoundly modified during this period, and the soils that cover them produced. During the same time practically all the gold won from the gravels of the South Island was liberated from a hard matrix and concentrated into workable deposits, and the rich bonanzas of the lodes of Hauraki were formed by secondary enrichment. The land-oscillations of the period are also of economic importance, for New Zealand's abundant water-power is derived from streams that have not yet, owing to the recency of land-uplift, cut their valleys to grade. On the other hand, land-depression has provided harbours and valuable artesian basins in many parts of the Dominion.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.

Plutonic rocks intrude many of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata, and some of the formations show evidence of contemporaneous volcanic action. Of the plutonic rocks granite is much the most prominent, and it outcrops at many points in west Nelson, Westland, Otago, and Stewart Island. In Nelson there were at least two periods of intrusion, probably corresponding with the great mountain-folding movements of the late Palaeozoic and early Cretaceous times. The auriferous lodes of Reefton and other localities on the West Coast probably originated from the cooling magmas that formed the younger granites. Basic and ultra-basic rocks, the latter now largely altered to serpentine, occur in Nelson, Westland, Otago, and, to a less extent, in North Auckland.

Though volcanoes are known to have existed in Mesozoic and Palaeozoic times, they seem to have been more active during the Tertiary than in any earlier age. The vast pile of flow and fragmental rocks that form the Hauraki Peninsula and the range that continues it southward to Tauranga belong to this period. The gold-silver veins extensively worked at Coromandol, Thames, and Waihi are in these rocks, which southward are smothered by the rhyolitic pumice that vents in the Taupo-Rotorua zone ejected during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Thick showers of pumice from this region cover a large part of the centre of the North Island and streams have carried the finer material to practically all the low-lying parts of the island. The volcanoes are still alive, as is evidenced by the steam-vents, hot springs, and geysers found in the depressed zone extending from Ruapehu to White Island. The volcanic rocks of Taranaki probably range from the Miocene to the Pleistocene in age. The basalts and scoria cones that occur so abundantly between Kawhia and the Bay of Islands belong for the most part to the late Pliocene and Pleistocene, though cones at Auckland City are probably Recent.

In the South Island the volcanoes appear to be quite dead, for the hot springs at Hanmer and near the alpine chain are due to other causes. In the middle Tertiary, however, there were outbursts at many points, the chief eruptions being at Banks Peninsula and about Dunedin.

CONCLUSION.

In a short article it is impossible to give an adequate idea of what geological workers have accomplished in New Zealand, or of what they have yet to do in order that the wisest use may be made of the country's mineral and agricultural resources. For good general accounts the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall should be consulted, and for more detailed information the bulletins of the Geological Survey and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions” of the New Zealand Institute (now the Royal Society of New Zealand).

EARTHQUAKES.

The following article deals with earthquakes in New Zealand. The first section of the article has been prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, Director of the Geological Survey, and the remaining sections by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Acting-Director of the Dominion Observatory.

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Earthquake and volcanic activity are manifestations of the adjustments constantly occurring in the earth's crust. In the not far distant past, geologically speaking, a more or less continuous belt of mountains was raised up round the border of the great sunken area of the Pacific, and this belt as a whole is characterized by “chronic and acute seismicity.” At times the earthquakes occur within the belt itself, though a large proportion have their epicentres on its submerged frontal slope.

The South Island of New Zealand and the eastern part of the North Island are on the crest of the great mountain ridge or crustal fold which forms a portion of the real border of the Pacific. This ridge maintains a relatively straight course-north-north-west for 1,600 miles across the floor of the Pacific, nearly to Samoa. The Auckland Peninsula, part of a decidedly weaker fold, meets the main fold nearly at right angles in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic region. The earthquakes of this seismically sensitive district, though they may be locally severe, are not usually felt far from their points of origin. On the other hand, the tectonic earthquakes that occur along the main earth-fold shake large areas, some of them being recorded on instruments throughout the world. These are caused by the slipping of earth-blocks against their neighbours along fractures.

Many great fault-zones have been traced for long distances, but a few only have been active since European occupation. The Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 raised an area sixty miles long in a north-east direction and in parts ten miles-wide. The uplift was greatest along the south-east edge of the area—for miles amounting to 6 ft. or more. Numerous levels on the Heretaunga Plain and along the railway north of Napier show that the uplift decreased north-westward, so that the area was slightly tilted in that direction. The ground east of the uplifted area sank, and parts of the Napier and Wairoa flats are over a foot lower than before the earthquake.

In 1929 movement along a north-trending fault seven miles west of Murchison raised the ground east of the fault by about 15 ft., and caused it to shift north-west by about 9 ft. The uplift gradually decreases eastward and dies out sixteen miles from the fault, facts indicating a slight tilt of the earth-block toward the east. Recent levellings show that the block is sinking somewhat irregularly, a movement, no doubt, causing some of the innumerable local after-shocks felt in the area over many months. Other sensible earth-movements occurred in connection with the Taupo earthquake series of 1922,* the Amuri earthquake of 1888, the Wellington earthquake of 1855, and probably the Awatere earthquake of 1848.§ There is also definite evidence of geologically-recent differential movement of earth-blocks at several widely separated points in both Islands.

THE SEISMICITY OF NEW ZEALAND.

A comparison between the records of destructive earthquakes in New Zealand and similar records in other seismic countries shows that the seismicity of New Zealand in general is surprisingly high. This, however, is due to the occurrence of a large number of earthquakes of the semi-destructive type, with comparatively few of the disastrous type.

During the period 1835–1934 sixty-nine destructive earthquakes are known to have occurred in New Zealand, forty-nine of which were of the semi-destructive-type (not exceeding intensity R.-F. 8). There were fourteen of intensity 9, and six of intensity 10.*

* P. G. MORGAN: N.Z. Geological Survey; Animal Report for the year 1923, p. 10.

† ALEXANDER MCKAY: Reports of Geological Explorations during 1888–80. Wellington, 1890.

New Zealand Government Gazelle, Wellington, Vol. 2, No. 14, 17th October, 1855, p. 116. Sir CHARLES LYELL, “The Principles of Geology?” tenth edition, 1868, Vol. 2, p. 82. London: John Murray.

§ New Zealand Government Gazette. Wellington, Vol. 1, No. 27, 13th November, 18–18, and Vol. 1, No. 20, 20th November, 1848. 11. S. CHAPMAN in Westminster Review, Vol. 51,1849.

The distribution of earthquakes throughout New Zealand itself during the period 1848–1934 shows that the region of intense seismic activity, where earthquakes are frequent and occasionally severe, includes the eastern and southern parts of the North Island and the northern part of the South Island..

The Auckland Peninsula, South Canterbury, and Eastern Otago appear to have been comparatively free from earthquakes during the past hundred years. Although the seismic history of the Fiord region of the South Island is not very well known, there are records of sealers having experienced violent earthquakes in those parts in 1792, 1810, and 1826–27 Also there is some record of violent earthquakes having occurred near Auckland in ] 834–35.§

It is thus evident that, although some parts of New Zealand have experienced no severe earthquakes during the past hundred years, no assurance can he given that such will not occur there in the future.

The following table, compiled for some of the main centres in New Zealand, shows—(1) The mean annual frequency of all earthquakes during the period 1848–1934 and (2) the number of destructive earthquakes during the period 1835–1934:|

Centre.Mean Number of Shocks per Year.Number of Earthquakes of intensity R.-F. 8 or over.
Auckland0·31
New Plymouth2·70
Napier3·35
Wanganui4·110
Masterton2·0(i
Wellington7·814
Nelson3·75
Westport4·93
Christchurch2·03
Dunedin1·0..
Invercargill0·6..

Although there appears to be no regular annual variation in the frequency of New Zealand earthquakes, the mean monthly numbers over a long period indicate that earthquakes are on the average most frequent in March and least so in January. The mean monthly numbers follow approximately the mean annual variation of atmospheric pressure in New Zealand.

DEATHS DUE TO EARTHQUAKES IN NEW ZEALAND.

During the period 1848–1935 the number of deaths recorded in New Zealand as due directly or indirectly to earthquakes was 284. Of these, 255 were due to the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3rd February, 1931. A table giving details of the number of deaths due to earthquakes in New Zealand was published in the 1936 issue of the Year-Book.

* L. BASTINGS: “Destructive Earthquakes in New Zealand, 1835–1934,” N.Z. Jour. Sci. & Tech., Vol. 17, No. 1, July, 1035. Dominion Observatory Bulletin 103.

† L. BASTINGS and R. C. HAYES: “Earthquake Distribution in New Zealand, 1848–1934,” N.Z. Jour. Sci. & Tech., Vol. 16, No. 5, March, 1035. Dominion Observatory Bulletin 95.

‡ R MCNAB “Murihiku and (lie Southern islands” (1907). R, TAYLOR: “Te Ika a Maui,“ London, 1855.

§ Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. 3, 1891, p. 531.

| R. C. HAYES: “The Seismicity of New Zealand Cities and Towns,” N.Z. Jour, of Sci. & Tech., 1936. Dominion Observatory Bulletin 111.

¶ R. C. HAYES: “Earthquake Frequency in New Zealand,” N.Z. Jour. Sci. & Tech., Vol. 10, No. 5, 1935. Dominion Observatory Bulletin 104.

EARTHQUAKES IN 1935.

No earthquakes of destructive force occurred in New Zealand during the year 1935. The maximum intensity reported was R.-F. 7, which occurred in an earthquake near Taupo on 15th July. The following table gives some particulars of the most important earthquakes in New Zealand during the year 1935. The table includes—(1) Earthquakes reported to have reached or exceeded an intensity of R.-F. 6; and (2) earthquakes which were felt over a wide area:—

New Zealand Mean Time.Approximate Position of Epicentre.Maximum Intensity as felt, R.-F. Scale.Locality of Maximum Intensity.
South Latitude.East Longitude.
* Geographical position of epicentre not known.
1935d.h.m.°°  
Mar.11250*..6Hicks Bay.
July15232938·7176·27Wairakei.
Aug.131145*..6Waipiro Bay.
Sept1222541·6172·76(?)Lake Grassmere (Marlborough) 
Oct.518940·8176·34 +Pahiatua, Foxton.
Nov.2153141·0175·55Paraparaumu, Paekakariki.
Nov277041·3172·84Farewell Spit.

SEISMOGRAPH STATIONS.

During the year 1935 fifteen seismograph stations were operating in New-Zealand and the surrounding islands. Of these, eleven are directly under the control of the Dominion Observatory. The stations at Apia and Christchurch are controlled by the observatories at those places, whilst two stations are privately owned. In July a new station was established at Lake Monowai Power-house, where a Milne-Jaggar seismograph was installed. The Imamura seismograph at Takaka underwent extensive overhaul, and was out of action during the latter part of the year. The New Zealand subsidiary stations are operated by officers of various Government Departments, by the engineers of some of the Electric-power Boards, and by private individuals.

NON-INSTRUMENTAL RECORDS.

Since 1888 there has been established in New Zealand a system of observing local earthquakes, depending entirely on personal observations. At first this system was confined to selected telegraph-offices throughout the Dominion, but more recently a number of lighthouse-keepers have also taken up the work as well as many private observers. Special forms are supplied for reporting earthquakes, in which information is required concerning the observed time of the shock, the direction and the duration of the movement, and also general effects which are likely to lead to a determination of the intensity of the earthquake.

There are at present 110 of these non-instrumental reporting-stations distributed throughout the Dominion.

The following summary gives the number of earthquakes reported felt in New Zealand for each month during the year 1935, and also the maximum intensities:—

Month.Number of Earthquakes reported felt.Maximum Intensity, R.-F. Scale.Locality of Maximum.
North Island.South Island.Both Islands.Total for New Zealand.
January751115Tokomaru Bay, Hastings.
February1271185Puysegur Point.
March85..136Hicks Bay.
April61..75Wanganui, Milford Sound.
May163 185Farewell Spit.
June103..135Taupo.
July119..207Wairakei.
August76..126Waipiro Bay.
September66..115Whakatane, Lake Grassmere, Cheviot.
October45..96Milford Track (Quinton lints).
November..73..96Wanganui, Paraparaumu, Paekakariki.
December91195Paekakariki.
Totals1035471507Wairakei.

The next table gives the number of earthquakes in which the maximum intensity reported reached the various decrees of the Rossi-Forel scale:—

Month.Rossi-Forei Scale.Totals.
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.
1935. 
January.1442..........11
February ....2961..... .. ...18
March..264..1........13
April..2212..........7
May..1971..... .....18
June..1372..........13
July12484..1......20
August..146..1........12
September..1243l........11
October..243............9
November..1332..........9
December1..512..........9
Totals21655541931......150

The total number of earthquakes reported felt, and the maximum intensities reported in each of the years 1921 to 1935 inclusive, are as follows:—

Year.Number of Earthquakes reported felt.Maximum Intensity, R.-F. Scale.
1921918
1922.1,1878
1923766
1924707
1925768
19261738
1927.1078
1928808
192967810
19307488
193143210
19323138
19331087
19342309
19341507

The figures in the above table, giving the number of reported earthquakes. require careful interpretation. In years of major earthquakes, such as 1929 and 1931, many of the numerous after-shocks are liable to be passed unnoticed, while during a period of quiescence there is a tendency for all shocks, however slight, to be reported. This leads to an undue emphasis being placed upon earthquake activity during a comparatively quiet period. The great number of earthquakes reported in 1922 is due to the swarm of local shocks which occurred in the Taupo region in the latter half of that year. Also, although there was no major earthquake in 1930, a large number of shocks occurred in that year, due mainly to the continuation of after-shocks of the Buller earthquake of 17th June, 1929.

PUBLICATIONS.

The Dominion Observatory, Wellington, and the Magnetic Observatory, Christ-church, publish seismological reports every month, which comprise instrumental data from all the New Zealand stations.

The Dominion Observatory also publishes special bulletins dealing with the results of research work in seismology. By means of the records from New Zealand seismograph stations the Dominion Observatory carries out the determination of the epicentres of the principal New Zealand earthquakes; and with the aid of seismological reports from Apia and Australian stations also undertakes the provisional determination of earthquake origins in the south-west Pacific generally.

CLIMATE.

The following article on the climate of New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. E. Kidson, O.B.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.N.Z., Director of Meteorological Services:—

THE METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE.

The New Zealand Meteorological Office is located at Wellington. Weather forecasts, based on observations at 9 a.m. and 4 p.m., are issued at noon and 5 p.m. respectively. The midday forecast is telegraphed to approximately one hundred country centres, where it is displayed at the post-offices. The evening forecast is broadcasted from the New Zealand Broadcasting Board's stations at Auckland. Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin at 7 p.m. and 9 p.m. The 7 p.m. issue from Wellington includes weather reports from a series of stations as well distributed as possible over the Dominion and the surrounding area.

Rainfall data from approximately four hundred stations are printed monthly in the Government Gazette. Observations of temperature, pressure, sunshine, wind, &c., from about, forty-five stations are published annually by the Meteorological Office. Papers on various aspects of the climate and weather of the Dominion are published from time to time as “Metrological Office Notes.”

CLIMATE: GENERAL CONDITIONS.

New Zealand lies wholly within the Temperate Zone, and, though they are stronger and more persistent farther southward, it is also wholly and at all seasons within the zone of prevailing westerly winds. Owing to its isolation and its narrowness in the direction of the prevailing winds, its climate is predominantly marine in character. Nevertheless, the modifications due to the height and continuity of the main ranges and the general high relief of the country are quite considerable, especially in the South Island. There is, for example, a very great variation in the rainfall from the western to the eastern side of the Southern Alps, and for so narrow a country features of a continental type are rather strongly developed in the interior of the South Island. By breaking up the prevailing winds and causing the air at different levels to mix, mountains tend, also, to prevent the stratification of the air into layers of different density. Consequently very extensive and persistent cloud-sheets are seldom experienced. New Zealand therefore enjoys a high percentage of sunshine, a factor of great importance in the climate of a country with so high a rainfall.

The principal current in the surrounding ocean waters is from south-west to north-east. Off the west coast of the South Island, however, the current divides, one branch turning southwards to Foveaux Strait, while others pass through Cook Strait and round the northern extremity of the Dominion. The rather small range in climate from north to south is probably accounted for by this current.

According to the widely accepted classification of climates developed by W. Koppen, New Zealand has the climatic formula Cfb, denoting a cool-temperate moist climate without marked seasonal variations in temperature or precipitation. Under the same formula are classified southern Victoria and Tasmania and parts of southern Chile in the Southern Hemisphere, much of Europe, Japan and Korea, and a strip of the west coast of North America in the Northern Hemisphere. Generally, however, it is a climate characteristic of the ocean rather than the land areas of the Temperate Zone.

Tables 1 to 10 appearing in the following pages relate to varying, but usually lengthy, periods. In Table 11 the duration covered by the respective averages is given.

RAINFALL.

Of all the climatic elements, probably the one that exerts the greatest influence on our lives is rainfall. It causes us much personal discomfort, but the production of the food by which we live depends directly on the availability of moisture from this source. Maps showing the distribution of mean annual rainfall appear in Year-Books prior to 1934.

Its control by topography in New Zealand is very conspicuous. Areas exposed to the westerly winds have heavier rains than those protected from them by mountain ranges. Next, the greater the altitude, the greater in general is the precipitation. There must be a limit beyond which precipitation begins to decrease again with altitude, but this has not yet been determined in this country. The indications are that precipitation is heaviest between 3,000 ft. and 4,000 ft. The annual total varies from about 13 in. at Galloway in Central Otago to over 200 in. in parts of the Southern Alps and on Mount Egmont.

The distribution of the precipitation throughout the year is little less important than its total amount, the effect of rainfall in winter, for example, being very different from that in summer. There are three principal factors controlling the annual variation of rainfall in New Zealand. The first of these is the proximity to the high-pressure belt in the subtropics. In this belt the rainfall year is divided into a dry summer and a wet winter season. We will call this distribution type A. As the distance from the high-pressure belt increases, the contrast between summer and winter decreases, so that by the time southern New Zealand is reached the variation due to this factor is small. The next most important factor is the influence of the prevailing westerly winds. These bring rains to the areas exposed to them, while those which are protected from them by mountain ranges have little rain when the westerlies are blowing. Now, the westerly winds are strongest in spring, the maximum flow being in October. There is a temporary drop in February, followed by a partial recovery in the autumn, but the flow is least in winter. The regime of the westerly winds, therefore, tends to produce a second type of annual variation, type C, in which the rainfall is heaviest in spring, falls somewhat in the late summer, increases again in the autumn, and falls to a minimum in winter.

The third factor is the convection which takes place during periods of light winds, clear skies, and intense sunshine, especially when the preceding winds have brought cold air over the land from the South. After conditions of the type mentioned have endured for several days, the convection is likely to be so intense as to produce local showers. These are often heavy, sometimes accompanied by thunder, and occasionally of the nature of local cloud-bursts. Rainfall of this type is most common in the interior of continents. Being caused by solar radiation, it is most frequent when solar radiation is strongest—namely, in summer. According to type B, therefore, we would have a relatively wet summer and a dry winter.

Table Table 1. MONTHLY RAINFALLS, IN INCHES.

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Cape Maria van Diemen1·712·882·033·864·834·623·993·732·842·561·611·6536·31
Auckland2·7·13·043·013·544·664·955·074·233·713·723·312·9144·89
Rotorua4·213·703·514·525·725·235·054·975·135·244·143·7655·18
Tolaga Bay3·214·424·735·497·716·386·706·003·603·262·963·0357·55
Riversdale, Inglewood7·566·077·128·099·7410·2910·218·809·0910·399·227·57104·75
Napier3·022·763·162·783·713·513·823·502·222·232·432·3135·45
Waitatapia, Bulls2·432·502·463·003·533·183·252·682·783·633·222·7135·37
Ditton, near Masterton3·142·903·583·675·454·985·594·783·714·363·583·0148·79
Wellington2·812·073·113·533·984·194·713·823·113·412·902·8441·08
Nelson2·802·592·902·993·063·543·523·033·093·492·992·9837·64
Marshlands, Blenheim2·192·202·252·27·943·193·582·062·712·502·351·9930·83
Hanmer3·933·193·283·304·393·504·443·414·653·873·613·9445·57
Hokitika9·897·149·749·299·719·308·879·279·2111·8310·7310·44115·42
Christchurch2·201·711·981·852·532·682·691·851·741·391·922·1524·99
Peel Forest4·844·054·383·542·512·753·422·573·773·854·014·8544·54
Oamaru2·041·741·801·761·592·011·741·751·001·731·912·2421·97
Clyde1·821·961·501·421·000·930·920·801·051·021·351·7915·26
Dunedin3·422·712·942·743·113·163·013·092·753·123·253·5436·84
Invereargill3·963·113·894·144·343·633·283·253·274·504·414·0745·85

A rainfall regime of type A in a fairly pure form is experienced in the part of the Auckland Province north, roughly, of Kawhia and Tauranga, and on the eastern side of the main ranges from Cook Strait to East Cape. It is still dominant in the lower country about the Tasman and Golden Bays, and in Marlborough and North Canterbury. Type C is developed strongly in Westland and the south-west Fiord country. It is shown fairly well by Hokitika, but much more distinctly if the data for a number of West Coast stations be combined. It is dominant in the far South, in the mountains of Nelson, and in the portion of the North Island not yet referred to. In this latter area, however, types A and C combine in varying proportions. Most districts show the effect of the westerly winds in a relatively high rainfall in October, but this is least noticeable in the low country east of the main ranges. The areas where type C dominates are those with the heaviest rainfall. Type B is dominant in the interior and southern portions of Canterbury and the central and eastern portions of Otago, and is especially characteristic of the dry areas of the provinces mentioned. The summer rains of this type are of great importance to the farming communities in the interior of Canterbury and Otago. The regime of annual rainfall experienced had an important influence in determining the nature of the primitive vegetation in the various districts.

Table Table 2. DAYS WITH RAIN

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Auckland10·39·811·114·118·719·520·919·417·016·615·911·8185·7
New Plymouth12·710·411·013·317·717·618·818·417·618·410·314·2187·3
Napier7·87·57·78·010·411·112·011·99·88·88·57·7111·2
Wellington10·78·911·212·816·417·018·117·115·11·4112·812·0160·2
Marshlands, Blenheim7·15·80·87·58·58·49·99·08·59·58·27·897·0
Hokitika13·311·414·315·215·415·315·915·610·919·217·810·3180·0
Christchurch9·77·79·29·011·712·013·211·810·09·710·39·8124·8
Clyde7·75·16·16·05·75·65·15·86·17·97·07·975·5
Dunedin14·311·212·712·813·513·013·11·3013·714·314·514·7100·8
Half·moon Bay18·516·217·818·020·419·919·71·9018·020·220·818·2227·3

Next to the amount and the annual variation of precipitation, the frequency with which it falls is its most important characteristic. In Table 2 the average number of days with rain in each month is given for some representative stations. A day with rain is one on which 0–005 in. or more is measured. Generally speaking, there is a fairly close relationship in New Zealand between the amount of rain and the number of rain days, but the latter is not directly proportional to the rainfall. There are considerable areas on the west coast of the South Island, for instance, which have ten or more times as much rain as the driest portions of the interior, but only about double the number of rain days. Marlborough seems to have a small number of wet days compared with its rainfall. To the south of New Zealand there is a rapid increase in cloudiness, showers fall with great frequency and the number of rain days becomes high. New Zealand is extremely fortunate in that, even where the rainfall is very heavy, intervals between rains are almost everywhere sufficiently frequent and prolonged to ensure adequate drainage, while there is enough sunshine to dry the soil surface. Otherwise, large areas in the west and south would be covered with peat.

TEMPERATURE.

Temperature is no less important than rainfall in determining the living conditions of a country and the yield from its soil. But it is much less variable, and in the Southern Hemisphere especially is largely determined by latitude. Its influence is therefore taken much more for granted. The specification of the temperature of a place is, however, not so simple a matter as might appear. Many different factors are involved in the determination of the precise temperatures experienced in any locality. The sea, for instance, responds very slowly to both daily and yearly changes in the amount of heat received from the sun, while on the land the response is rapid. Consequently, the nearer a station is to. the sea the smaller are its daily and yearly fluctuations of temperature. It is to this effect that the principal difference between a continental and a marine climate is due. Although New Zealand is narrow, the high ranges shield the country to the east of them to a considerable extent, so that there is a nearer approach to continental conditions than would otherwise be expected, particularly in the interior of Canterbury and Otago. Again, on plain country the air tends to stagnate, especially at night. At night-time the surface layer cools rapidly through radiation from the ground, while during the day it becomes heated by the sun. There is less stagnation in the warm layer of the daytime than in the cold layer of the night. Consequently, stations on level plains or plateaux tend to be subject to frost and. to have a relatively low mean temperature. The effect is accentuated near the slopes of hills because the cold air flows away down the slopes to lower levels. The hills, therefore, gain freedom from frost at the expense of the plains. In windy situations, also, the susceptibility to frost is lowered owing to the prevention of stagnation. Apart from the effect* due to air-drainage and windiness, the temperature decreases with altitude. In temperate latitudes the fall is about 9° F. per kilometre. It is unsound, therefore, to compare, for example, temperatures recorded at Thorndon, Wellington, which was only 12 ft. above sea-level, with those at the present meteorological station at Kelburn, which is at an altitude of 415 ft., without making allowance for this difference in altitude. Such a procedure would lead to the erroneous conclusion that the climate had become colder. If charts of mean temperature are to be prepared it is clear that they will be very complicated, especially in a mountainous country like New Zealand, owing to this effect of altitude. It is usual, therefore, to simplify matters by applying a correction at the rate of 9° F. per kilometre or approximately 2°-7 F. per 1,000 ft. This has been done in Table 3. The Rotorua values, for example, have been increased by 2°5 F., the station being 925 ft. above sea-level. If the actual temperature is required, it can be found by reversing this process.

In New Zealand publications it has been the general practice to derive monthly mean temperatures from the means of the daily maximum and minimum. But, even on the average, the mean of the maximum and minimum differs slightly from the true mean for the day. The correction to the mean for the day has been determined from the records of thermographs with fair accuracy at Wellington and more roughly at several other places.

In Table 3, therefore, the temperatures are reduced to sea-level and mean of day. For the remainder of the temperature tables the observed readings have been used without correction. All are in Fahrenheit degrees.

Table Table 3. MEAN TEMPERATURE REDUCED TO SEA LEVEL

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Waipoua61·762·260·757·454·151·549·249·751·453·255·858·655·4
Auckland64·965·263·359·650·153·451·551·953·855·958·862·358·0
Rotorua64·764·461·456·752·449·347·848·951·955·358·062·050·1
New Plymouth62·962·901·257·854·451·449·750·152·251·256·860·450·2
Napier64·163·360·957·752·648·847·448·451·555·058·061·355·9
Taihape63·763·260·957·051·948·747·448·251·054·556·660·355·3
Masterton63·162·259·655·150·447·046·047·050·453·856·56O·554·3
Wellington61·701·059·750·252·540·447·748·451·253·050·159·554·8
Nelson61·861·458·955·160·140·345·340·349·752·95·6059·053·6
Hanmer62·562·359·654·748·344·243·145·150·154·150·560·153·4
Hokitika58·858·857·053·448·945·744·545 048·951·553·456·751·9
Christchurch60·459·957·052·747·743·142·343·948·452·455·759·051·9
Ophir62·061·557·351·442·430·037·541·440·852·154·759·450·3
Dunedin58·157·855·052·448·l45·143·845·048·951·453·355·851·4
Invercargill56·656·454·050·345·742·341·343·547·050·451·854·449·5

The stations given in the above table were chosen with a view to illustrating the effect of changing latitude, the difference between east and west coasts, especially in the South Island, and the contrast between coastal and inland conditions. Waipoua is in the Auckland Peninsula, north of Dargaville, and Ophir in Central Otago.

Table Table 4. AUCKLAND (ALBERT PARK, 160FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum72·672·970·966·962·158·657·057·860·163·266·069·364·8
Mean highest maximum78·678·676·472·267·364·062·562·865·468·672·075·779·7
Absolute highest max.81·585·079·077·471·067·065·067·070·072·076·079·585·0
Mean daily minimum59·760·458·555·351·348·146·246·248·951·754·150·85·31
Mean lowest minimum51·853·051·540·442·789·538·139·1141·744·347·149·437·3
Absolute lowest min.48·048·046·041·038·036·535·036·437·841·041·043·535·0
Days of frost in screen........................0·0
Days of ground frost..........0·10·70·1........1·0

Table Table 5. TAIHAPE (2,157 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum68·067·364·659·952·848·547·448·852·857·459·664·357·6
Mean highest maximum78·077·374·469·062·258·25·7157·462·066·669·974·979·5
Absolute highest max.87·381·078·075·569·865·061·061·867·073·475·882·087·3
Mean daily minimum5·0049·848·244·940·737·630·430·039·14·2144·047·043·0
Mean lowest minimum39·539·538·234·631·929·228·028·730·03·2034·437·026·4
Absolute lowest min.31·932·034·830·027·020·424·025·425·525·031·430·220·4
Days of frost in screen......0·21·43·66·04·22·50·50·2..18·6
Days of ground frost0·20·50·62·45·38·512·011·26·02·61·00·651·1

Table Table 6. WELLINGTON (ALTITUDES VARIOUS)

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum69·369·366·962·958·354·853·l54·357·560·463·266·761·3
Mean highest maximum78·177·774·970·265·361·359·661·564·568·071·075·079·8
Absolute highest max.85·088·080·574·071·069·066·066·069·075·580·583·688·0
Mean daily minimum55·755·854·251·347·24·4142·442·845·748·450·353·84·91
Mean lowest minimum46·446·744 141·237·434·533·333·436·238·440·944·732·3
Absolute lowest min.39·440·539·135·731·929·928·029·231·034·035·838·428·6
Days of frost in screen........0·00·20·46·40·0....1·4 
Days of ground frost0·00·10·21·02·65·47·86·73·11·30·50·128·6

Table Table 7. HOKITIKA(12 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum66·466·564·761·256·853·352·653·656·458·760·663·859·5
Mean highest maximum73·572·571·367·763·759·558·659·562·364·767·070·975·9
Absolute highest max.79·082·484·574·071·563·565·067·167·669·074·179·084·5
Mean daily minimum53·253·151·047·141·938·536·838·042·345·747·951·545·6
Mean lowest minimum43·243·540·636·532·129·929·029·832·235·238·441·928·1
Absolute lowest min.35·037·03·5031·028·526·025·526·527·030·032·033·025·5
Days of frost in screen......0·00·94·06·94·60·70·1....17·2
Days of ground frost0·20·10·52·46·912·416·113·85·92·40·70·261·9

Table Table 8. CHRISTCHURCH (22 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum70·469·266·462·155·851·150·352·357·662·465·869·261·0
Mean highest maximum86·683·781·475·768·762·561·564·970·676·179·884·088·4
Absolute highest max.95·794·189·882·377·869·370·070·081·187·886·892·395·7
Mean daily minimum52·852·549·745·039·936·035·136·340·544·047·150·844·3
Mean lowest minimum41·240·937·232·328·620·126·026·729·432·135·439·024·7
Absolute lowest min.34034·230·425·621·321·522·723·025·526·030·833·021·3
Days of frost in screen....0·74·09·210·18·22·60·50·035·4  
Days of ground frost0·30·21·45·412·316·917·717·310·46·53·60·992·9

Table Table 9. DUNEDIN (240 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum66·565·963·158·953·349·347·950·355·159·161·664·558·0
Mean highest maximum81·580·577·371·864·459·357·461·566·873·075·378·084·3
Absolute highest max.94·090·085·085·072·068·066·070·077·083·086·088·094·0
Mean daily minimum49·749·547·844·841·038·637·438·240·642·944·948·043·6
Mean lowest minimum41·341·539·136·733·831·230·531·233·034·837·040·029·4
Absolute lowest min.36·037·034·031·029·024·023·027·029·031·032·035·023·0
Days of frost in screen........0·11·41·71·10·2......4·5
Days of ground frost..0·10·00·75·911·012·49·54·71·00·30·145·7

Table Table 10. GORE (245 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum69·068·960·153·747·747·151·750·860·963·166·459·3 
Mean highest maximum84·984·380·273·864·958·457·162·068·673·077·680·987·9
Absolute highest max.93·091·589·082·070·067·062·069·076·079·086·095·095·0
Mean daily minimum46·740·044·040·435·732·431·633·237·540·842·244·939·6
Mean lowest minimum35·134·932·929·225·923·522·924·628·230·832·635·021·4
Absolute lowest min.30·030·029·025·021·018·020·018·025·027·030·031·018·0
Days of frost in screen0·10·30·51·96·713·115·411·13·71·50·30·154·7
Days of ground frost0·81·43·26·013·022·021·419·911·16·13·21·1109·2

The above tables (Nos. 4 to 10) relate to temperature extremes. The first line gives the average of the maximum temperatures as observed each day, the second the average of the highest temperatures observed in each month and the year, and the third the highest yet recorded. Corresponding information regarding minimum temperatures follows. Next comes the average number of days on which the minimum temperature in the thermometer screen falls below 32° F. This gives some idea of the susceptibility to severe frosts, such as would affect fruit-trees. The last line gives the number of ground frosts. According to the British Convention, a ground frost is recorded when the grass minimum thermometer falls below 30°4 F., damage being unlikely at higher temperatures. In the preparation of these tables some of the older records have, for various reasons, been discarded.

SUNSHINE.

In Table 11 are listed for each month and the year the average number of hours of sunshine at all places from which a sufficiently long record is available. The greatest amounts are recorded at places protected from the prevailing winds by high mountain ranges. The excellence of New Zealand's climate, particularly for the growth of pasture, is undoubtedly due to the abundance of sunshine combined with a high rainfall and an absence of extreme temperatures.

Table Table 11. BRIGHT SUNSHINE (HOURS).

Station.Number of Years.Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
* Jordan sunshine·recorder used until February, 1933.
Waipoua State Forest8202·9150·11551129·409·577·095·4125·5113·0129·3137·0158·01,574·0
Auckland26221·9190·0181·4147·5131·1115·5120·2151·1151·3172·3192·3214·01,991·6
Waihi25–27247·5200·0189·4150·7138·0115·5122·0150·9103·4180·9208·2238·22,105·9
Cambridge8245·8197·7200·4148·4141·5117·8109·2154·1100·8182·9197·7210·82,073·1
Rotorua23–25242·0195·0165·0147·7130·1118·3125·0144·8151·1177·5204·0218·82,045·9
New Plymouth18–20255·1225·4223·1107·2158·7132·0141·8171·0109·0175·9214·0242·02,275·8
Napier26–28202·1207·5209·7187·4150·1147·9142·5180·92O5·0227·2239·1202·72,428·1
Palmerston N.8202·1173·9170·7130·8132·2105·0104·7138·4130·8148·0179·9211·81,840·3
Masterton20–21233·5202·8183·9100·1120·2104·8109·4145·8104·4190·1217·7230·12,008·8
Wellington29229·7209·9190·0155·6130·0100·3107·9142·1103·9179·1207·2229·02,051·3
Nelson14205·9231·4224·8187·7173·5157·4172·2192·5207·4210·9255·3259·02,544·0
Blenheim21–22243·3211·1195·5102·0101·1138·7147·4178·3188·8203·9235·5214·52,280·1
Hanmer Springs23·20209·0191·9190·0155·8124·9105·0107·8144·8105·9180·4202·8212·11,991·0
Hokitika23211·7188·8184·5138·0135·0114·0131·8150·9153·8101·2181·9205·01,957·2
Christchurch7·8211·4190·5108·1120·7130·893·1120·0145·8103·5185·0212·8211·71.905·4
Sumner9–12204·0180·0182·8147·2130·8111·8125·0151·0109·1194·0210·6210·02,029·5
Lincoln26–292130195·4177·2146·2134·1113·1117·4150·0174·4195·0212·1211·02,040·7
The Hermitage, Mount Cook6102·0105·4180·1120·280·O80·291·3103·0141·4152·4178·7199·51.000·2
Ashburton16–20190·3170·2150·8121·0123·4105·3113·0128·0153·0100·7185·1101·61,799·0
Lake Tekapo9–11207·1235·1236·8189·1159·5120·0140·2108·7197·4222·1244·7274·12,400·8
Fairlie8·11185·9177·5109·2133·6144·0118·8136·3154·5166·3178·2184·2102·O1,911·1
Timaru11187·7171·7104·0127·5139·0124·1129·2140·8105·0100·1188·0174·91,885·2
Oamaru7–8179·1175·5105·9127·0129·2113·7120·2143·7157·0172·0181·9103·21,835·0
Waimate*18171·7170·1180·8150·2148·3134·0140·4158·3179·4181·8200·0181·42,002·4
Queenstown6218·1211·2193·0130·790·869·0100·5121·3103·3198·0219·9240·81,958·4
Waipiata11232·0205·4201·9104·5150·7124·7142·7.154·4171·2193·0208·9217·12,107·1
Alexandra7235·0222·0210·8104·8130·797·9123·8153·8180·4213·9210·7231·82,187·6
Dunedin15·18185·0102·3140·9123·4101·388·8100·7123·2148·8101·7108·8172·91,683·8
Core17·18220·9181·8100·0120·7115·192·5114·5142·4100·8170·7203·4214·91,910·3
Invercargill10·18193·3155·1129·298·780·075·187·1115·0133·9145·7107·2170·51,503·4

OTHER CLIMATOLOGICAL FACTORS.

Tables giving monthly averages for a number of stations under each of the heads distinguished below will be found in the 1933 edition (at page 25) of the Year-Book.

Fog.—Fog does not play an important part in New Zealand weather. Most of the fogs recorded are shallow radiation fogs occurring only in the early morning. During the approach of cyclonic depressions, however, widespread and persistent fog is a frequent occurrence. Occasionally, parts of the coast are affected by fog in calm weather. The landlocked harbours and estuaries of North Auckland appear to be unusually susceptible.

Snow.—Snow is rare at sea-level, especially in the North Island. In the interior and at high altitudes it occurs more frequently. On the summits of the ranges in the whole length of the South Island and on the highest peaks in the North Island snow falls, on the average, on over thirty day per annum. In the interior of the South Island there is a considerable area of settled country which is subject to half that number. Towards the coast, however, the number falls off rapidly. Data regarding snow lying are scanty. In the North Island any snow falling on the low levels almost invariably melts as it falls, but on the high plateaux it may lie, especially in the hollows, for from one to three weeks during the year. In the South Island it practically never lies at low levels on the north or west coasts, but on the east coast does so on a few days in some years. At altitudes between 500 ft. and 1,000 ft. in the interior of the South Island the average number of days appears to be between seven and fourteen. Railway traffic is interfered with by snow to an almost negligible extent.

Hail.—Hail is experienced more frequently as the latitude increases and on the west coast than on the east, the rise in frequency in the extreme south-west and about Foveaux Strait being very marked. It occurs more often in spring than at other times of the year. The majority of the hailstorms recorded, however, are harmless, the stones being quite small. Occasionally severe hailstorms are experienced in New Zealand, the stones reaching a diameter of from ½ in. upwards. These are usually associated with thunderstorms, and are probably little less numerous on the east coast than the west or in the North Island than in the South.

Thunder.—Thunderstorms are more numerous in the North than in the South and on the west than on the east side of the main ranges. They are very rare in eastern districts in winter.

Strong Winds.—Averages give the number of days of strong winds experienced per year as: Auckland, 31·5; New Plymouth, 25·7; Wellington, 57·7; Hokitika, 38–3; and Dunedin, 16·3 days. These figures include a proportion of high winds (force 7 on the Beaufort scale) as well as gales (force 8 and over). The figures for Wellington show the effect of the concentration of the winds through Cook Strait.

SUMMARY OF THE WEATHER FOR 1935.

January, for the Dominion as a whole, was probably the hottest January hitherto experienced. Rainfall was much below average over a large part of the country, and the continued rain-shortage, combined with the very high temperatures, had a detrimental effect on pastures and stock.

Heavy rains were recorded in the western portion of the South Island, and parts of eastern Otago and South Canterbury and of the high country in Taranaki, while Wellington also had beneficial falls. Over the remainder of the Dominion, however, conditions were extremely dry, the position being most acute in the Waikato, Bay of Plenty, and east coast districts of the North Island, and most of Canterbury and Marlborough.

In February temperatures were as much above normal as in January, but fortunately good rains terminated the drought which had been experienced in most districts. There was a large excess of rainfall over the whole of the North Island, many places having more than double the average. In the South Island most of Nelson and Westland, the Alps, and the eastern foot hills had more than the average, but elsewhere there was still a deficit, which in Marlborough and Southern Otago and Southland was a large one. Although the disturbances ruling were all of slight intensity, they were responsible, in addition to frequent thunderstorms and local downpours, for a number of heavy and widespread rains. At various times severe local flooding was experienced—viz., in Auckland City on the 15th, at Hokitika on the 19th, and in parts of Taranaki and North Auckland on the 22nd.

The warmth and rains caused a good growth of grass, and consequently stock improved in condition, and the milk-yield recovered somewhat.

March was a very satisfactory autumn month. Owing to the continued warmth and lack of strong winds there was again a rapid growth of vegetation. Stock generally maintained good condition, but during the first part of the month, dull, damp weather on the east coast of the North Island north of Hawke's Bay had an adverse effect on sheep, a considerable amount of facial eczema being reported in that area. There was little rain during the first half of the month. except in the Auckland and Hawke's Bay Districts; but, in the latter half, general rains occurred with heavy falls in many places. Totals below normal were experienced in Central and, especially, North Canterbury, and also in Hawke's Bay and parts of the interior of the North Island. Over most of the rest of the Dominion there was an excess, many places in North Auckland, Taranaki, Nelson, Marlborough, and Otago having as much as double their normal quantity. Late in the month Taranaki experienced floods for the third time within five weeks.

In April mild conditions prevailed, and there was again an absence of severe storms. Rainfall was irregularly distributed. Parts of Western Taranaki and most of the Wellington Province had less than the average, but over practically all the remainder of the North Island there was a considerable excess. Many places in the Bay of Plenty and Hawke's Bay had more than double the average. In the South Island much of Nelson and Marlborough and parts of Southland had more than the average rainfall, but elsewhere it was a dry month. The most general rains occurred during the periods from the 10th to 14-th, 21st to 24th, and 26th to 28th. In the first two periods there were many heavy falls, and considerable flooding was experienced in many parts of the North Island, the Hawke's Bay, Bay of Plenty, and Waikato districts suffering most.

Except for two periods of fine, mild weather—viz.. between the 11th and the 10th and from the 25th to the 27th—the month of May was a cold, unsettled one, with a predominance of southerly winds. Except in the Far North. temperatures, which in the preceding six months had been above normal, fell below it in May. The total rainfall was below average in parts of the Auckland Province and in the east coast areas. Over the remainder of the Dominion it was above average, the greatest excess being on the west coast of the South Island and in the Wairarapa. A number of intense and extensive depressions occurred, and there was a good deal of stormy weather. On the 5th there was heavy snow on the ranges of both Islands, and considerable falls occurred also on flu-low levels. In Taranaki parts of the plain country had an unprecedented fall for the time of year. On the morning of the 20th a violent north-west gale swept Canterbury and caused widespread damage. Severe thunderstorms, heavy rain, and some flooding wore experienced in the Taranaki and Wellington districts on the 21st.

During the first five days of June the weather was fine generally, but otherwise the month was an unsettled one. There were several severe storms accompanied by continued strong winds from between west and south-west, and rain was frequent.

Rainfall was below the average in a small area about Cook Strait- and in parts of the western districts of the South Island, while over the remainder of the Dominion an excess was experienced.

In Canterbury a severe snowstorm occurred on the 9th, and considerable damage to telegraph and power lines resulted. At the same time there were widespread thunderstorms in the North Island. Otago had particularly heavy southerly rains on the 18th, with much flooding in low-lying areas.

In July cold spells occurred between the 7th and 10th and from the 24th to the close, but the remainder of the month was mild for the season of the year. Appreciable growth of pasture was reported. Very heavy rain occurred in North Auckland between the 6th and 8th and again from the 21st to 25th. The total rainfall was above average also over all the North Island except parts of the Taranaki Bight and central areas. The whole of the South Island recorded less than the average. Temperatures did not differ greatly from normal.

The month of August was remarkable for the prevalence of strong and squally westerly winds. On this account the finest, and mildest weather was experienced in districts east of the main ranges. Rainfall was below normal in the east coast districts of the South Island and also, but to a less extent, in those of the North. Most of the remainder of the Dominion had more than the average, the Nelson Province reporting more than double the average.

Temperatures nearly everywhere exceeded the average, the departure being greatest in the eastern half of the North Island. Frosts were less frequent and generally less severe than usual at tin's time of the year.

After a comparatively mild winter, September proved a very cold month. Low temperatures, associated with a prevalence of southerly or easterly winds and extreme dryness, had the effect, in many parts, of retarding growth of pastures. The only districts where rainfall was above the average were the far northern and east coast portions of the North Island, and Marlborough. North Auckland experienced extremely wet conditions with considerable flooding at times.

October was a good spring month, mild conditions and a plentiful rainfall causing a vigorous growth in vegetation. Rains above average were experienced over most of the North Island, deficiencies occurring only in North Auckland and isolated parts of the Gisborne, Hawke`s Bay, and Taranaki districts.

In the South Island an excess was recorded north of Greymouth and Akaroa. Thence southwards totals were generally slightly below average.

There was a reversion to almost wintry weather in November, the outstanding features being its coldness, a deficiency of sunshine, and, in most districts, an excess of rainfall. The month was, in fact, in many parts one of the coldest Novembers on record. Though there was fair growth of pastures and stock remained in good condition, Iambs failed to fatten well, and shearing was interfered with.

In December the weather was remarkably fine, with temperatures much above normal. Rainfall was, in general, considerably below the average; but after a wet, cold, spring this was not a disadvantage. The only periods when general rains occurred were from the 17th to 19th and the 2Sth to 30th. Conditions were most favourable for all farming operations, and there was an abundance of feed for stock.

Year.—The summer of 1934–35 was much the hottest recorded hitherto. With the period from November. 1934, to February, 10.15, there has previously been nothing comparable, and temperatures remained above normal in March and April. Very dry conditions prevailed over most of the country until the end of January, and for the farming community the position was very unsatisfactory. In February the drought was gradually broken, and excellent conditions ruled throughout the autumn. The wheat crop was light, and there were many failures. The grain produced, however, was of a high quality, and there were some excellent individual crops. The milk-yield was poorer than for several years previously. The apple crop also was light, and much of the fruit too large for export.

The winter was, on the whole, mild, with ample feed for stock, which maintained its condition well. Crops were sown under favourable conditions.

Cold and wet weather made the spring a late one, but December was a very fine month, and at the end of the year stock and crops were in very good condition. The lambing season was considerably poorer than in the two preceding years.

The rainfall for the year was considerably above normal over most of the North Island. In the South Island there was usually little departure, but falls less than the average predominated.

SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR 1934.

(The observations were taken at 9 a.m., mean time.)

 Temperatures in Shade.Hours of Sun· shine.Rainfall.
Station.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily minimumApprox. Mean Temperature.Extremes for 1935Absolute MaximumAbsolute MinimumTotal Fall.Number of Days.
Maximum and monthMinimum and month

* Palmerston North: February total for twenty·seven days only; April total for twenty·nine days only.

† Fairlie: January total for twenty·nine days only.

 °F.°F.°F.°F.  °F.°F.°F. Inches 
Waipoua State Forest66·051·258·682·0·Feb.33·0July....1,487·281·35220
     Mar. sept     
Riverhead65·647·750·785·5Feb.27·0Sept.......63·97194
Auckland65·754·260·086·5Feb.34·0July86·533·22,061·761·51181
Waihi64·848·050·984·3Jan.26·2May89·021·01,969·090·48168
Te Aroha68·349·959·194·0Feb.27·2July95·021 0..65·43193
Tauranga66·548·057·080·0Jan.28·2July87·022·52,375·765·20187
Hamilton East68·246·457·394·4Dec.24·4May94·422·0..51·33196
Cambridge67·240·957·091·5Feb.20·8July....1,924·249·00178
Rotorua64·040·855·887·5Jan.26·4July98·021·01,828·269·71173
Whakarewarewa64·545·254·886·0Jan.24·8July......67·37170
New Plymouth64·351·157·786·0Feb.32·7May89·027·02,256·777·27183
Karioi59·339·549·481·2Feb.19·1July......54·83180
Napier64·540·557·088·5Jan.28·8July94·027·52,190·951·38157
Hastings66·546·556·592·4Jan.25·0June......39·43159
Taihape58·443·951·282·0Feb.27·8June87·820·4..37·17180
Tangimoana63·747·555·087·0Feb.20·0Sept.87·020·5..40·89139
Palmerston North64·248·750·587·0Feb.26·0July91·023·0..47·27169
Massey College. Palmerston North*63·2....87·0Feb.22·5July....2,019051·13190
Pahiatua63·145·954·587·0Feb.24·0Aug.......57·74189
Kapiti Island62·051·450·782·0Feb.35·0June......40·18149
Masterton64·645·254·991·4Feb.20·0July95·420·02,083·245·55175
Wellington61·049·155·182·0Feb.31·8June88·028·02,147·240·74154
Nelson64·047·255·087·1Dec.20·8June92·025·02,510·547·90122
Appleby, Nelson63·646·955·284·1Feb.28·2July......54·13120
Blenheim65·444·955·291·5Jan.24·0July....2,438·725·110·99
Golden Downs62·740·851·885·0Feb.18·453·57·21     
Waihopai63·043·353·289·0Feb.24·9Aug.......40·02114
Hanmer Springs02·238·850·591·0Feb.17·0Aim.97·08·21,939·345·32148
Balmoral62·842·352·590·5Feb.21·4Aug.......21·22111
Hokitika61·445·853·084·0Feb.28·5July84·525·52,030·8104·97178
Lake Coleridge01·142·051·887·0Feb.18·5July93·012·0..20·91124
Methven59·843·751·789·0Feb.27·0Aug.......35·90137
Christ church60·415·l52·893·1Jan.24·9Aug.95·721·3l,915·122·07129
Lincoln61·044·453·192·4Jan.21·0Sept.98·420·41,938·123·37121
The Hermitage, Mt. Cook57·337·847·080·0Feb.19·0·1July....1,002·1236·25105
       Aug     
Ashburton61·142·451·791·3Feb.19·2June94·019·21,709·830·54152
Lake Tekapo58·438·348·480·1Feb.18·8May....2,431·023·3789
Fairlie 00·838·049·788·5Feb.16·0Aug.....1,820·720·27107
Timaru60·644·352·494·4Jan.23·8Sept.99·023·01,818·319·5092
Waimate61·242·351·890·5Feb.24·0Aim.94·022·51,845·219·38120
Milford Sound58·442·050·579·0Feb.20·1Aug.......232·02175
Queenstown.59·942·050·987·4Feb.24·8July....2,135·828·80110
Ophir60·838·949·R91·8Feb.15·8July94·01·0..17·9395
Waipiata59·639·249·488·5Feb.18·4July96·05·62,260·715·44128
Alexandra61·641·251·491·5Feb.20·0July....2,175·811·8288
Manorburn Dam53·835·544·093·0Feb.13·0·jJuly......18·14132
       Aug     
Dunedin59·445·052·284·5Jan29·9Aug.94·023·01,905·035·23155
     Aug       
Gore62·140·251·191·0Feb.22·0July95·018·01,918·237·69170
Invercargill50·443·051·2S4·0Feb.25·0July90·019·01,098·444·52203

For 1935 the mean pressure at 9 a.m., in inches, reduced to sea-level and standard gravity, was: Waipoua, 29·909; Auckland, 29·957; Rotorua, 29·926; Wellington, 29·936; Nelson, 29·940: :Hokitika, 29·943; Christchurch, 29·914; Dunedin, 29·912.

THE PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND.

The following article on the New Zealand flora is by Dr. W. R; B. Oliver. D.Sc, F.R.S.N.Z., Director of the Dominion Museum:—

Though the unique features of (he flora of New Zealand are frequently emphasized, it should not be thought that there are not other floras which might be described as having equally peculiar characteristics. Taking the plants of the whole world, differentiation has proceeded in all areas so that each is unique in some respects, and as a general rule the quality of uniqueness is most impressed ui those areas which for a long time have been isolated, thus giving evolution the opportunity to proceed unhampered by inter crossing with adjacent floras. The peculiar features of a flora are consequently an expression of its past history; and so those regions, such as South Africa, Western Australia, South America, and New Zealand, which, for considerable periods in their history, have been cut off from the remainder of the world, developed floras with many characteristics of surpassing interest. New Zealand is far distant from any continental mass and has maintained such a relation for a long period, probably throughout the whole of the Tertiary Era. Briefly, the peculiar features of the plants of New Zealand are a high degree of endemism; great development of certain genera such as the koromikos (hebe), karamus (Coprosnut). wild Spaniards (Aciphylla), daisy trees (Olearia), mountain daisies (Celmisia), and native brooms (Carmicliaelia); the absence or poor development of many of the largest genera of plants, such as Astragalus, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Euphorbia, Mesembryantheinum, Sclaginclla, although some are highly developed in Australia; the presence of an element, known as Antarctic, containing species related to those in South America and the islands of the Southern Ocean: certain peculiar life-forms, such as the dense cushion plants, known as vegetable sheep: and the high proportion of species with persistent juvenile stages considerably different from the adult forms.

In the following account a select number of species are mentioned for their interest in one way or another. Among the many important discoveries of the late Dr. L. Cockayne, however, was the fact that many of the individual plants in the vegetation are in reality hybrids between the ordinary “species” of the taxonomist. The prevalence of hybrids is, in fact, much more general than is apparent to the untrained eye. In a list recently published. Cockayne and II. H. Allan record nearly five hundred native hybrids. Some, such as the crosses among the beeches (Nothofagus) and tutus (Coriaria), take, in places, a prominent part in the vegetative covering.

Taking the vascular plants—that is, flowering-plants, conifers, ferns, and lycopods—as a whole, by far the larger portion show affinities directly or indirectly with the plants of the Malayan region. Coining under this head are most of the conifers, especially the kauri (Agathis) and the two principal genera of podocarps (Lacrydivm, Podocarpus), and practically all the endemic genera for which the flora is so justly famed. It is necessary to mention only such important examples as Carmicliaelia, Anistrfome, Aciphylla, Haaslia, Jlaoulia, Stilbocarpa, Entelea, and Myosotidium. The presence of this element is justification for stating that the basis of the New Zealand flora is Malayan, and that it came to the country by way of an ancient land connection. Supporting evidence of such a land bridge is found in the presence in New Zealand of some flightless species of birds and the tuatara lizard; also, in former times, of the large wingless moas.

Another important element in the New Zealand flora may be described as Australian, as it includes species either identical with or related to those found in Australia or Tasmania. Some belong to endemic genera, some are odd species belonging to large and characteristic Australian genera such as Phrbalhim, Persoonia, Myoporuni, and Epacris; and there are over 250 species common to both sides of the Tasman Sea. About a fourth of these are widely distributed in many other parts of the world. Some of the Australian species may have come to New Zealand with the Mala}*an element; others may have been accidentally carried by ocean currents, wind, or birds.

Of exceptional interest is the element in the New Zealand flora known as Antarctic because of its remarkable distribution and the fact that it has given rise to much controversy among biologists. Taking any of the'southern continental lands, we find a considerable number of species related to those in the other cold temperate regions. Thus, in the New Zealand region there are about 70 species of vascular plants whose relations are with those in South America and the islands of the Southern Ocean. The most conspicuous of the Antarctic plants in New Zealand are the beeches (Nothofagus), fuchsias, broadleafs (Griselinia), wild irishman (Disraria), pukatea (Laurelia), and ourisias. Some botanists explain the presence of the Antarctic element in New Zealand by an ancient southern land connection: others think that equally ancient dispersal from the north and accidental dispersal overseas are sufficient to account for them. All of these methods may have played their part.

The internal distribution of the plants of New Zealand deserves brief notice. Some species occupy quite limited areas even on the mainland. Examples are Cdssinia amoena in the North Cape Peninsula, Pittosponim JJallii near boulder Lake. Hebe oblusata north of Manukau Harbour, Copiosma obcoyika in the Wairoa Gorge, and several species in the mountains of the South Island. More often, species of limited distribution are confined to islands: in fact, most of the islands at some distance from the coast have one or more species peculiar to them. Conspicuous examples ar« HomolantlMS polyandrus in the Kermadec Islands. Davallia Tasniani at the Three Kings. Xeronema Callistetnon on the Poor Knights and Hen Island, Myosotidium horlensia in the Chatham Islands, and species of Pleurophyllum and Slilbocarpa in the Subantarctic Islands.

Perhaps of more importance than these cases of isolated distribution is the circumstance that on the main islands considerable numbers of species have their southern or northern limits at about the same latitude. Two critical boundaries in this connection an; 38° S. Lat. in the North Island, and 42° S. bat. in the South Tsland. On this basis New Zealand may be divided into three botanical districts; and if other evidence be taken into account a number of provinces may be defined. The northern botanical province, which extends from the Three Kings Islands to 38° S. bat., is especially well-marked, having nearly 100 species which are confined to it or extend but a short distance beyond its southern border. Of especial interest are the kauri (Agathi-s auslralis), taraire (Beilschmiedia taraire), makamaka (Ackama rosaefolia), mangrove (Avicennia officinal is), pohutukawa [Metrosideros excelsq), and mairelmu (Phebaliuni nudum).

A brief review may now be made of the principal groups of plants found in New Zealand. The vascular plants, which comprise ferns, lycopods, and their allies, conifers, and flowering-plants, almost entirely form the land vegetation of physiognomic importance. It is these which clothe the ground and are thus of so much importance to the beauty of the landscape. Lichens are dominant in certain rocky situations, especially near the coast, and these plants, together with mosses and liverworts, are conspicuous members of the interior of scrub and forest in humid climates. Algae take undisputed possession of rocky coasts below tide marks, but on muddy bottoms a flowering-plant, the sea wrack (Zostcra), covers wide areas in sheltered situations.

Beginning with the flowering-plants, of which there are over 1,600 species, we find that the daisy family. Compositae. generally placed in the highest position in the flora, contains about 2(i0 species. This is a world-wide family of over 13.000 species. The New Zealand species show some peculiar features and include some exceedingly interesting kinds. The leathery-leaved Pachystegia insignis, the purple-flowered species of Pleiirbphyllum, and the edelweiss-like Leucogenes, form a remarkable series. Raoulia and Ilaastia include the wonderful cushion-like species known as vegetable sheep,. characteristic of the drier mountains of the South Tsland. Smaller species of similar growth extend as far north as the Tararuas, and as far south as Stewart Island. The mountain daisies, Celmisia, run into over 60 species; and there are over 40 species of daisy-trees, Olearia. Notable members of this genus are the holly-leaved daisy-tree (0. ilicifolia) and the tete-a-weka (0. augustifolia). Senecio includes about 35 species belonging to New Zealand, several being trees of considerable height. The puheretaiko or mutton-bird shrub (S. rotundifolius) forms a coastal scrub in Stewart Island and the fiord district.

The Australian family, Stylidiaceae, includes only a few New Zealand species, but among them are the bog cushion plants Donatio and Pliyllachne.

The blue-bell family, Campanulaceae, which comprises about 1,000 species found in all parts of the world, is represented in New Zealand by” species, one of which (Wahlenbergia cartilaginea) is a fleshy plant characteristic of mountain shingle slips, and another (If. Matlhewsii) has rather large pale lilac flowers.

The madder family, Rubiaceae, of over 5,000 species, mainly tropical and subtropical, includes the genus Ooprosma, of about 90 species, of which 40 are found in New Zealand. The species of this genus range from forest trees of moderate height to creeping shrubs, and have inconspicuous flowers but bright berries of different colours. The best-known species are the taupata (C. repens). a coastal plant much used for hedges, the karamu (C. robusta), and the kanono (C. australis).

A characteristic Australian family is Myoporaceae, with one representative only in New Zealand, the well-known coastal tree, ngaio (Myoporum laetum).

The speedwell family, Scrophulariaceae, comprises over 2,600 species, mainly found in temperate climates. In New Zealand it has developed chiefly in the four genera: Hebe, 66 species; Veronica, 13 species; Ourisia, 10 species: and Euphrasia, 13 species. The Hebes or koromikos are shrubs with handsome racemes of pale-lilac to white flowers and are conspicuous in all the natural scrubs of the Dominion, but are especially in evidence in mountainous localities. The willow-leaved Koromiko. (H.salicifolia), in one or other of its forms, is found throughout New Zealand in lowland forests and scrub. Several species of Hebe, known as whip-cord koromikos, are remarkable for the fact that the leaves are reduced and scale-like, resembling those of the cypress. The large flowering-heads of Ourisia are conspicuous objects in the mountains.

The mangrove, Avicennia officinalis, is found in tidal estuaries throughout the eastern hemisphere. In New Zealand it occurs from the North Cape to Kawhia and Opotiki. Another member of this family, Verbenaceae, is the puriri (Vitcx lucens), a handsome tree with extremely hard wood.

The borage family, Boraginaceae, of 1,600 mostly north temperate species, is represented in New Zealand by 31 species of forget-me-not (Alyosolis), and by Myosotidium hortensia. This last species is confined to the Chatham Islands, and is remarkable for the large reniform leaves, sometimes a foot across, and the large heads of blue flowers.

There are 24 species of gentians, family Gentianaceae, in New Zealand. They are mainly mountain plants, and many have showy flowers, mostly white with radiating purple veins. Elsewhere the genus, which comprises some 350 species, is mainly north temperate, but extends all along the Andes.

The four species of olive, family Oleaceae. found in New Zealand, include the black maire, Olea Gunnirighamii, and the white maire, 0. lanceolata, notable for their hard timber.

The heath family, Ericaceae, widely spread in temperate regions, is poorly represented in Australia and New Zealand. QauUheria, with 100 species in America, has but 8 in New Zealand. Instead of Ericaceae, however, there is present in Australia and New Zealand, and almost confined thereto, an allied family, Epacridaceae, containing some 300 species. The most conspicuous members in New Zealand are the various kinds of grass trees, Dracophyllum, of which there are over 30 species. Some are trees, but mostly they are shrubs and take a prominent part in subalpine scrubs. The leaves are grass-like and the flowers are borne in racemes or panicles. Two of the largest members are the neinei (D. lalifolium) of the North Island, and D. Traversii of the South Island.

The cornel family, Cornaceae, contains two species of the genus Griselinia, otherwise Chilean. They have large, shining, dark-green leaves, and one, the broadleaf (O, littoralis), produces a durable timber.

The world-wide carrot family, Umbelliferae, is represented in New Zealand by over 80 species, but over half of them belong to the genera Aciphylln and Anisotome. The species of Aciphylla have branched, sword-like leaves arising at ground-level as a dense tuft. Some are 2 ft. in length, and, being rigid, are formidable objects to man or beast. From the centre rises an equally armoured spike of small flowers. Anisotome includes unarmed herbs, more or less aromatic, with compound leaves and conspicuous compound umbels. With the exception of a few species in Australia, Aciphylla and Anisotome are confined to New Zealand.

The ivy family, Araliaceae, mainly tropical in distribution, is represented in New Zealand by 25 species, all but three being trees. The three herbs belong to the remarkable genus Slilbocarpa. and have leaves 1½ ft. in diameter. The trees include the large-leaved puka, Meryta Sinclairii, of tropical affinities. Those belonging to the genus Pseudopanax, some of which are known as lance-woods, pass through juvenile forms with straight, unbranched stems bearing narrow and deflexed, toothed leaves up to 3 ft. in length.

The evening primrose family, Onagraceae, found in many temperate climates, is represented in New Zealand by about 40 species of willow-herbs and three species of Fuchsia. The latter is an American genus of over 60 species, and by what method the New Zealand forms reached New Zealand is a. question of great interest to biologists. The common New Zealand kotukutuku, Fuchsia excorticata, is a tree, usually deciduous, with papery bark.

The myrtle family, Myrtaceae, is widespread, but most abundant in South America and Australia. In New Zealand there are 17 species of shrubs and trees belonging to this family. The most common are the manuka, Leptospermum scojwrium, and the kanuka, L. e.ricoides. One or both of these cover extensive areas in situations ranging from swamps to sand-dunes. They form dense thickets and, in some places, forest. The various species of rata (Metrosidcros) produce an abundance of brush-like red or white flowers. Most conspicuous along the shores of the northern portion of the Dominion is the pohutukawa, M. exedsa, which, in midsummer, is covered with crimson flowers. Equally conspicuous are the northern and southern ratas, M. robusta and M. umberlata, lofty forest trees producing durable timber. The northern rata begins life as a seedling high up on another tree, such as a rimu, and, reaching the ground with its roots, clasps the stem of its host, finally killing and replacing it. Some of the species of Meirosideros are climbers. Their woody, cable-like stems, sometimes 6 in. in diameter, enable the foliage to expand among the tops of the tallest trees.

The mallow family, Malvaceae, of tropical and subtropical distribution, includes a few trees inhabiting New Zealand. They are known as lace-barks and ribbon-woods on account of the lattice-like strands of the bast. The Maori used this bark for textile work. The species of Hoheria or lace-barks bear, in late summer, a profusion of white flowers. One species is deciduous.

The small tropical family Elaeocarpaceae contains two species of Klacocarpus, a large Malayan genus, one of them being the hinau, which bears large clusters of pendant flowers. The makomako, Aristotclia scrrata, is a common tree which springs up in abundance in forest clearings.

The karaka, Corynocarpus laevigata, is a handsome tree with shining dark-green foliage and large orange drupes. The kernel contains a virulent poison, but the flesh is edible. The Maori treated the kernel so as to render it innocuous. The family, Corynocarpaceae, contains one genus of three species, two of which are natives of New Caledonia.

The small tropical family, Coriariaceae, is represented in New Zealand by about five species of Goriaria, one of which is the well-known tutu, C. arborea, the leaves of which are poisonous to stock. The tutu appears abundantly in clearings and on bracken-covered hills.

Although the family Meliaceae contains GOO species, mainly tropical, only one, the kohokohe, Dysoxylon spectabile, is found in New Zealand. The flowers are borne during mid-winter on the trunks and branches. The timber is easily worked, and on account of its brown colour is responsible for the name “New Zealand cedar” being given to this species.

The bean family, Leguminosae, one of the largest in the world, contains a number of New Zealand species, but, as in the carrot family, most of them belong to general highly peculiar to the Dominion. There are over 20 species of Carmichaelid and a few of some related genera, all of broom-like habit—that is. having leafless twigs and paniculate flowers. Some of the species bear large clusters of blooms of great beauty. Notable members of this family are the three species of kowhai. Edwardftia. The irenus is tropical and subtropical; but the New Zealand species have South American affinities. All the species have showy yellow flowers much sought after by honey-sucking birds. and the common kowhai, E. microphylla. produces a durable timber known to saw-millers as New Zealand lignum vitae.

The rose family. Hosaccae, is in New Zealand chiefly noted for its species of Acaena, of infamous reputation. The plant flourishes in pastures, and its burrs collect in great clots on the wool of sheep, causing much loss to sheep-fanners.

The subtropical family. Cunoniaeeae. is represented in New Zealand by three species of trees. One, the kainahi, Weiwmannia ructmosa, is excessively abundant in forests south of the Waikato district, and its ally, the tawhero, If. sylvicola, replaces it in the north.

Pittosporaceae is a family of trees and shrubs which, with the exception of Piltosporum, is confined to Australia. This genus is well represented in New Zealand. where it includes 23 species. Some, such as the kohuhu, P. tenuifolium, and karo. P. crassifolium, are extensively used as hedge plants. A remarkable and beautiful species is P. Dattii. It is distinguished by its serrated leaves and large white flowers.

The large family of saxifrages, Saxifragaceæ. with numerous herbaceous genera in northern temperate regions, is represented in New Zealand by three genera only, each containing one or two species of trees. Carpodetus, the putaputaweta, is the most common. In early summer the trees are covered with large clusters of small white flowers.

The cress family, Cruciferae. is of world-wide distribution and of numerous species. It is. however, little in evidence in New Zealand but contains the peculiar genera of mountain plants, Pitch ycltidon and Nololhlaspi. A species of Lepidium, now almost eaten out by stock, was formerly abundant along the seashore, and was used as a vegetable by the crews of Captain Cook's ships.

Another world-wide family of plants, that of the buttercups, Ranunoulaceae, contains in New Zealand !) species of Clematis, over 40 of Ranunculus, and a few others. The species of Ranunculus are especially characteristic of the subalpine and alpine zones and contain some very peculiar forms. Some are found only on mountain screes and some reach almost the upper limit of vegetation. The mountain buttercup, R. Lyallii, possesses large, circular, peltate leaves, and the largest flowers of any species belonging to the genus. During the summer months the puawhananga (Clematis indivisa) displays masses of large white, flowers over the surrounding foliage.

A tropical family of root parasites, Balanophoraceae, has in New Zealand a single member, the pua-reinga (Daclylanthus Taylori). The host tree responds by forming rosettes with radiating flutings and considerably wider than the diameter of the roots themselves.

Of woody parasites, New Zealand possesses 11 members of the mistletoe family, Loranthaceae. Members of the genus Elylranthe are conspicuous objects among the tops of beech-trees on account of their clusters of scarlet or yellow flowers.

The large Australian and South African family of proteas, Proteaceae, is represented in New Zealand by only 2 members. One is the torn (Persoonia torn), a small tree belonging to an Australian genus of 60 species, and the other is the rewarewa (Knightia exciha). a lofty tree with relatives in New Caledonia. The wood of the rewarewa is beautifully variegated and is much used for inlaying and cabinet work.

The mulberry family, Moraceae, widely represented in the tropics, extends to New Zealand only in three species of Paratrophis. Most common is the turepo or milk-tree, P. microphyUa, and all exude a white latex when bruised.

The beech family, Fagaceae. which is best represented in the northern temperate zone, has in New Zealand 5 species of small-leaved species of beech, referred to the genus Nothofagus, a very close ally of the northern Fagus. The other members of Notthofagus are found in Australia, Tasmania, and temperate South America. The Now Zealand beeches are the dominant members of large areas of upland forest in the main islands. They provide a considerable proportion of the timber milled in the Dominion. The species are the red beech (N. fusca), silver beech (N. Menziesii), black beech (N. Solnndri). mountain beech (N. cliffortioides), and hard beech (N. truncata).

Of monocotyledonous plants the orchids, family Orchidaceae, are among the most specialized, and may be mentioned first. New Zealand is relatively poor in species there being only 66 known kinds, whereas the world total is about 8,000. Most of tin New Zealand forms are ground species, some inconspicuous. The large epiphytic genera Demi robium and BulbophyUum are represented by 1 and 2 species respectively, and there are 3 species of the Polynesian Earina and 1 of the Australian Sarcochilus. All New Zealand epiphytes occasionally grow on rocks or even on the ground.

The world-wide lily family, Liliaceae, extends to New Zealand in a comparatively small number of genera, but. like other cosmopolitan families, some of these are note-worthy. Phormium contains the celebrated New Zealand flax. P. teriax, and another smaller species, P. Colensoi. The larger species is found in swamps and wet places. It is a noble plant with sword-like leaves from 6 ft. to 10 ft. long, overtopped by the erect flower-heads. It is now extensively cultivated for its fibre. Xeroncma CaUiste.mon, with red. brush-like flowers and iris-like leaves, is confined to islands off the coast of the North Auckland Peninsula. Its only relative is found in New Caledonia. Conspicuous in swamps, scrub, and low forest are the species of G'ordyline, palm-like plants bearing clusters of small white flowers. The most plentiful is the ti-rahau or cabbage-tree, C. australis; but the most remarkable, on account of its wide, elastic leaves, is the toii, C. indivisa, found on the forest border or in the more open parts of cool forests. Perched in great clusters on tall forest trees are various species of Aslelia and Cottospermum, in habit like large tussock grasses.

Palms constitute an immense family, Palmaceae, of over 1,100 species, and are essentially tropical or subtropical. Only 2 species are found in New Zealand, one. the nikau (lihopolostylia sapida), extending as far south as Banks Peninsula and Hokitika, and the other (R. Cheesemanii) confined to the Kermadec Islands.

The grasses, family Gramineae. of which there are over 120 species in New Zealand, include the large pampas-like toetoe, Arundo conspicua. As its specific name implies. it is a conspicuous species. It is especially abundant in swamps and in coastal localities. Other notable grasses are the various species of Danthonia which, over wide areas in the mountains, form the dominating feature—namely, large tussocks of narrow waving leaves. The smaller species of Danthonia, notably D. pilosa and D. scmiannularis. are important pasture grasses. Many of the New Zealand grasses are also found in Australia, and among them the spinifex. is. hirsutus, abundant as a sand-binding species along the outer dunes.

Many of the sedges, family Cyperaceae, of which there are over 120 species in New Zealand, form large tussocks with tall brown panicles. Unlike the grasses, they are conspicuous in scrubs and forests. Chief among these are the various species of Galium. A beautiful species. Gladium Sinclairii, has flat, shining leaves and adds much to the beauty of wet cliffs. The genus L'licinia, with 14 species in New Zealand, must be mentioned on account of the fact that it is found in south temperate regions and islands generally, and because the fruit is furnished with peculiar hooks enabling it to become entangled in the hair or wool of animals. There are 55 species of the genus Carex in New Zealand, some, such as C. temaria, forming dense thickets in swamps.

The class of cone-bearing trees, or gymnosperms, is represented in New Zealand by two families, one, Araucariaccae, containing two genera of truly cone-bearing trees, Agathis and Libocedrus, and the other, Podocarpaccae, containing 17 species with nut-like fruits surrounded more or less by the fleshy scales.

The kauri (Agathia australis) for more than a century has been world-famed for its timber. A straight role, up to SO ft. or more in height, carries an immense rounded head of dark-green, shining leaves. The kauri is found only in the northern part of the North Island, and only a few areas of considerable extent now exist. The timber is still an important product. The resin, which is obtained from the living tree and also dug from the ground where kauri forests formerly existed, is of value in making varnishes and for other purposes. In.former times the value of the resin exported was greater than that of the timber.

Libocedrus contains two cypress-like trees with brown bark which falls in long, thin strips. One species, the kawaka (L. pUunom), is more northern in distribution than the other, the pahautea (L. Bidwillii).

Of the podocarps, the three New Zealand genera extend to Malaya and other regions. They include the rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), which is cut for timber more than is any other species of tree in New Zealand; the totara (Podocarpus fotara). a handsome tree with pungent leaves and producing a useful timber, the favourite of the Maoris for canoes and house carvings; the matai (P. spicatus), the miro (P. ferrugineus), and the kahikatea (P. dacrydioides). all producing valuable timber; the tanekaha [Phylloclaius trichomanoides), a tall tree with leaf-like branches, the true leaves being fully developed only in the seedlings; and the silver pine (D. Colensoi), and yellow pine (D. intermedium), of bog-forests.

Ferns are the glory of the New Zealand forests. They are, of course, most in evidence in damp forests. Here the undergrowth in places may consist mostly of ferns. In addition, they may clothe most of the tree trunks and branches, and, as tree-ferns, take a part in the upper canopy of foliage. There are 145 species, distributed over 12 families, found in New Zealand.

The filmy ferns, family Hymenophyllaceac, are included in the genera Hymenophyllum, Trichomanes, and Cardiomanes. In moist forests a dozen or more species often may be obtained in a single locality. Their delicate leaves cover ground, logs, and trunks alike. They vary from the broad-leaved H. dilahdum, which may reach a height of 2 ft., to the minute H. minimum, less than 1 in. tall. One species, the kidney fern, Cardiomanes reniforme. has undivided, reniform leaves fringed with the spore-producing organs.

A single species, Loxsoma Cunninghamii, with the leaves whitish below, represents the family Loxsomaceae in New Zealand, where it is confined to the Auckland Province. The only other members of the family are found in tropical America.

The family Dicksoniaceae has three representatives in New Zealand, all belonging to the genus Dicltsonia. All are tree-ferns, but in one species, D. lanata, the trunk usually lies along the ground. The wheki, D. sqnarrosa, is perhaps the most common tree-fern in New Zealand.

Another family of tree-ferns is Cyatheaccae. it includes the tall and stately black tree-fern or mamaku (Cyathca medxdUiris), and the smaller silver tree-fern or ponga (C. dealbata). In one species, Alsophila Colensoi, the trunk almost always is prostrate.

Most ferns belong to the family Polypodiaceae, which is represented in New Zealand by about 90 species. All the ordinary ferns, including the bracken, Pteridium esculenhtrn, belong to this family. The most prevalent genera are Polystichum, Dryopleris. Asphnmm, Blechnum, Hypolepis, Adiantum, Pteris, and Polypodium, all widely distributed. Only one genus of Polypodiaeea% Le.ptohpia, is confined to New Zealand.

The king fern, Todea barbara, and two species of Leptopteris, with finely-divided filmy leaves, and hence called crape ferns, represent the family Osmundaceae in New Zealand. The horse-shoe ferns, family Marattiaceae, have a single representative, the para (Marattia fraxinea), in the North Island.

The lycopods, family Lycopodiaceae, include the New Zealand and Australian genus Phylloglossum containing only a single species, P. Drummondii, and twelve species of Lycopodium. A related family, Psilotaceae, contains the two species Tmesipteris tannensis and Psilotum triquetrum.

In a country with a greatly diversified land surface and considerable range in climatic conditions, one may expect a great variety in the nature of the plant covering. Such actually is the case in New Zealand, where the plant formations range from warm, temperate rain forest to alpine rock associations at the limit of plant growth.

When organized European settlement first began in New Zealand, about 1840, it has been estimated that 60 per cent, of the land surface was under forest. The forest, has now been reduced to under 20 per cent., mainly by the clearing of kauri, podocarp, and broad-leaved lowland forests. The mountainous regions, where there is a pre-ponderance of beech forests, naturally have suffered the least.

In a broad sense the forest may be divided into three main types: (1) Coniferous forests; (2) broad-leaved forests; (3) beech forests.

The coniferous forests fall into two groups—kauri and podocarp. Kauri forests are confined to the northern portion of the North Island. The occurrence of kauri resin in the ground in places now occupied by swamp or scrub indicates that in pre-European times this formation covered an area considerably greater than it does at the present day. Kauri forest occurs in patches, some of considerable size, among the broad-leaved forests, mainly taraire. The kauri is dominant and determines the physiognomy of the formation. Its immense heads of foliage in clumps and its greater height make the stands of kauri easily recognizable from a distance. The large trees associated with the kauri include the taraire, tawa, tawhcro, northern rata, rimu, totara, hinau, and others. Underneath are tree-ferns, nikau palms, and various small trees, including the mairehau, neinci, kanono, and Alseuosmia macrophylla, while the large tussock sedge, Gahnia xanthocurpa, and especially the liliaceous tussock, Astelia irinervia, are conspicuous plants in the undergrowth.

Of the podocarp forests, that in which rimu is dominant or extremely common is the most frequent. A considerable mixture of trees, including other podocarps, such as matai and miro, and many kinds of broad-leaved trees, make up the main tier of the forest. Small trees, often with large leaves laxly disposed, form a second tier, while ferns often dominate the undergrowth. The totara, sometimes occurring as immense trees, dominates smaller areas than does the rimu, and prefers drier soil. At higher levels its smooth-barked ally, Podocarp us Hallii, replaces it. On wet ground, often growing in water, the principal podocarp is the kahikatea. Its straight mast-like trunks impress the visitor to-day as they did when viewed by Captain Cook and his botanists in 1769. In boggy places other podocarps, such as the silver pine or the yellow pine, may be dominant.

Broad-leaved forest covers wide areas in the North Island. In the north the taraire is the dominant tree. Elsewhere its congener, the tawa, takes the principal place. These forests in their interior are much like the podocarp forests, the associated trees, shrubs, and ferns being mostly the same species. Taraire forest interdigitates with kauri forest and the associated species are identical. Tawa forests south of 38° S. lat. lack many species which do not extend farther south than the tarairo forest region. Other widely-distributed types of broad-leaved forests are those in which the kamahi and the southern rata are the principal trees. Southern rata forest is essentially a South Island community, and generally contains a considerable proportion of kamahi. In damp situations, as in deep gullies, the pukatea is the principal tree; on drier hill-sides the northern rata is sometimes most in evidence. Its habit of strangling its host has the effect of its gradually replacing rimu forest.

The beech forests are characterized by the dominance of one or more species of Xothofagus. They are poorer in species than the coniferous or broad-leaved forests, while ferns and epiphytes are not such conspicuous features. They occur over wide areas of mountainous country in both the main islands, though curiously enough are absent from Mount Egmont, and from Westland between the Taranmkau and Paringa Rivers. The mountain beech forms a rather dry type of forest, which occurs on both the wet but cold mountains and on the drier foothills, especially those east of the Southern Alps. The silver beech forms a distinctly moist forest, and mixes freely with podocarps, other species of beech, and broad-leaved trees. In appearance and in variety of associated species silver beech forest much resembles podocarp forest. The red beech, black beech, and hard beech occur mixed or individually dominating in extensive areas in both islands.

Taking the meaning of scrub in the ordinary sense—namely, a closed formation of shrubs—there are in New Zealand several kinds differing in both floristic and ecological composition. The most widely distributed of the scrubs is that in which manuka or kanuka is dominant, and, in places, almost the only shrub present. It occurs in swamps, bogs, poor pumice and clay lands; also on good fertile soil. Its ubiquity is due to the readiness of these two species quickly to take possession of unoccupied land, and its presence in the better-class soils is without doubt due to the fact that these areas were formerly occupied by forest which has disappeared before Maori or European. Given time, forest will again supersede the manuka or kanuka scrub. Sometimes species of Dracophyllum—for instance, D. subulalum on the Hangitaiki plains—are dominant in a scrub much resembling dwarf manuka scrub.

Coastal scrubs are best developed on islands, where some characteristic species form almost pure associations. Such are the pohutukawa and taupata in the north, the puheretaiko and tote-a-weka in the south, and Olearia Lyallii in the Southern Islands.

Above the forest-line on all the higher mountains a belt of scrub is found between forest and tussock. It is usually dense to the point of being impenetrable. The dominant species varies with exposure and district, but usually one or more of the following are conspicuous: Olecnia CoUusoi, Senecio claegnifolius, various species of Coprosma, Dracophyllum, and Hebe, Phyllocladus alpiniis, Cassinia VauviUiersii, Aristotelia frulicosa, and Sullonia divaricata.

On the mountain-sides above the dense scrub and tussock only scattered plants, botli shrubs and herbs, occur in sheltered places. Here and in other open places a highly peculiar type of shrub is found. It takes the form of a dense cushion, the outer surface of which is the truncated tips of abbreviated tightly-packed branches with their dense clothing of woolly, scale-like leaves. The large species, some of winch are 3 ft. or 4 ft. in diameter, are known as “vegetable sheep “(Baoulia cximia, Haastia Sinclairii).

Leaving aside the various associations of plants in water, bogs, swamps, near fumarolea, on sand-dunes, shingly river-beds, and so on, this account may be closed by a reference to the tussock-grass lands of the Dominion. The area under tussock is now considerably larger than at the period of early Eurcmean settlement, owing to the burning-off of scrub. Tussock occurs on all high mountains above the scrub-line, and also over vast areas east of the main divide in the South Island. Two main divisions may be recognized: one is dominated by Festuca Novae Zcalandiae and Poa caespitosa, the other by the large tussocks of Danthonia Raoulii. With these are associated a few shrubs, various herbs, and here and there a fern. At the higher levels are grass-lands composed of mat-forming species (Danthonia australis, Poa, aciculanfolia, Triodia cxigua, and others) and various low-growing herbs.

Plants introduced to New Zealand during the period of European occupation now take such a prominent part in the plant covering that a few remarks must be made about them. About 600 species are sufficiently well established to be considered naturalized. They occur mostly in settled districts, but in clearings and along tracks far in the native forest a few exotic species are occasionally found. The introduced plants cannot establish themselves in unbroken forest, but, in the area under settlement, especially in the scrubs, grassland, and swamps, many have become permanent members of these formations, and, in places, certain exotic species such as gorse, broom, lupin, blackberry, and some others, dominate new communities.

For the guidanco of those desiring further information on the flora and plant covering of New Zealand, the following works should be consulted: “Plants of New Zealand,” by 11. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwcll. ed. 3, 1927; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora,” by T. F. Cheeseman, ed. 2, 1925; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips-Turner, 1928; “The Forest Plora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889; “New Zealand Trees and Shrubs and how to identify them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbic, ed. 3, 1931; “New Zealand Plants and their Stoiy,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 3. 1927: “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 2, 1928: “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “The New Zealand Nature Book,” Vol. 2, by W. Martin, 1929;- and numerous articles published in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute and of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

THE FAUNA.

The following brief article on the fauna of New Zealand originally prepared by Mr. James Drummond, E.L.S., F.Z.S., has been revised by him for this edition:—

New Zealand's native fauna has attracted the attention of investigators in nearly all parts of the world. Its special interest lies in its manifold peculiarities, in the incongruous characters possessed by some, of its members, and in the ancient types found in different classes.

Beginning with the mammalia, the Dominion is surprisingly inadequately represented. Its only land-mammals, except, seals, are two bats. One of these, the long-tailed hat, belongs to a genus (Chalinolobus) which is found in the Australian and Ethiopian zoological regions, and to a species (morio) found in the south-east of Australia as well as in New Zealand; but the other, the short-tailed bat (Mystacops luberrulalus), belongs to a genus peculiar to this Dominion.

At one time it was believed that the Maori dog (Oanis familiaris, variety maorium, the “kuri” of the Maoris) and the Maori rat (Mus nxvlans, the Maori “kiore”) were indigenous to New Zealand, but it is now generally believed that these two animals were introduced by the Maoris when they made their notable migrations from their legendary Hawaiki. The dog was highly prized as a domestic pet, and the rat as food. Both could easily be taken across the sea in the large canoes used in those days. The dog, without doubt, is extinct. It was small, with a pointed nose, pricked ears, and very small eyes. In colour it was white, black, brown, or parti-coloured, and it bad long hair, short legs, a short bushy tail, and no loud bark, but only a whine. The Maoris lavished upon it an abundance of affection. When dead its flesh was used for food, its skin for clothing, and its hair for ornaments. Opinions differ in regard to the approximate date of its extinction, and investigations in this respect are made somewhat difficult by the fact that for some years “wild dogs,” as they were called—probably a cross between the Maori dog and dogs brought by Europeans infested several districts in both the North Island and the South Island, and were confused with the Maori dog. It is probable that the pure Maori dog became extinct about 1885. The Maori rat, a forest-dweller, is not as plentiful as it was when Europeans first came to New Zealand, but it still lives in the forests.

The long-tailed species of bat was once fairly plentiful, especially in the forests, where it makes its home hi hollow trees. Large numbers also at one time were found under old bridges across streams, notably at the River Avon, in Christchurch. It is not very rare now, and specimens sometimes are found in the forests and in eaves. The short-tailed species probably is not extinct, but rare. Little is known of its habits.

The sea-lion, the sea-elephant, the sea-leopard, and the fur-seal are found on islands within the Dominion's boundaries. In the early days of colonization sealing was a great industry, and yielded large profits to some of the adventurous men who took part in it.

Amongst the sea-mammals whales are the most important. At one time extensive whaling was carried on in New Zealand waters, three hundred vessels, chiefly from America, sometimes visiting the country in one year. The industry began about 1795, reached the height of its prosperity between 1830 and 1840, and then began to dwindle. In recent years an effort was made to revive the industry, but was not encouraging. Only two whaling-stations are established hi New Zealand at present: both are on a small scale, and the catches have a low average. The older of the two stations is at Whangamumu, Bay of Islands; it takes hump-back whales near^-the coast. Southern right whales are taken there occasionally; these and blue or fin whales are rare at that station. The more modern station is in Tory Channel, Queen Charlotte Sound, where during the three months of Winter hump-backs are taken and a few southern right whales.

By its strange behaviour a Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus) became famous under the title of “Pelorus Jack.” It made a practice of following steamers through Pelorus Sound. So much interest was taken in this dolphin by the public, zoologists, and learned societies that it was protected by an Order in Council issued in 1904 under the Sea-fisheries Act. Pelorus Jack has not been seen since 191G. It was the only member of the genus Grampus recorded in New-Zealand waters.

In contrast with the species of land-mammals, the members of the next class, Aves, were remarkably plentiful when settlement began. Bush and grass fires, rats, cats, stoats, and weasels, and the ruthless use of the gun reduced their numbers, but they still stand as probably the most interesting avifauna in the world. They include a comparatively large number of absolutely flightless birds. No living birds in New Zealand are wingless, but the kiwi (Apteryx), the weka (Qallirallus), the kakapo parrot (Strigops), and the takaho (Notoniis Hochstelleri)* cannot use their wings for flight, while a duck belonging to the Auckland Islands (Nesonetta) is practically in the same plight. There are several species of birds whose wings are so weak that they can make only short flights.

Other notable birds are the kea (Nestor notabilis), which is accused of killing sheep on stations in the South Island; the tui (Prosthemadera Novae Zealandiae), which affords one of the most beautiful sights in the New Zealand forests, and charms visitors with its silvery notes; the huia (Heteralocha acutirostris), the only species known in which there is a wide divergence in the shape of the bills in the two sexes, the male's being short and straight, while the female's is curved, pliant, and long; and the wry-billed plover (Anarhynchus frontalis), the only bird known to possess a bill turned to one side. Cormorants or shags (Phalacrocorax) and penguins (Impennes) are exceptionally well represented in the avifauna. New Zealand may be regarded as the headquarters of the penguins, as all the genera except one are found within the boundaries of this Dominion. The oldest fossil penguin known is from the Eocene and Oligocene rocks of New Zealand. New Zealand probably was the centre from which penguins were dispersed to other countries.

* Better known to the public as Notornis Mantelli.

Several species of shore-birds make remarkable migrations to New Zealand from regions around the North Pole. They nest there, but spend the spring and summer in New Zealand, leaving the Dominion for their northern homes in the autumn. A few miss the general migration and stay in New Zealand all winter. They probably join the outward-bound flocks in the following autumn. The most famous of these migrants, the bar-tailed or Pacific godwit (Limosa lapjjonica) known in New Zealand by its Maori name kuaka, nests on the tundras of Eastern Siberia and in Kamchatka and Western Alaska. The Hudsonian godwit (Limosa hacmastica), the Pacific golden plover (Plurialis dominicus), the knot (Canulus camilus) and several species of sandpipers are on the list; and the parasitic jaeger or Arctic skua, which nests as far north as Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Franz, Josef Land, sometimes spends the summer in New Zealand. Two species of cuckoos—the shining cuckoo (Lamprococcyx luddvs) and the long-tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis tailensis)—arrive in New Zealand from unknown northern homes, probably on Pacific islands, in the spring, and leave the Dominion about April. Both are parasitical, imposing on small birds the duties of hatching and rearing young cuckoos. In some respects the kiwi is the most remarkable bird in New Zealand. It is the only bird known with nostrils at the tip of the bill, instead of at the base. Its plumage is hair-like in appearance. It lays an immense egg compared with the size of its body. Its structure is very generalized. Sir Richard Owen once suggested that it seemed to have borrowed its head from one group of birds, its legs from another, and its wings from a third.

The takahe (Notornis), a large, heavily built rail, is one of the rarest birds. Only four individuals have been recorded. Two of the skins are in the British Museum, one is in the Dresden Museum, and one remains in New Zealand in the Otago Museum, Dunedin. The fourth Notornis was caught by two guides (Messrs. D. and J. Ross) at Notornis Bay, Lake Te Anau, in 1898. There is reason to believe that this species still exists in the wild country of the southern sounds.

An eagle, a goose, and a large rail are amongst New Zealand's extinct birds. In this class are the moas. Dr. W. R. B. Oliver has divided them into twenty one species. The tallest stood 12 ft. high. Their remains show that they were very plentiful. The cause and time of their extinction are still subjects of controversy. A mass of knowledge has been collected about them; all this with theories and Maori traditions has been recorded in Mr. T. Lindsay Buick's “The Mystery of the Moa” (1931). It should be read with Dr. Oliver's erudite essay on the moas in “New Zealand Birds” (1930).

Reptilian life is restricted to about fifteen species of lizards and to the tuatara (Sphenodon punctalvs). This is a lizard-like creature, the only surviving representative of the order Rhynehocephalia. The tuatara is found in no other country. It has been destroyed to a large extent by wild pigs, cats, and dogs, and is now seldom found except on a few islands off the coast of the mainland.

The amphibians are represented by two species of frogs. One, Liopelma Hoclistetteri, has been recorded from only a few districts in the Auckland Province. The other, Liopelma Hamilloni, has been recorded from only Stephen Island, a small island in Cook Strait, notable as one of the refuges of the tuatara.

About 310 species of fish have been found ui New Zealand waters. Many of these are used for food. Several species, notably the mudfish (Neochanna apoda), which is sometimes discovered buried 4 ft. deep in clay in places where rivers have overflowed in flood, and in swampy places, are interesting. Some of the genera are peculiar to New Zealand, but some also occur in Australian and South American waters.

Amongst the invertebrates one of the peculiarities is the fact that the Dominion has few butterflies, although it is well supplied with moths. It has a red admiral butterfly (Vanessa), named after the European species, which it resembles, and a copper butterfly (Chry so planus), which is very plentiful. In the forests there is that strange growth the “vegetable caterpillar.” The Dominion has native bees and ants, dragon-flies, sober-colon red beetles, and representatives of other orders of insects. The katipo spider, which lives mostly on or near the sea-beach, is well known locally. Amongst the mollusca there is a large and hand-some laud-snail (Paryphunla) and Amphibola, an air-breathing snail, peculiar to the Dominion, which lives in brackish water, mainly in estuaries. There are about twenty species of univalves and twelve of bivalves in the fresh-water shells, and many species in the marine shells, including the paper nautilus (Argonauta).

Perhaps the most interesting of all the invertebrates is Peripatus, an ancient type of creature which survives in New Zealand and in parts of Australia, Africa, South America, the West Indies, New Britain, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. Zoologically, it belongs to the air-breathing division of the phylum Arthropoda, and has been placed in a special class, Prototracheata or Onychophora. It is about 3 in. long, has many feet, loves moisture, shuns light, and moves slowly.

On the arrival of Europeans the whole face of the fauna changed. The first European animal introduced was the pig, liberated by Captain Cook in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773. With settlement, sheep, cattle, horses, and other domestic animals were brought, some for utility, some for pleasure, such as song birds, and some for sport, such as deer, trout, pheasants, and quail.

Twenty-four species of introduced birds have established themselves. Some succeeded so well that they created a small-bird nuisance. In 1906 the German owl, little owl, or brown owl (Athene noclua) was successfully introduced to help to check the small introduced birds. It is accused of killing native small birds. New Zealand farmers regard the starling as the most useful introduced bird. They condemn the house-sparrow as the most destructive, and next to it the skylark. Many species of injurious insects have been accidentally introduced. The small cabbage white butterfly (Picris rapae) appeared in 1930. It spread rapidly, and in 1935 a chalcid (Ptcromahis puparum), which parasitises the butterfly's pupae, was introduced to control it.

Acclimatization in New Zealand is marked by several great and irretrievable mistakes. The worst of these are the introduction of rabbits, stoats, and weasels.

Chapter 2. SECTION II.—HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND ADMINISTRATION.

EARLY HISTORY.

THE history of New Zealand prior to the seventeenth century is shrouded in mythology and tradition. When the country was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had discovered these islands many centuries previously. At what time the discovery of New Zealand was made by the Maoris, and from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, much having been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they found Inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, many generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or loss variation, in all the eastern Pacific islands.

DISCOVERY BY EUROPEANS.

It was on the 13th December, 1642, that Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, discovered New Zealand. Tasman left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskercq,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea-hen”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius and discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country,” Tasman finally departed without having set foot in the country.

There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who sighted land on the 6th October, 1769, at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the South and Stewart Islands—which last he mistook for part of the South Island—he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned M. de Surville (December, 1769), M. Marion du Fresne (1772), Captains Vancouver and Broughton (1791), Captain Raven (1792–93), Alejandro Malaspina and José de Bustamente y Guerra (1793), Lieutenant Hanson (1793).

SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION.

So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven, of the “Britannia,” landed a sealing-party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over twelve months before being called for.

The next few years saw the establishment of whaling-stations at several points on the coast, and in 1814 the first missionaries—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—arrived in New Zealand. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government. Marsden returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall, Kendal, and King, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands.

In 1825 three separate attempts were made to found colonies in various parts of New Zealand, but none of these was successful, and for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling-stations. A number of Europeans gradually settled in different parts of the country, and many of these married Native women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonization arrived in Port Nicholson on the 22nd January, 1840, and founded the town of Wellington. During the few succeeding years the settlements of Nelson, Taranaki, Otago, and Canterbury were formed by immigrants sent out by associations in the United Kingdom.

Auckland, where the seat of Government was established in 1840, was not specially colonized from the United Kingdom, but attracted population mainly from Australia and from other parts of New Zealand.

BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY.

As early as 1833 a British Resident (Mr. Busby) was appointed, with headquarters at Kororareka (adjacent to the present Russell), on the Bay of Islands. Seven years later—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30th January, 1840, and on 6th February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. Originally signed by forty-six chiefs, the treaty (or copies of it) was taken to various parts of the country and signed by other chiefs, so that in a period of less than six months 512 signatures were affixed.

On 21st May, 1840, Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. On the treaty being signed in the South Island, formal proclamation of British sovereignty over that island in accordance with the consent of the Maoris was made at Cloudy Bay on 17th June, 1840, by Major Bunbury.

New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until the 3rd May, 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated the 16th November, 1840.

CONSTITUTION.

The government of the colony was first vested in a Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; there was an Executive Council, with advisory powers only, as well as a Legislative Council.

An Act granting representative institutions to the colony was passed by the Imperial Parliament on the 30th June, 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on the 17th January, 1853. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives.

The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the House of Representatives, who, however, held no portfolios. The first Ministers under a system of responsible government were appointed in the year 1856.

By Order in Council dated 9th September, 1907, and by Proclamation issued 10th September, 1907, the style and designation of the Colony of New Zealand was altered to “The Dominion of New Zealand,” the change taking effect from Thursday, the 26th September, 1907.

By Letters Patent dated 11th May, 1917, the designation of Governor and Commander-in-Chief which had hitherto been held by the Royal representative in New Zealand was altered to “Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.”

Definition was given to the status of New Zealand (and other Dominions) by the Imperial Statute of Westminster, of 11th December, 1931, the draft of which had received the antecedent approval of all Dominion Legislatures, that of New Zealand being given by resolution passed by both Houses on 23rd July, 1931. In view of the constitutional importance of the Statute of Westminster, the text of this resolution is given in full:—

To the KING'S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY.

Most Gracious Sovereign:

WE, Your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Legislative Council and the House of Representatives of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, humbly approach Your Majesty praying that you may be graciously pleased to cause a measure to be laid before the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to give effect to certain declarations and resolutions set forth in the Reports of Imperial Conferences holden at Westminster in the years 1926 and 1930, which declarations and resolutions we de hereby approve, the said Act being expressed as follows or to the following effect:—

STATUTE OF WESTMINSTER.

Whereas it is meet and proper to set out by way of preamble to this Act that inasmuch as the Crown is the symbol of the free association of the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations, and as they are united by a common allegiance to the Crown, it would be in accord with the established constitutional position of all the members of the Commonwealth in relation to one another that any alteration in the law touching the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom:

And whereas it is in accord with the established constitutional position that no law hereafter made by the Parliament of the United Kingdom shall extend to any of the Dominions as part of the law of that Dominion otherwise than at the request and with the consent of that Dominion:

It is hereby declared and enacted that the Parliament of a Dominion has full power to make laws having extra territorial operation.

The Colonial Laws Validity Act, 1865, shall not apply to any law made after the commencement of this Act by the Parliament of a Dominion.

No law and no provision of any law made after the commencement of this Act by the Parliament of a Dominion shall be void or inoperative on the ground that it is repugnant to the law of England, or to the provisions of any existing or future Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom, or to any order, rule, or regulation made under any such Act, and the powers of the Parliament of a Dominion shall include the power to repeal or amend any such Act, order, rule, or regulation insofar as the same is part of the law of the Dominion.

No Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this Act shall extend or be deemed to extend to a Dominion as part of the law of that Dominion unless it is expressly declared in that Act that that Dominion has requested, and consented to, the enactment thereof.

Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to confer any power to repeal or alter the Constitution or the Constitution Act of the Commonwealth of Australia or the Constitution Act of the Dominion of New Zealand otherwise than in accordance with the law existing before the commencement of this Act.

Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing provisions of this Act, sections seven hundred and thirty-five and seven hundred and thirty-six of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, shall be construed as though reference therein to the Legislature of a British Possession did not include reference to the Parliament of a Dominion.

Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing provisions of this Act, section four of the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act, 1890 (which requires certain laws to be reserved for the signification of His Majesty's pleasure or to contain a suspending clause), and so much of section seven of that Act as requires the approval of His Majesty in Council to any rules of Court for regulating the practice and procedure of a Colonial Court of Admiralty, shall cease to have effect in any Dominion as from the commencement of this Act.

Notwithstanding anything in the Interpretation Act, 1889, the expression “Colony” shall not, in any Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this Act, include a Dominion or any Province or State forming part of a Dominion.

No provision of this Act shall extend to the Dominion of New Zealand as part of the law thereof unless that provision is adopted by the Parliament of that Dominion, and any Act of the said Parliament adopting any provision of this Act may provide that the adoption shall have effect either as from the commencement of this Act or as from such later date as may be specified by the adopting Act.

All of which we humbly pray Your Majesty to take into your favourable and gracious consideration.

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.

The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of the 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of the 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council, but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to His Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded upon the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The present Executive Council consists of thirteen members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act, 1920, His Excellency the Governor-General receives an honorarium of £5,000 per annum, an allowance of £2,000 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his establishment (exclusive of the Official Secretary), and an allowance of £500 per annum for travelling-expenses.

The Civil List Act, 1908, authorized salaries of £1,600 for the Prime Minister, £1,1300 for the Minister of Railways, and £1,000 to each of six (increased in 1915 to eight and in 1917 to ten) other members holding portfolios. The Civil List Act, 1920, authorized salaries of £2,000 for the Prime Minister, and £1,300 to each of ten other members holding one or more ministerial offices.

A reduction of 10 per cent. was made in 1922, while Ministerial salaries were again reduced in 1931 (by 10 per cent.), and in 1932, when a further reduction of 15 per cent. was made. Restoration to the 1930 level was effected from 1st July, 1936. The present Government, shortly after assuming office, instituted a scheme whereby the services of all parliamentary representatives of the Government party might be co-opted to assist Ministers in bringing the Government's policy into effect. As part of this plan, Ministers are sharing a portion of their authorized salaries with other Government parliamentary representatives.

It is of service also to mention that, for the first time in the history of the New Zealand Parliament, provision has been made for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries. The authorizing statute is the Civil List Amendment Act, 1936, which, inter alia, provides for a salary of £(500 per annum to any person holding office as a Parliamentary Under-Secretary. The Act also provides for the extension of the number of Ministers, other than the Prime Minister, from ten to eleven (without, however, increasing the aggregate amount which may be paid in Ministerial salaries).

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

The Imperial Act under which the earliest appointments were made, to the Legislative Council under a system of responsible government provided that the first appointees should be not less than ten in number. The number actually summoned for the first session (held at Auckland from 24th May, 1854), was sixteen, of whom only fourteen attended. The number increased irregularly for thirty years. In 1885 and 1886 it stood at fifty-three, but has not since reached that limit. The number on the roll at present (June, 1936) is 39.

An Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1868 provided that future appointments of Councillors should be made by the Governor (not by the Sovereign). Until 1891 members wore appointed for life, but since that year appointments have been made for seven years only, members, however, being eligible for reappointment. Prior to 1891 the Speaker was appointed by the Governor, but the Council now elects its own Speaker, who holds office for five years. The Chairman of Committees was formerly elected every session, but in 1928 the standing orders were amended to provide for a three years' term of office. Speaker and Chairman are both eligible for re-election.

Provision for an elective Legislative Council is contained in the Legislative Council Act, 1914. which may be brought into operation at a date to be specified by Proclamation.

The qualifications for membership of the Legislative Council are the same as for the House of Representatives, with the proviso that a person may not at the same time be a member of both Houses.

Before the year 1892 the honorarium of Councillors was understood to be for the session, not for the year, and formed the subject of a special vote every session, the amount varying in different sessions. By the Payment of Members Act, 1892, the honorarium was made annual, not sessional, and was fixed at £150 a year. The amount was raised in 1904 to £200, and in 1920 to £350, but was reduced in 1922 to £315, in 1931 to £283 10s., in 1932 to £255 3s. In 1934 the salary was raised to £267 19s., in 1935 to £288 1s., and from 1st duly, 1936, to £315 (the level ruling between 1922 and 1931). The Speaker now receives £720 per annum, and the Chairman of Committees £450. Besides the honorarium, members are allowed travelling-expenses actually incurred in going to and from Parliament at the opening and closing of each session.

Subject to certain exemptions, members not attending the Council are liable to be fined.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy: and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act, 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

After each population Census the Dominion is divided anew into seventy-six European electorates, according to population distribution, with an allowance for rural population. The “country quota” is computed on the basis that 28 per cent. is added to the rural population, which for electoral purposes means population other than that contained in a city or borough of over 2,000 inhabitants or in any area within five miles of the chief post-offices at Auckland, Wellington, Christ-church, or Dunedin. The “country quota” first appeared in 1881, to the equivalent of an addition of 33⅓ per cent. to the country population. It was reduced in 1887 to 18 per cent., but was increased in 1889 to the present 28 per cent.

Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with the exception that the term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the Great War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth Parliament to four years. The Electoral Amendment Act, 1934, provided for a permanent extension to four years.

Under the Electoral Act, 1927, every registered elector of either sex but no other person, is qualified to be a candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act, or is an undischarged bankrupt, or is a member of the Legislative Council, or is a contractor to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Under the Electoral Act public servants were prohibited from becoming candidates, but this prohibition has been removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act, 1936.

The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £450 per annum, subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. Travelling-expenses to and from Wellington at the opening and closing of each session are also allowed. The rate of payment for several years prior to 1920 was £300 per annum, but was increased in that year to £500, 10-per-cent. reductions, however, being made in 1922, 1931, and 1932, with restorations of 5 per cent. in 1934, 7½ per cent. in 1935, the rate being restored to £450—the 1922 level—from 1st July, 1936.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon after as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £900 per annum, plus sessional allowance of £100 and free sessional quarters, and that of the Chairman of Committees £675 per annum.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

THE FRANCHISE.

The three cardinal principles of the franchise in New Zealand are (1) one person one vote, (2) female suffrage, and (3) adult suffrage.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the last-mentioned, the following classes of persons not being entitled to register as electors or to vote:—

  • An alien:

  • A mentally defective person:

  • A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of His Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1927, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924.

The system of “one man one vote” has been in operation since 1889, and women's suffrage since 1893. The qualifications for registration are the same for both sexes.

Maoris are qualified to vote only at elections of the four members representing the Maori race. A Maori half-caste may register on the roll of a European electoral district; and if so, may not then vote at an election of Maori members.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.

Side by side with the general government of the country, but subordinate to it, there has existed a system of local government since the early years of New Zealand's annexation as a British colony. The history of local government divides naturally into two periods representing two distinct systems—viz., the provincial, which was in operation up to 1876, and the county, which superseded the provincial in that year.

THE PROVINCES.

On the 23rd December, 1847, a Charter was signed dividing the colony into two provinces—New Ulster and New Munster—and this was proclaimed in New Zealand on the 10th March, 1848.

Under the constitution of 1853 the Provinces of New Ulster and New Munster were abolished and the colony was divided into six provinces—Auckland, New Plymouth (later altered to Taranaki), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. Each province was to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine by the formation of Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Southland, later reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with Otago, and again increased to nine by the formation of Westland, remained as integral parts of the constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, and re-created as provincial districts.

EARLY BOROUGHS AND TOWN DISTRICTS.

Even before the division of New Zealand into the two provinces of New Ulster and New Munster, local government had its inception, Wellington having been created a borough in 1842 under the authority of the Municipal Corporations Ordinance of that year. The Ordinance was disallowed by the Imperial Government, but was re-enacted, with necessary alterations, in 1844. Wellington, which lost its status on the original Ordinance being disallowed, did not become a borough again until 1870, Auckland (constituted in 1851) remaining the only borough in New Zealand for several years.

Wellington, which had been the first borough in the country, also became the first town district, with a form of government not differing greatly from that of a municipality. Gradually the more important towns adopted the status of boroughs, while the less important remained town districts. In Otago, however, between 1865 and 1875, several small towns were created boroughs under the authority of an Ordinance of the Otago Provincial Council.

THE ROAD AND HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

Another form of local government which came into existence in the provincial days was that of the road districts, or, as they were called in certain parts of the country, highway districts. As the names imply, the road and highway districts were formed for the purpose of extending and maintaining roads. Each district was controlled by an elected Board, which had power to levy rates. The first Road Boards were formed in 1863, and by 1875 their number had risen to 314.

THE COUNTIES.

Among the instructions given Captain Hobson on his appointment as the first Governor of New Zealand was one directing that the colony was to be divided into counties, hundreds, and parishes. In accordance with this instruction, the boundaries of the County of Eden, in which Auckland—then the capital—is situated, were proclaimed in 1842, and some years later the county was divided into hundreds. Very little further was done towards giving effect to the instructions, and the first administrative county was Westland, separated from Canterbury Province in 1867, and granted a system of local government in the following year.

It was not until the abolition of the provinces in 1876 that a scheme of division of the whole country into counties was introduced. The Counties Act, 1870, which, in conjunction with the Municipal Corporations Act of the same year, provided a comprehensive scheme of local government in lieu of the provincial governments, divided New Zealand into 63 (now 129) counties. With the exception of six, which were exempted from the operations of the Act, each county was placed under the control of an elected Chairman and Council, possessed of fairly full powers of local government—considerably less, however, than those formerly enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. The Counties Act specially excluded boroughs from the counties within which they geographically lie, and a similar enabling provision has since been made in the case of town districts having a population of over 500.

EXTENSION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

Since the abolition of the provinces and the passing of the Counties and Municipal Corporations Acts of 1876 there has been considerable extension of local government. Many of the road districts have merged with the counties within which they lie, while others have formed new counties or have become boroughs or town districts. On the other hand, counties, boroughs, and town districts have increased in numbers, while several entirely new classes of local districts, formed for definite purposes—as, for instance, land drainage or electric-power supply—have come into existence. In most cases the Boards of these districts have borrowing and rating powers.

Information concerning the origin, development, constitution, functions, &c., of local governing bodies will be found in the 1932 edition of the Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand. The reader is also referred to the section of this book dealing with local government.

Chapter 3. SECTION III.—POPULATION.

NEW ZEALAND AND DEPENDENCIES.

THE nineteenth general census of New Zealand was taken for the night of 24th March, 1936, the total population at that date being 1,573,810. The seventh census of Cook Islands and Niue Island was proclaimed for 30th April, 1936; but, owing to infrequency of communication, it was not possible to enumerate several islands of the Northern Group until a later date. The total population was 16,350 (Cook Islands, 12,246: Niue Island, 4,104). The enumeration of Western Samoa (which is mandated territory and not part of New Zealand) and Tokelau Islands (administered from Western Samoa) will probably take place about the end of 1936. The figures shown below for these are the latest available estimates by the Western Samoan Administration. The Ross Dependency is uninhabited.

Males.Females.Total.
Population (exclusive of Maoris) of New Zealand proper756,226735,2581,491,484
Maori population of New Zealand proper42,86339,46382,326
Population (inclusive of Maoris) of New Zealand proper799,089774,7211,573,810
Population of Kermadec Islands2..2
Population of Cook Islands and Niue8,3687,98216,350
Population of Tokelau Islands (August, 1935)6055931,198
Population of the mandated territory of Western Samoa (March, 1936)28,30026,43354,733
Totals836,364809,7291,646,093

METHOD OF COMPILATION.

In common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country is taken quinquennially. The minutiæ of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics, compiled from census data will be found in the census publications listed at the front of this volume.

The basis adopted for the census—and indeed, practically universally throughout population statistics in New Zealand—is that of the population de fait, all persons being counted as at the place of enumeration, irrespective of habitual residence, legal domicile, and so forth.

Intercensal figures of total population are based on the customary equation:—

Population = Population (census) + Births and immigration − Deaths and emigration.

The comparative shortness of the interval between the census enumerations, combined with New Zealand's insular position and the high standard of her registration system, has hitherto prevented serious intercensal errors in statements of population of New Zealand as a whole. A point of minor importance which may be noted is that births and deaths registered during a year are considered as actually occurring during that year.

The fact that all migration to and from the Dominion must be waterborne over lengthy distances, and that it centres in a few ports, facilitates the compilation of accurate statistics of external migration. Records of passenger traffic by sea and air between the North and South Islands are also maintained.

Residents of the Cook Islands, Niue, Western Samoa, and the Tokelau Group are not included in the population statistics quoted throughout this section, except in the first table. Further information will be found in the section relating to dependencies.

Separate statistics of the Maori population are given towards the end of the section.

INCREASE OF POPULATION.

The outstanding note of the history of population movement in New Zealand is that of unbroken growth. That it has not been invariably regular is well attested by the accompanying table, and by the fifty years' record shown in the later section of this edition entitled “Statistical Summary.”

Date of Census.Population (excluding Maoris).Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.Average Annual Percentage Increase.
* See letterpress.
December, 185126,707......
December, 185859,41332,706122·4612·44
December, 186199,02139,60866·6718·70
December, 1864172,15873,13773·8620·54
December, 1867218,66846,51027·028·15
February, 1871256,39337,72517·255·11
March, 1874299,51443,12116·825·32
March, 1878414,412114,89838·368·43
April, 1881489,93375,52118·225·58
March, 1886578,48288,54918·073·39
April, 1891626,65848,1768·331·61
April, 1896703,36076,70212·242·33
March, 1901772,71969,3599·861·91
April, 1906888,578115,85914·992·79
April, 19111,008,468119,89013·492·60
October, 19161,099,44990,9819·021·57
April, 19211,218,913119,46410·872·32
April, 19261,344,469129,792*10·692·05
March, 19361,491,484147,01510·931·05

NOTE.—The census due to be taken in 1931 and proclaimed for 21st April of that year was, owing to financial stringency at the time, postponed until 1936.

For the 1926 and 1936 censuses all half-caste European-Maoris were included with the Native population in lieu of the previous practice of treating as Europeans such half-castes as were living in European fashion. Numbers so treated were as follows: 1921, 4,236; 1916, 3,221; 1911, 2,879: 1906, 2,578; 1901, 2,407.

The “European” population now looks in retrospect down a vista of well over one hundred years. At the opening of the nineteenth century there existed a more or less fluctuating population of perhaps one hundred; by 1839 it had swelled to a total of about a thousand whalers, sealers, traders, missionaries, adventurers, and settlers. Activities of the colonizing companies and societies in the “forties” brought rapid changes and swiftly rising numbers, to be enhanced in the “sixties” by the gold rushes of the period.

The most significant period is possibly that of the “seventies,” marked by a vigorous developmental policy of public works and assisted immigration. The record year 1874, which saw a rise in population of 46,000 (including 32,000 assisted immigrants), was, and still is, the high-water mark of population gains. Both 1874 and 1875 showed a ratio of growth far in advance of any level subsequently attained.

In the late “eighties” and early “nineties” came economic depression and, consequently, comparative stagnation in population. In 1888, 1890, and 1891 emigrants exceeded immigrants, these being the only such occasions in the history of the country until the present depression, when departures exceeded arrivals in 1931 and subsequent calendar years.

From the middle “nineties” rising world prices and the new frozen-meat trade brought a return of prosperity and moderate, but steady, increase of population. Development of secondary industries and the remarkable expansion of dairying provided an economic foundation for increasing numbers.

The average annual population increment during the ten post-war years (1919–28) exceeded 30,000, while for the next seven years (1929–35) the average per annum was only 13,000. The population gain for 1935 was 9,364, compared with 9,429 during the previous year. Apart from war years, which were affected by movements of troops, 1935 shows the lowest absolute increase since 1891, and the lowest relative increase ever recorded.

Up to the “seventies” New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since; then natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—has been the principal factor.

A table is appended showing for each five-yearly period from 1861 the excess of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration. Maoris are not included, nor, prior to 1921, are crews of vessels.

 Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
Period.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.

* Decrease.

† Departure and return of troops of Expeditionary Force not included In migration figures.

1861–657,6258,98516,01063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1866–7015,66317,77933,41211,1679,36920,53626,83027,14853,978
1871–7519,40921,12940,53846,50135,44581,94665,91056,574122,484
1876–8030,14332,80862,95131,87022,91754,78762,01355,725117,738
1881–8532,36235,04667,40815,95813,00128,95948,32048,04796,367
1886–9030,78133,54461,325− 4,911*− 3,791*− 8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891–9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40315,32037,17236,03373,205
1896–190028,09731,43759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901–0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,14663,73850,446114,184
1906–1038,68143,06781,71825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
1911–1542,32346,68289,00517,65617,90535,56159,97964,587121,566
1916–2035,24841,35976,6076,9797,87514,85442,22749,23491,461
1921–2541,87644,86886,74426,73223,25649,98868,60868,124130,732
1926–3036,88640,45677,34214,7589,86924,62751,64450,825101,969
1931–3530,71533,23763,952−5,256*−4,662*−9,918*25,45928,57554,034
Totals, 1861–1935449,579497,250946,829298,653199,524498,177748,232696,7741,445,006

The table shows clearly the irregularity of the migration increase and the comparative steadiness of the natural increase. With a stable birth-rate the natural increase would show mounting numbers, whereas actually the peak occurred in 1911–15 and the shrinking birth-rate has reduced numbers accruing from this source.

TREND OF POPULATION.

The trend of population movement in past decades has been in the direction of a decline in the rate of population increase, the decline quickening in recent years. There appears no indication at present of any radical alteration in the trend, and it has become of the greatest moment to consider, in general terms at least, what a continuance of this trend would mean. Baldly stated, it implies that New Zealand if facing at only a few years' distance a stationary and even a declining population. Remarks under this head apply, it should he observed, to population other than Maori.

This prospect would present entirely novel features to New Zealand, where unbroken growth has been recorded in every year from the settlement of 1840. There have been, it is true, variations in the rate of increase—for example, from the high levels of the gold rushes in the “sixties” and the assisted immigration and public-works measures of the “seventies” to the lower strata reached in the depression-caused outflow of 1888–91—yet the numbers of the population at the end of the year have always been some thousands, at least, in excess of those at the year's beginning.

It is inevitable that much of the economy of New Zealand has been planned on the assumption of steadily increasing numbers, and it is unnecessary to indicate the vast and widespread effect of the removal of the “safety-valve” which continued growth affords. A secondary yet highly important factor is the redistribution of the population in major age divisions.

Apart from the question of annexation of territory, or alteration of nationality, or other laws affecting the determination of population, there are only two sources from which increase in the population of the State is possible—viz., excess of births over deaths (natural increase) and excess of overseas., arrivals over departures (net migration increase). Except in the earliest stages of a country's development, or in exceptional circumstances—such as those of the recent vast immigration of Chinese into Manchuria—the former is naturally the more important source. It is also, for numerous reasons, the more desirable source.

Since 1875, 74 per cent, of the increase in New Zealand's population (other than Maori) has come from excess of births over deaths, and 26 per cent. from the net migration increase. In the post-war era (1921–35) the percentage furnished by natural increase has risen only to 78, and such rise even is due to the conversion of a moderate inflow through migration to a small outflow in the last five years.

The natural increase ratio was formerly unusually high in New Zealand, the annual average, for instance, reaching 29·41 per 1,000 of mean population in the quinquennium 1876–80 (see subsection relating to “Births”). Comparison with the 1935 figure of 7·91 per 1,000, the lowest point reached in the long decline, is sufficiently striking.

The erstwhile favourable ratio of natural increase in New Zealand was due to its exceptionally low death-rate, now and for very many years the lowest in the world. It is out of the question to expect further considerable falls in the death-rate; in fact, with the less favourable age-constitution of the population as now developing, a potential rise must be envisaged. The birth-rate, which, for instance, averaged annually 41·21 per 1,000 of mean population in 1876–80, has fallen to 18·80 in 1930, 18·42 in 1931, 17·09 in 1932, 16·59 in 1933, 16·47 in 1934, and 16·13 in 1935.

The nominal natural-increase ratio of the past year (7·91 per 1,000 of mean population in 1935) gives the impression of a still substantial margin of increase in population. While this is correct it yet obscures the more important aspect, which is that the proportions at reproductive ages are not being maintained. Based on expectation-of-life figures calculated for 1931, an “equilibrium” birthrate of over 15 per 1,000 of mean population is required to maintain even a stationary population, and should the death-rate increase a higher birth-rate would be necessary. It is clear that the margin of increase is precariously low, and will vanish in a few years if the present trend continues. With the lifting of the depression some improvement may be anticipated.

That the net migration has for the last five years been a debit to the population does not in itself appear of great significance. A backwash of the depression, it will probably disappear with the depression. The question of the resumption of immigration has many problems which need not be discussed here. No serious attempt has ever been made to calculate an “optimum” population for New Zealand. It is not, in fact, practicable within the limits of our present knowledge. It is, however, a very generally accepted proposition that New Zealand can ultimately maintain with benefit a considerably larger population than she has at present. Concepts are necessarily either vague or without serious foundation: a common tendency, particularly of those who work from the dubious territory of comparisons of population and gross area, is to exaggerate the potential population capacity.

In the past the population of New Zealand has been derived almost wholly from the British Isles, whether directly or indirectly, and upon resumption of immigration the same preferences would undoubtedly exist. It has, however, become clear that this source of recruitment of additional population—upon anything over a small scale—may within a few years be no longer available.

In Britain, as in New Zealand and, indeed, in many other countries, the rate of growth of population has slackened, and, unless some drastic changes in migration occur, a declining population is imminent. Statisticians agree that, subject to certain qualifications, the population of England and Wales is now almost at its peak and must decline. One authority* places the population of England and Wales in 1976 as 28,500,000 (it is now 40,500,000); another has placed the 1976 figure several millions in excess of the former estimate. These estimates are admittedly subject to the maintenance of certain conditions, and long-term forecasts of population indeed serve only limited purposes, and as a rule are to be deprecated. That the population of England, however, will decline in the near future, possibly to a considerable extent, seems inevitable. The consequences to New Zealand, both from the viewpoint of a failure as a recruiting source of population (for migration from England is probably unlikely to receive encouragement if the population falls) and from that of declining consumption by the principal export customer of New Zealand, are sufficiently obvious in their more immediate implications.

* Dr. G. Leybourne.

† Dr. E. C. Snow.

SEX PROPORTIONS.

The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand. The figures quoted are exclusive of Maoris.

Census Year.Males.Females.Females to 1,000 Males.
186161,06237,959622
1871150,356106,037705
1881269,605220,328817
1891332,877293,781883
1901405,992366,727903
1911531,910476,558896
1916551,775547,674993
1921623,243595,670956
1926686,384658,085959
1936756,226735,258972

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless due to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe were such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries. Gold-mining and coal-mining, for instance, would attract large numbers of men, but few women. The effect of this early preponderance of males no doubt still exists, but in an ever-diminishing degree, its gradual elimination being effected by the passing of the earlier settlers.

Of the two sources from which the Dominion's population has been recruited—viz., migration and natural increase—the effect of the former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, and of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females. In the period 1861–1935 the gain of males by migration (excluding movements of troops between 1914 and 1919, and also excluding crews prior to 1921) totalled 99,129 more than that of females. This excess was only partly offset numerically by a female surplus of 47,671 in the figures of natural increase, but the net excess of 51,458 males is not sufficient to maintain the former high ratio of males to females in the population. The surplus of males at present, exclusive of the Native population, is 20,968. The effect of the natural increase of population is in the direction of eliminating this surplus at the rate of some 500 to 600 per annum.

INTERCENSAL RECORDS.

As already noted, the intercensal statements of Dominion population prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration have been by virtue of the favourable position of the Dominion in this respect relatively accurate, and the 1936 census results have afforded a further demonstration of this. The same degree of accuracy does not persist, however, for Maori and European elements. Results for the censuses of 1921, 1926, and 1936 suggest that numbers of Maori-European children of at least half Maori blood have been counted in birth statistics as Europeans. In consequence, the Maori population has been slightly understated, and the European population overstated to a corresponding degree. Adjustments will be made at a later date, and revised figures incorporated in the next edition of the Year-Book.

Calendar Year.Population (excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent.
* Vide references to half-castes on second page of this section.
1926697,113668,3041,365,41729,054*2·171,352,927
1927707,008678,3931,385,40119,9841·461,374,439
1928714,928686,5441,401,47216,0711·161,390,684
1929723,691695,2231,418,91417,4421·241,406,942
1930733,389704,8501,438,23919,3251·361,425,084
1931740,649712,0981,452,74714,5081·011,444,901
1932745,356717,6741,463,03010,2830·711,456,237
1933750,050723,4301,473,48010,4500·711,466,930
1934754,945727,9641,482,9099,4290·641,476,988
1935758,848733,4251,492,2739,3640·631,485,814

As the year ended 31st March is for most of the administrative functions of the Government the period principally used, figures are given for March years.

 Population (excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year. 
Year ended 31st MarchMales.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent.Mean Population for Year.
* Vide references to half-castes on second page of this section.
1927701,774671,9721,373,74629,382*2·181,357,777
1928708,568680,1321,388,70014,9541·091,378,806
1929716,678688,2831,404,96116,2611·171,394,726
1930724,978696,6001,421,57816,6171·181,411,198
1931735,965706,7811,442,74621,1681·491,430,143
1932742,258712,9091,455,16712,4210·861,448,267
1933746,834718,9991,465,83310,6660·731,458,855
1934751,454724,5721,476,02610,1930·701,469,509
1935755,961729,0851,485,0469,0200·611,479,295
1936756,417735,1431,491,56010,6550·721,487,800

The figures given in the two preceding tables show the population exclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population inclusive of Maoris:—

 Population (including Maoris) at End of Year). 
Males.Females.Total.Mean Population for Year.
Years ended 31st December
1926730,603698,9521,429,5551,413,700
1927740,782709,3081,450,0901,438,814
1928749,125717,8271,466,9521,455,734
1929758,490727,0741,485,5641,472,925
1930768,746737,3411,506,0871,492,376
1931776,660745,2281,521,8881,513,416
1932782,122751,5871,533,7091,526,115
1933787,738758,2081,545,9461,538,490
1934793,537763,5061,557,0431,550,277
1935798,448769,7591,568,2071,560,822
Years ended 31st March
1927735,338702,6421,437,9801,420,762
1928742,396711,1211,453,5171,443,323
1929750,974719,6801,470,6541,459,983
1930759,963728,6321,488,5951,477,494
1931771,491739,4491,510,9401,497,732
1932778,425746,2081,524,6331,517,103
1933783,854753,1101,536,9641,529,133
1934789,373759,5361,548,9091,541,511
1935794,805764,8191,559,6241,553,005
1936799,303774,6241,573,9271,564,007

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.

Statistics of external migration have been recorded in New Zealand since 1860. Since 1st April, 1921, they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving the Dominion.

Commencing with the year 1933–34, the year ending 31st March has been adopted as a standard for the statistical expression of external migration in place of the calendar year formerly in use. The principal reason for the change is the avoidance of the partition of a season's migration movement into two statistical years as was inevitable with the calendar year ending in the middle of the summer flow of tourists and immigrants.

Including crews of vessels, 81,485 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31st March, 1936, which, compared with 1934–35, shows an increase of 2,310. During the same period 82,653 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1934–35, shows an increase of 441.

In addition to the above, there were also 10,821 “through passengers” who called at a port of New Zealand en route to their destination, and 4,357 “tourists on cruising liners.” These latter, as the term indicates, were persons who visited New Zealand in the course of a cruise, the length of stay being only a few days.

Migration in 1935–36, therefore, continued to show an excess of departures, the excess amounting to 1,168 as compared with 3,037 in 1934–35.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last ten years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, through passengers, and tourists on cruising liners have not been taken into account.

 Arrivals.Departures. 
Year ended 3lst MarchMales.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
* Excess of departures.
192725,39620,28645,68218,68415,33434,01811,664
192819,45316,38435,83720,71816,35437,072−1,235*
192918,78416,01534,79918,33515,75334,088711
193018,51515,32433,83916,80314,65131,4542,385
193116,71814,02330,74113,98011,65225,6325,109
19329,6968,19517,89111,8009,26321,063−3,172*
19339,7608,95318,71311,6639,64521,308−2,595*
193410,0459,64219,68711,40110,62122,022−2,335*
193512,65512,24624,90114,08013,97128,051−3,150*
193613,37513,56126,93613,82614,22428,050−1,114*

The excess of “crew” arrivals over “crew” departures, neither of which are included above, provides an annual increment of several hundred to the population of New Zealand.

The monthly figures for 1934–35 and 1935–36 are as follows, the excess of passenger arrivals or of passenger departures for each month being also shown:—

 Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals.Excess of Departures.
Month.1934–35.1935–36.1934–35.1935–36.1934–35.1935–36.1934–35.1935–36.
April1,6442,0422,3743.201....7301,159
May1,1261,4102,6722,060....1,5461,250
June9341,1421,7481,779....814637
July.1,1201,6251,5452,179....425554
August1,5101,4001,8251,564....315164
September1,6852,1511,5391,449146702....
October1,9682,3173,1211,663..6541,153..
November3,1852,8351,7301,5801,4551,255....
December3,7073,2132,5162,3421,191871....
January3,3923,0212,4662,350926671....
February2,6743,3982,8232,670..728149..
March1,9562,3823,6924,613....1,7362,231
Totals24,90126,93628,05128,050....3,1501,114

In general, arrivals exceed departures in the spring and summer months, while the contrary holds for the autumn and winter periods.

CLASSES OF ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES.

The following table gives an analysis of the various classes of passenger arrivals during the last five years. It is, therefore, exclusive of crews of vessels, a source from which comes a steady increment of population. The average annual excess of crew arrivals over departures in the five years 1931–32 to 1935–36 was 487, and in the preceding five years, 649.

In these tables, as has been noted above, “through” passengers and tourists on cruising liners have not been included.

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Immigrants intending permanent residence2,2881,4941,4281,5791,915
New Zealand residents returning from abroad8,6309,1398,42012,09112,194
Tourists4,7325,9837,4418,3789,927
Persons on commercial business1,0789481,0341,1371,267
Persons visiting the Dominion in connection with entertainments, sports, &c.295353297392552
Others (officials, &c, of other countries)435258316371305
Persons in transit422488711895755
No information available1150405821
Totals17,89118,71319,68724,90126,936

The New Zealand Government suspended from early in 1927 the major portion of its scheme of granting assisted passages to migrants from the British Isles, and this is largely responsible for the decreases shown in regard to immigrants. There were no assisted immigrants in 1935–36, as against 1 in 1934–35 and 11,239 in 1926–27; while the numbers of those who migrated to New Zealand without State assistance amounted to 1,915, 1,578, and 6,898 for the years 1935–36, 1934–35, and 1926–27 respectively.

The succeeding table gives an analysis of passenger departures, and thus furnishes the reverse of its predecessor:—

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
New Zealand residents departing permanently2,8442,9503,1603,5924,331
New Zealand residents departing temporarily8,8228,7179,29313,53111,630
Visitors to the Dominion departing9,3099,5409,53110,88412,046
No information available88101384443
Totals21,06321,30822,02228,05128,050

AGES.

The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1936:—

 Permanent Arrivals.Permanent Departures. 
Age, in Years.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Excess of Departures over Arrivals.
0–14198180378333335668290
15–24185160345528408936591
25–342522775296045891,193664
35–44160161321324342666345
45–59122115237254325579342
60 or over375996132152284188
Total, including unspecified9579581,9152,1752,1564,3312,416

ORIGIN AND DESTINATION.

Of the 1,915 new immigrants during the year 1935–36 intending to settle in the Dominion, the vast majority (1,720, or 90 per cent.) came from British; countries, mainly from the British Isles, Australia. Canada, Fiji, and India. The majority of immigrants from foreign countries came from China, Yugoslavia, the United States of America, and Italy.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the principal countries whence arrived new immigrants who intended permanent residence in the Dominion:—

Country of Last Permanent Residence.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
British Isles856449468491653
India6562804573
Union of South Africa112114510
Canada6351375771
Australia1,001627598707785
Other British countries12013111193128
Denmark12118..
Italy9682219
Switzerland..3225
Yugoslavia2921122736
China197171940
United States of America6242445125
Other foreign countries and unspecified5272364270
Totals2,2881,4941,4281,5791,915

Of the New Zealand residents who left the Dominion permanently, the great majority (95 per cent.) went to British countries. Foreign countries, other than China and the United States of America, recorded only very small figures.

NATIONALITIES.

Of the total of 1,915 new immigrants intending permanent residence who arrived during 1935–36, 180 (males 93, females 87) were of foreign nationality. The chief nationalities represented among the alien immigrants were as follows (figures for the five years preceding being given in parentheses): United States, 26 (117); Yugoslavia, 38 (153); Italy, 19 (104); China, 20 (22); Germany, 8 (44); Poland 20 (49); and France, 7 (20).

The number of foreign nationals among New Zealand residents departing permanently during the year ended March, 1936, was 125 (94 males and 31 females), or 2·9 per cent, of the total.

A noticeable feature in regard to foreign nationals is the relative disparity of the sexes as between arrivals and departures. Of the arrivals 52 per cent. were males and 48 per cent. females, whereas of the departures 75 per cent, were males and 25 per cent, females.

RACE ALIENS.

Although race aliens comprise comparatively small proportions of the total arrivals and departures, they are by no means unimportant. The principal race aliens with whom New Zealand is concerned are Chinese, Indians, and Syrians, and the first two are shown separately from other race aliens. The definition of the term “race alien,” as used in connection with these statistics, is “a person of other than European race.”

Permanent arrivals of race aliens in 1935–36 comprised 54 Indians, 21 Chinese, and 10 of other races. Departures were 33 Indians, 66 Chinese, and 32 of other races. In the last ten years permanent arrivals have aggregated 121 Chinese, 384 Indians, and 217 others; and the permanent departures 354 Chinese, 68 Indians, and 152 others.

It should be noted that the figures quoted above include all persons of mixed blood.

The total arrivals and departures of race aliens during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

 Arrivals.Departures.
Year ending 31st MarchChinese.Indians.Others.Totals.Chinese.Indians.Others.Totals.
19275272462981,071532159297988
19285451522319286561312311,018
1929427188306921602146247995
1930458191265914521167219907
1931375162247784542157255954
1932327117133577461140142743
193324081148469340112150602
193422210715248134992132573
1935273130140543228104153485
1936309158283750218109256583

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.

The general scheme of Governmental assistance to immigrants, which has been restricted in varying degrees since May, 1927. is based on nomination by a person who is already domiciled in New Zealand, and who undertakes to find employment for his nominee and guarantees that such nominee will reside at least five years in New Zealand. Further details will be found in the 1931 or preceding issues of the Year-Book.

Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). The numbers of assisted immigrants during each of the last ten calendar years are as follows:—

Year.Number.
192610,766
19275,899
19282,220
19291,878
19301,405
1931489
193277
19339
19341
1935Nil

The total to 31st December, 1935, is 226,229, of which number all have come from the United Kingdom with the exception of 3,909 from the Continent of Europe, spread over the five years 1874 to 1878 (inclusive).

In the following analysis of migration increase the figures given are annual averages for the periods quoted:—

Period.Governmentally assisted Immigrants.Immigrants not Governmentally assisted.Total Net Migration Increase.
1909–133,479..7,095
1920–247,5496,2009,680
1925–295,8085,7086,571
1930–343962,541−557
1935Nil1,915−1,183

PASSPORTS.

PERMISSION TO ENTER NEW ZEALAND.

With certain specified exceptions, no person over the age of sixteen years may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a passport or some other document satisfactorily establishing his or her nationality and identity. Exemption from this requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

In the case of a person coming from a foreign country the passport must, with certain exceptions, have been issued or vised by the British Ambassador or a British Consul in that country, and in the case of a person coming from any part of the British dominions the issue or vise must have been by some public official duly authorized in that behalf.

Certain exceptions are made with respect to persons coming to New Zealand from the Cook Islands and Western Samoa. In their case the only requirement is the possession of a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or the Administrator of Samoa, as the case may be. The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject arriving in New Zealand as the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives, or to a British subject arriving from the Commonwealth of Australia.

DEPARTURE FROM NEW ZEALAND.

With the exception of British subjects travelling to the Commonwealth of Australia, the Cook Islands, or Western Samoa, all persons travelling to places beyond the seas are required to be in possession of a passport or similar document to facilitate landing thereat. British passports are issued, under the direction of His Excellency the Governor-General, by the Department of Internal Affairs. They are valid for five years and may be renewed for any number of years not exceeding five. Subject to the Immigration Regulations in force in the various countries of the Empire, they are valid for travelling anywhere within the British Empire, including territories under British protection or mandate, but not Palestine unless specially endorsed for that country.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.

The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908, and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919. It is administered by the Customs Department.

Subject to certain exemptions, the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

  1. Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Customs Department. (Note.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage by reason that he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject, or by reason that he is an aboriginal Native or the descendant of an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of His Majesty.)

  2. Idiots or insane persons.

  3. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  4. Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.

  5. Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the Dominion.

  6. Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath (or make an affirmation) of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons covered by clause (1) above to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to a period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit of £10 is required in respect of such temporary permits, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit are complied with. The Collector of Customs may also require, if he so decides, a deed to be entered into by some person or persons resident in New Zealand approved by him guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor&;s maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Under the provisions of the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act, 1931, restrictions upon the landing in New Zealand of persons of British birth and parentage may be imposed, on account of any economic or financial conditions affecting trade and industry in New Zealand, or any other conditions which render it expedient to impose such restrictions. The Act ceases to be in force after the 31st December, 1936.

RESTRICTED IMMIGRANTS.

When persons arrive in New Zealand who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm, and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons come to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond for £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for his support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

DECLARATION BY PERSONS ARRIVING IN NEW ZEALAND.

Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Customs, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name, age, nationality, race or people to which he belongs, residence, particulars of children under fifteen years of age arriving with him, and (if not domiciled in New Zealand) occupation,. and places of birth of himself and father.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALIZATION.

The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Act, 1928, which was reserved for Royal assent, came into force on the 1st July, 1929. This Act made important alterations in the naturalization law of New Zealand, and made provision for the adoption of Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1914 (Imperial). A fairly detailed account of its effects will be found on pp. 92–95 of the 1931 Year-Book.

The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (hi New Zealand) Amendment Act, 1934–35, was assented to on 26th March, 1935. This Act does two things: In the first place, it brings the New Zealand law into conformity with the law of the United Kingdom by the formal adoption as part of the law of New Zealand of section 10 of the Imperial Act of 1914 (as re-enacted by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1933).

The provisions of section 10, as re-enacted in 1933, and containing modifications incidental to its application in New Zealand, are quoted:—

“ 10. (1) Subject to the provisions of this section, the wife of a British subject shall be deemed to be a British subject, and the wife of an alien shall be deemed to be an alien.

“ (2) Where a woman has (whether before or after the commencement of this Act) married an alien, and was at the time of her marriage a British subject, she shall not, by reason only of her marriage, be deemed to have ceased to be a British subject unless, by reason of her marriage, she acquired the nationality of her husband.

“ (3) Where a man has, during the continuance of his marriage, ceased (whether before or after the commencement of this Act) to be a British subject, his wife shall not, by reason only of that fact, be deemed to have ceased to be a British subject unless, by reason of the acquisition by her husband of a new nationality, she also acquired that nationality.

“ (4) Where a man ceases, during the continuance of his marriage, to be a British subject and, by reason of his acquisition of a new nationality, his wife also acquires that nationality, she may, whether her marriage is still continuing or not, at any time within the period of twelve months from the date on which she so acquired that nationality, or at such later time as the Minister of Internal Affairs may in special circumstances allow, make a declaration that she desires to retain British nationality, and thereupon she shall be deemed to have remained a British subject.

“ (5) Where, after the end of the year nineteen hundred and thirty-four, a certificate of naturalization is granted to an alien, his wife, if not already a British subject, shall not be deemed to be a British subject, unless, within the period of twelve months from the date of the certificate, or within such longer period as the Minister of Internal Affairs may in special circumstances allow, she makes a declaration that she desires to acquire British nationality.

“ (6) Where an alien is a subject of a State at war with His Majesty, it shall be lawful for his wife, if she was at birth a British subject, to make a declaration that she desires to resume British nationality, and thereupon the Minister of Internal Affairs, if he is satisfied that it is desirable that she be permitted to do so, may grant her a certificate of naturalization.”

In the second place, the New Zealand Act referred to goes further than the Imperial Act. It allows to a woman who has lost her British nationality by reason of her marriage to an alien, the right while she remains in New Zealand to claim the same privileges as if she had remained a British subject. The legislation does not seek to alter the fact that such a woman has in law ceased to be a British subject: it merely says that upon making the prescribed declaration she is, while she remains in New Zealand, entitled to all the rights and privileges and is subject to all the duties and obligations of a natural-born British subject.

During 1935; 36 women took advantage of section 3 of the Act and made the necessary declaration. The nationalities of the husbands were as follows: German, 8; Italian, 6; Danish, 5; Yugoslav, 4; French, 3; Swedish, Norwegian, and United States, 2 each; and Austrian, Polish, Russian, and Finnish, 1 each.

During the year 1935 certificates of naturalization in New Zealand were granted to 116 persons of the undermentioned birthplaces, as compared with 61 in the previous year. In addition, 11 children were included in the certificates of their parents, and certificates under the 1928 legislation were issued to 3 males previously naturalized in New Zealand. The birthplaces of these were Denmark, United States, and Lithuania.

Country of Birth.Males.Females.TotalChildren.*
* Children included in certificate of parent; additional to preceding figures.
Norway6..6..
Sweden7..7..
Denmark12..124
Russia5..5..
Finland4..4..
Estonia2..2..
Latvia1..1..
Lithuania1..1..
Poland4..42
Germany7..7..
Holland3..3..
France4..4..
Portugal1..1..
Switzerland3..3..
Italy16..162
Austria1..1..
Yugoslavia30..303
Greece1..1..
Syria..11..
United States3..3..
Argentina..11..
New Caledonia1..1..
Tonga1..1..
New Zealand..11..
Totals113311611

There were also twenty-four cases in which declarations were made by wives of naturalized British subjects who desired to acquire British nationality.

In the ten years 1926–35 1,195 subjects or citizens of other nations obtained certificates of naturalization in New Zealand. The following table exhibits the principal countries involved.

Country of Birth.No.
Yugoslavia343
Germany107
Italy107
Denmark102
Sweden85
Norway56
Switzerland48
Russia38
United States35
Finland34
Poland33
Syria26
Greece22
France21
Western Samoa15
Holland15
Austria14
Belgium13
Latvia11
Estonia5
Other countries65
Total1,195

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.

NORTH AND SOUTH ISLANDS.

In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, this position being reversed at the succeeding enumerations until 1901, in which year the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total, a position which it has since considerably improved upon. The Maori War which broke out in 1860 retarded settlement in the North, while a large area of land reserved for the Maoris was for many years a serious hindrance to the development of this portion of the Dominion. The South Island was practically free from Maori troubles, and settlement was more rapid, though much of the land was disposed of in large areas. The discovery of gold in Otago in 1861 and on the West Coast in 1864 attracted to these localities considerable numbers of miners.

 Population (excluding Maoris).Proportions per Cent.
Census Year.North Island.South Island.*Total.North Island.South Island.*
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
1881193,047296,886489,93339·4060·60
1886250,482328,000578,48243·3056·70
1891281,474345,184626,65844·9255·08
1896340,638362,722703,36048·4351·57
1901390,579382,140772,71950·5549·45
1906476,737411,541888,57853·6546·35
1911563,733444,7351,008,46855·9044·10
1916651,072448,3771,099,44959·2240·78
1921741,255477,0581,218,91360·8139·19
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961·8738·13
1936938,939552,5451,491,48462·9537·05

The natural increase of population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the South Island in 1935 was 3,883, but the total net increase was only 2,245. For the North Island the natural increase was 7,865, and the total net increase only 7,119.

INTERNAL MIGRATION.

Statistics of passenger migration between the North and South Islands are compiled from returns supplied by Collectors of Customs and are of use in the compilation of population estimates. The following table shows inter-Island migration for ten years ending 31st March:—

Year.Arrivals in North Island.Arrivals in South Island.Excess in favour of North Island.
1926–27142,930141,6971,233
1927–28140,126137,9612,165
1928–29145,146145,179−33
1929–30147,490143,8573,633
1930–31135,730135,318412
1931–32110,295108,9211,374
1932–33100,57399,823750
1933–34109,544108,754790
1934–35121,665118,0223,643
1935–36128,352125,9352,417

Of the 128,352 passengers from the South Island in 1935–36, 12S.298 landed at Wellington, including 95, S35 from Lyttelton, 17,601 from Nelson, and 14,862 from. Picton.

The 125,935 passengers who landed in the South Island for the same period included 93,020 at Lyttelton, 17,607 at Nelson, and 15,249 at Picton, the passengers in these instances all arriving from Wellington. One-day inter-Island excursion (return) trips are not included in the above figures.

In addition to the above sea-borne passengers, a considerable number of persons were carried by two air services operating between the North and South Islands. For the quarter ended 31st March, 1936, the arrivals in the North Island were 1,745 and in the South Island 1,613. A certain number of passengers are carried by aeroplanes belonging to aero clubs, but particulars of these are not available.

PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS.

The approximate areas and the populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are as follows:—

  Census Population.
Provincial District.Area (Square Miles).1901.1911.1921.1926.1936.
* Including certain Maori wives of Europeans, provincial district not specified.
Auckland25,400204,899298,782408,351469,458546,970
Hawke&;s Bay4,26039,60453,09863,62870,35376,968
Taranaki3,75040,46554,16065,24471,84877,652
Wellington10,870146,326204,325254,695281,020316,446
Marlborough4,22013,74616,47418,28918,79319,149
Nelson10,87038,06748,68547,73450,87859,481
Westland4,88014,56615,79614,25315,26018,676
Canterbury13,940144,195174,513199,969215,079234,399
Otago—
Otago portion14,050125,782132,881137,062149,921151,213
Southland portion11,17048,01659,34962,43965,52972,856
Totals103,410815,862*1,058,312*1,271,6641,408,1391,573;810

URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION.

On 24th March, 1936, somewhat over one-third (38·5 per cent.) of the population of the Dominion (excluding Maoris) was included in the four principal urban areas—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and over one-half (51·7 per cent.) in these and in the ten secondary urban areas.

Census Year.Counties.Boroughs.Percentage.
Counties.Boroughs.Shipboard, &c
1881291,238194,98159·4439·800·76
1886327,32S245,61256·5842·460·96
1891352,097270,34356·1843·140·68
1896391,735307,29455·6943·690·62
1901417,596350,20254·0445·320·64
1906458,797424,61451·6347·790·58
1911496,779505,59849·2650·140·60
1916501,259585,30645·5953·241·17
1921530,852681,98843·5555·950·50
1926551,457785,04041·0258·390·50
1936601,343884,28240·3259·290·39

For population purposes dependent town districts have their figures included in the totals of the counties within which they lie, while independent town districts are excluded, as is also the case with boroughs. Under the old method of computing urban and rural population, however, both classes of town districts are included in the county totals, as in the foregoing table showing the urban and rural population at each census since 1881.

URBAN DRIFT.

The following table shows the population (excluding Maoris) at the last seven censuses, grouped according to the size of cities, boroughs, and town districts with a population of 1,000 or over. The towns under 1,000 have been included with counties and treated as rural. An increasing proportion of urban population is manifest, rising from 43·1 per cent, hi 1901 to 59·3 per cent, in 1926 and 59·5 hi 1936. The increase between the last two censuses is very small, and it is evident that the recent economic depression has resulted in a slackening-off of the urban drift.

By including the Maori population—which is only available for urban and rural distribution for the last two censuses—the urban population shows a decrease from 57·0 per cent, in 1926 to 56·9 in 1936.

Census.
1901.1906.1911.1916.1921.1926.1936.
Boroughs and Town Districts with populations of—
1,000– 2,50059,11766,04681,01193,99598,292102,20190,875
2,500– 5,00074,48957,03067,32276,91492,77885,43070,768
5,000–10,00066,25994,74298,43587,09667,57582,14496,859
10,000–25,00053,82110.23950,51978,860135,493185,580244,407
25,000 or over77,851182,297199,553248,437295,997337,221373,309
Total urban331,537410,354502,840585,302690,135792,576885,218
Rural437,419473,752500,020501,960523,547544,808601,594
Grand total (excluding migratory)768,956884,1061,003,4001,087,2021,213,6821,337,3841,480,812

In comparing the various censuses, allowance should be made for the creation of new boroughs and town districts which would, prior to such creation, have been included with the rural population. Amalgamation of districts has also resulted in rural territory being transferred to urban without any corresponding change in the industries, &c, characteristic of the respective towns or districts.

An important characteristics of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population as in the case of the Australian States—e.g., Victoria, whose capital city, Melbourne, contains over 50 per cent, of the total population of the State—the more highly urbanized portion of the community is localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island.

New Zealand is not alone in experiencing the modern tendency towards urban aggregation: it is, in fact, occurring in almost all countries.

URBAN AREAS.

The population of each of the fourteen urban areas (cities or boroughs, plus their suburbs) at the census of 24th March, 1936, was as follows:—

UURBAN AREAS.—POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), CENSUS, 1936.

Urban Area.Population (including Maoris).
* Excludes a small area which, though part of the borough, Is not within the urban area.
Auckland. 
Auckland City102,295
  Birkenhead Borough3,397
  Northcote Borough2,369
  Takapuna Borough7,270
  Devonport Borough9,771
  New Lynn Borough3,492
  Mount Albert Borough19,721
  Mount Eden Borough18,515
  Newmarket Borough2,997
  One Tree Hill Borough8,027
  Onehunga Borough11,082
  Otahuhu Borough5,252
  Ellerslie Town District2,690
  Remainder of urban area15,281
Total212,159
Wellington. 
Wellington City115,705
  Lower Hutt Borough15,960
  Petone Borough10,933
  Eastbourne Borough2,279
   Johnsonville Town District1,740
  Remainder of urban area3,354
Total149,971
Christchurch. 
Christchurch City92,189
  Riccarton Borough5,389
  New Brighton Borough5,245
  Sumner Borough3,251
Lyttelton Borough*3,217
Remainder of urban area23,268
Total132,559
Dunedin. 
Dunedin City64,708
  St. Kilda Borough7,751
  Green Island Borough*2,264
  West Harbour Borough1,862
  Port Chalmers Borough2,165
Remainder of urban area3,211
Total81,961
Hamilton. 
Hamilton Borough16,150
  Remainder of urban area3,437
Total19,587
Gisborne. 
Gisborne Borough13,587
  Remainder of urban area2,298
Total15,885
Napier. 
Napier Borough15,302
  Taradale Town District1,206
  Remainder of urban area2,181
Total18,689
Hastings. 
Hastings Borough12,750
  Havelock North Town District1,145
  Remainder of urban area4,066
Total17,961
New Plymouth. 
New Plymouth Borough16,653
  Remainder of urban area1,867
Total18,520
Wanganui. 
Wanganui City23,178
  Remainder of urban area2,617
Total25,795
Palmerston North. 
Palmerston North City22,202
  Remainder of urban area1,865
Total24,067
Nelson. 
Nelson City11,214
  Tahunanui Town District862
  Remainder of urban area1,508
Total13,584
Timaru. 
Timaru Borough17,397
  Remainder of urban area1,417
Total18,814
Invercargill. 
Invercargill City21,504
  South Invercargill Borough990
  Remainder of urban area3,278
Total25,772

COUNTIES.POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), CENSUS, 1936. (NOTE.—“Administrative Counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include dependent town districts.)

Administrative County.Population (including Maoris).
* Area (population 424) included from Motueka Borough from 1st April, 1930.
North Island— 
  Mangonui7,970
  Whangaroa2,533
  Hokianga8,636
  Bay of Islands9,921
  Whangarei11,030
  Hobson6,481
  Otamatea5,184
  Rodney5,003
  Waitemata13,417
  Eden10,131
  Great Barrier Island454
  Manukau9,608
  Franklin13,732
  Raglan9,878
  Waikato12,487
  Waipa12,966
  Otorohanga5,440
  Kawhia2,225
  Waitomo7,622
  Taumarunui3,642
  Matamata9,197
  Piako10,249
  Ohinemuri3,335
Hauraki Plains4,796
  Thames2,795
  Coromandel2,635
  Tauranga10,061
  Rotorua5,498
  Taupo3,669
  Whakatane9,667
  Opotiki4,518
  Matakaoa1,833
  Waiapu6,301
  Uawa1,727
  Waikohu3,315
  Cook7,581
  Wairoa6,970
  Hawke&;s Bay15,779
  Waipawa3,522
  Waipukurau1,034
  Patangata2,731
  Dannivirke5,428
  Woodville1,935
  Weber378
  Ohura2,125
  Whangamomona1,301
  Clifton2,876
  Taranaki6,438
  Inglewood3,373
  Egmont4,588
  Stratford5,321
  Eltham3,590
Waimate West2,784
  Hawera5,820
  Patea3,868
  Kaitieke3,272
  Waimarino2,857
  Waitotara3,672
  Wanganui3,822
  Rangitikei9,493
  Kiwitea2,442
  Pohangiua1.350
  Oroua3,872
  Manawatu5,222
  Kairanga5,358
  Horowhenua7,278
  Pahiatua2,849
  Akitio1,159
  Eketahuna2,049
  Mauriceville769
  Masterton3,416
  Castlepoint629
  Wairarapa South3,001
  Featherston3,902
  Hutt8,705
  Makara4,305
Total405,420
South Island— 
  Sounds1,073
  Marlborough7,787
  Awatere1,783
  Kaikoura2,402
  Amuri2,674
  Cheviot1,387
  Waimea*12,506
  Takaka1,999
  Collingwood1,517
  Buller6,350
  Murchison1,919
  Inangahua3,891
  Grey5,698
  Westland5,554
  Waipara2,734
  Kowai2,078
  Ashley803
  Rangiora3,313
  Eyre1,896
Oxford1,702
  Tawera938
  Malvern3,033
  Paparua5,757
  Waimairi14,471
  Heathcote5,932
  Halswell2,120
  Mount Herbert447
  Akaroa1,681
  Chatham Islands702
  Wairewa1,034
  Springs1,847
  Ellesmere3,331
  Selwyn1,624
  Ashburton13,021
  Geraldine5,937
  Levels4,982
  Mackenzie3,158
  Waimate7,234
  Waitaki10,152
  Waihemo1,319
  Waikouaiti4,527
  Peninsula2,810
  Taieri6,004
  Bruce4,426
  Clutha7,302
  Tuapeka4,900
  Maniototo3,111
  Vincent4,902
  Lake2,625
  Southland27,126
  Wallace10,034
  Fiord19
  Stewart Island17
Total236,189
Grand total641,009

BOROUGHS.—POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), CENSUS, 1936.

Borough.Population (including Maoris).
* Area (population 424) included into Waimea County from 1st April, 1930.
North Island— 
  Whangarei7,152
  Dargaville2,176
  Birkenhead3,397
  Northcote2,369
  Takapuna7,270
  Devon port9,771
  New Lynn3,492
  Auckland (City)102,295
  Newmarket2,997
  Mount Eden18,515
  Mount Albert19,721
  One Tree Hill8,027
  Onehunga11,082
  Otahuhu5,252
  Pukekohe2,536
  Huntly1,942
  Ngaruawahia1,394
  Hamilton16,150
  Cambridge2,203
  Te Awamutu2,224
  To Kuiti2,499
  Taumarunui2,640
  Matamata1,323
  Morrinsville1,796
  Te Aroha2,366
  Paeroa2,149
  Waihi3,916
  Thames4,268
  Tauranga3.3S7
  To Puke961
  Rotorua6,531
  Whakatane1,733
  Opotiki1,437
  Gisborne13,587
  Wairoa2,524
  Napier15,302
  Hastings12,750
  Waipawa1,157
  Waipukurau2,050
  Dannevirke4,385
  Woodville1,031
  Waitara1,971
  New Plymouth16,653
  Inglewood1,271
  Stratford3,755
  Eltham1,899
  Hawera4,663
  Patea1,387
  Ohakune1,394
  Raetihi1,182
  Taihape2,183
  Wanganui (City)23,178
  Marton2,737
  Feilding4,550
  Palmerston North (City)22,202
  Foxton1,605
  Shannon905
  Levin2,658
  Otaki1,744
  Pahiatua1,668
  Eketahuna732
  Masterton9,096
  Carterton1.921
  Greytown1,190
  Featherston1,050
  Martinborough959
Upper Hutt3,871
Lower Hutt15,960
  Petone10,933
  Eastbourne2,279
  Wellington (City)115,705
Total579,118
South Island— 
  Picton1,381
  Blenheim5,036
  Nelson (City)11,214
  Richmond1,138
  Motueka*2,169
  Westport4,241
  Brunner998
  Runanga1,647
  Greymouth8,115
  Kumara500
  Hokitika2,689
  Ross451
  Rangiora2,239
  Kaiapoi1,598
  Riccarton5,389
  Christchurch (City)92,189
  New Brighton5,245
  Sumner3,251
  Lyttelton3,264
  Akaroa515
  Ashburton5,683
  Geraldine957
  Temuka1,911
  Timaru17,397
  Waimate2,315
  Oamaru7,487
  Hampden308
  Palmerston799
  Waikouaiti597
Port Chalmers2,165
West Harbour1,862
Dunedin (City)64,708
  St. Kilda7,751
  Green Island2,277
  Mosgiel2,105
  Milton1,423
  Kaitangata1,375
  Balclutha1,546
  Tapanui316
  Lawrence676
  Roxburgh479
  Naseby219
  Alexandra871
  Cromwell737
  Arrowtown279
  Queenstown931
  Gore4,635
  Mataura1,500
  Winton877
  Invercargill (City)21,504
  South Invercargill990
  Bluff2,038
  Riverton908
Total312,895
Grand total892,013

TOWN DISTRICTS.—POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), CENSUS, 1936.

Town District.Population (including Maoris).
* Parent county shown in parentheses.† Merged into Dannevirke County from 1st April, 1930.
(a) Town Districts not forming Parts of Counties
North Island— 
  Kaitaia780
  Kaikohe662
  Hikurangi1,042
  Kamo456
  Warkworth630
  Helensville961
  Henderson1,128
Glen Eden1,296
  Ellerslie2,690
  Howick734
  Papatoetoe2,381
  Manurewa1,521
  Papakura1,793
  Waiuku832
  Tuakau681
  Leamington545
  Otorohanga712
  Manunui775
  Putaruru789
  Taradale1,206
  Havelock North1,145
  Ohura459
  Opunake1,059
  Manaia623
  Rangataua316
  Mangaweka387
  Hunterville588
  Waverley684
  Bulls527
Johnsonville1,740
Total29,142
South Island— 
  Tahumanui862
  Leeston566
  Tinwald687
  Pleasant Point575
  Wyndham574
  Lumsden543
  Otautau592
  Nightcaps612
Total5,011
Grand total34,153
(b) Town Districts forming Parts of Counties.*
North Island— 
Kohukohu (Hokianga)386
Rawene (Hokianga)355
Russell (Bay of Islands)388
Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)520
Onerahi (Whangarei)435
Mercer (Franklin)312
Raglan (Raglan)377
Te Kauwhata (Waikato)361
Ohaupo (Waipa)271
Kihikihi (Waipa)322
Kawhia (Kawhia)243
Turua (Hauraki Plains)207
Mt. Maunganui (Tauranga)490
Te Karaka (Waikohu)355
Patutahi (Cook)281
Norsewood (Dannevirke)169
Ormondville (Dannevirke)268
North Island—continued. 
Kaponga (Eltham)406
Normanby (Hawera)356
Rongotea (Manawatu)257
Tota6,819
South Island— 
Havelock (Marlborough)269
Takaka (Takaka)471
Southbridge (Ellesmere)410
Outram (Taieri)392
Clinton (Clutha)440
Edendale (Southland)441
Total2,429
Grand total9,248

ADJACENT ISLANDS.

Adjacent to the main Islands are many smaller islands, some of which are of considerable area and are under cultivation; others are but islets used as sites for lighthouses, while others again are barren and unfitted for human habitation. Some of these islands are included within the boundaries of counties, and their populations are included in the county figures. The following adjacent islands not attached to any county were inhabited at the census of 1936:—

Island.Population (including Maoris).
M.F.Total.
Kukutango7512
Pakatoa178
Rotoroa34640
Little Barrier213
Tiritiri4610
Rakino415
Brown&;s5..5
Pahiki729
Mokohinau7613
Ponui132235
Waiheke34(5347693
Rangitoto121022
Motutapu30636
Motuihi9354147
Kawau463884
Motuhora6410
Motutara16723
Moturekareka1..1
Cuvier8614
Great Mercury3 5
Motiti5647103
Kapiti5813
Graves527
Somes156
Tata1. .1
Ripa123
Quarantine2..2
Dog235
Centre7310
Totals7246011,325

DENSITY OF POPULATION.

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand is approximately 104,015 square miles. Omitting the annexed islands and certain uninhabited outlying islands, the area of the land-mass remaining is 103,415 square miles. This calculation, it should be explained, includes all inland waters.

Using the latter figure as a base, the density of population in 1000 may be quoted as 14·42 persons to the square mile, or, if Maoris be included, 15·2 persons to the square mile.

A truer statement of average density can be ascertained by subtracting from-the total area that occupied by rivers, lakes, roads, State forests, higher portions of mountain-ranges, &c. The remaining area, amounting to about 84,500 square miles (at most—the total is possibly much less), which may be considered as the utmost total inhabitable or usable land, carries a population of 17·65 (or, including Maoris, 18·62) persons to the square mile.

The various cities, boroughs, and town districts in New Zealand occupy a total of approximately 509 square miles. Considering their population as “urban,” the urban population (1936) had a density of 1,838 persons per square mile, and the rural population a density of 6 persons per square mile.

Attention must be drawn to the necessity for the exercise of discretion in the use of data concerning density of population, particularly in comparing one country with another. Areas may be calculated in many ways, while area itself may have little relationship to potentiality of use. In the case of urban population, it is impossible to obtain the aggregate area of sites actually in occupation by business premises, residences, &c. Many boroughs contain within then- boundaries large reserves which, with farming and other unbuilt-on land, tend to disguise the actual relation of population to area.

MAORI AND HALF-CASTE POPULATION.

A record of early statistics of Maoris is given in Vol. XIV of the 1926 Census Results. The first official general census was taken in 1857·58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy, and even some later enumerations hardly claim to be more than approximations which approach the truth as nearly as possible.

Available statistical evidence points to a decline in the numbers of the Native race since the advent of Europeans, but this decline was commonly exaggerated by early writers. Of later years an unmistakable increase has been noted. This gain, however, has been accompanied by a very considerable dilution of blood.

The Maori population recorded at the census of 24th March, 1936, was 82,326. which is an increase of 18,656 on the 1926 total. The percentage increase was 29·30, equivalent to an average annual increase of 2·60 per cent. These percentages. it will be noted, are considerably higher than the corresponding figures for the European population—viz.. 10·93 per cent, and 1·05 per cent.

The census record is as follows:—

Year.No.
* Includes half-castes, vide second page of section.
1857–5856,049
187445,470
187843,595
188144,097
188641,969
189141,993
189G39,854
190143,143
190647,731
191149,844
191649,776
192152,751
192663,670*
193682,326*

Of the 82,326 Maoris at the census of 24th March, 1936, 79,097 were hi the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk (59,215), particularly in the Auckland Peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. Hawke's Bay contains 6,633; Taranaki, 4,280; and Wellington, 8,969. In the South Island Maoris do not attain any numerical significance. During 1935·36 the Maori population increased by 1,888.

The 1926 Census Results, of which Volume XIV is devoted to a more comprehensive statistical survey of the characteristics of the Maori population than has hitherto been possible, show that a total of 69,780 persons possessed some degree of Maori blood. Of these, 45,429 were classed as of full Maori blood, this term including all persons ranging from over seven-eighths Maori blood to unmixed Native descent. As noted in the Census Results, the degree of miscegenation is probably understated, and the number of Maoris of pure Maori descent is unlikely to exceed 50 per cent, of the total. The 1926 census analysis is as follows:—

Counted in the Maori population—
  Full Maori45,429
  Three-quarter-caste6,632
  Half-caste11,306
  Maori-European, n.o.d.303
Total63,670
Counted in the non-Maori population—
  Quarter-caste6,053
  Maori-Polynesian39
  Maori-Japanese9
  Maori-Chinese9
Total6,110

WORLD POPULATION.

The sources of the data quoted herein comprise official publications, bulletins issued by the League of Nations, publications of the International Institute of Statistics, and the Statesman's Year-Book. So far as can be ascertained with Borne pretension to comparative accuracy—the various estimates of the population of the Chinese Empire, for instance, vary to the extent of considerably over 100 millions—the world population is 2,075 millions. The inhabitants of the Dominion therefore comprise about one thirteen-hundredth part of the population of the world. Details for continents as given in the Statistical Year-Book of the League of Nations are:—

 1013.1935.
Europe498,000,000525,000,000
Asia978,000,0001,136,000,000
Africa134,000,000145,000,000
North America134,000,000174,000,000
South America56,000,00085,000,000
Oceania8,000,00010,000,000
Totals1,808,000,0002,075,000,000

As a useful indication of the comparative size of various countries, the following index of population has been prepared:—

Country.Population (000 omitted).Year.Index of Population (New Zealand = 1).

* According to the Chinese Ministry of the Interior. Some authorities consider the population is probably not in excess of 350,000,000, and is stationary.

† Recent estimate.

England and Wales40,645193526
Scotland4,95619353
Northern Ireland1,28819350·8
Irish Free State2,96619362
India (including Native States)363,6441934231
Ceylon5,63719354
Union of South Africa8,60019355
Canada10,91019357
Newfoundland28919350·2
Australia6,76619364
New South Wales2,66319362
Victoria1,84719361
Queensland97419360·6
South Australia58719360·4
Western Australia44919360·3
Tasmania23119360·1
New Zealand1,57319361
Austria6,78619354
Belgium8,27519355
Bulgaria6,17119364
Czechoslovakia15,158193510
Denmark3,68419352
Estonia1,13019360·7
Finland3,76219352
France41,940193527
Germany66,610193542
Greece6,74619354
Hungary8,94919366
Italy43,843193628
Latvia1,95019361
Lithuania2,50019362
Netherlands8,47419366
Norway2,88419362
Poland33,823193621
Portugal7, 22219365
Rumania19,196193512
Russia (Soviet Union)170,5001935108
Sweden6,24819364
Switzerland4,16319363
Spain24,583193516
Yugoslavia14,95019369
China*453,8151935288
Japan69,251135944
Turkey16,201193510
Abyssinia7,0004
Egypt15,417193510
Mexico18,596193612
United States127,521193581
Argentina12,39319368
Brazil45,333193529
Chile4,50819363

Chapter 4. SECTION IV.—VITAL STATISTICS.

SUBSECTION A.—BIRTHS.

REGISTRATION.

REGISTRATION of births in New Zealand dates from 1848, consequent upon the passing, in 1847, of a Registration Ordinance which made provision for a record of births and deaths being kept by the State. Under this Ordinance many registrations were effected, some of births as far back as 1840. Compulsory registration lid not, however, come into force until 1855.

The law as to registration of births is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within sixty-two days without fee. After sixty-two days and within six months a birth is registrable only after solemn declaration made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of a late fee of 5s., which may, however, be remitted at the discretion of the Registrar-General. When six months have elapsed a birth may be registered with a Registrar of Births within one month after conviction of one of the responsible parties for neglect, but an information for such neglect must be laid within two years of date of birth. Power is given by the Act of 1924 for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed, a fee of 5s. being payable and satisfactory evidence on oath and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary being required.

Registration of still-births, previously not provided for, was made compulsory from the 1st March, 1913.

Although sixty-two days are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval—viz., forty-eight hours if in a city or borough, and twenty-one days in every other case.

Particulars now required to be registered are: Date and place of birth; name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage; and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The father of an illegitimate child is not required to give information or to be registered. A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of eighteen months may be registered within six months of arrival.

REGISTRATION OF MAORI BIRTHS.

In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912 (now section 60 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924), empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in the Dominion is over 200, most of those being in the North Island, whore the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Native settlement of any size is within easy reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the figures of births given in the following pages do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with at the end of this subsection.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year irrespective of the year of birth. The figures do not include sill-births, except in the special classification on pages 58 and 59.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The progressive fall in the birth-rate was hastened by the depression. The advent of more prosperous times, however, notwithstanding a marked increase in the number of marriages, has failed to check the fall in the birth-rate, the movement being merely slowed down somewhat. For the eleventh year in succession a new low record in the birth-rate occurred in 1935.

The numbers and rates of births (children born alive) for each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.Year.NumberRate per 1,000.
191628,50925·94192628,47321·05
191728,23925·69192727,88120·29
191825,86023·44192827,20019·56
191924,48321 ·42192926,74719·01
192029,92125·09193026,79718·80
192128,50723·34193126,02218·42
192229,0002317193224,88417·09
192327,96721·94193324,33416·59
192128,01421·57193424,32216·47
192528,15321·17193523,96516·13

There is a most noticeable fall in the rate in the later years of the period covered by the table, as compared with the earlier. The fall of 9S1 per 1,000 of population between 1910 and 1935 is equivalent to a decline of 38 per cent, in the birth-rate. The following diagram shows, inter alia, the marked decline in the birthrate since about 1880:—

RATES OF BIRTHS, DEATHS, NATURAL INCREASE, AND MARRIAGES, 1855–1935.

Comparisons of birth-rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the “crude” rates—i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The “crude” rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of interest to supplement the table of “crude” rates with a computation of the legitimate birth-rate per 1,000 married women between 15 and 45 years of age, or the total birth-rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand in each census year from 1878 to 1926.

Year.Number of Women 15 and under 45.Number of Births.Birth-rate per 1,000 Women 15 and under 45.
Harried.Total.Legitimate.Total.Legitimate.Total.
187850,99980,31317,34117,770340·0221·3
188157,46196,14418,19818,732315·0194·8
188662,709117,89518,69719,299298·2163·7
189163,172131,27117,63518,273279·2139·2
189669,816158,21417,77818,612254·6117·6
190179,420183,38719,55420,491246·2111·7
190698,249212,59823,12024,252235·3114·1
1911119,390240,71425,27626,354211·7109·5
1916141,322267,30027,36328,509193·6106·7
1921150,400288,47727,30928,567181·699·0
192.i161,739313,30327,00028,473166·990·9

The legitimate rate Tier 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 is seen to have fallen by over 50 per cent, between 1878 and 1926, while an even greater fall is shown for the total rate on the basis of all women of the ages mentioned. The greater fall in the latter rate than in the former is due to the fact that among women of the child-bearing ages the proportion of married women is considerably lower nowadays than in the earlier years covered.

Women formerly married at younger ages in general than they do at present, and a study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age-constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth-rate varies with age, the change in age-constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account. This was done in the computation of index-numbers of birth-rates published in the 1933 (page 80) and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

NATURAL INCREASE.

The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been accompanied by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the nominal rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31·19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 7·91 in 1935. Acceptance of this figure without consideration of the effect of the changing age-constitution will give an erroneous view of the present margin of increase and of the probable trend of population growth in the future. (See section on Population.)

Period.Annual Bates per 1,000 living.
Births.Deaths.Natural Increase.
1871–187539·8812·6727·21
1876–188041·2111·8029·41
1881–188536·3610·9525·41
1886–189031·159·8521·30
1891–189527·6810·1517·53
1896–190025·759·5516·20
1901–190526·609·9116·69
1906–191027·069·7517·31
1911–191525·989·2216·76
1916–192024·3210·7313·59
1921–192522·228·6213·60
1926–193019·748·6011·14
1931–193516·948·218·73

New Zealand's position in the following table is much higher on the basis of natural-increase rate than it would be on that of birth-rates.

BIRTH AND NATURAL-INCREASE RATES.

Country.Quinquennium.Annual Rates per 1,000.Country.Quinquennium.Annual Rates per 1,000.
Births.Nature IncreaseBirths.Nature Increase
* Registration area.
Egypt1929–3342·916·6Australia1931–3516·98·0
Ceylon1930–3437·915·4Hungary1930–3423·27·4
South Africa1930–3424·414·8Denmark1930–3418·07·1
Argentina1930–3425·714·4United States*1929–3317·96·7
Yugoslavia1929–3333·314·1Czechoslovakia1930–3420·60·7
Poland1930–3428·613·8Finland1929–3319·46·0
Japan1929–3332·413·8Northern Ireland1930–3420·16·0
Bulgaria1929–3329·713·5Norway1930–3415·85·4
Rumania1929–3333·713·5Scotland1930–3418 ·65·3
Netherlands1930–3421·712·7Irish Free State1930–3419·35·3
Uruguay1929–3323·012·5Latvia1929–3319·04·9
Portugal1930–3429·312·4Switzerland1930–3416·74·9
Greece1929–3329·612·2Germany1929–3316·24·8
Canada1931–3521·511·7Belgium1929–3317·84·2
Lithuania1930–3420·111·3England & Wales1930–3415·33·3
Spain1929–3327·710·9Sweden1929–3314·83·0
Chile1930–3435 · 010·5Estonia1930–3416·81·9
Italy1930–3424·410·4Austria1930–3415·11·7
New Zealand1931–3516·98·7France1929–3317·41·1

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.

With the exception of one year (1860), there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860).

But little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibits violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which tend to disappear as the total of births grows larger. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923.

 Number of Births of 
Year.Males.Females.Male Births per 1,000 FemaleYear.Males.Females.Male Births per 1,000 Female
191614,66913,8401,060192614,64913,8241,060
191714,32913,9101,030192714,29113,5901,052
191813,12412,7361,030192814,08213,1181,073
191912,58711,8961,058192913,64513,1021,041
192015,43414,4871,0651930.13,71313,0841,048
192114,57613,9911,042193113,76612,8561,071
1922.14,89714,1091,056193212,82412,0601,063
192314,53113,4361,081193312,41911,9151,042
192414,29513 7191,042193412,55411,7681,067
192514,51813,6351,064193512,31611,6401,057

The gradual increase in the proportion of males born is illustrated by taking the average ratios of successive decennial periods. The apparent cessation in the increase, as shown by the figures for the period 1916–25 as compared with the preceding decennium, is due to the low masculinity recorded in the last two war years, when (it may be remarked in passing) the proportion of first births to total births was abnormally low.

Period.Male Births to 1,000 Female Births.
1856–18651,062
1866–18751,043
1876–18851,045
1886–18951,045
1896–19051,054
1906–19151,055
1916–19251,053
1926–19351,057

It would appear that the proportion of males is somewhat higher for first births than for the general average of all children. Of 81,100 legitimate first births registered during the ten years 1926–35 (excluding plural births), 41,742 were of males and 39,364 of females, the proportion of males per 1,000 females being 1,000.

The sexes of first-born for various age-groups of the mother for the aggregate of the ten years 1920–35 are as follows:—

Age of Mother, in Years.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
Under 203,7003,4731,065
20 and under 2516,86715,8031,067
25 and under 3013,37612,8071,044
30 and under 355,4245,0521,074
35 and under 401,8801,7311.086
40 and over495498994
Totals41,74239,3641,060

In the ten years covered there were 088 twin first births, and in 226 cases the children were both males, in 247 both females, and in the remaining 215 of opposite sex. Three cases of triplets (in two cases, two females and one male and in the other, two males and one female) were recorded as first births during the period.

Further light on the question of sexes of children may be thrown by some figures extracted from the records of births registered in the ten years 1926–35 in cases where the child was shown to be the fourth-born of a family in which the three previously born children were still living. In the following statement showing the sex-nativity order up to the fourth child families in which plural births occurred among the first four children have been excluded.

First-bornSecond-bornThird-bornFourth-bornNumber of Cases.First-bornSecond-bornThird-bornFourth-bornNumber of Cases.
MaleMaleMaleMale1,425FemaleFemaleFemaleFemale1,091
MaleMaleMaleFemale1,319FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,223
MaleMaleFemaleMale1,198FemaleFemaleMaleFemale1,128
MaleMaleFemaleFemale1,215FemaleFemaleMaleMale1,182
MaleFemaleMaleMale1,198FemaleMaleFemaleFemale1,111
MaleFemaleMaleFemale1,125FemaleMaleFemaleMale1,190
MaleFemaleFemaleMale1,189FemaleMaleMaleFemale1,139
MaleFemaleFemaleFemale1,129FemaleMaleMaleMale1,071

Of the 18,939 families covered, in 9,798 the first child was a male and in 9,141 a female, the number of males per 1,000 females being thus 1,072. The proportion is reduced for subsequent births. The figures are as follows:—

Child.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
First9,7989,1411,072
Second9,6749,2651,044
Third9,5879,3521,025
Fourth9,6829,2571,046

The fact that there is a higher masculinity rate among first-born children than among later issue serves to explain the increasing masculinity of births in successive decennia referred to previously, when it is remembered that the average number of children to a family has fallen heavily during the period, and the proportion of firstborn children correspondingly increased.

The sex-proportions of illegitimate births are generally supposed to be more nearly equal than those of legitimate births. However, although little reliance can be placed on the figures for New Zealand by reason of the small numbers represented, it may be stated that the average for the period 1926–35 was 1,064 males per 1,000 females, a rate somewhat above that for all births (1,060) for the same period.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.

The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (living births only) during the last ten years were—

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Multiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases.
* Including one case of quadruplets.
192628,47328,111358212·81
192727,88127,548331112·05
192827,20026,919273410·29
192926,74726,470275110·43
193026,79726,488305211·59
193126,62226,332288110·98
193224,88424,618260310·68
193324,33424,079251210·51
193424,32224,060258210·81
193523,96523,6852752*11·70

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 275 cases of twin births (550 children) registered in 1935. There was also one case of triplets and one case of quadruplets.

The number of accouchements resulting in living births was 23,685, and on the average one mother in every 86 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

When still-births are taken into account, however, the total number of accouchements for the year 1935 is increased to 24,395, and the number of cases of multiple births to 305. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 80.

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of twin births for the same decade:—

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
1926358114111133
1927331112104115
19282739571107
1929275959288
193030510197107
19312881018998
1932260878093
19332517073108
1934258898089
19352758390102

During the ten years 1926–35 there were nineteen eases of triplets. In three eases all three children were males, in live cases all were females, in three cases there were two males and one female, and in eight cases two of the three children were females.

QUADRUPLETS.

On 6th March, 1935, quadruplets were horn in Dunedin, one child being a male and the remaining three females. A previous case of quadruplets occurred at Ngaruawahia in 1919, all being males. In this case, however, one child died seven days after birth, a second ten days after birth, a third forty-seven days after birth, and the fourth in the following year. In earlier years no specific note would have been made of such instances, and it is impossible to state whether the above represents all quadruple births.

AGES OF PARENTS.

Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1035 is shown in the following table:—

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father, in Years
Under 21.21 and Under 25.25 and Under 30.30 and Under 35. 35 and Under 40.40 and Under 45.45 and Under 50.50 and Under 55.55 and Under 65.65 and overTotal.
* Including twenty-four eases where plural births would have been registered had not one child been still-born
single Births
Under 21132609435131239721. .1,349
21 and under 25581,1072,416876205772452. .4,770
25 and under 3073013,1472,7008862377828937,396
30 and under 351275132,2031,4505452058l4155,071
35 and under 4013513549987303991395242,731
40 and under 45. .. .318114334307136529973
45 and over. .. .. .1112303019. .93
Totals1992,0476,5656,2833,6771,94441,0504211762122,383*
Multiple Births.
Under 21. .451. .. .. .. .1. .11
21 and under 25112147. .. .. .. .. .34 
25 and under 30. .338295111. .. .78
30 and under 35. .1926221431. .. .76
35 and under 40. .. .1921155. .5157
40 and under 45. .. .. .1. .2521. .11
Totals1206773483214471267
Grand totals2002,0676,6326,3563,7251,9761,0644251832222,650

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.

Information as to the previous issue of the existing marriage, required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the annual “Report on Vital Statistics” containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in connection with (1) age of mother, and (2) duration of marriage. The former table for the year 1035 is here summarized.

Age of Mother.Number of Previous Issue.Total.
0.1.2.3.450 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.
* This number represents 22,383 single cases and 267 multiple cases.
Under 211,061240536. .. .. .. .. .1,360
21 and under 252 7251,340512184358. .. .. .4.804
25 and under 302,8172,2311,333608200121731. .7,474
30 and under 351,0041,3291,1085724042622999. .5,147
35 and under 403154305274733152304205012,788
40 and under 458384110156122110243642983
45 and over55710783418. .94
Totals8,0705,6683,6502,1091,1737571,078142322,650*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance,. the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue but also for children covered by the 1035 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

Age of Mother, in yearsTotal Mothers.Total Issue.Average Issue.Age of Mother, in Years.Total Mothers.Total Issue.Average Issue.
Under 211,3601,7351·2840–449835,3505·44
21·244,8047,9341·6545 and over946707·13
25·207,47416,5152·21    
30·345,14715,8113·07Totals22,65059,7942·64
35·302,78811,7794·22    

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1035) born to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they represent issue born to the existing marriage only. The averages for the last five years were as follows: 1931, 2·77; 1932. 2·75: 1933, 2·75; 1934. 2·60. and 1935.2·64. This. falling trend in the average issue of mothers giving birth to children is a measure of the tendency towards smaller families.

FIRST BIRTHS.

Of a total of 116,911 accouchements resulting in legitimate births during the five years 1931–35, the issue in no fewer than 40,48, or 34 per cent., were firstborn children, and in 18,705 of these cases, or 47 per cent., the birth occurred within twelve months, and in 29,408 or 73 per cent., within two years after the marriage-of the parents. In the remaining 27 per cent, of cases where there was any issue-to the marriage, two years or more had elapsed before the birth of the first child.

In view of the abnormal conditions operating during the last few years, and particularly as a result of the heavy increase in the number of marriages during 1934 and 1935, it is not surprising to find the proportion of first-births for 1935 showing a definite increase. In fact, the proportion of first-births in 1935 has attained a level definitely in excess of that for any other year. The level recorded in 1934 was only exceeded once previously—in 1921, when, as a result of the post-war marriage influence, the proportion was 34·81, a figure between the 1934 and 1935 levels. The figures for each of the last five years are:—

    First Cases within One Year after Marriage.First Cases within Two Year after Marriage.
Year.Total Legitimate Cases.Total Legitimate First Cases.Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.
   Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
193125,0278,43733·714,02847·746,34475·19
193223,3667,95034·023,66446·095,74472·25
193322,9637,75633·813,63946·865,59672·06
193422,9057,92534·603,66546·255,7887303
193522,6508,07035·633,70945·965,93673·56
Totals for five years116,91140,14834·3418,70546·9029,40873·25

During the five years there were 8,893 cases of legitimate births within seven months after marriage, a period which may be regarded as a minimum in a consideration of extra-marital conception; also 5,863 cases of illegitimate births were registered, and if these latter are all regarded as first-births (which is not entirely the case), the following position is shown:—

Year.Total Legitimate First Cases. (a)Illegitimate Cases. (b)Legitimate Cases within Seven Months after Marriage. (c)Proportion of (c) to (a). (d)Proportion of (b) + (c) to Total of (a) + (b). (e)
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
19318,4371,3051,87122·1832·60
19327,9501,2521,83023·0233·49
19337,7661,1101,70222·6932·40
19347,9251,1551,75622·1032 06
19358,0701,0351,07420·7429·75
Totals for five years40,1485,8638,89322·1532·07

ILLEGITIMACY.

The births of 1,040 children (521 males, 525 females) registered in 1935 were illegitimate. The numbers for each of the last ten years, with the percentages they bear to the total births registered, are as follows:—

Year.Number.Percentage to Total Births.Year.Number.Percentage to Total Births.
19261,4735·1719311,3154·94
19271,3874·9719321,2625·07
19281,3835·0819331,1194·60
19291,3274·9619341,1614·77
19301,3715·1219351,0464·36

While the proportion of illegitimate to total births has fluctuated considerably during the last decade, the trend for the latter half of the period appears to be definitely towards a decline, the average proportion for 1931–35 being 4·75 as against an average of 5·06 for the period 1926–30. Probably a better criterion of the trend in the illegitimate birth-rate is afforded by the movement in the proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census from 1891 to 1920 are as follows:—

year.Unmarried Women aged 15–45 Years.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,9906389·25
189689,7228349·30
1901105,4209378·89
1906116,5061,1329·72
1911116,7261,0789·24
1916125,4611,1599·24
1921136,5391,2589·21
1926151,6241,4739·71

Included in the total of 1,046 illegitimate births in 1935 were nine eases of twins and one case of triplets, the number of accouchements being thus 1,035, including two cases registered with the Registrar-General. From the following table it will be seen that of the 1,035 mothers 348, or 31 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age.

Illegitimate Births, 1935.—Ages of Mothers.

Age.Cases.Age.Cases.Age.Cases.
Years. Years. Years. 
13. .25453712
14726493817
152327393912
16262831407
17392931413
18773022426
19933122432
20833223443
21893319451
22923419461
23533512  
24563611Total1,035

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1930, directs the omission of the word “illegitimate” from the register when the birth of an illegitimate child is registered. The word “illegitimate” appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

THE LEGITIMATION ACT.

An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock whose parents afterwards intermarry is deemed to be legitimized by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes a Registrar must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and must also produce evidence of marriage between himself and the mother of the child.

Prior to the passing, on the 6th February, 1922, of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921–22, legitimation could be effected only if at the time of the birth of the child there existed no legal impediment to the intermarriage of the father and mother, but the legal-impediment proviso was repealed by that amendment.

The amendment of 1921–22 also provides for legitimation by the mother in the event of the death of the father after the intermarriage of the parents. In such a case the application for legitimation is heard by a Magistrate, and upon his certifying that it has been proved to his satisfaction that the husband of the applicant was the father of the child, the child is registered as the lawful issue of the applicant and her husband.

The number of legitimations in each of the last ten years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are:—

Year.Number of Children legitimized.
Previously registered.Not previously registered.Total.
192517297269
1926230115345
1927204108312
1928247102349
192926166327
1930234111345
193129292384
193223695331
193330995404
193428494378
193527663339
Totals to5,4302,6448,074

ADOPTIONS.

The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. If the child's birth has been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on it, and a new entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being substituted for those of the natural parents.

During the year 1935 the registration of 340 adopted children (159 males and 181 females) was effected, as compared with 338 in 1934, 332 in 1933, 337 in 1932, and 329 in 1931.

STILL-BIRTHS.

The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Male.Female.Total.Male Stillbirths per 1,000 Female Still-births.Percentage of Still-births to
Living Births.All Births.
19264704168861,1303·113·02
19275063728781,3603·153·05
19284244158391,0223·082·99
19295013698701,3583·253·15
19304703958651,1903·233·13
19314303798091,1353·042·95
19324303167461,3613·002·91
19334173057221,3672·972·88
19343873006871,2902·822·75
19353933457381,1393·082·99

Masculinity is in genera! much higher among still-births than among living births, though an exception to the rule occurred in 1928. The figures for the ten years covered by the above table show the rate for still-births to have been 1,220 males per 1,000 females. The rate for individual years has ranged between 1,726 (in 1914) and 1,022 (in 192S).

Tabulation of the relative ages of the parents of the still-born children in 1935 does not appear to disclose any significant features. The median age of the mothers was 30, as compared with 28 it: the case of living births. The percentage of illegitimates among still-born infants (6–37) was higher than among infants born alive (4–36).

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1935, 3li per cent, were first births. while of legitimate still-births no less than 43 per cent, were first births. It would thus appear that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring to mothers having their first accouchement than to the average of those having subsequent accouchements.

The following table, based on the figures for the five years 1931–35, indicates that this is so, and further demonstrates the effect of the increasing age of the mother in the causation of still-births. While for women between 20 and 25 the proportion of still-births to living births was under 2] per cent, for all births and a little higher for first births, for women aged forty and over it was in excess of 6 per cent, for all births and 11 per cent, for first births.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1931–35.—PERCENTAGE OF STILL TO LIVING.

Age of Mother, in Years.All Births.First Births.Percentage of Still to Living.
Living.Still.Living.Still.All Births.First Births.
Under 204,191943,544882·242·48
20 and under 2528,01758116,1024152·072·58
25 and under 3037,24495113,2315142·553·88
30 and under 3526,1978355,1282793·185·44
35 and under 4015,2066021,6881233·967·29
40 and over6,056378455526·2411·43
Totals116,9113,44140,1481,4712·943·66

The next table shows the percentage of still-births to living births according to nativity order of legitimate births registered in the five years 1931–35. The column for mothers of all ages shows a fairly definite gradation, the second child having the best chance of being born alive, and the probability of a still-birth increasing thereafter.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1931–35.—PERCENTAGE OF STILL TO LIVING.

Nativity Order.Living Births.Still-birthsPercentage of Still to Living.
Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.
First40,1481,6881,4711233·667·29
Second29,2422,537549771·883·04
Third18,5642,745432962·333·50
Fourth11,0702,402303772·743·21
Fifth7,7151,805227572·943·06
Sixth4,1441,393131543·103·88
Seventh2,6381,030105423·984·08
Eighth1,70109571234·173·31
Ninth1,11948156205·005·41
Tenth66427442126·334·38

It will be observed that the rates shown in the column for mothers aged 35–40 are, with two exceptions, materially higher than the rates for all mothers. This circumstance in itself suggests that the age of the mother is probably a more important factor contributing to the still-birth rate than the number of previous accouchements. The cause of the steady increase noted in the case of mothers of all ages—from the second child upwards—is to be found in the fact of increasing age rather than the number of previous issue. The special risks that, attend a first birth account for the relatively high figures shown for first births, while the influence of increasing age is particularly assertive in respect of first births to mothers aged 35–40.

MAORI BIRTHS.

The number of births of Maoris registered with Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths during 1935 was 3,139 (1,700 males. 1,439 females). The births of fifty-nine males and fifty-three females recorded as of Maori race were registered under the main Act, and the total of 3,251 represents a rate of 43 per 1,000 of Maori population, a figure nearly three times as high as the general (i.e., non-Maori) birth-rate for the year. Registrations in each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Number of Births.Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.
19311,1811,1312,31233·74
19321,3831,3622,74539·28
19331,5361,4122,94841·20
19341,5761,4052,98140·67
19351,7591,4923,25143·34

There is reason to believe that the number of Maori births is somewhat understated, and that both number and rate are actually higher than shown above. For population purposes, half-castes and persons between half and full blood rank as Maoris; but it is not always possible to ensure that this practice is followed in the registration of births (and of deaths).

Chapter 5. SECTION IV.—VITAL STATISTICS.

SUBSECTION B.—MARRIAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

MARRIAGE may be solemnized in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnized only between 8 o'clock in the forenoon and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the. hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, the limits in all cases were 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be solemnized. In the case of a person under twenty-one years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1926, sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section S provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If a declaration is made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in the Dominion, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has obtained in New Zealand since 1855. By this system it is ensured not only that marriages are in order, but that no legally solemnized marriage escapes registration. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnized, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether solemnization has been effected.

The marriage of a man with his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased husband's brother in 1901. Marriage with a deceased wife's niece or a deceased husband's nephew was rendered valid in 1929.

An important provision is contained in section 7 of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, which reads as follows:—

  1. Every person commits an offence against this Act, and is liable on summary conviction to a fine of one hundred pounds, who—

    1. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that any persons lawfully married are

      not truly and sufficiently married; or

    2. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that the issue of any lawful marriage is illegitimate or born out of true wedlock.

  2. “Alleges” in this section means making any verbal statement, or publishing or issuing any printed or written statement, or in any manner authorizing the making of any verbal statement, or in any manner authorizing or being party to the publication or issue of any printed or written statement.

  3. A person shall not be deemed to make an allegation contrary to the provisions of this section by reason only of using in the solemnization of a marriage a form of marriage service which at the commencement of this Act was in use by the religious denomination to which such person belongs, or by reason only of the printing or issue of any book containing a copy of a form of marriage service in use at the commencement of this Act by any religious denomination.

An amendment to the Marriage Act in 1933 prohibited the marriage of persons under the age of sixteen years, and also made provision enabling women to become officiating ministers for the purposes of the Marriage Act.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The movement of the marriage-rate since 1S55 is shown by the diagram on p. 49. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population:
19168,2137·47192610,6807·90
19176,4175·84192710,4787·62
19186,2275·65192810,5377·58
19199,5198·33192910,9677·78
192012,17510·21193011,0757·77
192110,6358·6919319,8176·79
19229,5567·6319329,8966·80
192310,0707·90193310,5107·16
192410,2597·90193411,2567·62
192510,4197·84193512,1878·20

The low rates for 1931 and 1932 are indicative of the effect of the period of financial stringency and depression. The partial recovery in 1933 probably reflects an acceptance of the unlikelihood of an early return to prosperity and an adjustment to the changed conditions. The recovery continued in 1934, accompanying an improving trend in economic conditions. In 1935 the future outlook was very much brighter, and consequently a further impetus was given to the marriage-rate, the number of marriages celebrated (12 more than in 1920) creating a new record for Nev. Zealand.

STANDARDIZED MARRIAGE-RATE.

Since the age-constitution of the population alters considerably over a period of years the actual marriage-rate based on the total population does not necessarily provide a proper comparison. A complementary method is to ascertain the rate among unmarried females in each age-group and to standardize the results on the basis of the distribution of the unmarried female population in a basic year.

Year.Rate per 1,000 of Total Population.Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Females aged 15 and over.
Actual.Standardized.
18816·673·980·7
18866·055·160·4
18916·048·350·3
18966·847·348·0
19017·850·249·0
19068·555·653·7
19118·759·159·1
19167·550·754·3
19218·759·763·9
19267·953·162·6

RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A comparison of the latest available rates in various countries is given in the next table.

Country.Quinquennium.Average Yearly Rate.
United States1928–329·50
Bulgaria1929–339·35
Rumania1929–338·96
Union of S. Africa1929–338·93
Yugoslavia1929·338·80
Germany1930–348·68
Hungary1930–348·60
Czechoslovakia1930–348·58
Poland1930–348·54
Denmark1930–348·49
Latvia1929–338·32
Belgium1929–338·27
England and Wales1930–347·94
France1929–337·85
Switzerland1930–347·84
Estonia1930–347·83
Lithuania1930–347·74
Japan1929–337·68
Netherlands1930–347·35
New Zealand1931–357·32
Spain1928–327·27
Chile1930–347·20
Australia1931–357·15
Austria1930–346·97
Scotland1930–346·97
Sweden1929–336·93
Italy1930–346·92
Greece1929–336·81
Portugal1930–346·65
Finland1929–336·59
Canada1931–356·44
Norway1930–346·35
Argentina1930–346·20
Northern Ireland1930–345·94
Uruguay1929–335·65
Irish Free State1930–344·57

DISTRIBUTION OF MARRIAGES OVER THE YEAR.

Annual averages for the decade 1926–35 give marriages as follows: March quarter, 2,499; June quarter, 3,028; September quarter, 2,325; December quarter, 2,888.

The Easter and Christmas seasons are apparently regarded as the most suitable times of the year for entering the matrimonial state, and, judging by the quarterly figures for an average year, Easter would appear to predominate slightly.

The marriages contracted in each month of 1935, commencing with January, were as follows: 901, 847, 817, 1,608, 737, 1,102, 868, 884, 812, 1,018, 918, 1,615; total for year, 12,187.

The 1935 proportions per cent, of the total marriages for the various clays of the week were: Sunday, 0·3; Monday, 12·2; Tuesday, 13·5; Wednesday, 28·7; Thursday, 13·9; Friday, 5·0; Saturday, 26·4.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.

The total number of persons married during the year 1935 was 24,374, of whom 22,320 were single, 1,184 widowed, and 870 divorced. The figures for each of the last ten years, but showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following:—

 Single.Widowed.Divorced. 
Year.Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.Total Persons married.
19269,6869,80468952130535521,360
19279,4889,64769649429433720,956
19289,5709,74265847130932421,074
19299,94410,17972145830233021,934
193010,03810,23070947632836922,150
19318,8569,02664441931737219,634
19328,9309,16264237632435819,792
19339,5199,71065640033540021,020
193410,19810,44970640035240722,512
193511,04411,27672046442344724,374

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Single.Widowed.Divorced.Single.Widowed.Divorced.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
192690·696·452·8691·804·883·32
192790·556·642·8192·074·713·22
192890·826·252·9392·464·473·07
192990·676·582·7592·814·183·01
193090·646·402·9692·374·303·33
193190·216·563·2391·944·273·79
193290·246·493·2792·583·803·62
193390·576·243·1992·383·813·81
193490·606·273·1392·833·553·62
193590·625·913·4792·523·813·67

During the period 1926–35 the number of divorced persons remarrying increased from 31 per 1,000 persons married to 36, an appreciable advance. The fall in the number of widowed persons remarrying—from 57 per 1,000 persons married in 1926 to 49 per 1,000 in 1935—is due probably to the high figure in the earlier year having been an indirect outcome of the war and, to a certain extent, of the influenza epidemic.

The relative conjugal condition of bridegrooms and brides for each of the last-ton years is next given:—

Year.Marriages between Bachelors andMarriages between widowers andMarriages between Divorced Men and
Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.SpinstersWidows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.
19269,164280242428193682124845
19279,025244219419199782035140
19289,112249209409183662213949
J 9299,478234232477192522243246
19309,540245253446191722444044
19318,379217260415159702324342
19328,496195239419147762473443
19339,068187264411168772314559
19349,737185276447177822653849
193510,551219274442195832835090

Taking the whole period covered by the foregoing table, it is found that, while 3,2S9 divorced men remarried, the corresponding number for women was 3,699. In the case of widowed persons, however, in spite of the fact that widows greatly exceed widowers, only 4,479 widows remarried, as compared with 6,841 widowers. It would appear that in the case of divorced persons women are more likely to remarry than men, while in the case of the widowed the converse holds.

Included amongst the widows in 1935 were fifteen women, and amongst the widowers five men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 224, subsection (5), of the Crimes Act, winch reads: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

During the last ten years the numbers of persons married under the protection of the above subsection was 234, comprising 71 men and 163 women.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.

Of the 24,374 persons married in 1935 2,423, or 10 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age; 7,033, or 31 per cent., were returned as twenty-one and under twenty-five; 8,045, or 33 per cent., as twenty-five and under thirty; 4.390, or 18 per cent., as thirty and under forty; and 1,883 or 8 per cent., as forty years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1935:—

Age of Bridegroom, In Years.Age of Bride, in Years.Total Bridegrooms.
Under 2121 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.
Under 212469010. .1. .. .347
21 and under 259801,578442485113,055
25 and under 306392,1261,64925942424,721
30 and under 351545788103741002262,044
35 and under 40371432681841223711802
40 and under 4593290107925024404
45 and over11315590120118389814
Total brides2,0764,5783,3241,06248223243312,187

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of men and women marrying at the various age-periods. To illustrate the extent to which these figures have varied during the last three decades, a table is given showing the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in quinquennia from 1900 to 1934, and also for the year 1935:—

Period.Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.Total.
Males.
1900–041·6724·7538·4218·638·053·584·90100·00
1905–091·7923·4239·2518·788·473·384·91100·00
1910–141·9422·0438·0420·758·543·904·79100·00
1915–193·2621·4033·0419·6710·475·027·14100·00
1920–243·1324·6632·2117·7310·245·436·60100·00
1925–293·4928·0434·4914·337·704·487·47100·00
1930–343·4627·2837·0215·146·103·617·39100·00
19352·8525·0738·7416·776·573·326·68100·00
Females.
1900–0416·9239·7527·339·263·401·531·81100·00
1905–0916·1537·1028·5310·184·211·802·03100·00
1910–1415·6034·9028·5211·575·042·052·32100·00
1915–1915·2135·0126·1711·396·062·983·18100·00
1920–2415·9935·4726·2110·665·532·983·16100·00
1925–2918·6137·8823·678·934·652·823·44100·00
1930–3418·6738·5124·798·223·852·403·56100·00
193517·0337·5727·278·723·961·903·55100·00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are now being celebrated at both the younger and the older age-groups. The 1935 figures, however, illustrate the forced postponement of a number of marriages in the earlier years of the depression, resulting in a transference of a proportion of marriages which would have been included in the under twenty-one and twenty-one and under twenty-live groups to the older age-groups.

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, after reaching its maximum in the three years 1917, 1918, and 1919. the average age has since decreased considerably. For reasons already mentioned, the average age is tending to increase again in more recent years. The figures for each of the last ten years are given.

MEAN AGE AT MARRIAGE.

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
192629·8926·18
192729·9226·25
192829·8726·17
192929·8026·10
193028·4726·13
193129·8326·02
193229·7126·04
193329·7225·83
193429·8626·15
193529·9426·27

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides of the various conditions in each of the last five years were:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Bachelors.Divorced.Widowers.Spinsters.Divorced.Widows.
 Years.Years.Years.Years.Years.Years.
193128·0542·1548·2824·7835·5144·39
193227·9541·0048·3824·8536·4047·28
193327·9841·5048·8524·6536·1444·17
193428·1740·2949·0725·0635·9244·64
193528·1841·0550·2825·0836·5845·35

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age 26 held pride of place for bridegrooms and age 21 for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1935 without alteration, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, but for 1935 again stands at 26.

MARRIAGES OF MINORS.

Of every 1,000 men married in 1935, 28 were under twenty-one years of age, while 170 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 246 marriages in 1935 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 1,830 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 101 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

Year.Age in Years.Total.
14.15.16.17.18.19.20.Number.Rate per 100 Marriages.
Bridegrooms.
1931. .. .1641922093493·55
1932. .. .28441152183873·91
1933. .. .. .438892093403·24
1934. .. .24261162033513·12
1935. .. .. .735992063472·85
Brides.
1931215982084035456981,96920·06
1932. .9672064035416731,89919·19
193337731914295866881,97718·81
1934. .. .731953985687181,95217·34
1935. .. .862034095837952,07617·03

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

Of the 12,187 marriages registered in 1935, Church of England clergymen officiated at 3,177, Presbyterians at 3,265, Methodists at 1,271, and Roman Catholics at 1,389, while 2,062 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the last ten years:—

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.
1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Church of England27·5327·6827·0327·1826·9325·8225·5425·4725·5226·07
Presbyterian26·3126·7726·9127·1326·4725·7126·6326·7326·5826·79
Methodist9·689·739·7710·199·899·5910·2710·5210·5010·43
Roman Catholic11·6811·1911·4511·3411·0610·7310·8111·0611·5011·40
Other denominations5·075·575·264·845·1615·535·846·287·928·39
Before Registrars19·7319·0619·5819·3220·4922·6220·9119·9417·9816·92
 100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that one or both of the parties are members of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the denominations.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.

The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (July, 1936) 2,127, and the denominations to which they belong are shown here under:—

Denomination.Number.
Church of England464
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand436
Roman Catholic Church360
Methodist Church of New Zealand293
Salvation Army110
Baptists72
Associated Churches of Christ34
Congregational Independents33
Brethren20
Seventh-day Adventists13
Latter-day Saints17
Lutheran Church2
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference4
British Israel Church7
Churches of Christ4
Hebrew Congregations4
Catholic Apostolic Church2
Liberal Catholic Church7
Unitarians4
Assemblies of God14
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand8
Ratana Church of New Zealand143
Ringatu Church44
Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah2
Others30
Total2,127

The Ringatu Church, the Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah, and the Ratana Church of New Zealand are Maori denominations.

MAORI MARRIAGES.

In cases where both parties to a marriage are of the Native race there is no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the provisions of that Act, though the parties are at liberty to take advantage thereof. Considerable inconvenience, however, was found to exist on account of the non-registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Native Land Act, 1909, and re-enacted in 1931, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Marriage Act. Ministers solemnizing the latter class of marriages must send returns to the Registrar-General.

Returns of 557 marriages in which both parties were of the Native race were received during the year 1935. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Under Native Land ActUnder Marriage Act.Total.
192626153314
192723187318
192828597382
1929315121436
193034574419
193135879437
193251482596
193347879557
193444686532
193548968557

Maori marriages are not included in the numbers shown elsewhere in this subsection, nor are they taken into account in the computation of marriage-rates.

DIVORCE.

The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 192S, which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation will be found in the Year-Book for 1931; the present position is outlined in the following résumé.

Any married person, domiciled in New Zealand for two or more years at the time of filing the petition, may obtain a divorce on one or more of the following grounds:—

  1. Adultery.

  2. Wilful desertion for three years.

  3. Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, or self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.

  4. Sentence of seven years' imprisonment for attempting to murder, or for wounding or doing actual bodily harm to petitioner or child.

  5. Murder of child of petitioner or respondent.

  6. Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.

  7. Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years preceding the petition.

  8. Failure to comply with a decree of Court for restitution of conjugal rights.

  9. Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in force for three years.

  10. Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years, (An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act (which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders) and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.)

  11. Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds (i) and (j) above, her Now Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in the Dominion at the date of the agreement, decree, or order.

The amending Act of 1930 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband for three years, has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition, and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Petitions filed.Decrees Nisi.Decrees Absolute.Petitions filed.Decrees for Separation.Petitions filed.Decrees for Restitution.
1926739624614828662
1927722629540419172
19287856535725310979
19298437186352. .130107
19308397246201. .9679
19317666835915110894
1932785653612518875
19338046836481. .11877
1934839762683. .19789
19358677426531. .9480

In 764 of the 867 cases covered by divorce petitions filed during 1935 the parties had been married in New Zealand.

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petition. Decrees may relate to petitions filed prior to 1935.

Grounds.Petitions filed.Decrees Nisi granted.Decrees Absolute granted.
Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
Adultery875470486039
Bigamy11. .2. .2
Desertion8010164806577
Drunkenness, with cruelty, failure to maintain, &c.151514
Insanity223333
Malformation223333
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights601652215217
Separation for not less than three years170283134258118211
Totals403464325417300353

The figures shown for decrees nisi include cases where both nisi and absolute decrees were granted during the year, and those for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in 1935 or in a previous year.

In 277 of the 867 cases where petitions for dissolution were filed during 1935 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 245 cases, 2 in 165 cases, 3 in 91 cases, and 4 or more in 89 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions for dissolution were filed in the last five years:—

Duration of Marriage, In Years.Husbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions.
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Under 541584956503940535045
5 and under 10104103106114123135128126128143
10 and under 15908095998685124102116109
15 and under 2058375664626854637981
20 and under 3058546440526173655775
30 and over16171414301117112211
Totals367349384387403399436420452464

The ratio of divorces to marriages in divers countries is illustrated by the following table comprising the latest year available in each instance.

Divorces per 100 Marriages.
United States16·3
Austria14·4
Japan10·1
Latvia9·5
Switzerland9·4
Denmark8·6
Germany8·3
New Zealand7·1
Franco6·6
South Africa6·4
Netherlands5·2
Finland4·9
Yugoslavia4·7
Norway4·4
Belgium4·0
Australia3·9
Czechoslovakia3·9
Portugal1·8
Scotland1·5
Canada1·4
England and Wales1·3

Chapter 6. SECTION IV.—VITAL STATISTICS.

SUBSECTION C—DEATHS.

COMPULSORY registration of deaths was instituted in New Zealand in 1855. As in the case of births, a system of non-compulsory registration had obtained since 1848.

Until the year 1876 the only information provided for in the death-registration entry was the date, place, and cause of death, and the name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1875, required information to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars as to burial had also to be entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act have made it requisite to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, ago of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the death if in a city or borough, or seven days in any other case. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the undertaker in charge of the funeral being solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the undertaker was primarily looked to for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at the death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. It is not necessary to effect a death-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, though an entry must be made in the register of births.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of, the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, a Coroner's order to bury the body, or a Registrar's certificate of registration of the death, renders himself liable to a fine of £10.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
191610,5969·64
191710,5289·68
191816,36414·84
191910,8089·46
192012,10910·15
192110,6828·73
192210,9778·77
192311,5119·03
192410,7678·29
192511,0268·29
192611,8198·74
192711,6138·45
192811,8118·49
192912,3148·75
193012,1998·56
193112,0478·34
193211,6838·02
193311,7017·98
193412,5278·48
193512,2178·22

A long-range review of the death-rate is afforded by the graph at p. 49.

The death-rate has been maintained at a remarkably low level for the last decade. It gradually climbed higher during the three years 1927 to 1929, reaching its maximum since 1923 in the latter year. The years following have witnessed a distinct reversal of that trend, until in 1933 the lowest death-rate in the history of the Dominion was recorded. It should be noted as a probable contributing factor that epidemics of the principal infectious diseases were conspicuously absent during those years. The number of deaths registered during 1935, although 310 fewer than the figures for 1934, has been exceeded on only three occasions in the history of New Zealand—viz., 1918 (the year of the great influenza epidemic), 1929, and 1934. On the other hand, the death-rate of 8·22 per 1,000 of mean population has been lower on only two occasions—1932 and 1933.

The fall in the birth-rate (resulting in fewer infants at risk relatively to total population) combined with the fall in the rate of infant mortality, is also partly responsible for the position disclosed by the death-rate figures.

The death-rates of males and females for the last ten years are shown separately in the next table.

Year.Deaths per 1,000 of Population.Male Deaths to every 100 Female Deaths.Male Rate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (- 100).
Males.Females.Total.
19269·667·778·74130124
19279·287·588·45128123
19289·247·728·49125120
19299·657·828·75128123
19309·407·698·56127122
19319·057·598·34124119
19328·557·478·02119114
19338·707·237·98123120
19349·217·738·48124119
19358·897·538·22122118

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR.

An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the decade 1926–35 gives the following annual averages: March quarter, 2,635; June quarter, 2,874; September quarter, 3,492; and December quarter, 2,992.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1935 the most deaths occurred during August, September, July, and October, with totals of 1,222, 1,116, 1,115, and 1,073 respectively. Excluding December, a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January, February had the least number of deaths (855). followed by April and January, with 882 and 931 respectively.

The least number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 13, this number occurring on the 30th April. The greatest number (54) occurred on the 3rd March.

AGES AT DEATH.

The deaths occurring during 1935 are tabulated below by age:—

Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month299229528
1–2 months582886
3–5 months363874
6–11 months513485
1 year503888
2 years353570
3 years332053
4 years11920
5–9 years8357140
10–14 years5944103
15–19 years12364187
20–24 years155126281
25–29 years152112264
30–34 years120152272
35–89 years151126277
40–44 years178205383
45–49 years282259541
50–54 years424333757
55–59 years.555414969
60–64 years6581861,144
65–69 years7405851,325
70–74 years7435871,330
75–79 years6965931,289
80284 years5864991,085
85–89 years319273592
90–94 years97116213
95–99 years283058
100 years1. .1
101 years1. .1
102 years. .. .. .
103 years. .. .. .
104 years1. .1
Totals6,7255,49212,217

Some remarkable changes in the age-distribution of persons dying have occurred during the last fifty years. The total deaths in 1935 were more than twice as numerous as in 1885, but the number of deaths under one year in 1935 was less than half of the corresponding number recorded in 1885. This is an eloquent tribute to the efficacy of the steps taken to preserve infant life (a subject which is dealt with later on in this subsection), as over the fifty-year period the annual number of births increased by 22 per cent.

Turning now to deaths at ages 80 and over, a remarkable difference between the earlier and later years covered by the figures is apparent. In 1885, deaths in this group numbered only 141 or approximately 2 per cent, of the total of 6,081, while in 1935, 1,951 deaths of persons over 80 years of age were recorded, this number representing nearly 15 per cent, of the total deaths in that year. In 1914 the corresponding percentage was only 11. Furthermore, in 1935 the number of deaths in individual age-groups shows a gradual increase for almost every consecutive group from “10 and under 15” to “80 and over,” where the maximum is recorded. The experience of 1885, on the other hand, is very different, the number showing a falling trend after the “45–50” age-group. The figures are a reflex of the changes in the age-constitution of the population, combined with the great improvement in the death-rate at the earlier ages.

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred over a period of fifty years:—

Ages, in Years.Number of Deaths.Percentage to Total.
1885.1895.1905.1915.1935.1885.1895.1905.1915.1935.
Under 11,7561,6371,5991,39477328·9023·8819·8413·996·33
1 and under55895023804742319·687·314·714·76
5 and under 102542031682191404·182·962·082·201·15
10 and under 151551671301491032·552·441·611·500·84
15 and under 202162561891801873·553·722·341·811·53
20 and under 252522883403162814·144·204·223·172·30
25 and under 302923043503632644·804·424·343·642·16
30 and under 352832102854202724·653·053·544·212·23
35 and under 402372742674522773·894·003·314·542·27
40 and under 453012532603833834·953·673·233·843·13
45 and under 503383013174465415·564·383·934·484·43
50 and under 552973683084087574·895·363·824·096·20
55 and under 602143843865209693·515·604·795·227·93
60 and under 652394265016471,1443·936·206·226·499·36
65 and under 702303796666791,3253·785·538·266·8110·84
70 and under 751603367579181,3302·634·909·399·2110·89
75 and under 8O1222895779481,2892·014·227·169·5110·55
8O and over1412795811,0491,9512·324·067·2110·5315·97
Unspecified57. .. .. .0·080·10. .. .. .
Totals6,0816,8638,0619,96512,217100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

The next table shows that the fall in the death-rate during recent years has been common to all ages, except age 85 and over, and to both sexes.

The table is further of interest as showing that the female rate for the various age-groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The rapid increase in the death-rate at successive age-groups is well exemplified.

DEATH-RATES PER 1,000, BY AGE-GROUPS.

Year.Under 1.1 and under 5.5 and under 15.15 and under 25.25 and under 35.35 and under 45.45 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and under 75.75 and under 85.85 and over.
Males
190178·606·811·893·523·976·1611·9423·1250·59126·26280·00
191163·485·361·912·423·876·2711·0220·8353·2211621281·21
192153·104·781·852·443·565·559·6119·9646·17102·84257·70
192643·553·601·302·323·334·989·3019·1549·43128·13330·54
193536·422·601·062·062·253·497·5717·3843·72110·01282·38
Females.
190163·875·501·643·584·726·7010·6219·4443·32107·02285·30
191148·745·371·482·764·344·928·3817·8940·44104·84221·90
192142·314·491·312·343·384·468·0014·8836·8194·42230·05
192635·734·001·301·953·143·987·3415·0239·26109·48284·72
193528·552·150·791·482·333·356·4814·0235·7495·7424911
Both Sexes.
190171·406·171·773·554·336·4011·3721·6347·87117·97282·52
191156·315·361·702·584·095·649·8219·5547·74111·73251·81
192147·824·641·582·393·475·108·8517·5941·9099·00245·21
192639·763·801·302·143·234·488·3717·2244·64119·19308·76
193532·592·380·931·782·293·427·0315·7739·80102·95265·24

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex in each of the last ten years was as follows:—

Year.Males.Females.
192652·9451·14
192752·5952·35
192852·3352·68
192953·1554·27
193054·2354·47
193154·1455·48
193255·7956·05
193356·1756·45
193456·9957·75
193556·9557·79

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

For reference to, or records of, the various series of life-tables constructed on New Zealand's mortality experience, ranging from 1880 to 1922, recourse may be had to Official Year-Books for 1915, 1926, and 1927, and to the General Report on the Census of 1921. The following data on expectation of life or average after-lifetime, which are quoted by courtesy of the compilers, are from a life-table constructed, by L. I. Dublin, Ph.D., and A. J. Lotka, D.Sc, of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. of New York, U.S.A., and published in the Statistical Bulletin of that company. The table is based upon New Zealand experience of the year 1931, data regarding deaths and age-constitution of the population having been supplied by the Census and Statistics Office. As the 1931 census was not taken, details of age-distribution were derived from the annual inter-censal age-estimates with a consequent potentiality of error.

Age.Males.Females.
065·0467·88
563·3565·30
1058·7560·67
1554·1155·88
2049·6151·28
2545·2146·80
3040·7842·45
3536·3738·14
4032·0733·80
4527·8329·45
5023·7325·24
5519·8721·13
6016·2217·30
6512·8613·82
709·8710·63
757·387·88
805·455·63
853·523·60
901·892·00
950·840·97

Expectation of life at age 0 is steadily increasing in New Zealand, and is, so far as is known, higher than that of any other country. Brief figures are quoted:—

Period.Males. Years.Females. Years.
1891–189555·2958·09
1896–190057·3759·95
1901–190558·0960·55
1906–191059·1761·76
1911–191560·9663·48
1921–192262·7665·43
193165·0467·88

DEATH-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

Examination of data of universal character shows that New Zealand has the lowest death-rate in the world, Australia ranking second in this respect. Rates for certain of the principal countries are quoted below.

Country.Quinquennium.Average Rate per 1,000.Country.Quinquennium.Average Rate per 1,000.
* Registration area.
New Zealand1931–358·2Czechoslovakia1930–3413·9
Australia1931–359·0Italy1930–3414·0
Netherlands1930–349·0Latvia1929–3314·1
Union of South Africa1930–349·6Northern Ireland1930–3414·1
Canada1931–359·7Poland1930–3414·8
Norway1930–3410·4Lithuania1930–3414·9
Uruguay1929–3310·5Estonia1930–3414·9
Denmark1930–3410·8Hungary1930–3415·8
United States*1930–3411·0Bulgaria1929–3316·2
Argentina1930–3411·3France1929–3316·3
Germany1929–3311·4Spain1929–3316·9
Switzerland1930–3411·7Portugal1930–3416·9
Sweden1929–3311·8Greece1929–3317·4
England and Wales1930–3412·0Japan1930–3418·2
Scotland1930–3413·2Yugoslavia1929–3319·2
Finland1929–3313·4Rumania1929–3320·2
Austria1930–3413·4Ceylon1930–3422·4
Belgium1929–3313·6Chile1930·–3424·5
Irish Free State1930–3413·9Egypt1929–3326·3

STANDARDIZED DEATH-RATES.

For the purpose of ascertaining the true movement of the death-rate in New-Zealand, a system of standardization was introduced some years ago, the age- and sex-constitution of the population as disclosed at the census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The population and deaths of each year are divided, each sex separately, into five-yearly groups of ages (with one group only for ages 80 and over), and the rates for the various age-groups ascertained and weighted according to the proportion which the respective groups bore to the total population at the census of 1911. The following table gives both recorded and standardized rates.

Year.Recorded RatesStandardized Rates.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
187516·5615·0715·9219·0315·3617·30
1880120510·7311·4613·8111·4712·70
188511·519·6710·6713·3810·0612·36
189010·518·689·6612·2610·1111·25
189510·818·899·9112·2610·0711·22
190010·338·439·4311·049·2910·21
190510·188·249·2710·498·619·60
191010·678·639·7110·678·469·62
191510·197·879·0610·197·879·09
192011·119·1510·1510·838·849·89
19259·097·468·298·686·777·78
19309·407·698·568·646·487·62
19358·897·538·227·645·786·76

For purposes of international comparisons, a standard population, based on the age-distribution of the population of 19 European countries at their censuses nearest to the year 1900, has been compiled by the International Institute of Statistics, and is used in the following table of New Zealand rates.

Year.Recorded Rates.International Standardized Rates.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Without Distinction between Sexes.With Distinction between Sexes.
190110·808·719·8111·8111·2111·6411·51
191110·468·219·3910·799·7410·4010·26
19219·757·668·739·658·639·239·14
19269·667·778·749·518·669·179·09
19299·657·828·759·288·398·868·78
19309·407·698·568·948·118·588·52
19319·057·598·348·557·858·248·20
19328·557·478·027·987·687·877·83
19338·707·237·988·057·297·737·67
19349·217·738·488·407·698·108·04
19358·897·538·227·997·327·717·65

An interesting point brought out by the use of this method in New Zealand is that the male standardized rate has now for a number of years been actually lower than the corresponding recorded rate. In 1934 the standardized death-rate for females also reached for the first time a lower level than the recorded rate.

ORPHANHOOD.

The table following shows the number of living issue left by married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1926–35, the information being given according to age of father and of issue.

Number of Issue left by Fathers, aged—
Under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 8O.60 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and over.Totals.
Age of Issue, in Years—
Under 55321,4451,34551010910. .3,951
5 and under 101121,5262,5851,45339570136,154
10 and under 1547543,1512,9751,067234348,219
15 and under 2141353,0515,8033,40598316813,549
21 and over111,15010,72227,86043,48735,678118,899
Unspecified. .. .1222. .. .16
Totals6533,86111,29421,46532,83844,78435,893150,788
Married men or widowers who died—
Leaving issue4001,6223,4985,9438,1659,3786,99235,998
Without leaving issue1793957781,2031,4601,4709316,416
Totals5792,0174,2767,1469,62510,8487,92342,414

Taking all deaths of married men or widowers, whether leaving issue or not it is found that the average living issue is 3·86, as compared with 3·83 for the-period 1916–25.

Average numbers of issue left by married men or widowers during the decade 1026–35 were: Fathers aged under 30, 1·13; aged 30–39, 1·91; 40–49, 2·64; 50·59, 3·00; 60–69, 3·41; 70–79, 4·13; 80 or over, 4·53. Averages are universally lower than in the preceding decade.

In 1935, among men who left any issue under age 16, the average number of such issue was 2·06. The average for all married men or widowers who died during the year was. however, only 0·38.

Of 818 cases where issue under 16 years of age was left by married men or widowers during 1935, a widow was also left in 769 cases, the aggregate children under 16 in these 769 cases being 1,595, and the average per widow 2.07. By the deaths of their fathers, children under 16 to the number of 78 were left without either parent, and for 8 children there was no information as to whether the mother was alive or dead.

WIDOWS LEFT BY MARRIED MEN.

Of the 42,414 married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1926–35, 10,868 were shown to have been widowers, and 31,026 to have left widows; while in the remaining 520 cases there was no information on the point. Of the married men leaving widows, 26,516 had living issue also at time of death, and 4,510 had no living issue. In 9,204 cases widowers left issue, and in 1,664 cases no issue. In 278 of the 520 cases where no information was given as to whether a widow was left there was living issue, in 241 cases there was no living issue, and in 1 case no information as to issue was given.

INFANT MORTALITY.

New Zealand has the lowest rate of infant mortality in the world, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, &c, and partly to legislative and educative measures, the latter both by the State and by various organizations.

The following table, giving infant mortality rates in various countries for the latest available quinquennial period, clearly shows the favourable position occupied by New Zealand:—

Country.Quinquennium.Deaths under One Year per 1,000 Births.
* Registration area.
New Zealand1931–3530
Australia1931–3541
Netherlands1930–3447
Norway1928–3248
Switzerland1930–3449
Sweden1929–3354
United States*1930–3460
England and Wales1930–3463
South Africa1930–3464
Irish Free State1930–3467
Canada1931–3575
Northern Ireland1930–3475
Franco1930–3475
Denmark1929–3377
Germany1930–3478
Finland1929–3379
Scotland1930–3482
Belgium1929–3390
Latvia1929–3390
Uruguay1929–3399
Estonia1929–33101
Austria1929–33104
Italy1929–33111
Spain1930–34114
Greece1929–33119
Japan 1930–34123
Czechoslovakia1930–34133
Bulgaria1929–33149
Lithuania1930–34151
Hungary1930–34157
Egypt1929–33161
Ceylon1930–34165
British India1929–33176
Chile1930–34244

Not only has New Zealand had for many years the lowest rate of infant mortality in the world, but the rate for the Dominion has shown steady and rapid improvement, more particularly during the last twenty years. Much of the success achieved has been due to the activities of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children. Founded at Dunedin in 1907, this society has since extended its Plunket system throughout New Zealand, and its methods are being adopted to an ever-increasing extent in other countries.

The deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 Births.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19266384941,13243·5535·7339·76
19276104701,08042·6834·5838·74
192860937598443·2528·5936·18
192954836491240·1627·7834·10
193052539992438·2830·5034·48
193152633085638·2125·6732·15
193242635177733·2229·1031·22
193345531577036·6426·4431·64
193445632578136·3227·6232·11
193544432977336·0528·2432·26

The infant mortality rate in New Zealand has exhibited a rapid decline (as is illustrated by the graph shown on p. 80). An extremely low level of 32·26 per 1,000 live births was recorded for 1935. The female rate has exhibited rather more fluctuation than the male rate.

The pronounced fall in New Zealand's infant mortality rate during the last two decades has not been accompanied by an increase in the death-rate of children between the ages of one and ten years. There has, on the contrary, been a substantial fall, as is shown by the following figures. The numbers and rates given refer to annual averages for the quinquennia mentioned.

Quinquennium.1 and under 5.5 and under 10.
Number of Deaths.Rate.*Number of Deaths.Bate.*
* Per 10,000 children at ages shown.
1894–18984406818622
1899–19035047619423
1904–19084443717219
1909–19134474919318
1914–19185475326622
1919–19234654424519
1924–19284033820315
1929–19333052917513
19342612615012
19352312414011

The increase in 1914–18 as compared with 1909–13 is due to the fact that during the latter period New Zealand experienced several minor epidemics, principally of diphtheria. The influenza epidemic in 1918 also somewhat affected the rate.

Since 1921 a distinction has been made between legitimate and illegitimate children in the New Zealand statistics of infant mortality. The proportion of illegitimate infants among those dying within the first year of life has been found to be greater (in some years substantially so) than the proportion of illegitimate births to total births, in spite of the fact that legitimations and adoptions would tend to reduce the number which would be termed illegitimate in the death entries. The year 1930 constitutes an exception.

Year.Total Deaths under One Year.Deaths of Illegitimate Infants under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates In Total Deaths under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Births.
   Per Cent.Per Cent.
19261,132615·395·17
19271,080777·134·97
1928984565·695·08
1929912727·894·96
1930924475·095·12
1931856607·014·94
1932777546·955·07
1933770425·454·60
1934781415·254·77
1935773536·864·36

Normally the excess of the male over the female rate of infant mortality holds for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table. The discrepancy is, however, somewhat greater in the first half of the year than in the second.

Year.Male Deaths per 1,000 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
192628·744·783·686·3521·994·413·545·79
192727·925·394·135·2423·624·272·434·26
192830·464·623·984·1920·052·672·523·35
192927·484·842·864·9818·853·512·063·36
193026·765·832·193·5021·173·222·293·82
193126·954·502·334·4318·121·872·103·58
193221·993·983·353·9020·562·572·163·81
193326·893·702·663·3918·553·022·941·93
193426·373·662·713·5819·122·222·973·31
193524·284·712·924·1419·662·403·262·92

Even when the effect of the male excess among infants born is eliminated, the number of male deaths per 100 female deaths in the first month of life during the ten years 1926–35 is found to be 133; between one and three months, 152; between three and six months, 117; between six and twelve months, 121; and for the whole of the first year, 131.

The rates for the two sexes in conjunction are now given for each of the last five years.

Year.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Total under 1 Year
193122·693·232·214·0232·15
193221·303·292·773·8631·22
193322·813·372·792·6731·64
193422·862·962·843·4532·11
193522·033·593·093·5532·26

If the deaths under one year of age are divided into two groups—viz., those occurring during the first month of life and those during the remainder of the twelve months—it will be found that the decrease disclosed for recent years when compared with earlier is very much heavier for the latter class; the explanation being that, with premature birth, congenital debility, and other causes of death due to pre-natal influences (which are responsible for the great majority of deaths during the first month), it has not been found possible to effect even an approach to the great improvements which have been brought about in regard to complaints arising from post-natal causes.

The next table shows that, whereas in the quinquennium 1931–35 the death-rate under one month of age was 25 per cent, lower than in the quiuquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who had survived the first month of life was only a little more than one-seventh as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, where the Dominion formerly lost between the ages of one month and one year more than sixty children out of every thousand it lost in 1935 only ten.

Period.Deaths per 1,000 Births.Deaths between 1 and 12 Months per 1,000 Children who survive 1 Month.
Under 1 YearUnder 1MonthBetween 1 and 12 Months
1881–188590·6029·7760·8362·70
1880–189084·0927·5756·5258·13
1891–189587·6030·3457·2658·93
1896–190080·0630·3849·6851·24
1901–190574·7730·6444·1345·54
1906–191069·6230·2839·3440·57
1911–191553·6329·2824·3525·05
1916–192048·6228·1620·4621·05
1921–192542·7527·4815·2715·70
1926–193036·7024·8211·8812·18
1931–193531·8822·349·949·76

The decrease by two-thirds in the general rate, and by nearly six-sevenths in the rate between one and twelve months, and the relatively lower movement of the rate under one month, are well indicated in the accompanying diagram.

INFANT DEATH-RATES, 1880–1935.

As stated above, the death-rate for infants under the age of one month has shown little improvement in recent years, while a heavy reduction has taken place in the mortality-rate after the first month of life. It would appear, therefore, that on the one hand the diseases that can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases and diseases due to faulty nourishment, &c. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them; while, on the other hand, many infants are evidently non-viable at birth. This point is accentuated by the following table, which shows the rates for further divisions of the first month of life.

DEATHS UNDER 1 MONTH PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS.

Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.Total under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.Total under 1 Month.
19268·573·548·3620·472·111·651·2325·46
19278·033·627·7119·363·271·721·4826·83
19288·463·718·2420·412·941·100·9925·44
19297·373·377·6618·401·831·531·5023·26
19308·363·287·4019·102·761·310·8624·03
19317·143·796·7617·692·741·470·7922·69
19326·593·506·3516·442·611·251·0021·30
19338·012·886·9917·882·631·271·0322·81
19349·093·376·2918·752·630·700·7822·86
19358·183·006·7217·902·25.1·460·4222·03

Slightly more than one-third (196) of the 528 deaths under one month in 1935 occurred within twenty-four hours of birth, and four-fifths (429) within one week. The following table gives, for each of the last five years, detailed information as to the number of deaths at various periods of the first year of life—

INFANT MORTALITY.—DETAILED AGES.

Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Month.2 Month and under 3 Month.3 Month and under 6 Month.6 Month and under 9 Month.9 Month and under 12 Month.Total.
     Males.      
1931116641114224143824323130526
19328947863015153417432921426
1933128381024014122521331527455
19341294895391282620342916456
19351204093271632533363021444
     Females.      
193174376931157159272224330
19327540723516101813262521351
19336732682417132511351013315
1934923458255111313352118325
19357632682719720838259329
     Both Sexes.      
19311901011807339215333595354856
1932164871586531255230695442777
1933195701706431255032682540770
1934221821536417193933695034781
1935196721615435104541745530773

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial groups over a period of sixty years. If a comparison he made between the averages of the first and last quinquennia given—1872–76 and 1927–31—it is found that the general infant mortality rate shows a decline of 68 per cent., while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (95 per cent.), convulsions (95 per cent.), gastric and intestinal diseases (93 per cent.), epidemic diseases (89 per cent.), and respiratory diseases (71 per cent.). The rate for diseases of early infancy shows a decrease of only 22 per cent, in 1927–31 as compared with 1872–76. but of 26 per cent, as compared with 1917–21, and the figures indicate that some measure of success has already attended the steps taken in recent years to cope with ante-natal conditions. The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt duo to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The most striking features of the figures for the years 1927–31 in the table are the continuation of the upward trend in the death-rate for malformations, and a further drop in the rate from diseases peculiar to early infancy.

INFANT MORTALITY RATES FOR PRINCIPAL CAUSES.

Period.Epidemic Diseases.Tuberculosis.Infantile Convulsions.Respiratory Diseases.Gastric and Intestinal Diseases.Malformations.Early Infancy.Other Causes.Totals.
1872–187613·55·59·712·924·21·225·017·3109·3
1877–188110·25·27·512·319·81·421·915·393·6
1882–18869·34·77·911·819·11·225·512·391·8
1887–18918·93·76·310·518·51·324·78·882·7
1892–18969·83·36·611·016·61·424·911·284·8
1897–19016·12·65·610·017·21·526·29·778·9
1902–19065·51·54·19·715·31·327·67·972·9
1907–19115·91·33·37·615·51·926·76·368·5
1912–19163·60·62·25·17·43·926·23·552·5
1917–19213·20·51·94·74·54·326·12·948·1
1922–19261·80·41·34·32·84·822·43·341·1
1927–19311·50·30·53·71·75·019·43·135·2
19351·60·20·53·61·24·617·53·132·3

Two out of every three deaths of infants under one year of ago are due to causes coming within the groups “Early Infancy” and “Malformations,” and premature birth alone is responsible for approximately one-third of the total infant mortality.

In accordance with international practice, New Zealand's infant mortality rate represents the number of deaths of infants actually born alive expressed as a proportion per 1,000 live births. This method, however, takes no account of still-births. Reference has been made in an earlier paragraph to the effect on the infant mortality rate of efforts made towards the reduction of those ante-natal influences which generally cause death to ensue during the early weeks of the first year of life. The fact that still-births are also the result of such ante-natal influences should not be lost sight of, and for this and other reasons it is of interest to compute rates for infant mortality and still-births in conjunction, as in the following table. In the computation of the rates for numbers inclusive of still-births, the latter are taken into account in both births and deaths.

DEATHS OF INFANTS UNDER ONE YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS.

Year.Exclusive of Still-births.Inclusive of Still-births.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192643·5535·7339·7673·2963·9068·74
192742·6834·5838·7475·4260·3168·08
192843·2528·5936·1871·2158·3865·01
192940·1627·7834·1074·1654·4164·53
193038·2830·5034·4870·1558·9164·67
193138·2125·6732·1567·3453·5760·80
193233·2229·1031·2264·5853·8959·42
193336·6429·4631·6467·9350·7459·55
193436·3227·6232·1165·1451·7958·70
193536·0528·2432·2665·8656·1961·17

The still-birth rate in New Zealand has shown a falling tendency in recent years, and this, combined with the falling infant-mortality rate, has resulted in a steady improvement in the rate for all infant deaths, including still-births. In 1935, however, both infant-mortality and still-birth rates increased, the latter substantially, so that the total rate also records an appreciable increase. Whereas, however, the rate computed on the usual method indicates a decrease of 19 per cent, during the period covered by the table, the inclusion of still-births reduces the improvement to 11 per cent.

CAUSE OF DEATH.

Since 1908, the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon and used by the principal European and American countries and the Commonwealth of Australia.

A comparison of the causes of deaths in 1935, arranged according to an abridged classification, and the proportion per 10,000 of population of each sex, are given in the following table. The classification adopted is in accordance with the Fourth Revision (1929) of the International List of Causes of Death.

Class.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
I. Infectious and parasitic diseases4973868836·575·295·94
II. Cancer and other tumours9018411,74211·9211·5311·73
III. Rheumatic diseases, diseases of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases1312403711·733·292·50
IV. Diseases of the blood and blood·forming organs66601260·870·820·85
V. Chronic poisonings and intoxications8. .80·11. .0·05
VI. Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense4875561,0436·447·627·02
VII. Diseases of the circulatory system2,1771,7623,93928·7924·1526·52
VIII. Diseases of the respiratory system5193448636·864·715·81
IX. Diseases of the digestive system3522596114·663·554·11
X. Diseases of the genito·urinary system4303097395·694·234·97
XI Pregnancy, labour, and the puerperal state. .101101. .1·380·68
XII. Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue1713300·220·180·20
XIII. Diseases of the bones and of organs of locomotion1812300·240·160·20
XIV. Congenital malformations81711521·070·971·02
XV. Early infancy2451744193·242·382·82
XVI. Senility2011533542·662·102·38
XVII. Violence or accident5752047797·612·805·24
XVIII. Causes not determined207270·260·100·18
Totals6,7255,49212,21788·9475·2682·22

Class VII, diseases of the circulatory system, the principal of which—diseases of the heart—rank easily first among individual causes of death in New Zealand, is the most important as regards numerical strength. Next in order comes Class II (cancer and other tumours).

The next table shows the number of deaths from certain principal causes.

Cause.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Typhoid fever81161100·060·080·040·010·07
Measles. .. .17461. .. .0·120·310·01
Scarlet fever1164880·080·040·030·050·05
Whooping·cough36441840420·250·300·120·270·28
Diphtheria55402726330·380·270·180·180·22
Influenza221671031861101·530·460·701·260·74
Infantile paralysis5198210·030·130·050·010·01
Tuberculosis of respiratory system5014884764914713·473·353·243·323·17
Other forms of tuberculosis1161271351301050·800·870·920·880·71
Cancer1,4931,4721,6241,6991,65610·3310·1111·0711·5011·15
Diabetes2272292292502261·571·571·561·691·52
Anaemia, chlorosis50514951540·350·350·330·350·36
Exophthalmic goitre54526267580·370·360·420·450·39
Meningitis (all forms)41392730380·280·270·180·200·26
Apoplexy, cerebral hæmorrhage6346116777297214·394·204·624·944·85
Epilepsy55413351430·380·280·280·350·29
Convulsions of children under 5 years of age1431017150·100·020·020·110·10
Diseases of the heart2,8172,9353,0983,3483,45919·5020·1521·1222·6723·28
Diseases of the arteries4204444113794392·913·072·802·572·95
Bronchitis2032071772171991·401·421·211·471·34
Broncho·pneumonia1802261802172411·25P551·231·471·62
Pneumonia3262782422562402·261·911·651·731·62
Diarrhoea and enteritis74676058810·510·460·410·390·55
Appendicitis1051011081161070·730·690·740·780·72
Hernia, intestinal obstruction8494111961000·580640·760·650·67
Cirrhosis of liver43373347500·300·260·220·320·34
Simple peritonitis26191816180·180·130·120·110·12
Nephritis, Bright's disease5795805615605284·013·983·823·793·55
Diseases and accidents of puerperal state1271011081181010·880·690·740·800·68
Malformations1441881561521521·001·291·061·031·02
Congenital debility32242827320·220·160·190·180·22
Premature birth2912252562672592·011·551·751·811·74
Injury at birth.78647565590·540·440·510·440·40
Other diseases of early infancy77948678690·530·650·590·530·46
Senility4264393374563542·953·022·303·092·38
Violence (I) suicide2262402001811491·561·651·361·231·00
Violence(2) accident9266636096426216·414·554·154·354·18
Violence(3) homicide1325142080·090·170·100·130·05
Other causes1,3291,3321,3281,3871,3599·199·149·069·399·15
Totals120471168311701125271221783·3880·2379·7784·8182·22

Detailed information concerning the various causes of death is given in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.“ The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violence—causes which are of special interest and significance—are discussed in the following pages.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Tuberculosis of the respiratory system takes sixth place in point of the number of deaths resulting therefrom during 1935, ranking after heart-disease, cancer, cerebral hæmorrhage and apoplexy, accidents, and nephritis, in that order. The remarkably low level of 3·17 per 10,000 was reached in 1935, the lowest ratio yet attained in this country.

A graph on the succeeding page illustrates the decline in the tuberculosis death-rate since 1875.

Of the 471 persons who died from tuberculosis of the respiratory system in 1935, 3(53, or 77 per cent., were known to have been born in the Dominion. In 2 cases the country of birth was not known or not stated, and in the remaining 100 cases the deceased person had been born outside New Zealand. One of the last-mentioned had been in New Zealand less than a year, 2 less than two years, and 4 less than five years.

In addition to the 471 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1935, there were 105 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, including—

Tuberculosis ot meninges ana central nervous system40
Tuberculosis of intestines and peritoneum22
Tuberculosis of vertebral column14
Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system7
Disseminated tuberculosis18

Tuberculosis claims its victims at a comparatively early age. Of those dying from this cause in 1935, persons under the age of twenty years formed 11 per cent., and those under forty-five years 64 per cent.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM TUBERCULAR DISEASES, 1935.

Ages, In Years.Males.Females.total.
Under 510616
5 and under 10448
10 and under 15448
15 and under 20161733
20 and under 25295079
25 and under 30333164
30 and under 35254166
35 and under 40352156
40 and under 45261137
45 and under 50291948
50 and under 55301646
55 and under 60291140
60 and under 6523730
65 and under 7021425
70 and under 757613
75 and under 80336
80 and over. .11
Totals324252576

The average annual death-rate from tubercular diseases in certain of the principal countries of the world during the latest available period of five years is next shown.

Country.Period.Death-rates (per 10,000).
* Registration area.
New Zealand1931–354·2
Union of South Africa1929–334·4
Australia1930–344·6
United States*1930–348·3
Ceylon1930–346·4
Netherlands1930–346·5
Canada1931–356·5
Denmark1929–336·8
Scotland1930–348·3
England and Wales1930–348·4
Belgium1925–299·7
Germany1924–2810·0
Italy1930–3410·1
Switzerland1930–3411 ·4
Northern Ireland1930–3411·8
Irish Free State.1930–3412·4
Sweden1928–3212·5
Norway1929–3312·8
Spain1926–3013·9
Uruguay1925–2914·3
Lithuania1925–2914·5
France1928–3215·6
Czechoslovakia1929–3316·0
Austria1925–2916·4
Hungary1930–3418·5
Japan1930–3418·6
Estonia1925–2923·2
Finland1924–2824·4
Chile1928–3224·9

CANCER.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. The increasing prevalence of cancer is causing no little concern in the Dominion, as indeed it is throughout the civilized world.

The following diagram illustrates, on the one hand, the increase in the cancer death-rate, and, on the other, the decrease in the rate of deaths from tuberculosis:—

DEATH-BATES FROM TUBERCULOSIS AND CANCER, 1875–1935.

In 1935 there were 1,656 deaths from cancer in the Dominion, a proportion of 11·15 per 10,000 of population. The standardized cancer death-rate for 1935 shows a decrease of 0·38, while the recorded death-rate shows a decrease of 0·35 per 10,000.

Year.Number of Deaths from Cancer.Recorded Death-rate.Standardized Death-rate.*
* On basis of age distribution in 1911.
19261,3419·918·62
19271,3249·638·16
19281,3749·888·18
19291,46710·438·53
19301,45210·198·16
19311,49310·338·14
19321,47210·117·77
19331,62411·078·34
19341,69911·508·48
19351,65611·158·10

The following table shows the proportion of deaths from cancer to the 10,000 of mean population in some of the principal countries of the world. The rates are an annual average of the latest available period of five years.

CANCER DEATH-RATES IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES.

Country.Period.Death-rate per 10,000 of Population
* Registration area.
Ceylon.1930–340·9
Greece1923–272·4
Lithuania1925–293·0
Chile1928–325·9
Spain1926–306·9
Japan1930–346·9
Italy1930–347·5
Uruguay1925–297·7
Estonia1925–297·8
Union of South Africa1929–338·0
Belgium1925–298·8
France.1928–329·6
Canada.1931–359·8
Hungary1930–3410·1
Australia1930–3410·2
United States*1930–3410·3
New Zealand1931–3510·8
Irish Free State1930–3411·2
Czechoslovakia1929–3311·6
Germany1924–2811·6
Sweden1920–3011·9
Northern Ireland1930–3412·3
Netherlands1930–3412·4
Norway1929–3312·8
Denmark1929–3314·4
Austria1925–2914·8
Switzerland1930–3415·1
England and Wales1930–3415·1
Scotland1930–3415·1

The following summary shows the types of cancer returned in the death entries for the year 1935:—

Type.Deaths.
MalesFemales.Total.
Carcinoma7456811,426
Adeno-carcinoma14923
Sarcoma152237
Lympho-sarcoma12719
Melanotic-sarcoma7310
Fibro-sarcoma. .33
Osteo-sarcoma527
Chondro-sarcoma1. .1
Epithelioma301848
Hypernephroma10616
Scirrhus cancer. .77
Myelomata1. .1
Rodent ulcer9312
Endothelioma325
Cancer257
Malignant ulcer112
Malignant tumour3811
Malignant papilloma314
Malignant disease5510
Malignant growth. .77
Totals8607901,656

The parts of the body most commonly attacked in New Zealand are the stomach and liver. Among females the genital and mammary organs rank high as the seat of the disease. Full details of location are published in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.” A summary for 1935 gives results as under:—

Seat of Disease.Males.Females.Total.
Buccal cavity and pharynx76985
Digestive tract and peritoneum519356875
Respiratory organs481866
Uterus. .104104
Other female genital organs. .6262
Breast. .177177
Urinary organs and male genital organs14120161
Skin22628
Other or unspecified organs603898
Totals8667901,656

Ninety per cent, of the deaths from cancer during 1935 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 62 per cent, at ages 60 years and upwards. Females predominate generally at the younger, and males at the older, ages.

Exhaustive statistical inquiry covering the period from 1872 to date tends to show that in New Zealand death from cancer is, on the average, now occurring later in life than formerly. It would seem that this is the case even if allowance be made for the fact that the age-constitution of the Dominion is increasing—i.e., that the average citizen of New Zealand is now older than the average citizen of ten, twenty, or fifty years ago.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO PIED FROM CANCER, 1935.

Ages, in Years.MalesFemales.Total.
Under 5224
5 and under 10. .. .. .
10 and under 15. .. .. .
15 and under 20213
20 and under 258412
25 and under 308513
30 and under 35101727
35 and under 40172441
40 and under 45175067
45 and under 50345993
50 and under 555687143
55 and under 60121108229
60 and under 65137111248
65 and under 70135100241
70 and under 7514282224
75 and under 808860148
80 and over8974163
Totals8667901,656

PUERPERAL CAUSES.

In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance.

During the 44-year period from 1872 to 1915 the death-rate from puerperal causes exceeded 5 per 1,000 live births on only 14 occasions, but after 1915 did not fall below this figure until 1925. The rate for 1920 (when the proportion of first births was high) was the third highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885, but the highest rate since 1920 has been 5·14 per 1,000 recorded in 1922. The rate for each of the last twenty years is as follows:—

Year.Proportion per 1,000 Live Births.
19165·86
19175·98
19185·18
19195·06
19205·48
19215·08
19225·14
19235·11
19245·00
19254·65
19264·25
19274·91
19284·93
19294·82
19305·08
19314·77
19324·06
19334·44
19344·85
19354·21

Commencing with 1916, special inquiry has been made in all cases where a woman of child-bearing age has been returned as having died of such causes as septicaemia, peritonitis, nephritis, &c. (without qualification), with the result that in each year several of such cases are found to be puerperal, and arc now so classed. During 1928 the system of investigating possible puerperal cases was still further extended, and this would tend to maintain the death-rate from these causes on the high level recorded in 1927. A definite drop in the rate for 1935 is a welcome sign, and in fact, represents the second lowest rate since 1913.

The rate of deaths from puerperal causes is frequently, though not quite accurately, referred to as “the maternal death-rate.” It should be noted, however, that the class provided for puerperal causes in the international classification covers all deaths from accidents and diseases of pregnancy and parturition, and is not limited to deaths resulting from accouchements of normal women after more or less normal pregnancies. If it were possible to exclude certain types of puerperal cases a true maternal death-rate would result—considerably lower than that shown for all puerperal accidents and diseases. Full distinction cannot, however, be made, but it may be mentioned that the 101 deaths from puerperal causes during 1935 included 31 from abortion, of which 23 became septic cases. Including these 23 deaths from septic abortion there were 31 deaths from puerperal septicaemia in 1935.

The next table shows the deaths from puerperal causes during each of the last five years, classified in the divisions into which such causes are divided in the international classification. In recent years there has occurred a marked increase in the number of deaths from septic abortion, whereas deaths from puerperal septicaemia, exclusive of septic abortion, show a definite fall. The death-rate for all puerperal septicaemia cases (including septic abortion) was, however, only 1–29 per 1,000 live births in 1935 as against 2 43 per 1,000 in 1934. Over the last five years puerperal septicaemia, including septic abortion, was responsible for 26 per cent. of the total deaths from puerperal causes.

Group.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Abortion with septic conditions29262642231·091·041·071·730·96
Abortion without septic conditions specified787580·260·320·290·200·33
Ectopic gestation635440·220·120·210·160·17
Other accidents of pregnancy. .6116. .0·240·040·040·25
Puerperal haemorrhage689990·230·320·370·370·38
Puerperal septicaemia1813141780·680·520·570·700·38
Puerperal albuminuria and eclampsia32172015211·200·680·820·620·88
Other toxœmias of pregnancy66915130·230·240·370·620·54
Puerperal phlegmasia alba dolens, embolus, sudden death1166630·410·240·250·250·12
Other accidents of childbirth4711460·150·290·450·160·25
Other conditions of the puerperal state81. .. .. .0·300·05. .. .. .
Totals1271011081181014·774·064·444·854·21

A table showing the rate per 1,000 births of deaths from puerperal septicaemia-(including septic abortion) and other puerperal causes separately in some of the principal countries of the world is given in the following table. New Zealand now occupies a more favourable position in international comparison than was the case a few years ago.

DEATHS FROM PUERPERAL CAUSES IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

Country.Period.Death-rate per 1,000 Births from
Puerperal Septicœmia.Other Puerperal Causes.All Puerperal Causes.
* Registration area.
Uruguay1925–291·660·842·50
Japan1930–340·721·942·66
Norway1929–331·031·662·60
France1928–321·011·722·73
Denmark1925–291·041·742·78
Italy1930·341·061·782·84
Sweden1927–311·581·583·16
Netherlands1930–341012·173·18
Hungary1930–342·061·553·61
Spain1926–302·151·623·77
Estonia1925–290·693·634·32
Czechoslovakia1929–332·391·944·33
England and Wales1930–341·802·564·36
Switzerland1930–341·612·824·43
New Zealand1931·351·742·734·47
Irish Free State1930–341·423·274·69
South Africa1929–332·672·405·07
Germany1924–282·712·475·18
Canada1930–341·813·395·20
Lithuania1925–290·365·005·36
Australia1930–342·123·335·45
Northern Ireland1930–341·713·785·49
Belgium1925–293·142·705·84
Scotland1930–342·483·785·26
United States*1930–342·383·986·36
Chile1928–322·763·926·68

DEATHS FROM VIOLENCE.

Deaths from violence, apart from suicide, claim approximately 5 per cent, of the total deaths. Violent deaths in each of four years at quinquennial intervals are given in the next table.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000,000 of Mean Population.
1920.1925.1930.1935.1920.1925.1930.1935.
Homicide1615118131185
Accidental causes—        
 Poisoning121413271010918
 Conflagration5188341352
 Burns and scalds3531362129232514
 Died under anaesthetic, asphyxia, &c.18292071522145
 Drowning150131132134126999390
 Firearms2420182120151314
 Falls45701091153853 537677
 In mines and quarries3171611313117
 Crushing165218359235138164252159
 Injuries by animals48384625
 Fractures (causes not specified)2622111221781
 Other6243483852323426
 Totals565636784629474478550423

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1935 was 621, corresponding to a rate of 4·18 per 10,000 of population. Although this represents, by comparison with 1920, an increase of 64 in the number of deaths, the death-rate has declined by 0·56 per 10,000 of population. Noticeable decreases are shown for drowning, deaths under anaesthetic, asphyxia, &c, and fractures (causes not specified). Part of the large increase between 1920 and 1935 in the death-rate from accidental falls is due to fuller information being obtained in a proportion of cases formerly classified under the heading of “fractures (causes not specified)..”

In view of the steady rise in the number of deaths attributable to transport accidents, it is advisable to reduce the figures and rates to their respective headings. In classifying deaths under these various subheadings the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway-trains and electric tram-cars with motor-vehicles the death is assigned to the railway-train or electric tram-car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor-vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles the death is assigned to the motor-vehicle.

In the following table the number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, and motor-vehicle accidents during each of the last ten years are given.

Year.Deaths due to Accident—Rate per Million of Population.
Railway.Tramway.Motor-vehicle.Railway.Tramway.Motor-vehicle.
192653171493913110
1927428138316100
19284410176327127
1929496178354127
1930638220446154
1931409159286110
1932279159196109
193331712021582
1934315152213113
1935217166145112

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents record an appreciable increase up to 1930, but this trend was reversed during the depression years, largely due to a great reduction in the number of motor-vehicles on the road during those years. The figures are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor-vehicles and trains or trams. For 1935 there were 8 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor-vehicle was an agent up to 174. The corresponding figure for 1934 was 163. Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

SUICIDES.

The suicidal deaths in 1935 numbered 149—males 114, females 35—the death-rate per 10,000 of mean population being 100.

Year.Number of Suicidal Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
1931196302262·650·421·56
1932194462402·610·641·65
1933156442002·090·611·36
1934142391811·890·541·23
1935114351491·510·481·00

The proportion of suicidal deaths is gradually increasing, as is evidenced by the following table presenting, for annual averages of various quinquennia, the suicide-rate per 10,000 of mean population:—

Annual average duringMales.Females.Both Sexes.
1895–991·480·310·93
1900–041·660·311·02
1905–091·620·341·02
1910–141·830·411·16
1915–191·790·401·10
1920–241·920·461·20
1925–292·170·561·38
1930–342·280·551·43

A comparison of the average annual rates for the latest quinquennial periods available for the undermentioned countries is as follows:—

Country.Quinquennium.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
* Registration area.
Irish Free State1930–340·34
Northern Ireland.1930–340·52
Spain1926–300·53
Ceylon1930–340·59
Chile1928–320·66
Norway1929–330·66
Lithuania1925–290·67
Netherlands1930–340·84
Italy1930–340·91
Canada1930–340·93
Scotland1930–341·04
Uruguay1925–291·13
South Africa1929–331·21
Australia1930–341·26
England and Wale1930–341·35
New Zealand1931–351·36
Belgium1925–291·52
Sweden1928–321·55
United States*1930–341·59
Denmark1929–331·77
France1928–321·91
Finland1929–332·05
Japan1930–342·18
Germany1924–282·45
Estonia1925–292·48
Switzerland1930–342·68
Czechoslovakia1929–332·95
Hungary1930–343·29
Austria1925–293·45

MAORI DEATHS.

Deaths of Maoris are not included in the statistics quoted in preceding pages of this subsection. Their omission is due principally to the fact that a considerably lower standard of accuracy and completeness of data exists in the case of Maori registrations than in the. general death records. Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last five years have been as follows:—

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Maori Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19315284871,01514·8014·8314·81
19326195731,19217·0217·1017·06
19336135481,16116·4615·9716·22
19346606231,28317·3117·7217·51
19357506971,44719·1919·4019·29

For reasons indicated on p. 60, the number and rate of Maori deaths are probably slightly under-stated.

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in four of the five years shown above.

Until recently, the only statistics available concerning Maori deaths were merely numbers of deaths according to sex. A tabulation was, however, made in 1925 for the five years 1920–24 on the basis of age and cause of death, and summarized statistics were prepared and published in the 1926 and 1927 numbers of the Year-Book. Annual tabulations are now made, and the statistics for the year 1935 may be found in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.” The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the year 1935 are as follows—

Age, in Years.Males.FemalesTotal.
Under 1212143355
1 and under 594104198
5 and under 10292958
10 and under 15204767
15 and under 20283967
20 and under 25344074
25 and under 30263460
30 and under 35212344
35 and under 40183149
40 and under 45212142
45 and under 50212344
50 and under 55301747
55 and under 60241539
60 and under 65191433
65 and under 70451459
70 and under 75281644
75 and under 80181533
80 and under 85191837
85 and under 90141125
90 and under 95121830
95 and under 1003710
100 and over5712
Unspecified91120
Totals7506971,447

With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever (only 4 deaths of Maoris from this disease being recorded during the last ten years), epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the general population, the most noteworthy example being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhœal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the European population. Principal among those are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis, the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral hæmorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many infants may be partly responsible. The figures of deaths from malformations and the group “early infancy” taken in conjunction (the pro-natal causes) indicate a much higher rate for Maoris from these diseases as a whole than for Europeans.

A summary is here given showing deaths from the principal causes and groups of causes.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Typhoid fever14101110102·041·431·541·372·53
Measles. .. .14131. .. .1·961·770·13
Whooping·cough9621727571·318·872·383·697·60
Diphtheria432250·580·430·280·270·67
Influenza41291946415·984·152·666·285·47
Dysentery861010121·170·861·401·361·60
Pulmonary tuberculosis22224020424124332·4034·3528·5132·8832·40
Other forms of tuberculosis29515554594·237·307·607·377·87
Cancer21252721463·073·583·772·876·13
Cerebral hæmorrhage14151616211·902·152·232·182·81
Convulsions (under five years)2312187153·361·722·510·962·00
Heart·diseases617386109848·9010·4512·0214·8711·20
Bronchitis15373028252·195·294·193·823·33
Broncho·pneumonia395167751125·697·309·8610·2314·93
Pneumonia8911412016210012·9910·3110·7722·1022·53
Diarrhœa and enteritis25332228573·654·723·073·827·60
Nephritis6131414160·881·861·961·912·13
Senility789283848711·3813·1711·5911·4611·60
Violence—          
 Suicide12710861·751·001·401·090·80
 Accident58785672708·4711·107·829·8210·13
 Homicide. .. .221. .. .0·280·270·13
Cold, cough, chest trouble, &c.1482141·461·140·280·140·53
Stomach trouble, Internal trouble, &c.. .151. .. .0·140·700·14. .
Ill·defined or not specified57382926348·325·444·053·554·53
Other causes17619424222625726·4227·7633·8230·8434·26
Totals1,0151,1921,1611,2831,447148·14170·58162·24175·06102·91

As stated earlier, the records of Maori births and deaths are not nearly so accurate and complete as those covering the non-Maori population. This is particularly the case as regards causes of deaths, in spite of the fact that considerable improvement has been effected in the last few years.

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or Coroner's inquest. As a further indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925, out of a total of 867 deaths, 446 or 51 per cent, were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1935 the proportion so certified was 953 out of 1,447 registrations, equivalent to 66 per cent.

As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher than the European, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhaeal diseases. The infant mortality rate for the first year of life was, for the ten years 1926–35, 105 per 1.C90 births in the case of Maoris, as compared with 34 per 1,000 among European infants, and this in spite of the fact that for the first month of life the Maori rate (23) was lower than the European rate (24). Among Maori infants who survived the first month, the death-rate during the succeeding eleven months was 82 per 1,000, as compared with only 10 per 1,000 in the case of Europeans.

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last ten years are given in the next table, the European figures being also shown, for comparative purposes.

Year.MaorisEuropeans.
Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Births.Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Births.
1926180117·191,13239·76
1927236157·861,08038·74
1928218118·1698436·18
192917478·5291234·10
193018888·5192434·48
193122195·5985632·15
193226295·4577731·22
193327392·6177031·64
193427993·5978132·11
1935355109·2077332·26

The next table shows for the year 1935 principal causes of deaths of Maori infants under 1 year, classified according to age.

CAUSES OF DEATHS OF MAORI INFANTS, BY AGES, 1935.

Cause of Death.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 MonthsTotal.
Typhoid fever. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .11
Measles. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .1. .. .1
Whooping-cough. .. .. .. .. .. .511112534
Influenza. .. .. .1. .. .. .. .62514
Dysentery. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .2226
Tuberculosis. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .4318
Veneral disease. .. .. .. .1. .. .. .. .. .. .1
Infantile convulsions. .1. .. .1. .. .. .61. .9
Bronchitis. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .2226
Broncho-pneumonia. .. .. .1115221211769
Pneumonia. .. .11. .. .2517181559
Other respiratory diseases. .. .. .. .1. .. .. .1316
Diseases of the stomach. .1. .. .. .. .. .. .. .1. .2
Diarrhœa and enteritis. .. .. .. .. .2136171039
Hernia, intestinal obstruction. .. .. .1. .. .. .. .1. .13
Congenital malformations3. .. .11. .. .21. .. .8
Congenital debility. &c.. .13311122. .. .14
Injury at birth21. .. .1. .. .. .. .. .. .4
Premature birth13373223. .. .. .. .33
Other causes peculiar to early infancy21222. .11. .. .. .11
Accident. .1. .12. .. .1. .229
Other defined causes. .. .13. .. .1. .25914
Unspecified or ill-defined. .. .. .. .. .. .. .12. .14
Totals20914171361918858965355

Chapter 7. SECTION IV.—VITAL STATISTICS.

SUBSECTION D.—MORBIDITY.

INTRODUCTORY.

DEATH-RATES are of great value as indicating the relative healthiness of different countries or for different years. The statistics of causes of registered deaths are of further use as showing the incidence of fatal diseases or accidents, and as indicating in a general way the relative rise or fall of diseases over a series of years. For instance, the fall in the incidence of tuberculosis and the increase in cancer (discussed in Subsection C of this section) can be readily traced from the records of deaths attributed to these causes in different years.

In comparisons of healthiness based on death-rates, however, the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years is not taken into account. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now show a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally.

Of recent years much attention has been devoted in different countries to the possibility or otherwise of obtaining reliable statistics of morbidity. In New Zealand certain diseases are notifiable, but beyond this and the statistics of industrial accidents given in Section XLII practically the only record other than that of fatality is the information ascertainable from the returns of discharges from public hospitals. The sickness experience of friendly societies' members is mentioned briefly in Section XXX. In the absence of full statistics of sickness, however, information from the sources mentioned is of considerable value, and gives a fair indication of the prevalence of the more important diseases.

NOTIFICATIONS OF DISEASES.

Notifications of notifiable diseases during 1935 are shown for each month of the year in the following table:—

Disease.January.February.March.April.May.June.July.August.September.October.November.December.Total.
Scarlet fever4337821067774957671835267863
Diphtheria432156908097837458503851747
Enteric fever151118135265243387
Pulmonary tuberculosis897175506359565961817866808
Cerebro-spinal meningitis21. .1. .. .2. .. .31. .10
Acute poliomyelitis11l1. .. .. .l. .2. .l8
Pneumonic influenza. .122. .l281128. .560
Erysipelas152023241725341925171617252
Puerperal fever—             
 Ordinary1056951054758781
 Following abortion23212316151016101510413176
Eclampsia54426161061474472
Tetanus3. .412. .. .1. .1. .214
Hydatids12112343274333
Trachoma. .. .2. .1. .. .1. .. .116
Ophthalmia neonatorum332. .42l13l2224
Lethargic encephalitis1. .. .. .1. .. .1. .1. .. .6
Food poisoning19315105. .. .. .. .. .6. .58
Dysentery23131. .. .2l. .4118
Undulant fever. .21. .1l322. .1417
Actinomycosis. .2. .. .11. .. .. .. .2. .6
Lead poisoning. .. .ll1. .l. .1. .. .. .5
Totals275208317|3302872913182732733062242473,349

The foregoing figures are exclusive of notifications of diseases of Maoris, figures for whom are far from complete. The following show the notifications of principal diseases in regard to Maoris during 1935: Diphtheria, 12; enteric fever, 107; tuberculosis, 134; influenza, 26; puerperal fever, 14; trachoma, 5; bacillary dysentery, 6; other, 22; and total, 326.

A quinquennial summary of notifications (exclusive of Maori notifications) of certain principal diseases is now given. Substantial proportionate increases, as compared with 1934, are recorded during 1935 for diphtheria, enteric fever, and scarlet fever.

Disease.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Scarlet fever1,304829783762863
Diphtheria1,327802963436747
Enteric fever1611951065187
Pulmonary tuberculosis1,109904890824808
Cerebro-spinal meningitis2216121910
Acute poliomyelitis2514843148
Erysipelas233233226239252
Puerperal fever and septic abortion293252220299257

Information as to case-fatality in regard to the three first-mentioned diseases above is given in the next table for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Diphtheria.Scarlet Fever.Enteric Fever.
Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.
   Per Cent.  Per Cent.  Per Cent.
19261,975663·341,58380·50302196·29
19271,446584·102,185160·73270114·07
19281,600724·506,127550·90290165·52
19291,687925·454,848270·56278227·91
19301,440584·032,244160·7114974·70
19311,327554·141,304110·84161106·21
1932802404·9982960·72195115·64
1933963272·8078340·5110665·66
1934436265·9676281·055111·96
1935747334·4286380·93871011·49

Although diphtheria and scarlet fever were more prevalent in 1935 than in 1934, the virulence of these diseases was less in 1935 according to the case-fatality rate. Enteric fever records the highest fatality rate for the period in 1935.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS: PATIENTS TREATED.

The public hospitals to which the following statistics relate include all those-hospitals under the control of the various Hospital Boards; two hospitals which are also old people's homes (Greytown and Reef ton); five special infectious-diseases hospitals; the various tuberculosis institutions and special sanatoria (including Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer, and King George V Hospital, Rotorua); and such public maternity hospitals as have also provision for emergency general. cases. All St. Helens Hospitals, private hospitals, and solely maternity hospitals,. are excluded.

During the year 1935 the total admissions to public hospitals in New Zealand numbered 88,483. There were 4,090 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year being thus 93,173, equal to 597 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris; or, in other words, an equivalent to one person out of every seventeen in the Dominion receiving some degree of treatment in public hospitals in 1935.

A table is appended showing for each of the last seven years the total number of patients treated, and the proportion of population:—

Year.Total Patients treated.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
192983,812569
193081,065543
193179,176523
193279,143519
193383,817545
193488,085568
193593,173597

The figures of patients treated in public hospitals disclose the extent to which the public generally are taking advantage of the facilities for medical treatment which are placed at their disposal by the various public hospitals.

Up to the close of 1929 patients (i.e., in-patients) treated in public hospitals had shown marked increases annually, not alone in numerical totals but also in ratio to population. The three years subsequent to 1929 reversed this position by recording successive declines in both number and ratio to population.

Some part of this decline is attributable to the diminution in the incidence of the principal epidemic diseases, in particular scarlet fever, and, to a lesser extent, diphtheria. The special fever hospitals in the large centres were virtually empty during those years, and in one ease actually closed. Another partial explanation may be in changes of administration policy by some controlling authorities.

The significance of the coincidence of the downward movement with the progress of the depression commencing in 1930 suggests that the major cause is inherent in the direct and indirect phenomena of the depression. The latter may include the possibility that some of the enforced changes in living conditions (e.g., change to outdoor work) may have resulted in improved o health. Comparative impoverishment may in some instances have acted as a deterrent where normally such persons would have entered hospitals for treatment. For similar reasons others might become out-patients instead of in-patients.

The decline between 1929 and 1932 in the number of in-patients, it will be observed, is clue chiefly to males, their numbers in 1932 being exceeded by females for the first time. The fall in total patients treated was checked in 1933, which recorded a rise of over 4,500 in the number of in-patients treated, followed by further increases of over 4,000 in 1934 and 5,000 in 1935, the increases being spread over the majority of the most important diseases treated. Lowering of fees in some cases; slightly improved financial conditions; extended period of depression with effect on health of poorer classes, &c.; may all be contributory factors.

From figures given in the Appendix to the Annual Report of the Department of Health, it would appear that the average duration in hospital in respect of each admission was approximately twenty-two days. On this basis, sickness as represented by treatment in the public hospitals alone aggregated approximately 293,000 weeks for the year 1935.

CONDITION ON DISCHARGE.

Of the 93,173 persons treated as in-patients in public hospitals in 1935, 56,821 were discharged as recovered, 23,349 us relieved, and 3,562 as unrelieved. Deaths in hospital numbered 4,497, and 4,944 patients were still in hospital at the end of the year.

The numbers of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the last five years were—

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
193174,47749,43817,9313,4313,82274,622
193274,58948,81218,5243,4383,88274,656
193379,33650,73720,9073,5254.03679,205
193483,47352,79122,7933,4284,38383.395
193588,48356,82123,3493,5624,49788,229

The following percentage analysis of total cases dealt with during each of the five years is of interest:—

Year.Discharged asDied.Remaining at End of Year.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
193162·4422·654·334·835·75
193261·6723·454·334·905·65
193360·5324·944·214·825·50
193459·9325·883·894·985·32
193560·9825·063·824·835·31

Generally speaking, the percentage of patients recovered shows a downward trend in recent years, while the proportions discharged as relieved record an upward tendency. The proportion of deaths among patients remains fairly constant.

SEXES OF PATIENTS.

From the following table it will be seen that, while for the earlier years males considerably outnumber females among hospital patients, the proportion has been gradually reduced until in 1932, for the first time, and in each year since, females were in the majority. The death-rate is invariably higher among male than among female patients, chiefly due, of course, to the much greater proportion of males treated for injuries resulting from accidents and terminating fatally.

Year.Discharges and Deaths.Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000 Cases.
Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.
192634,44329,5941162,3831,4521646949
192736,29031,6771152,3521,4301646545
192838,82436,4381072,3331,5991466044
192940,98537,7861082,5691,5561606341
193039,55736,6871082,4711,5081646241
193137,86736,7551032,3131,5091536141
193237,09337,563992.3451.5371536341
193339,31739,888992,4321,6041526241
193441,38042,015982,6191,7641486342
193544,10644,1231002,6751,8221476141

AGES OF PATIENTS.

The ages of patients who were discharged from, or who died in public hospitals during 1934 and 1935 are as shown in the following summary:—

Ages of Patients, in Years.1934.1935.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 53,9782,8916,8694,4023,2037,605
5 and under 104,1363,4267,5024,7203,9488,668
10 and under 153,0952,6185,7133,4862,8726,358
15 and under 257,3469,70517,0517,5319,78317,314
25 and under 355,9879,53315,5205,9339,78315,716
35 and under 454,5395,57510,1144,8095,73010,539
40 and under 554,6883,7058,4534,9193,9158,834
55 and under 653,7372,3496,0864,0722,5766,648
65 and over3,8062,0535,8594,1722,2326,404
Unspecified681001686281143
Totals41,38042,01583,39544,10644,12388,229

SUMMARY OF DISEASES, ETC.

As explained in the preceding subsection, the international classification of diseases and causes of death is used in New Zealand. The following table covers all patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during the year 1935:—

Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I. Infectious and parasitic diseases4,0292,2534223372713,9163,416
II. Cancer and other tumours1,2191,2074934162881,5992.024
III. Rheumatic diseases, diseases of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases1,2391,41518563931,1031,892
IV. Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs79207294218192183
V. Chronic poisonings and intoxications1089695. .24335
VI. Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense1,9392,3596142482302,8152,575
VII. Diseases of the circulatory system1,2391,5061054802582,1291,459
VIII. Diseases of the respiratory system3,6461,6921242991713,5812,354
IX. Diseases of the digestive system19,1373,09434125714512,16811,106
X. Diseases of the genito-urinary system4,6612,413290200922,6614,995
XI. Pregnancy, labour, and puerperal state6,838566170. .67. .7,641
XII. Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue2,532753301282,0141,321
XIII. Diseases of the bones and of the organs of locomotion1,3071,1671272281,704927
XIV. Congenital malformations105169492621178192
XV. Early infancy1483262530135106
XVI. Senility239965403317090
XVII. Violence or accident6,9123,345146195808,2432,435
XVIII. Ill-defined diseases1,280976357861,2551,372
Totals56,82123,3493,5622,6751,82244,10644,123

In the succeeding table the data are reduced to percentages: and, in addition, the ratio of deaths to total cases is given.

Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.Percentage of Deaths to Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I7·139·6511·8512·6014·878·887·748·29
II2·55·1713·8415·5515·813·634·5919·43
III2·186·065·192·365·102·504·295·21
IV0·140·890·811·570·990·430·4116·00
V0·300·410·250·19. .0·550·081·80
VI3·4110·1017·249·2712·626·385·848·87
VII2·186·452·9517·9414·164·833·3120·57
VIII6·427·253·4811·189·558·125·337·97
IX34·2113·259·579·617·9627·5925·171·73
X8·2010·338·147·485·056·0311·323·81
XI12·032·424·77. .3·68. .17·320·88
XII4·463·220·840·450·444·572·990·60
XIII2·305·003·570·820·443·802·101·14
XIV0·180·721·380·971·150·400·4412·70
XV0·260·140·170·931·650·310·2422·82
XVI0·040·431·831·491·810·390·2028·08
XVII12·1614·334·107·294·3918·695·522·58
XVIII2·254·1810·020·300·332·843·110·53
Totals100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·005·10

PRINCIPAL DISEASES.

A summary is now given of the principal diseases treated in public hospitals during the year 1935. All figures given are inclusive of Maoris.

It should he noted that the disease or condition for the treatment of which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in the death statistics. Cystitis, for instance, ranks comparatively high in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some more important disease, which would take precedence of cystitis in the statistics of causes of death. Generally speaking, the hospital returns show only the disease or condition for which the patient is treated.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL DISEASES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1935.

Diseases.Total Deaths registered in the Dominion.Total Cases in Public Hospitals.Deaths in Public Hospitals.
Number.proportion of Total Deaths in Dominion.Proportion of Total Cases in Public Hospitals.
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever291862896·5515·05
Measles222. .. .. .
Scarlet fever86528100·001·23
Whooping·cough992192323·2310·50
Diphtheria386773592·115·17
Influenza1511,0325133·774·94
Erysipelas11771100·000·56
Infantile paralysis1321100·003·13
Pulmonary tuberculosis7141,70928139·3616·44
DiseasesTotal Deaths registered in the Dominion.Total Cases in Public Hospitals.Deaths in Public Hospitals.
Number.Proportion of Total Deaths in Dominion.Proportion of Total Cases in Public Hospitals.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Tuberculosis meningitis63634977·7877·78
Other forms of tuberculosis1016995150·507·30
Venereal diseases487252858·333·86
Septicæmia (non·puerperal)1470011100·002·00
Hydatids181031372·2212·62
Other infectious or parasitic diseases563362544·647·44
Cancer1,7022,23764537·9028·83
Non·malignant tumours881,3865967·054·26
Rheumatism and gout631,0294165·083·98
Diabetes2307418235·6511·07
Exophthalmic goitre585412034·483·70
Other goitres15552853·331·45
Other general diseases23132524·743·79
Anaemias552582850·9110·85
Leukaemia (Hodgkin's disease)65703147·6944·29
other diseases of the blood and blood·forming organs947111·112·13
Alcoholism52495100·002·01
Chronic poisonings329. .. .. .
Diseases of the spinal cord.491231224·490·70
Cerebral hæmorrhage, apoplexy74253133244·7462·52
Diseases of the eyes. .1,0601. .0·09
Diseases of the ears and mastoid process358882365·712·59
Other nervous diseases2792,78811039·433·95
Diseases of the heart3,5431,80665718·5436·38
Diseases of the arteries4431866214·0033·33
Diseases of the veins15671746·671·04
Other diseases of the circulatory system279251244·441·30
Bronchitis2241,3985323·063·79
Broncho·pneumonia35369614139·9420·26
Pneumonia4091,05819246·9418·15
Pleurisy355792262·863·80
Asthma27569414·810·70
Other diseases of the respiratory system1431,6356142·003·73
Diseases of the mouth51,803480·000·22
Diseases of pharynx and tonsils258,7921664·000·18
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1019076059·410·62
Other diseases of the stomach20799630·000·75
Diarrhoea and enteritis1381,3164431·883·34
Appendicitis1215,1068570·251·65
Hernia, intestinal obstruction1091,9898376·154·17
Other diseases of the intestines249681250·001·24
Diseases of the liver (excluding hydatids)69862840·5832·56
Diseases of the gall·bladder and biliary passages601,1583761·673·20
Peritonitis211911070·198·38
Other diseases of the digestive system17991164·7111·11
DiseasesTotal Deaths registered in the Dominion.Total Cases in Public Hospitals.Deaths in Public Hospitals.
Number.Proportion of Total Deaths in Dominion.Proportion of Total Cases in Public Hospitals.
* See letterpress ante.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Nephritis54436412823–5335–16
Other diseases of the kidneys581,1844577–593–80
Urinary calculi25401832–002–00
Diseases of the bladder9606888–891–32
Diseases of the urethra928010*3–57
Diseases of the prostate1045357774-0414–39
Diseases of other male genital organs. .8461*0–12
Diseases of the female genital organs163,1651593–750–47
Diseases of the breast. .275. .. .. .
Normal labour. .3,837. .. .. .
Septic abortion261411973–0813–19
Puerperal septicemia151181386–6711–02
Other puerperal diseases and accidents843,5423541–670–99
Diseases of the skin353,3352057–140–60
Osteomyelitis255392496–004–45
Other diseases of the bones, &c.72,092685–710–29
-Malformations1693704727–8112–70
Early infancy4812415511–4322–82
Senile debility, &c4412607316–5528–08
Burns and scalds294962379–314–64
Fractures, dislocations, &c.24,165160*3–84
Other external causes8316,0179211–071–53
Unspecified or ill-defined612,6271422–950–53
Totals13,66488,2294,49732–915–10

Chapter 8. SECTION V.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—PUBLIC HEALTH.

PUBLIC HEALTH ADMINISTRATION.

THE law relating to public health in New Zealand is contained in the Health Act, 1920, which repealed the consolidated Public Health Act, 1908, and its amendments. A full account of the Act was given in the 1927 issue of the Year-Book.

For the administration of the Act there is established a Department of Health, with a Director-General of Health as chief administrative officer. The Department comprises Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, School Hygiene, Child Welfare, and Maori Hygiene, each of which i9 under the supervision of a Director.

For purposes of local administration the country is divided into health districts, each of which is under the charge of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health. These officers are entrusted with wide powers, and act as advisers of the local governing bodies in matters affecting the public health.

In addition to being charged with the administration of the Health Act, the Department controls the registration of medical practitioners, nurses, midwives and maternity nurses, opticians, masseurs, and plumbers. It supervises the sale of food and drugs, and protects the public against exploitation by fraud in connection with alleged remedies. The Department also administers the law covering the control of cemeteries and crematoria.

The medical and dental inspection and treatment of school-children are carried out by special divisions of the Department.

NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

The system of notification of certain diseases has been in force in New Zealand for many years, and the list of notifiable diseases has undergone several alterations. The list at present is as follows:—

A. Notifiable infectious diseases mentioned in Part I of First Schedule of Health Act, 1920:—

  1. Anthrax.

  2. Cerebrospinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis).

  3. Cholera.

  4. Dengue.

  5. Diphtheria.

  6. Erysipelas.

  7. Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever).

  8. Leprosy.

  9. Plague (bubonic or pneumonic). Puerperal fever (puerperal septicæmia and puerperal sapræmia).

  10. Scarlet fever (scarlatina).

  11. Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch, and Philippine itch).

  12. Typhus. Yellow fever.

  1. B. Notifiable infectious diseases declared by Gazette notice:—

  2. Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary).

  3. Encephalitis lethargica.

  4. Fulminant influenza.

  5. Pneumonic influenza.

  6. Septicæmic influenza.

  7. Ophthalmia neonatorum.

  8. Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis).

  9. Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular opthalmia, granular eyelids}.

  10. Tuberculosis (pulmonary).

  11. Septicaemia consequent on abortion of miscarriage.

  12. Syphilis.*

  13. Gonorrhoea.*

  14. Soft chancre.*

  15. Undulant fever.

  16. Puerperal fever, involving any form of puerperal sepsis other than or in addition to puerperal septicaemia and puerperal sapraemia.

  17. Any form of sepsis or sapræmia following abortion or miscarriage.

*In certain circumstances. (See letterpress post.)

Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, mentioned in Second Schedule:—

  1. Actinomycosis.

  2. Ankylostomiasis (hookworm disease).

  3. Bilharziosis (endemic hæmaturia, Egyptian hæmaturia). Beriberi. Hydatids.

  4. Food poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).

  5. Chronic lead poisoning.

  6. Phosphorus poisoning.

  7. Tetanus.

  1. D. Notifiable disease, other than infectious, declared by Gazette notice:—Eclampsia.

SOCIAL HYGIENE REGULATIONS.

By Gazelle notice dated the 29th November, 1924, syphilis, gonorrhoea, and soft chancre were declared to be infectious diseases within the meaning of the Health Act, 1920. On the 9th July, 1925, regulations were made under the Health Act, 1920, and the Social Hygiene Act, 1917, providing for the compulsory notification of these diseases in certain circumstances, and for the treatment of those affected by venereal disease in a communicable form.

Under these regulations it is encumbent upon a medical practitioner, or a medical officer of a hospital, who has been treating any person suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form to notify the Director-General of Health if such person fails for more than two weeks (after the date fixed in that behalf by the medical practitioner or medical officer) to attend for treatment, unless he is known in the meantime to have placed himself under treatment by some other qualified person.

If the Director-General of Health has reason to believe (either from a notification, as provided for above, or otherwise) that any person is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, he may require such person to submit himself for examination to some medical practitioner, and to supply a medical certificate as to the state of his health in relation to venereal disease. If a medical certificate is not supplied within the time specified, or if the certificate does not definitely disclose whether or not the person to whom it relates is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Director-General of Health may authorize two medical practitioners to examine such person.

In cases where a medical certificate is not obtainable, or where the certificate shows the person to be suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Director-General of Health may, if he thinks such a course necessary or expedient in the public interest, authorize a Medical Officer of Health to make an order, under section 84 of the Health Act, 1920, for the removal of such person to a hospital or other place where he may be effectively isolated. On the other hand, on application being made to a Magistrate, an order for examination by two medical practitioners (to be named in the order) Is made, and if their report shows that the person is free from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Magistrate then makes an order for his release.

Where treatment is not conveniently obtainable at a public hospital or public clinic, the Director-General of Health may authorize a registered medical practitioner to administer free treatment if the patient is unable to pay. In such cases fees for service are paid by the State according to a scale laid down.

It is an offence for any person, while suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to engage in any employment, or to act in any capacity, in or about any factory, shop, hotel, restaurant, house, or other place, if by reason thereof any food intended for consumption by any other person is exposed to infection from venereal disease or is likely to be so affected. If any person suffering from the disease knowingly infects, or does or suffers any act likely to infect, any other person, he is liable to imprisonment for twelve months, together with a fine of £100.

It is the duty of every medical practitioner who is consulted by any person, sixteen years of age or over, suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to give such person a notice setting forth the requirements for treatment and for not infecting others, and expressly warning him or her against marrying until medically certified as cured.

Every precaution is taken for the maintenance of secrecy and the avoidance of publicity in the carrying-out of the regulations. Every person concerned in the administration of the regulations is liable to a penalty of £50 if he divulges any information which comes to his knowledge in respect of any person suffering, or suspected to be suffering, from venereal disease.

DIPLOMAS IN PUBLIC HEALTH.

In addition to the power of conferring degrees of Bachelor and Master of Surgery and Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine, the Senate of the New Zealand University has power to grant diplomas in public health, and to make regulations for the examination of candidates for such diplomas. The examination for the diploma in public health is held in two parts, which may be taken separately or at the same time. Diplomas granted 1914–28 numbered 17; since 192S only one candidate has taken the course and passed the examination (1934).

REGISTRATION OF MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS.

Under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1914, as amended by the Medical Practitioners Amendment Act, 1924, is constituted the Medical Council of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health and six other registered medical practitioners. One of the six members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which enacts that every person shall be entitled to registration who satisfies the Council that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom, or eligible for registration on such last-mentioned register; or the holder, after a course of not less than five years study, of a foreign diploma approved by the Council. The Council may, however, refuse to approve any diploma (even in the case of persons registered or eligible for registration in the United Kingdom) unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma. It may also require the holder of a foreign diploma to pass an examination in medicine and surgery to be prescribed and conducted by the Senate of the New Zealand University.

Applicants who are refused registration have the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. The fee for registration is £2, payable on deposit of evidence of qualification. Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 5s.) is required.

The Medical Council is vested with disciplinary powers, including the suspension of a medical practitioner from practice. Bight of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided. The Supreme Court, on the motion of the Medical Council, may order the removal of a name from the register in cases where a medical practitioner is guilty of grave misconduct or is convicted of an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term, of two years or upwards. The number of medical practitioners on the register on 31st.March, 1936, was 1,420. During 1935, 17 names were removed and 32 added, of whom 21 had New Zealand qualifications.

REGISTRATION OF DENTISTS.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist in New Zealand who is the holder of a degree in dental surgery of the University of New Zealand, or a certificate of proficiency in dentistry obtained from the Senate of the University, or is the holder of a degree or diploma in dental surgery approved by the Senate and conferred by a University or dental college in the United Kingdom, or is the holder of a degree in dentistry granted in a British possession or a foreign country and recognized by the Senate. Evidence of good character is required in every case.

Application for registration is made to the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, Wellington, the fee for registration being £1.

The number on the register at the end of 1935 was 928, 21 names having been added and 31 removed during the year.

REGISTRATION OF NURSES, MIDW1VES, AND MATERNITY NURSES.

The Nurses and Midwives Registration Act, 1925, as amended in 1930, provides for a Nurses and Midwives Registration Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health or his deputy; the Director of the Division of Nursing (who is Registrar of the Board); a registered medical practitioner; a registered nurse and a registered midwife, and one other person recommended by the New Zealand Trained Nurses' Association or a similar body; and one person nominated by the Hospital Boards' Association.

Every person who has attained the age of twenty-two years and is certified as having undergone not less than three years' training in a general hospital “approved” by the Board as a training-school under the Act, and who has passed the prescribed hospital and State examination, is entitled to registration. The number of nurses on the register at 31st March, 1936, was 4,324.

The Act also provides for the registration of midwives and maternity nurses.

The requirements for training are as follows:—

Maternity Nurses.—In the case of a person who is a registered nurse the period of training is six months, and in the case of any other person is a period of eighteen months. At the end of this time the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Maternity Examination.

Midwives.—No person shall be accepted for training as a midwife until such person has been registered as a maternity nurse; the duration of the course of training will be then a period of six months, at the end of which the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Midwifery Examination.

The number of registered midwives on the 31st March, 1936, was 1,882, and the number of registered maternity nurses 1,370.

REGISTRATION OF OPTICIANS.

The Opticians Act, 1928, provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), two persons engaged in practice as opticians in Now Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eye.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act. On payment of the prescribed fee (£5), every person is entitled to registration as an optician who satisfies the Board that—

  1. He has received satisfactory training qualifying him to practise as an optician, and is the holder of a certificate of qualification recognized by the Board;or

  2. He has passed an examination under the Act, both theoretical and practical, after a course of not less than three years' training in New Zealand as prescribed by regulations.

  3. Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 10s.) is required.

Regulations pursuant to the Opticians Act, 1928, have been prepared, prescribing the conditions and period of training and the syllabus for the examination conducted by the Opticians Board.

The number of opticians upon the register at 31st March,1936, was 263.

REGISTRATION OF MASSEURS.

Under the Masseurs Registration Act, 1920, and the Masseurs Registration Amendment Act, 1924, there is constituted the Masseurs Registration Board of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health, a registered medical practitioner, and two persons engaged in the practice of massage in New Zealand.

The Board deals with all applications for registration (fee £3) under the Act. It is necessary for applicants to be in possession of approved certificates for the three branches of massage: (1) Massage; (2) medical electricity; (3) remedial exercises, and other branches of physiotherapy.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 10s.) is required.

The number of masseurs on the register at 31st March, 1936, was 557.

REGISTRATION OF PLUMBERS.

The Plumbers Board of New Zealand, constituted under the Plumbers Registration Act, 1912, consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman); the Director of Education; a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand; a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The functions of the Board are to decide what persons may be registered under the Act, and in what districts sanitary plumbing may be performed only by registered plumbers. It also decides the scope of the examinations to be held as a part of the process of securing registration.

The main principles underlying the Act are that of securing trained and certificated sanitary plumbers, and that such registered plumbers shall not be required to pay any license fee or pass any examination under any local authorities controlling sanitary-plumbing works.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual license fee of 5s. is payable by registered plumbers if doing any sanitary plumbing.

The total of names on the register at 31st March, 1936, was 2,487.

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS.

In order to make better provision for the sale of food and drugs in a pure state the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was passed by the Legislature, and came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The Act is administered by the Health Department, and provides for the analysis, by public analysts, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption, or likely to cause injury to health if consumed, heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such goods are manufactured or packed. The selling of light-weight bread is an offence under the Act, as is also the taking back of bread after it has been in the possession of the purchaser for more than an hour.

Considerable progress has been made in following out the purposes of the Act, all the commonly used foodstuffs being standardized, and the labelling of packages being controlled by regulations, which are revised and added to as the necessity arises.

An amendment of the Act in 1924 marks a noteworthy advance in legislation of this kind, and has been used to good effect in controlling all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser is likely to be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether it is dealt with by a regulation or not.

The definition of “drug” includes medicines used externally or internally by man, anæsthetics, soaps, ointments, disinfectants, and tobacco.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food or drug and to submit it for analysis.

Statistics compiled by the Department of Health show that during the year 1935, 8,131 samples of milk were examined, resulting in 230 warnings and 75 prosecutions. The figures for the previous year were 7.602. 258, and 130 respectively. Other foodstuffs sampled—1934 figures in brackets—numbered 1,006 (1.262), warnings being 40 (40), and prosecutions 9 (35).

The administration of the Weights and Measures Act is among the functions of the Department of Labour; the correct weighing of bread, butter, and other foodstuffs, coming within the scope of this Act.

QUACKERY PREVENTION.

Section 2 of the Quackery Prevention Act, 1908, enacts that every person commits an offence who publishes or causes to be published any statement which is intended by the defendant or any other person to promote the sale of any article as a medicine, preparation, or appliance for the prevention, alleviation, or cure of any human ailment or physical defect, and which is false in any material particular relating to the ingredients, composition, structure, nature, or operation of that article, or to the effects which have followed or may follow the use thereof.

The penalty inflicted is a fine not exceeding £100 in the case of a first conviction, and not exceeding £200 for every subsequent conviction. The object of the Act is to prevent the exploitation of the public by means of medicines or treatment alleged to cure all and sundry complaints and ailments.

DANGEROUS DRUGS AND POISONS.

In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under the Geneva Convention (League of Nations), the Dangerous. Drugs Act, 1927, was enacted. The dealing in and use of prepared opium is prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are subject to a license granted by the Director-General of Health or some other lawful authority. Provisions are made to prevent illicit traffic in drugs of a habit-forming nature. Suitable regulations are now in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and follow lines similar to the regulations in England and Australia.

The Poisons Act, 1934, is aimed principally at preventing deaths from misadventure arising from two main causes, First, the careless use of industrial and farm poisons through loose packing or handling in bottles commonly used for foodstuffs, beverages, or harmless medicines. Second, the increasing tendency by the public to use certain of the newer drugs having hypnotic or pain-reducing properties or supposed to be effective for slimming, &c. Regulations providing machinery for carrying out the Act are being prepared on the lines of the provisions in force in Great Britain.

PHARMACY.

The Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, constituted by the Pharmacy Act, 1908. consists of about 700 members. These are known as “registered chemists,” and no chemist shop may be opened in the Dominion except under the charge of one of these.

The society is governed by the Pharmacy Board, Wellington, set up by Act, consisting of ten members elected by members of the society. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and its amendments in the interests of the public and of the members of the society; also to watch such other legal provisions generally as may have a bearing upon pharmacy.

The society has reciprocity agreements with the societies of Great Britain and all the Australian Stales: that is to say, a member registered after passing the full examination of a reciprocating country can be registered in any ether on payment of the fees, and on complying with prescribed formalities.

The Pharmacy Board holds examinations annually for those who wish to obtain the necessary qualifications entitling them to registration. Candidates must also serve four years' apprenticeship. The first Official College of Pharmacy was opened in Wellington in 1933. A complete course, embracing all the subjects set for the professional examinations, is available for students.

The Society has a Benevolent Fund, which is used for the relief of members who may be in needy circumstances, or of their relatives who may be unprovided for.

In addition to the statutory organization set up by the Pharmacy Act, members of the Pharmaceutical Society have another organization known as the Chemists' Defence Association, Limited, which provides an indemnity guarantee for its members, deals with matters of general interest not covered by the Act, and governs ethical questions as between pharmacists and medical men and the public generally. There is also a Chemists' Service Guild governing the purely business side of pharmacy.

CEMETERIES.

By the Cemeteries Amendment Act of 1926 the administration of cemeteries is placed under the control of the Minister of Health. The Department of Health, with its Inspectors always in the field, is able to give the various matters closer attention than had been possible previously. Steps are being taken to ensure proper methods of plotting and keeping records, the importance of which has not been sufficiently recognized in the more sparsely populated areas, but the necessity for which will become more apparent as time goes on.

Regulations are in force to facilitate the procedure in cremations, providing also for special methods as carried out according to the rites of any religious denomination elsewhere than in a crematorium. Due precautions are provided for in all cases to ensure against any untoward development in connection with the cremation of any body.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

School medical work in New Zealand is carried out by the Division of School Hygiene, which is responsible for the supervision of all measures for safeguarding the health of school-children and for ensuring a satisfactory environment at school.

The School Medical Service in New Zealand was placed on a definite basis in 1912, when three full-time School Medical Officers were appointed. Prior to that date regular examinations were restricted to some of the larger secondary and private schools. There is now a permanent staff consisting of a Director, ten School Medical Officers, and twenty-three school nurses. In addition, three Medical Officers of Health act as part-time School Medical Officers.

The Health Act, 1920, section 1.39, gives the necessary authority for the medical examination of children attending the primary schools, but the duties and powers of the School Medical Officers are defined in the Education Act, 1914. section 134.

The School Medical Service aims at securing for each child three complete physical examinations during his school-life, but special examinations are carried out when parents, teachers, or the School Medical Officers consider them necessary. It is recognized that medical treatment must be available for every child in need of it.

If defects are found, the practice of the School Medical Officer is to notify the parents of their existence, the choice of medical attendant being left entirely to the parents. If the parents are unable for financial reasons, or are too apathetic, to obtain the necessary advice and treatment, it is the duty of the School Medical Service to see that it is carried out. This is done through the medium of the school nurse, who acts as a link between the school and the home, the treatment being given at the nearest hospital. The work of the service, however, is essentially educational and preventive.

As preventive measures in dealing with malnutrition in school-children, special attention has been given to the extension of two activities—firstly, the supply of a milk ration to children at school (to which end special provision has been made in the 1936 Budget): and, secondly, health camps. Both of these movements are widely spreading. An effort is made to keep under supervision children who are tuberculosis contacts. In nearly all centres throughout the Dominion School Medical Officers conduct regular medical examinations of kindergarten schools. The examination of Native schools since the establishment of the East Cape and North Auckland Health Districts has been greatly extended. An arrangement by which the district nurse acts as school nurse in these areas has resulted in a more intensive attack on many minor health problems. A considerable amount of work is done in co-operation with the Education Department and also with the Mental Hospitals Department in regard to children suspected of mental backwardness or defect in order to determine whether special provision for their welfare, either educational or institutional, is indicated. A great amount of work has been done with the object of ascertaining the incidence and distribution of goitre throughout the Dominion, and this problem continues to receive attention.

The School Medical Officers work in association with the Medical Officers of Health in regard to the control of infectious disease. Preventive treatment for diphtheria by means of inoculation with toxin anti-toxin, and more recently with anatoxin, has been carried out to a considerable extent during the last few years.

The School Medical Service also works in close co-operation with the Child Welfare Branch of the Education Department, under the supervision of which are all measures for the protection of destitute and neglected children, also the regulations governing juvenile employment. It also co-operates with the officers of the Education Department in the supervision of school-buildings and sanitation.

DENTAL TREATMENT OF SCHOOL-CHILDREN.

The New Zealand School Dental Service, instituted in 1921, is conducted by the Dental Division of the Department of Health. By the end of 1935 school dental clinics had been established at 248 centres in the Dominion. Each clinic deals with the children of certain schools in its vicinity, and these are organized into a “dental group,” the local administration of which is in the hands of a dental clinic committee composed of local residents. Besides undertaking various duties in connection with local administration, these committees have to undertake the important task of raising funds to meet a certain proportion of the cost of operating the clinics. Treatment of the children in the clinics is carried out by dental nurses specially trained for the work by the Department.

At the end of December, 1935, there were 164 trained dental nurses in the service, and in addition there were 53 probationer dental nurses in training. Some 84,000 children, belonging to 1,51)0 schools, are under systematic treatment at the various clinics. These children are kept under constant observation, and are being maintained dentally fit from the time they enter school until they pass out of the Fourth Standard. For this purpose they are re-examined at frequent and regular intervals (approximately twice a year), and necessary treatment is carried out.

Particular attention is given to instructing the children in the principles of dental hygiene, and the Department aims at securing the co-operation of both the children and their parents in the endeavour to reduce the prevalence of dental disease.

The following is a summary of the treatment performed in the service during the year 1935: Fillings, 450,757; extractions, 72,782; other operations, 150,835; total operations, 674,374.

Chapter 9. SECTION V.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.—continued.

SUBSECTION B.—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

INTRODUCTORY.

PRIOR to the abolition of the provinces in 1870 hospital maintenance was left to the care of the several Provincial Councils, each of which had a system of its own. On the change-over to the county form of government in the following year all of these diverse systems came under the charge of the Central Government, and many difficulties and incongruities occurred. Gradually there grew up a system of excessive demands upon the Government, and in 1885 an attempt to reduce a somewhat chaotic state of affairs to some semblance of order and uniformity took shape in the Hospitals Act of that year, which provided for the constitution of special hospital districts and Boards. Several amendments based on the result of experience were passed in later years, and the present law relating to the subject is embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act. 1926, as amended in 1928, 1929, and 1932.

HOSPITAL BOARDS.

The management of affairs in each hospital district is entrusted to a Hospital Board, consisting of one or more representatives of each of the local-governing districts comprising the hospital area, the total membership of the Board being not fewer than eight nor more than twenty. Members are elected at the ordinary genera-1 election of the contributory authorities.

Subject to the consent of the Minister of Health, a Hospital Hoard has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: Hospitals, charitable institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, habitual inebriates' homes, reformatory institutions for the reception of women and girls, and any other institutions for any purpose which the Governor-General by Order in Council may declare to be a public charitable purpose. It may grant charitable aid to indigent, sick, or infirm persons; may provide medical, surgical, and nursing attention for persons not inmates of an institution; and may grant financial assistance to medical and nursing associations and private philanthropic institutions approved by the Minister.

It is the duty of every Hospital Board to provide and maintain such hospitals as the Director-General of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for (a) the reception, relief, &c, of any persons suffering from infectious diseases; (b) the reception, &c, of persons suffering from other than infectious diseases.

PROVISION OF FINANCE.

No rating-powers are given to Hospital Boards, but under the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act the estimated net expenditure (excluding Government subsidy) of a Board is apportioned by the Board among the contributory local authorities within its district in proportion to the capital value of the rateable property in each contributory district.

At the beginning of each financial year the Hospital Board prepares an estimate of its payments for the year, deducting there from all estimated receipts by way of patients' fees, voluntary contributions, bequests, income from endowments, and. generally, deducting all other estimated receipts except the amount to be raised by levy on the contributory local authorities and Government subsidy on such levy. The levies on contributory local authorities are apportioned in relation to the rateable capital value of each local district. On levies for maintenance purposes a scale is in operation ranging from 14s. to 26s. per £1, and averaging throughout the Dominion £1 for £1. The principle of the scale is to give relatively greater assistance where the requirements are high in proportion to the rateable capital value of the hospital district. To this end the levy of each Board for maintenance purposes is determined as sixteen-fortieths of its estimated maintenance requirements plus the amount bearing to four-fortieths of the net estimated requirements of all Boards the same proportion as the rateable capital value of the hospital district bears to the aggregate rateable capital value of all hospital districts. After the levy of each Board is thus determined, the remainder of the Board's requirements is met by Government subsidy, with the limitation of fourteen thirty-fourths as the minimum subsidy and twenty-six forty-sixths as the maximum subsidy.

Levies on contributory local authorities and Government subsidy each form about one-third of the total maintenance receipts of Hospital Boards, the remainder being chiefly patients' fees and other recoveries on account of relief.

The above remarks apply to levies for maintenance purposes. As regards capital works, the net requirements are met by levy and by subsidy in equal amounts; the subsidy, in other words, being at the rate of £1 for £1. Where the expenditure is very heavy. Boards may have, recourse to loans.

A Government subsidy was formerly payable on voluntary contributions and bequests, but this has been discontinued since March, 1932.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The following is a summary of the receipts and payments of Hospital Boards for the last two years ended 31st March.

 1933–34.1934–35.
££
Receipts.
Voluntary contributions and bequests12,98429,023
Levies593,299602,461
Subsidies579,582595,518
Patients' payments and charitable-aid recoveries370,265413.033
Rent, interest, and dividends24,27826,329
Loans83,83975,101
Sale of capital assets1,210839
Miscellaneous receipts11,87617,253
Totals1,683,3331.759,557
Payments.
Hospital maintenance927,258990,141
Charitable aid276,969284,052
Medical associations or medical men in outlying districts9,3739,303
District nursing8,83910,187
Administration64,90568,312
Amounts paid to other Boards or separate institutions73,04073,743
Rents, rates, and taxes2,0693,961
Interest69,95060,727
Contributions to National Provident Fund for superannuation of employees13,83615,425
Capital works68,61581,412
Loan-repayments or payments to sinking fund64,38063,619
Miscellaneous payments17,01112,307
Amounts invested on account of funds for special purposes3,595716
Totals1,599,8401,673,905

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Although the figures in the last preceding statement relate to receipts and payments, the official returns of Hospital Boards have since 1910–17 been supplied on the basis of an Income and Expenditure Account and Balance-sheet.

REVENUE.

The following, showing the sources of revenue for the last two financial years for which figures are available relate not only to Hospital Boards, but also to Government institutions and the Mercury Bay Hospital Trustees.

 1933–34.1934–35.
Amount.£Percentage of Total.Amount.£Percentage of Total.
Contributable by Government643,81239·5652,18638·8
Levies on local authorities586,31536·0601,71535·8
Voluntary contributions13,7370·826,0081·5
Recoveries from those assisted338,44420·8355,53021·1
Rents, interest, and dividends25,0561·525,6321·5
Miscellaneous revenue23,3121·421,0631·3
 1,630,676100·01,682,134100·0
Cash in bank (other than loan-money)..45,862..52,760 
Totals1,676,5381,734.894.. 

With the exception of “Recoveries from those assisted,” which is a purely cash figure, the above particulars and those below relating to expenditure are taken from the Income and Expenditure Accounts and Balance-sheets.

To ascertain the total receipts for the year 1934–35 the sum of £75,022 (receipts and cash in hand from loans for capital purposes) should be added, making the aggregate £1,810,816.

The amount contributable by the Government consists of subsidies on maintenance levies, £537,332; subsidies on capital levies. £50,606; cost of maintaining Government institutions, £24,226; patients' fees paid to Boards or remitted in respect of Government institutions, £27,042; and special payments to Boards, £6,320, making a total of £652, ISO.

EXPENDITURE

The maintenance expenditure for the last two financial years was made up as follows:—

 1933–34.1934–35
Amount.£Percentage.Amount.£Percentage.
Hospital maintenance999,20168·11,047,99369·1
Charitable relief—
Indoor103,3107·0105,7417·0
Outdoor172,09211·8170,89411·7
Medical associations8,9010·69,7430·6
District nursing9,0540·710,2390·7
Ambulances7,4680·57,3430·5
Miscellaneous maintenance expenditure6,5180·48,9820·6
Administration73,0005·070,9775·1
Interest on loans71,1904·958,4003·8
National Provident Fund14,2841·014,7050·9
Totals1,400,350100·01,517,083100·0

Capital expenditure for the year 1934–35 totalled £167,323, this amount including £63,745 in respect of amortization of loan-money. The total expenditure for the year, excluding amounts paid from one Board or departmental institution to another, was thus £1,684,406.

HOSPITAL MAINTENANCE EXPENDITURE.

The average annual cost of maintenance of general hospitals per occupied bed was as follows in the years shown:—

Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Miscellaneous.Total Maintenance.
 ££££££
1910–1122·78·726·738·82·799·6
1914–1525·010·727·043·51·9108·1
1919–2040·415·443·252·40·3151·7
1924–2540·914·950·477·08·4191·6
1930–3140·718·052·691·41·8204·5
1931–3234·515·143·585·72·8181·6
1932–3331·315·441·982·12·7173·4
1933–3429·416·540·679·42·6168·5
1934–3529·816·641·180·23·5171·2

CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE.

Charitable-aid expenditure has been as follows during the last ten years:—

Year.Indoor Relief.Outdoor Relief.Total.
 £££
1925–26113,58477,899191,483
1926–27112,72692,922205,648
1927–28112,755112,519225,274
1928–29110,874134,864245,738
1929–30114,532140,065254,597
1930–31119,774192,073311,847
1931–3299,688269,632369,320
1932–3398,788195,883294,671
1933–34103,316172,692276,008
1934–35105,741176,894282,635

The sharp rise in outdoor relief which took place during 1930–31 and the succeeding year is attributable mainly to the provision of relief necessitated by unemployment, whilst the decrease for the subsequent years is principally accounted for by the late Unemployment Board having relieved Hospital Boards of the bulk of unemployment relief.

COST TO GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The following shows for triennial periods the average annual net maintenance requirements of Hospital Boards—i.e., le average estimated deficit which is provided for by levies on the local authorities and Government subsidy thereon:—

Average of Triennium.Amount. £
1924–27875,485
1925–28979,333
1926–291,074,138
1927–301,156,254
1928–311,193,380
1929–321,156,699
1930–331,116,503
1931–341,075,146
1932–351,086,479
1933–361,100,228

The following shows the total cost to the public funds of hospitals and charitable aid for the past decade, as represented by levies and subsidies for both capital and maintenance purposes; including also subsidies on voluntary contributions (while in force) and expenditure out of the Health Department's own vote:—

Year.Levies made.Subsidies payable.Expenditure out, of Department's Vote.Total.Amount per Head of the Population.
 ££££s.d.
1925–26547,570582,282174,5251,304,37718 9
1926–27562,718588,573132,5681,283,85918 1
1927–28626,127654,902158,1651,439,19419 11
1928–29675,238698,105158,0401,531,38321 0
1929–30688,279718,025177,4651,583,76921 5
1930–31695.264707,581188,6701,591,51521 3
1931–32564,135559,077152,7241,275,93617 0
1932–33578,901604,043128,5241,311,40817 3
1933–34586,318584.479142,8521.313,64917 2
1934–35601,715594,991118,1321,314,83817 1

PATIENTS' PAYMENTS.

The amount of patients' fees received per occupied bed in Hospital Boards' Hospitals in 1913–14 was £23–4; in 1933–34, exclusive of fees received from other Boards, it was £51·5. Receipts during the past five years have been as follows:—

 Total.Amount per Occupied bed.
 ££
1930–31331,87262·0
1931–32308,16460·5
1932–33280,25156·6
1933–34276,31051·5
1934–35257,10245·9

Included in these fees are amounts paid by the Government, which in 1934–35 amounted to £20.168.

LOANS.

During the year 1934–35 eight new loans aggregating £75,100 were authorized for terms ranging from three to twenty years. In addition, five loans totalling £67,230, for the liquidation of existing loans, were sanctioned.

The amount of loans outstanding at the 31st.March. 1935. was £1,224,942. This amount, however, is reduced by a sum of £200.910 standing to the credit of sinking funds, making the net amount of loan-money £1.024,032. Actual repayments of principal (i.e., direct repayments £17,790. and repayments from sinking fund £194,344) during 1934–35 totalled £212,134, whilst payments to sinking fund amounted to £37,809.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.

Subsection D of the preceding section contains statistics of inpatients treated at public hospitals other than maternity hospitals. In the following table the figures are inclusive of maternity hospitals, sanatoria, &c., and relate to the financial year instead of to the calendar year:—

Year.Inpatients treated.Average Number of Occupied Beds.Beds available.
Total Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.
1910–1125,10124·12,0251·03,22231
1925–2668,46149·26,1113·77,5015·4
1926–2775,70853·35,3183·77,8475·5
1927–2879,84255·15,6083·98,0075·6
1928–2987,88860·26,1344·28,4575·8
1929–3089,76160·86,0574·18,5775·8
1930–3189,14759·55,9123·98,8035·9
1931–3285,5625645,5643·78,6465·7
1932–3385,64656·05,3953·58,4165·5
1933–3491,00259·15,6773·78,6985·6
1934–3596,27662·05,8733·88,7465·6

The number of institutions coming under the head of public hospitals at 31st March, 1935, was 129, comprising 69 general hospitals (2 of which were also old people's homes, and 2 special hospitals), 1 chronic hospital, 2 convalescent hospitals, 43 maternity hospitals, 5 tuberculosis sanatoria, 1 tuberculosis prevention institution. 2 chronic-tubercular hospitals, 2 tuberculosis dispensaries, and 4 infectious-diseases hospitals. A comparison of beds and patients between the last five years is given:—

 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
* In addition, dental cases treated during the year and attendances were: Auckland, 4,308, 13,30s; Wellington, 0,123, 12,100; Christchurch, 6,136, 20,180; and Timaru, 1,102, 4,563.
Number of institutions142140133131129
Number of beds—
General4,6744,6334,6054,7694,851
Children's cots1,0459999861,0411,051
Maternity636612610604597
Tuberculosis1,2141,1331,0441,0941,098
Infectious disease1,2341,2691,1711,1901,149
Totals8,8038,6468,4168,6988,746
Average number of occupied beds per diem5,9125,5645,3955,6775,873
Inpatients treated, during year89,14785,56285,64691,06296,276
Deaths during year3,9763,8503,8184,0684,399
Outpatients—
Number75,91886,87383,28581,599109,382*
Attendances403,673442,041387,087386,796495,232*

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.

The Private Hospitals Act, which came into force on the 1st January, 1907, is now embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, Part III of which provides for the licensing, management, and inspection of private hospitals. All such institutions must be licensed, and every application for a license must be accompanied by a full description and plan of the house proposed to be used, together with a statement showing the number and class of cases proposed to be received. The license shall state whether it is in respect of a lying-in private hospital or a surgical and medical private hospital, or if for both classes of cases; and no private hospital may be used for any purpose other than that in respect of which the license ia granted and purposes reasonably incidental thereto.

For every private hospital there must be a resident manager, either the licensee or some person appointed by the licensee, and in every case the manager must be a legally qualified medical practitioner or a registered nurse in the case of a surgical and medical hospital, or a registered midwife in the case of a lying-in hospital, or a registered nurse and midwife, or a registered nurse having as resident assistant a registered midwife, in the case of a hospital licensed for both purposes. No license may be granted in respect of a house not previously licensed until such house and annexed buildings have been approved by the Director-General of Health, and no addition may be made to any private hospital until it has been so approved. No license may be granted until the character and fitness of the applicant have been proved satisfactory. The license must be renewed on the 1st January of each year.

In every private hospital there must be kept a register of patients showing particulars as to name, age, abode, and date of reception of each patient, date when such patient left, or, in the event of death, the date thereof, name of medical practitioner attending, and such other details as may be prescribed. Inquiry may be made at any time as to the management, conduct, and equipment of any private hospital, and if such inquiry prove unsatisfactory the license may be revoked. Provision is made for the inspection of private hospitals in the same manner as for public institutions of the like nature.

The total number of private hospitals licensed in the Dominion is 312, of which 101 are medical and surgical hospitals, 36 medical, surgical, and maternity institutions, and 175 maternity hospitals. These hospitals provide 1,512 beds for medical and surgical cases, and 1,002 beds for maternity cases.

MATERNITY SERVICES.

STATE MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There were in 1935 five State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals open for the use of women in cases where the husband's income does not exceed £5 per week, and in cases of large families £0 per week. The charge for this service is 6s. per day, plus confinement-fee of £1 Is.

Two St. Helens Hospitals—Wanganui and Gisborne—were during the year 1933 handed over to the control of the Wanganui and Cook Hospital Boards respectively.

This service is given under the supervision of the Medical Superintendent, who is also responsible for the conduct of all abnormal cases and for the supervision of the ante-natal and post-natal care of all patients attending. There is also an outpatient department attached to each hospital, which provides (at a charge of £2) nursing services for patients not entering the institution. If the patient is confined by the District Midwife the charge is £2 10s.

The statistics given below for the year 1935 cover only the five State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals.

Hospital, and Year of Opening.Number of Beds.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended Outside.
Total Live-births.Total Still-births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of infants in Hospital.
Auckland (1906)32566262691
Wellington (1905)26501138627
Christchurch (1907)1535813..862
Dunedin (1905)151714..2..
Invercargill (1918)12236611..
Totals1001,83262323180

During the decade ended December, 1935, total live-births in State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals numbered 21,830; still-births, 638; deaths of mothers, 52; deaths of infants in hospital, 309; and confinements attended outside, 4,207.

PUBLIC MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There were as at 31st March, 1935, seventy-two public maternity hospitals or maternity wards attached to public hospitals under control of Hospital Boards or Hospital Trustees. These maternity hospitals and wards provide 535 beds. They are open to any district residents irrespective of income, the charges varying from £1 10s. to £5 5s. per week for those who are able to pay. At most of these institutions patients may be attended by the midwives in charge of the institution, under the supervision of the medical superintendent of the hospital, or in some instances may engage their own medical attendants.

For the reception of single girls there are special charitable institutions at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Invercargill, in addition to those established by the Salvation Army at the four chief centres and at Napier and Gisborne.

DISTRICT MIDWIVES AND MATERNITY NURSES.

Twenty-three Hospital Boards have midwives doing district work, in most cases in conjunction with other health work.

In addition, there are twenty-four District nurses appointed for the purpose of attending the Maori population, part of whose work is the attendance on Maori women during confinement.

ANTE-NATAL SERVICES.

Thirty-eight free public ante-natal clinics have been established in various parts of Now Zealand in connection with State or public maternity hospitals or maternal welfare societies, such as the Plunket Society. These clinics are conducted by registered midwives and registered nurses who have been specially trained for this purpose, and they work in conjunction with the medical attendants or midwives engaged to attend the patients during labour. The training of midwives in New Zealand includes training in ante-natal work. The total attendances at the various free clinics in Now Zealand during 1935 were 33,387. Several thousand copies of the pamphlet “Suggestions to Expectant Mothers” have been distributed free, mainly through these clinics. This pamphlet gives simple instructions for the maintenance of health during pregnancy and information regarding the necessary preparation for confinements to be conducted in private houses.

Every effort is being made to impress the public with the importance of parental hygiene and systematic ante-natal care throughout pregnancy. Addresses and lectures are delivered by Medical Officers of the Department of Health to nurses and societies interested in this subject. So that there will be definite co-operation between the midwife and the ante-natal clinic, and in order that the midwife may be informed of the clinical methods adopted by the Health Department, refresher courses of lectures, given particularly on ante-natal work, are available to all registered midwives and maternity nurses.

BENEVOLENT AND ORPHAN ASYLUMS.

One hundred and eighteen institutions classed under the heading of benevolent and orphan asylums furnished returns to the Census and Statistics Office for the year 1935. These institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons to whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and refuge homes for unfortunate women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “prison gate” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of the orphanages deal with cases similar to those dealt with by the special schools under the control of the Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Court. The following table relates to the year 1935.

Controlling Authorities.Number of Institutions.Inmates at 1st JanuaryAdmissions during yearBirths in Institutions during yearDischarges during yearDeaths in Institutions during yearInmates at 1st DecemberTotal Inmates during year
Hospital Boards251,5181,9532791,9323451,4733,750
Church of England17689233372753681959
Roman Catholic Church161,558529..504691,5142,087
Presbyterian Church15460122..11511456582
Methodist Church517241..44..169213
Baptist Church16117..24..5478
Brethren1..21......2121
Salvation Army237471,5001841,645147722,431
Undenominational associations, &c.15557616325874156091,498
Totals1185,7625,0328255,4134575,74911,619

In many cases there is a variation in the class of inmate provided for by the different controlling bodies. For instance, none of the homes under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Church, the Presbyterian Church, the Methodist Church, the Baptist Church, or the Brethren are maternity homes of any description. The four last-mentioned churches control children's homes and orphanages only, while the Church of England caters chiefly for children, although some maternity cases are dealt with. Again, the Hospital Boards concentrate chiefly upon old people's homes, while the Salvation Army deals with all types, and is the only body that conducts extensively the “prison-gate” or industrial type of institution. Factors such as these affect the demands made upon the different institutions for accommodation or relief.

The ages and sexes of all inmates in the institutions at 31st December, 1935, were as follows:—

Age-group.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5 years229213442
5 and under 10 years..492441933
10 and under 15 years6425951,237
15 and under 17 years85196281
17 and under 25 years75315390
25 and under 35 years67135202
35 and under 45 years10196197
45 and under 55 years170112282
55 and under 65314144458
65 years and over9713501,321
Unspecified336
Totals3,1492,6005,749

Some remarkable differences in the sex proportions at the various age-groups are apparent in the foregoing table. The first three groups, which relate to infants and young children, naturally show relatively little disparity. The next two groups, covering ages 15 and under 25 years, shows a large excess of females. The female figures for this group, of course, are greatly swollen by the inclusion of girls and young women seeking refuge in maternity homes. The figures are also affected by the fact that the majority of boys who have spent most of their lives in orphanages obtain outside employment at these ages. The former influence continues to be in evidence in the following age-group also. From 45 onwards a distinct male excess is observed.

The overwhelming majority of males dependent upon charitable aid at these later ages is indeed remarkable, although the “prison-gate” and industrial type of home no doubt swells the numbers at this stage.

The next table contains information concerning inmates of orphanages and of a few other institutions which provide for both children and older people. The figures relate to inmates under the age of twenty-one who were remaining in the institutions at 31st December, 1935.

Age in Completed Years.Legitimate.IllegitimateTotal
Father and Mother both Alive.Father Dead Mother Alive.Father Alive Mother Dead.Father and Mother both Dead.No Information as to OrphanhoodNo Information as to Legitimacy
010..1......2839
19..2......4152
218..31..12750
32814....31753
444124......1483
5665246..419124
679112714518145
7719479..222160
885174752219177
91022563122337244
10972959123229231
11871889161329243
12942867235726250
1386326616....24226
14603176226221218
15371749142414137
16258258....1177
1761762..729
184114....818
194154....216
203425....317
Not known................
Totals1,01523968816429384162,589

Contrary to what might generally be expected, the above figures reveal that the largest group is that covering children both of whose parents were shown to have been alive. Cases where both parents were dead were in the minority as regards the four legitimate classes where full information as to orphanhood is available.

Chapter 10. SECTION V.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.—continued.

SUBSECTION C—MENTAL HOSPITALS.

THERE are eight public mental hospitals in the Dominion maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The patients on the register at the end of 1935 were distributed as shown below. Numbers given throughout this subsection are inclusive of Maoris. Figures for Maoris are also given separately toward the end of the subsection.

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland7025871,289
Kingseat (Papakura)248197445
Tokanui329283612
Porirua8706801,550
Nelson484200690
Hokitika228190418
Christchurch7117001,411
Seacliff and Waitati6975391,230
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)132330
Totals4,2823,4057,087

The number of patients remaining at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Year.Patients remaining at 31st December.Proportion per 10,000 of Total Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19313,7532,9086,66148·32390243·77
19323,9032,9806,88349·9039·6544·88
19334,0653,2177,28251·6042·4347·10
19344,1333,3007,43352·0843·2247·74
19354,2823,4057,68753·6344·2349·02
Average of five years4,0273,1027,18951·1241·7340·52

The total number of patients tinder oversight, care, or control during 1935 was 8,734 (males 4,794, females 3,940), as against 8,033 in 1934. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 6,938 in 1934 and 7,114 in 1935.

ADMISSIONS.

The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1935 were 1,069 (567 males and 502 females), this number not including 232 transfers from one institution to another. The causes of insanity as assigned on admission are given.

CAUSES OK INSANITY.
Heredity102
Congenital168
Previous attack125
Puberty and adolescence80
Climacteric58
Puerperal state19
Senility128
Involution21
Mental stress, prolonged190
Toxic7
Syphilis27
Gross Brain Lesion3
Constitutional3
Alcohol17
Encephalitis3
Epilepsy56
Organic brain-disease12
Arterio-sclerosis28
Traumatic2
Ill health20
Totals, excluding transfers (232)1,069

Of the 1,069 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 19·35, those admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 911 (males 501, females 410), and those readmitted 15S (males 66 females 92).

The figures for 1935 represent one first admission for every 1,713 persons in the mean population of the Dominion. The number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of mean population for each of the bust five years were as follows:—

Year.Number of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19315083989066·575·375·99
19324893958846·285·285·79
19334864589446·20607614
19344054238285·135·565·34
19355014109116·305·365·84
Average of five years4784178956·095·535·82

VOLUNTARY INMATES.

Persons labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as voluntary boarders At the beginning of 1935 there were 381 patients on the books (217 males, 164 females), and during the year 312 (170 males, 142 females) were admitted If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate During the year 1935, 38 (18 males, 20 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 19 males and 10 females died, while 267 (151 males, 116 females) were discharged, leaving 359 on the records at the end of the year (199 males, 160 females).

AGES OF INMATES.

A summary is attached showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the end of 1935.

Age, In Years.Males.Females.Total.
1 and under 5221335
5 and under 107638114
10 and under 1514074214
15 and under 20256174430
20 and under 306093951 004
30 and under 407195261,245
40 507787261,504
50 and under 608277531,580
60 and under 70534436970
70 and under 80223195418
80 and under 90474390
90 and over549
Unknown462874
Totals4,2823,4057,687

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.

The next table gives the average number resident, those who were discharged as recovered, and those who died, during the period 1931–35.

Year.Average Number Resident.Discharged as recovered.Died.
Number.Per Cent, of Number admitted.Number.Per Cent, of Average Number Resident.
19316,19924723·244206·78
19326,41930128·103886·04
19336,74126123·37345512
19346,93826026·454366·28
19357,11425323·674356·11
Average of five years6,68226424·88405606

The table following shows the length of residence in mental hospitals of patients who died and of patients who were discharged recovered during the year 1935 Of those discharged recovered, 58 per cent, hat! been inmates for less than one year.

Length of Residence.Patients who died.Patients discharged recovered.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month231740204
1 month and under 3 months201131101222
3 months and under 6 months151025192140
6 months and under 9 months12618192039
9 months and under 12 months12618212041
1 year and under 2 years251843323365
2 years and under 3 years12152791221
3 years and under 5 years2225474!l13
5 years and under 7 years131427145
7 years and under 10 years91625..33
10 years and under 12 years6410......
12 years and under 15 years51318.....
15 years and over484795......
Died during absence12416......
Totals229206435117136253

Old age is the principal cause of death among mental-hospital patients. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the year 1935 are as follows:—

DEATHS OF MENTAL HOSPITAL PATIENTS.
Tuberculosis18
Cancer24
Other general diseases8
General paralysis of the insane21
Epilepsy22
Other diseases of the nervous system55
Diseases of the circulatory system90
Diseases of the respiratory system34
Diseases of the digestive system7
Diseases of the genitourinary system11
Old age126
External causes3
Died while on leave16
Total435

A table is added showing for all admissions since 1876 the percentages of patients discharged (as recovered and relieved, separately), died, and remaining.

Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Includes a small number of patients discharged whose condition was not improved.
Discharged—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Recovered34·8140·303716
Relieved*9·4611·2710·23
Died37·0928·5733·45
Remaining at end of 193518·6419·8619·16
Total admissions 1876·1935100·00100·00100·00

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.

A license may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such licenses, which may be revoked at any time. The Director-General has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private institution in the Dominion, that at Wakari (Ashburn Hall), near Dunedin, established in 1882 Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the last five years, are as follows These figures are included in preceding tables.

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Patients remaining at End of Year.
1931129543
1932610336
1933129336
1934137339
1935109436

MAORIS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS.

The number of Maoris admitted as patients to mental hospitals is small The figures for the last five years are—

Year.Admitting During the yearRemaining at End of the year
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
1931141125514798
19321511265349102
19331413276447111
19341714316854122
1935126187543118

The above figures are also included in the tables covering all inmates of mental hospitals.

EXPENDITURE, ETC.

The total expenditure on maintenance of mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions), and receipts from patients and for sale of produce, &c, during the last five years wore as follows:—

YearTotal Expenditure.Receipts from Patients, Sale of Produce, &c.Net Expenditure
Total.Per Head of Mean Population.
 £££s. d.
1931–32429,258163,352265,9063 6
1932–33404,010163,963240,0473 1½
193J–84401,220167,720233,5003 0½
1934–35424,119171,677252,4423 3
1935–36462,318182,735279,5833 7

Chapter 11. SECTION VI.—EDUCATION.

NATIONAL SYSTEM OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

THE provision of educational facilities in New Zealand dates back into the first years of British settlement in the country. Immediately after the advent of the first missionaries schools for the instruction of the Native youth were established. Later, as a European population settled in the country, the need for a means of educating the white children arose, and finally the necessity for some co-ordinated scheme for the whole colony asserted itself. This latter was consummated in the Education Act of 1877, which Act is the basis of the system of education obtaining in the Dominion at the present day.

A very full and informative historical account of educational legislation and progress in New Zealand is given in Parliamentary Paper I.-8A of the 1930 session.

The passing of the Education Act of 1877 marked the foundation of the present system of free, compulsory,* and secular education. The outstanding feature of the Act was the establishment of (1) a central Department of Education controlled by a Minister of the Crown; (2) twelve education districts governed by Boards; and (3) school districts, which came under the jurisdiction of School Committees. On the Department was the onus of administering the annual appropriations by distributing to the Boards funds for the erection and maintenance of schools and the establishment of training or normal schools, and also the payment of capitation to the Boards at the rate of £3 15s. for each scholar in average daily attendance.

Education Boards were to be elected by School Committees, and to consist of nine members, three of whom were to retire annually. In the Boards were vested all property and endowments, and rents from these became part of the Board funds. The Boards were required to administer funds in carrying out the building arrangements for which grants were provided by the Department; in paying the salaries of teachers; and in granting to School Committees money for general educational purposes. The appointment and removal of teachers were in their hands, and the Act also gave the Boards power to establish scholarships, and to provide for secondary education in district high schools. Fees were, however, payable to Education Boards by pupils receiving secondary instruction. School Committees of seven members were to be elected annually. Generally the Committee had the management of educational matters within its own district, and out of the money received from the Board made payments incidental to the administration of the Committee's functions. In addition to these provisions the Act of 1877 specified the course of instruction to be given in the schools throughout the whole country. Inspectors, who were officers of the Education Boards, were appointed to examine and report on the school-work.

In the main the principles of the Act of 1877 are operative today. Several amendments made in succeeding years necessitated a consolidating measure in 1904. Among the principal alterations and additions that, had been made up to that date were: The provision in 1900 for a comprehensive scheme of manual and technical instruction; the introduction of physical drill into the curriculum in 1901; and, in 1903, the institution of National Scholarships to be awarded by the Department and the introduction of a system of free places in secondary schools and district high schools for scholars completing the primary course. Up to the year 1901 also, each Board had its own scale of staffs and salaries, but an Act of 1901 fixed the relation of the number and the remuneration of teachers in a school to the number of pupils in attendance. In 1905 each education district was divided into three wards, each returning three members, one of whom in each ward retired annually.

No outstanding changes beyond the consolidation of education legislation in 1908 were made until 1914. By the Education Act of that year the whole of the law relating not only to public but also to secondary, technical, and special schools was recast. The principal changes involved the reorganization of the Department of Education, and the Inspector-General of Schools became Director of Education. Inspectors of Schools, who hail hitherto been officers of the several Education Boards, became officers of the central Department, a provision, it may be noted, that had been deleted from the Bill of 1877. Provision was made for the constitution of fewer education districts in lieu of the thirteen then existing, and by an Act of 1915 nine were created. Every education district is divided into urban areas and a rural area. An urban area consists of a borough or a group of boroughs having more than eight thousand inhabitants; and the rural area, which comprises the rest of the district, is divided into three wards. The members for each ward of the rural area and for all urban areas are, as previously. elected by the members of the several School Committees. The number of members for the rural area of an Education Board is six—two for each ward. The number of members for each urban area is two for each sixty thousand or part of sixty thousand inhabitants. School Committees are elected by the householders, and hold office for two years. Prior to 1934 the term of tenure was one year.

* Every child between the ages of seven and fourteen years is required to be enrolled as a pupil of either a public or a registered school. The parents of a child of school age are liable to a penalty of £2 if such child is improperly enrolled at other than a public or registered school. There are statutory exemptions from attendance in certain circumstances.

Under the Act, a graded list of certified teachers is compiled annually. Except in special cases, all teaching appointments are governed by the position of the applicants on the list, and it is also to some extent the basis for the determination of the rate of salary payable.

Amending legislation, mainly of an administrative character, has been enacted at various times since 1914. By the Education Amendment Act, 1921–22, the registration of all private schools is compulsory, and teachers in both public and private schools are required to take the oath of allegiance.

The Education Amendment Act, 1924, provided for the amalgamation of the governing bodies of secondary and technical schools, and the creation of a Teachers' Register. The Education Amendment Act, 192ti, discontinued the system of issuing licenses to teach.

Part II (Education Amendment) of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 2), abolished the Council of Education, District Advisory Committees, and also Junior and Senior National Scholarships, at the same time authorizing the establishment of bursaries for secondary or higher education.

By Part V (Education Amendment) of the Finance Act, 1932, no child under the age of six years can be enrolled in a public school.* By the same Act minor changes were made in the sections of the Education Act, 1914, dealing with teachers' salaries.

The Education Amendment Act, 1932–33, provided for consolidation and amendment of the law in respect to the appointment and transfer of teachers in public schools, the establishment of intermediate schools and departments (previously junior high schools and departments), the amendment of the existing provisions governing the dismissal of teachers, the establishment of training colleges and authorization of advances to training-college students with conditions as to their repayment, the enrolment of a child in a public school in the first four weeks of the term in which he reaches the age of six years, the compulsory attendance of a child at special classes if deemed to require special tuition, authority to regulate admissions to schools other than public schools, and the making of regulations for fixing terms and holidays and defining the public holidays in schools and training colleges.

In addition to minor amendments the Education Law Amendment Act, 1933, substituted for annual elections of school committees.

Various minor amendments were made by the Education Law Amendment Act, 1934–35.

The programme of primary instruction at present provided by the Act includes English, arithmetic, geography, history and civics, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical instruction, moral instruction and health, and singing.

* In actual practice this provision has been waived as from the beginning of 1936. Steps are now being taken to amend the law.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.

The number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of the Dominion is shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year in all cases except Technical Classes which are as at 1st July.

Class of Institution.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* A chance In nomenclature was made in 1933, the term “junior high school” being replaced by “intermediate school.”
Primary Education.
Public (State) schools207,280200,641199,745197,326
Intermediate schools* and departments207,280200,641199,745197,326
Native village schools7,3137,3407,5877,876
Native mission schools537552535570
Registered private primary schools26,41026,42826,63626,869
Lower departments of secondary schools209178108200
Correspondence classes (primary)1,1861,3191,3261,444
Chatham Islands140149157103
Total primary243,081236,007236,154234,448
Post-primary Education.
Secondary schools13,44613,30913,48713,648
Combined schools1,9751,9291,9191,974
Secondary departments of district high schools4,3454,3894,3654,593
Secondary scholars at intermediate schools*141122....
Technical high and technical day schools7,1067,1497,1837,323
Maori secondary (boarding) schools346302333373
Registered private and endowed secondary schools4,0534,0634,1464,508
Correspondence classes (secondary)325355396519
Total secondary31,73731,61831,82932,938
Technical Classes (excluding Technical High Schools and Technical Day Schools).
Conducted by Education, Secondary, or High School Boards2,1302,2132,3422,555
Conducted by Technical School Boards6,9686,5246,9517,992
Conducted by University colleges361341304286
Total technical9,4599,0789,59710,833
University Education.
University colleges4,1493,9603,9104,109
University students exempt from lectures763846811709
Lincoln Agricultural College68445367
Massey Agricultural College191235285220
Total University5,1715,0855,0595,105
Total scholars and students289,448282,388282,639283,324

Public primary schools, including district high schools and 16 intermediate schools or departments, numbered 2,502 in 1935, 46 less than in 1934. The number of registered private primary schools from which returns were received by the Education Department was 310. Aided or endowed colleges, grammar schools, and high schools in operation numbered 40, combined secondary and technical high schools 6, technical high schools and technical day schools 21, registered private secondary schools 54, and University colleges 4. The number of primary and secondary schools established for the education of the Native race was 159.

PUBLIC (STATE) PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The figures tabulated below concern pupils in public schools, and from 1927 to 1929 also include pupils of three junior high schools (now termed intermediate schools) which are administered by the Auckland Education Board. From 1930 to 1933 Forms 1 and II pupils and since 1934 all pupils of intermediate schools and departments have been included. Thus all pupils receiving primary instruction are accounted for in the figures from 1930 onwards.

Year.Population at 31st December (excluding Maoris).Number of Schools (including Intermediate Schools and Departments).Pupils at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.
19201,365,4172,601216,807212,334190,89589·9
19271,385,4012,601219,945214,242191,09089·2
19281,401,4722,598218,794214,394193,42090·2
19291,418,9142,597217,901213,210193,97890·9
19301,438,2392,601218,479212,702190,08292·2
19311,452,7472,534218.442213,059197,32492·0
19321,463,0302,528207,280210,078193,70192·2
19331,473,4802,531200,041195,935182,01792·9
19341,482,9092,548199,745194,812177,94791·3
19351,492,2732,502197,320192,400178,08092·5

Of the 2,502 schools shown above for 1935, 2,004 had average attendances of not. more than eighty, mid of these 940 had averages ranging from one to twenty.

RELATIVE ACTIVITIES IN EDUCATION DISTRICTS.

The following figures chow the number of schools and intermediate schools or departments as at 31st December, 1935, and the number of pupils at the end of each of the last five years. The latter figures are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

District.Schools at End of 1935.Pupils at End of—
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Auckland75967,07864,82262,70063,00562,774
Taranaki17312,12911,52411,21211,28810,980
Wanganui21316,75315,78215,27714,90314,724
Hawke's Bay19116,19115,44214,87014,69414,550
Wellington23728,80927,34726,36026,37125,871
Nelson1396,9566,5296,3286,2996,308
Canterbury37336,94434,8133,85833,58932,956
Otago23820,83719,60818,95718,56018,133
Southland17912,08511,41311,07911,03011,019
Totals2,502218,442207,280200,641199,745197,326

In each of the education districts are located Inspectors of Schools, who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school Inspectors on the 31st December, 1935, was 38, allocated as follows: Auckland, 11; Taranaki, 2: Wanganui, 3; Hawke's Bay, 3; Wellington, 4; Nelson, 2; Canterbury, 6; Otago, 4; Southland, 3.

AGE AND SEX OF PUPILS.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public schools and Forms I and II of intermediate schools and departments of the Dominion at the 1st July, 1935:—

Age.1935.Percentage of Total Pupils
Boys.Girls.Total.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
5 and under 6 years1,3311,2692,6008·87·61·01·01·4
6 and under 7 years11,30910,73622,04511·211·211·711·611·5
7 and under 8 years12,27311,46623,73911·311·812·412·512·4
8 and under 9 years12,39811,59423,99211·711·512·812·612·5
9 and under 10 years12,43511,75624,19112·211·712·312·812·6
10 and under 11 years12,86312,03724,90011·812·412·612·413·0
11 and under 12 years12,35011,42423,77412·211·913·112·512·4
12 and under 13 years11,79810,88222.6809·811·111·912·311·8
13 and under 14 years8,8287,46016,2887·27·08·38·38·5
14 and under 15 years3,7112,3956,1063·13·03·13·33·2
15 and under 16 years8353991,2340·60·70·70·60·6
16 years and over76371130·10·10·10·10·1
Totals100,20791,455191,662100·0100·0100·0100·0100·0

PUPILS LEAVING PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

In 1935 22,108 pupils (11,526 boys and 10,582 girls) left public primary schools as against 22,665 (11,834 boys and 10,831 girls) in 1934. Of those leaving in 1935, 17,708, or 80 per cent., had passed Form II (Standard 6), and 4,400, or 20 per cent., had not passed that standard. The corresponding percentages in 1934 were 79 and 21.

MANUAL INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Elementary handwork in such subjects as modelling, paper and cardboard work, and brushwork is taught by the ordinary stall in practically every school of any size in the Dominion. The boys of Forms I and 11 (Standards 5 and 6) receive instruction from special teachers in woodwork or ironwork. The girls of similar standards also receive instruction from special instructors in domestic subjects, including a comprehensive course in cookery and domestic hygiene. Subjects relating to agriculture or dairy-work a. id general elementary science are taught by the regular stall under the supervision of itinerant instructors specially qualified in the work.

CLASS-BOOKS AND SCHOOL AND CLASS LIBRARIES.

Up to the year 1930 annual grants were made to Education Boards on a capitation and subsidy basis for libraries in public schools. It was possible to reinstate in 1935 the grants at a rate somewhat lower than that enjoyed previously.

CORRESPONDENCE CLASSES.

Since 1922, correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children who would otherwise not be able to obtain any schooling. The classes are provided for the benefit of children in particularly isolated localities, but pupils are also enrolled who are unable to attend a public school through illness or physical disability. In 1928 preliminary arrangements were made for the establishment of a secondary department, and in February, 1929, post-primary courses in English, mathematics, geography, history, agriculture, Latin, and book-keeping were made available. The children taking those courses comprise ex-primary pupils living in remote districts, whose only opportunity of obtaining a secondary education is by means of correspondence. The courses provide instruction for public examinations, including the University Entrance and Training College Entrance Examinations. In some cases pupils of remote primary schools, on completion of their primary course, receive instruction in secondary subjects through their teacher, the papers being supplied by the Correspondence School. A special feature is made of practical agriculture, a special at assistant being appointed for this purpose.

At the end of 1935 there were 1,963 pupils on the roll of the correspondence classes, 1,444 being in the primary department and 519 in the secondary. In addition, assistance was given to the head teachers of 104 rural schools who were regularly supplied with secondary-instruction papers and model answers for use in teaching 142 pupils continuing attendance at their schools. The staff of the school consists of a headmaster, 17 secondary and 27 primary assistant teachers, 5 of whom are engaged in the infant department, and 3 specialists engaged exclusively in teaching needlework. There are also 17 office assistants.

PUBLICATIONS.

An illustrated paper, called the School Journal, is published by the Education Department monthly for use as the chief reader in primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, and is supplied free to all schools and other institutions more or less under the Department's control or supervision. To a large number of private schools it is supplied at cost price. Of the last issue of the School Journal for the year 1935 the number of copies printed was—Part I, 07,000; Part II, 70,000; Part III, 67,000: total, 204,000.

A monthly Gazette is published by the Department. In addition to containing articles by leading educationists, it is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to public schools of the Dominion.

CONVEYANCE AND BOARD OF SCHOLARS.

Free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway-line but out of reach of a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, combined schools, district high schools, and technical high schools, and also by free-place holders travelling to attend technical schools or classes other than at technical high schools.

Education Boards are authorized also to make provision when necessary for the conveyance of pupils to primary schools by road or water. From the beginning of 1934 Education Boards were authorized to reinstate the grants made in the case of pupils who were obliged to live away from home in order to attend school. The expenditure on these services for the last five years is shown in the following table:—

 1031.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Rail.Other, including Board.Rail.Other*Rail.Other*Rail.Other, including Board.Rail.Other, including Board.Total.
* Boarding-allowance was not paid in 1932 and 1933.
 £££££££££££
Public primary7,88377,4867,21267,7816,70363,0426,69963,5176,58170,70077,281
Private primary2,246..2,012..1,980..1,988..2,004..2,004
Native303,059432,727353,069504,045494,8234,872
Secondary departments of district high schools1,3547781,2007351,2070871,1837151,1007081,004
Secondary5,2083734,3002804,572904,3531534,387..4,387
Combined59..684..513..578..681..681
Technical6,140..5,940..5,833..6,093..6,151..6,151
Private secondary907..983..892..931..1,089..1,089
Totals23,98381,00022,38071,52321,73566,88821,87568,43022,13870,23198,369

PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

Physical education, including swimming and life-saving, is recognized as part of the primary and post-primary school curriculum. In the public schools a period of not less than fifteen minutes a day is devoted to the subject, and in post-primary schools at least one hour a week. Corrective classes are held in the larger schools for the purpose of remedying physical defects of the children.

The medical and dental inspection of school-children and the scheme of school dentistry are dealt with in Section VA of this publication.

PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHERS.

Of the 6,048 adult teachers at the end of 1935, 99·6 per cent, held teachers' certificates. Probationers have not been appointed since 1931. The average number of pupils for each adult teacher was 29. The table following relates to adult teachers as at 31st December, 1935, but excludes 155 teachers in intermediate schools and departments:—

Education District.Sole Teachers.Heads of Schools.Assistant Teachers.Total Number of Adult Teachers.Percentage of Male to Female Adult Teachers.
M.F.M.F.M.F.
Auckland265123303422428601,83579·0
Taranaki593457232716736763·8
Wanganui724974135121046972·4
Hawke's Bay64456974621544667·0
Wellington3884832110740673944·6
Nelson5540327169424473·0
Canterbury86119141171504881,00160·4
Otago696577179526458769·7
Southland64466253814536083·7
Totals7726058981527722,8496,04867·7

Omitting schools with fewer than twenty-one pupils, the ratio of adult men teachers to adult women teachers in 1935 was 100 to 166. The proportion of men to women in charge of schools with not more than twenty scholars was 100 to 78. If the adult teachers of all public schools are taken, it is found that the ratio of men teachers to women teachers was 100 to 148 in 1935.

Information as to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund will be found in the section of this book dealing with Pensions, Superannuation, &c.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

The training of teachers was resumed in 1935 at Auckland and Christchurch Training Colleges. The table following relates to the number of students in training at the end of 1935:—

Training College.Division A.Division C.All Students.
M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
Auckland (first year)641416770148218
Christchurch (first year)7312061179131210
Totals1372611218149279428

It was announced at the end of the year that the training of teachers would also be resumed at Wellington and Dunedin Training Colleges in 1936.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

By the Education Amendment Act, 1921–22, every private school was required to apply for registration before the 13th July, 1922, and no private school can now be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration, and certain precedent conditions of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum are required to be fulfilled.

At the end of the year 1935 the number of registered private primary schools was 310, with a total roll number of 20,8(39 and an average attendance of 23,930 for the year.

Year.Number of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
193130512,50014,22626,72624,069107852959
193230912,51013,90020,41023,837107850957
193330912,57513,85326,42823,526106868974
193430712,76213,87426,63623,38598891989
193531012,97113,89826,86923,930109866975

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic, the figures for Roman Catholic schools for 1935 being—Schools, 222; scholars on roll at end of year, 23,012 (males 11,244 females 11,768); average yearly attendance, 20,535; teachers, 748 (males, 52, females 696).

In addition to the 310 registered private primary schools there were 54 private secondary schools on the register at the end of 1935, with a total roll number of 3,968.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR NATIVES.

The number of Native village schools in operation at the end of 1935 was 138. In addition, there are twenty-one private schools at which education for Maori boys and girls is provided. Included in the twenty-one are ten boarding-schools which provide courses for primary and secondary education. Instruction is imparted by means of the English language only.

On the rolls of the 138 village schools at the end of 1935, there were 7,876 children (including 987 Europeans). The average attendance for the year was 7,098, the percentage of regularity being 90·8, and the average weekly roll number 7,816. The total number of pupils on the rolls of the Native mission schools was 570, and on those of the secondary schools 373. The total roll number of all the Native schools inspected by officers of the Education Department was 8,819.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Native village schools during the last ten years.

Year.Number of Schools at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.Number of Teachers.
 Males.Females.
19261306,6175,94789·894188
19271346,6555,81787·4104193
19281346,7705,96488·1102194
19291376,9556,25289·9104203
19301387,0796,43790·9111211
19311397,4996,80490·5111212
19321357,5246,84891·0108219
19331377,3466,58189·6114218
19341387,5236,79990·4119221
19351387,8167,09890·8120218

Three Inspectors of Schools attached to the Education Department are engaged in the inspection of Native schools, mission schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Besides the children of the Maori race who were receiving instruction in the Native schools there were 9,198 attending public schools, so that the total number of primary pupils of Maori race (including those in the mission schools) was 16,657.

INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS.

Since 1923 the Education Department has established sixteen intermediate schools (formerly termed junior high schools) or departments. Two are attached to district high schools, two to district high school departments, one to a technical school, six to secondary schools, and five are separate establishments. Pupils on the roll of intermediate schools or departments at the end of 1935 numbered 4,224, as against 4,369 in 1934. The average attendance during the year was 4,090. The ages of the pupils on the roll at the 1st July, 1935, were—

Age, in Years.Boys.Girls.Total.
Under 116976145
11 and under 12464495959
12 and under 137846791,463
13 and under 146065421,148
14 and under 15319235554
15 and under 169342135
16 and under 1710515
17 and under 18112
Totals2,3462,0754,421

POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Until 1904 secondary schools were established by special (local) Acts of the General Assembly, and the majority of schools giving post-primary education have been so constituted. At the present time the provisions of the Education Act, 1914, allow of the Minister of Education establishing such schools, and, in general the minimum number of prospective pupils must be sixty in the case of secondary schools, twenty in the case of the secondary department of a district high school, and forty in the case of a technical high school or a day technical school. The Education Amendment Act, 1924, provided that secondary or technical schools could be combined and be placed under a single governing body. In 1927 New Plymouth, and in 1931 Nelson and Napier, technical and secondary schools were combined under single controlling authorities. In 1931 Napier, and in 1932 New Plymouth and Nelson, combined schools were operating under regulations for these schools. Secondary schools and combined schools are controlled by a Board of Governors, district high schools by the Education Board of the district, and technical high schools and day technical schools either by a Board of Managers or by the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity. Free places are granted to suitably qualified pupils. A junior free place at a post-primary school is tenable for two years, with a possible extension to three years. A junior free place may not be held after the 31st December of the year in which the holder reaches seventeen years of age. Senior free places are tenable up to the age of nineteen. Since 193i all applications for extensions of free places have been approved where parents were unable to pay fees.

In addition to the five classes of institutions referred to, there are also fifty-four registered private secondary schools, two endowed secondary schools, and ten Maori secondary schools which provide for post-primary education.

The secondary schools are regularly inspected by four Inspectors and the technical schools by two Inspectors, all of whom are attached to the Education Department. The combined schools are inspected by both secondary and technical inspectors.

The number of schools providing post-primary education during the last five years is set out in the accompanying table.

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.Secondary Departments of District High Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private: Secondary Schools.Total.
* Endowed schools previously in “secondary schools” now included in “endowed and private secondary schools.”
193142282221151*210
193238680211054*209
193338681211055*211
193438682211055*212
193538685211056*216

The number of pupils at the end of each year of the last decade is shown in the following table; no account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary department is included.

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.District High Schools.Technical Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Correspondence Classes.Total
192613,651..3,1625,7005702,794..25,877
192714,190..3,4435,7035242,932.. 
192815,038..3,6736,0615333,430.. 
192915,498..3,8696,1145333,69898 
193016,149..4,1156,9535353,825166 
193115,4284484,6727,3974484,141286 
193213,4461,9754,3457,1063464,053325 
193313,3091,9294,3897,1493024,063355 
193413,4871,9194,3657,1833334,14639631,829
193513,6481,9744,5937,3233734,50851932,938

At the end of 1935, of the total scholars attending secondary schools, 7,195 were boys and 6,453 girls; combined schools, 1,137 and 837; secondary departments of district high schools, 2,258; technical schools, 3,947 and 3,376; endowed and registered private 2,281 and 2,227; and Maori secondary schools, 226 and 147.

FREE PLACES IN POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Of the scholars attending Government schools, no less than 99 per cent, wore receiving free tuition in 1935. The following table shows, as at 1st July, a summary of the free places held in post-primary schools for the last three years:—

Class of School and Free Place.1933.1934.1935.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Secondary schools—
Junior free pupils4,2584,2948.5524,9254,6259,5505,1304,8349,964
Senior free pupils3,4422,2605,7112,8842,0974,9812,7472,0214,768
Combined schools—
Junior free pupils7455741,317595951,3548016081,409
Senior free pupils451290741473291764445300745
District high schools—
Junior free pupils1,9341,5803,5141,8701,7593,6291,9001,9763,936
Senior free pupils8116221,4337675331,3007635681,331
Technical high and technical day schools—
Junior free pupils3,8372,9686,8083,8773,1096,9864,0203,1917,211
Senior free pupils1,0217681,7889838141,7979617811,742
Intermediate schools—
Junior free pupils7995174............
Senior free pupils2..2............
Correspondence school—
Junior free pupils149188337159232391206322528
Senior free pupils152944282452112132
Totals16,74413,67730,42116,72514,07930,80417,04414,62231,666

WAR BURSARIES FOR SOLDIERS' DEPENDANTS.

Regulations which came into force in January, 1918, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of killed or disabled members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces. To qualify for a war bursary a child must be eligible for—

  1. Free education at technical classes; or

  2. A free place at a secondary school, district high school, or technical high school; or

  3. A University National bursary.

Two and eighty-eight bursaries were current in 1935.

STAFFS OF POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The following table indicates the number of adult teachers employed in the post-primary schools mentioned. The principals are included except in the case of district high schools, the figures for which apply to assistants in the secondary department only.

Year.Secondary Schools.District High Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.Combined Schools. 
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Grand Totals.
19313682871208323813813111,258
19323362651159324014560381,292
19333362611188924614159371,287
19343472641269825014758381,328
193534826812910025514958391,346

LOWER DEPARTMENTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

These departments may be held in connection with secondary schools for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met out of the income from the endowments of the school or from Government grants. Seven secondary schools have lower departments attached to them. Sonic of the pupils board at the school hostels.

At the end of 1935 the number of schools was 7; of pupils, 200 (83 boys, 117 girls); and of teachers, 10.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

Technical classes for part-time day and evening students were held at thirty-eight centres during 1935. The number of individual students was as follows:—

Classes conducted by Education or High School Boards2,555
Classes conducted by Technical School Boards or by Managers7,992
Classes conducted by University colleges286
Total10,833

Of the above number, 6,325 (4,179 males and 2,146 females) held free places.

Technical high schools numbered twenty-one in 1935. These schools are of secondary grade, and provide general, industrial, domestic, agricultural, commercial, and art courses. The courses of instruction being taken by pupils at technical high schools at 1st July in each of the last five years were as follows:—

Course.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Industrial2,5182,6632,3782,4202,596
Commercial and general3,7863,7593,8624,0314,178
Domestic1,2561,4001,4741,5331,385
Agricultural485502524468465
Art496462468459425
Totals8,5418,7868,7068,9119,049

Technological examinations were conducted by the Department in 1935 on behalf of the City and Guilds of London Institute at eight centres. The total number of entries was 191, and the number of passes was 89. The Education Department also held its own examinations in technological subjects in 1935. The examinations were conducted on account of 67 candidates who sat for examination, 10 of whom were successful in securing passes in the preliminary, 15 in the intermediate examination, and 14 in the final examination.

Information in regard to free places in technical schools is given under the heading of “Post-primary Schools.”

CHILD WELFARE AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.

The Child Welfare Act of 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Education Department, known as the Child Welfare Branch. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, or delinquent children.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorized to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was also made for the appointment of honorary associates of either sex, whose function it is to consider all the facts concerning children brought before the Courts and to advise the presiding Magistrate or Justice as to what action should be taken. The appointment of Child Welfare Officers for the investigation of all cases coming before the Courts was also provided for. The functions of such officers are carried out mainly by the regular officers employed by the Department, but in outlying districts the services of a number of honorary child welfare officers are utilized for this important work.

The principle of dealing with children in the privacy of the Magistrate's room had been followed for many years throughout the Dominion, and the Child Welfare Act was designed to give legality to such a practice. Very wide discretionary powers are given to the Magistrates of these special Courts in dealing with children. The ordinary procedure of requiring the child to plead, of taking evidence on oath, and, in fact, of hearing the particular charge may be dispensed with altogether. Wherever practicable the Children's Court is held in premises apart from the ordinary Police Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child was originally defined for purposes of the Act as one under sixteen years of age. This age was raised to seventeen in 1927.

In order to provide for the greater protection of infants of unmarried mothers and for the assistance and guidance of the mothers themselves, there is provision for Child Welfare Officers, on being notified of such births, to investigate each case and to render such assistance as is required, either in placing the child in a suitable foster-home or in advising the mother in the matter of affiliation proceedings, or in “assisting her in obtaining employment, &c. By an amending Act in 1927 provision was made for the inspection and registration of all private institutions for children.

In addition to the work in connection with the maintenance and education of destitute, neglected, and delinquent children committed by the Courts, the Child Welfare Branch (1) supervises all infants and young children under the age of six years who are living apart from their parents: (2) makes inquiry through its field officers, for the information of Magistrates, of all applications for the adoption of children and for widows' pensions; (3) supervises all children and young persons placed under the field officers by order of the Court; and (4) provides for the maintenance, education, and training of all afflicted children who are deaf, blind, or mentally backward, or have speech-defects.

The following figures (which are exclusive of children dealt with as preventive cases, 1,143 in 1935) indicate the numbers under control during each of the last five years. In addition there were (1935) 23 children at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind, for whom the Education Department made payment.

Boarded out, institutions, receiving-homes, and in hospitals, or convalescent homes, &c.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 4,6084,1044,0313,9934,022
Under supervision911864850917892
Infant-life protection1,131996923816836
Deaf children120120116127116
Feeble-minded children267264239282240
Totals7,0376,3486.1596,1356,106

The Child Welfare Act authorizes Children's Courts to place children under the supervision of Child Welfare Officers in cases where it appears undesirable or unnecessary to remove them from their own homes, and generally in all cases where friendly contact with the parents as well as the children is sufficient to bring about a readjustment of the home conditions or the correction of incipient anti-social traits in the children. In this important work the Department received valuable assistance from certain of the private social service organizations.

The number of cases dealt with by the Courts last year was 2,273 and of these 616 were placed under supervision and dealt with as indicated in the foregoing paragraph. The number actually admitted to institutions, such as receiving-homes, special schools, training-farms, &c, was 440; but all these, with the exception of 98 who required long periods of training or were regarded as unfit for placing out, were suitably provided for in the community before the close of the year. The remainder of the children were dealt with in a manner not calling for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer.

At the end of the year 1935 the number of children boarded out in foster-homes was 2,600, as compared with 2,043 at the end of the preceding year. The boarding-out rate is 16s. per week for infants under twelve months, and 14s. for children over that age still attending school. The department provides free medical and dental treatment and medicines, also school books and stationery.

The Boys' Training Farm at Weraroa provides for boys of all ages—usually from fourteen years upwards—who require a period of reformative detention in an institution.

An institution at Otekaike is available for the education of mentally-backward boys. Older lads, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, and in the bootmaking, basketmaking, matmaking, and carpentering shops. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and employed in housework and laundry-work, sewing, knitting, &c, and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing.

In order to meet the requirements of children who are retarded in their development owing to physical or other defects special classes have been established. These classes provide for children in certain public hospitals, for hard-of-hearing children and speech defectives, for under-nourished and physically defective children, and for children who are unable to benefit from ordinary class instruction.

Infant-life protection is carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who ' are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. Very many infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate.

A residential school at Sumner exists for the teaching of deaf children, and special classes are established in the main centres for the education of hard-of-hearing children and for the correction of defective speech among children. Classes are also conducted for adults.

Provision is made for blind children and also for blind adults at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind at Auckland.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY.

Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the Now Zealand University, founded by the Now Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875.

The University was formerly an examining, not a teaching body, with four teaching institutions affiliated to it—the Auckland University College, founded in 1882; Victoria University College, founded in 1S97 at Wellington; Canterbury University College, founded in 1873 at Christchurch; and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. By the New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1926, the constitution of the University has been altered so that it now actually consists of the four University colleges. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions: Otago University has medical and dental schools, a 6chool of mining and metallurgical engineering, and a school of home science; Canterbury University College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil); Auckland University College has a school of architecture, a school of commerce, and a school of engineering up to and including the second professional examination; and Victoria University College specializes in law and science. There are also two Agricultural Colleges—viz., Massey and Lincoln—attached to the University.

In 1930 a Now Zealand University Amendment Act was passed to enable the New Zealand University to discharge its functions under the Law Practitioners Amendment Act, 1930.

For this purpose a Council of Legal Education was established to make recommendations to the Academic Board of the University with respect to any matter relating to legal education. Further, the Senate of the University in making or altering statutes concerning legal education must first consider any recommendations made by the Academic Board or the Council of Legal Education.

The growth of University education is seen from the annexed table. In 1935 there were 4,109 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges. Of these, 393 were graduates, 3,324 undergraduates, and 392 unmatriculated students. In addition there were 709 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures.

Year.Students attending Lectures.Exempt Students.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
19262,8751,2124431234,653
19273,0141,3483971194,878
19282,9751,2804351124,802
19292,9081,2203861094,623
19302,8791,2845081304,801
19312,9731,2364881724,869
19322,9451,2045891744,912
19332,8921,0686312154,806
19342,9051,0056032084,721
19353,0191,0905521574,818

Professors attached to the various University colleges in 1935 numbered 66, of whom Auckland had 15; Victoria, 14; Canterbury, 13; and Otago, 24. In addition there was a considerably larger number of full-time lecturers, part-time lecturers, and assistants.

FREE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.

University Junior Scholarships are of the value of £25 per annum plus tuition fees, and are tenable for three years. In the case of holders living away from home a further sum of £35 per annum is allowed. The number of University junior and national scholarships awarded in 1935 was thirty. Taranaki Scholarships are of the annual value of £60, and the Senate may, at its discretion, extend the tenure from three to four years. There are also some thirty or forty local and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same entrance examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the Senior University (£70 per annum), Sir George Grey, and John Tinline Scholarships (£70 per annum). The various colleges have also private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, the Medical Travelling Scholarship, the Engineering Travelling Scholarship, the Travelling Scholarship in Architecture, the Post-graduate Travelling Scholarships in Arts and in Science, the French Travelling Scholarship, the Law Travelling Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All except the last-named are tenable abroad. In view of the financial stringency some of the scholarships were suspended during 1935 and earlier. The Research Scholarships are each of the value of £100 per annum.

So far, forty-eight Rhodes Scholarships have been granted, of which thirteen have been gained by students of Auckland University College, nine by students of Victoria University College, ten by students of Canterbury University College, fifteen by students of Otago University, and one by a student of Massey College.

The Science Research Scholarship offered annually by the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 has been awarded to thirty-four graduates, nine from Auckland University College, seven from Victoria University College, ten from Canterbury University College, and eight from the University of Otago.

Since 1932 University national bursaries entitled the holders to the payment of tuition and examination fees (not exceeding £10 per annum). A bursary is tenable for a three (or possibly four) years' course at a University college or at a school of agriculture recognized by the University. The number of University national bursaries (excluding agricultural) held in 1935 was 435. Domestic-science bursaries, tenable at the Otago University, may be awarded under the regulations for technical instruction. Bursaries of this kind were held by fifteen students in 1935. During 1935 there were ten holders of engineering bursaries and five holders of architectural bursaries.

Agricultural bursaries may be awarded to qualified candidates in order to enable them to obtain the necessary practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1935 six bursars were in attendance at Canterbury Agricultural College (Lincoln), eight at Massey Agricultural College (Palmerston North), one at Auckland University College, and two at Otago University (Dunedin).

From the table given below will be seen the number of students who received free University education during each of the last ten years:—

Year.Junior University, University National, and Taranaki Scholarships.Senior University Scholarships.University and Educational Bursaries.Training-college Studentships.Other.Total.
* University bursaries only.
192687149405711321,750
192783181,0767491492,075
192881201,127567981,893
192984211,1617081092,083
193084191,162645992,009
193192191,186*558841,939
1932102171,184*493611,857
19339919749*248761,191
193411021580*..120837
1935.10821435*258117939

WORKERS' EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.

The Workers' Educational Association, which works in conjunction with the four University colleges, conducts tutorial and preliminary classes for working men and women in such subjects as economics, sociology, psychology, industrial history, English literature, English composition, modern history, electricity, hygiene, &c. Members of the staffs of the University colleges and other educationists act as tutors of the classes. The classes are held for the most part in the large cities, although to an increasing extent classes are being arranged in the smaller towns.

In addition, the association (since 1932) has provided a motor-car which serves as a travelling library. The car is equipped with a radio-receiving set and lantern for projecting slides. The finance for this car was provided by the Carnegie Corporation. The motor-car is used solely in the Canterbury rural district.

The Box Scheme which was inaugurated in the Canterbury District in 1924 now serves the whole of the Dominion. It is mainly confined to the rural areas. Under this scheme each box contains the copies of a lecture, gramophone records, &c, and is passed on from group to group.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.

The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department during the last five years is given below.

Examination.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Intermediate2,5728,4221 1,3081,026996
Teachers' D, C, and B53429413599102
Training College Entrance Examination961483314308684
Kindergarten Certificate Examination4........
School Certificate......4,1974,307
London University Examinations32232
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate3228271713
Technological Examinations143129836467
Naval Cadetships..2161
Aircraft Apprenticeships117413
Totals4,2609,3671,8745,7216,175

The University conducted examinations in 1935 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, public health, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, forestry, and music; for diplomas in journalism, in banking, and in insurance; and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 9,480 entrants for the degree examinations in 1935, compared with 9,172 in 1934. The number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination in the last five years has been: 1931, 4,779; 1932, 4,725; 1933, 4,738; 1934, 4,610; 1935, 4,602.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.

Out of public funds £3,256,670 was spent on education for the financial year ended 31st March, 1936. This sum includes amounts paid from reserves revenue, but not revenues received by certain secondary schools and university colleges from endowments, fees, &c., which are available for educational purposes. Direct income of post-primary schools and university colleges in 1935–3G from reserves vested in them amounted to £60,322. The following shows the expenditure from public funds for each branch or service of education for each of the last five years:—

Service.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
 £££££
General administration32,43529,52029,64732,35835,882
Elementary education2,145,0031,822,4821,833,5911,880,9052,011,610
Secondary education and technical instruction693,220548,796529,802597,976682,917
Training colleges, &c.146,712108,82734,32312,66955,359
Higher education93,11454,51956,72263,73971,895
Native schools93,74573,33079,70091,792100,077
Physical instruction6,8622,2761,1551,7491,425
School for the deaf5,8834,5204,8124,9065,531
Education of the blind2,870cr.201681,0671,414
Schools for the mentally backward11,25410,31011,43412,65014,476
Child welfare126,587113,076111,631107,549105,128
Material and storesCr. 701Cr. 873Cr. 495Cr. 455Cr. 64
Miscellaneous services52,89348,76948,05558,262171,020
Totals3,409,8772,815,53212,740,5452,871,1673,256,670

There is now given a series of comparative figures which show the cost of education during the last ten years.

Year ended 31st StarchExpenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.Year ended 31st MarchExpenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 £(000)s.d. £(000)s.d.
19273,91055119323,410451
19283,77052419332,8163610
19293,88653319342,741357
19304,058541119352,871370
19314,10255019363,257418

Chapter 12. SECTION VII.—JUSTICE.

CIVIL CASES.

THE law relating to the jurisdiction of Magistrates and Justices of the Peace in civil matters was consolidated by the Magistrates' Courts Act, 1928. Under this statute the ordinary civil jurisdiction of a Magistrate is limited to claims not exceeding £300; or, where the parties agree in writing that the Court shall have jurisdiction, to claims not exceeding £500. Justices of the Peace may hear and decide certain civil cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed £20. The numbers of plaints entered and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in the lower Courts during the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

Year.Plaints entered.Cases tried.
Number.Total Amount sued for.Number.Total Amount claimed.Total Amount for which Judgment entered.
  £ ££
192681,0611,333,94154,010933,269762,172
192783,3691,400,12955,676960,549786,299
192885,2431,463,76955,751951,916774,912
192987,1831,431,25656,663911,667772,247
193096,7701,542,43463,1201,010,026879,839
193191,5951,544,60162,9451,047,511889,978
193275,2011,244,23652,886861,088762,171
193364,6811,065,49944,669766,503687,009
193457,957848,38940,883619,243536,637
193559,105871,41340,094588,844504,448

In terms of money the 1931 level for plaints, for cases tried, and for judgments entered is the highest on record. The numbers of plaints and of cases tried were highest in 1930. In respect of eases tried the figures for 1935 show a substantial all-round decrease, being the lowest recorded since 1920.

The numbers of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments were recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand in its civil jurisdiction during the last decade were as follows:—

Year.Number of Actions commenced.Cases tried.Judgments recorded.
With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
     £
19261,82643496882344,198
19271,82652506935316,936
19281,43341370683270,632
19291,44644410643207,399
19301,45464392659260,870
19311,48174453706311,400 
19321,20370422562215,697
19331,14754418493148,119
193490050346364200,805
193593188303383148,155

INQUESTS.

The number of bodies on which inquests were hold in 1935 wa3 1,560, including 134 Maoris. In 1,064 cases the bodies were of males, and in 496 of females.

Nature of Verdict.Males.Females.Total.
Diseases and natural causes479330809
Accident468122590
Homicide5510
Suicide11139150
Legal execution1..1
Totals1,0644961,560

Of the accidental deaths the most common forms are injuries by motor-vehicles, railways and other forms of land transport, and drowning. The verdicts show that in 1935, 227 deaths, or 38 per cent, of the total accidental deaths, were due to injuries by vehicles, including railways and tramways, while 161 deaths, or 27 per cent., were due to drowning.

The inquests on suicidal deaths for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Inquests on Suicides.
Males.Females.Total.
192612030150
192716922191
192815952211
192918048228
193016335198
193119929228
193220050250
193316244206
193415035185
193511139150

FIRE INQUESTS

In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner may hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into cause of death.

During 1935 only one inquest was held on a fire, the verdict being that the cause was accidental.

During the five years 1931–33, 33 fire inquests were held. In 16 cases the verdict was arson, in 4 cases accident, and in 13 cases there was insufficient evidence to determine the cause.

POLICE FORCE.

The Police Force in New Zealand is a national body maintained wholly by the General Government. As at present constituted, it was established under the provisions of the Police Force Act, 1SS6, which came into operation on 1st September of that year. Prior to that date police duty in New Zealand had been carried out by members of the Armed Constabulary, which was then disbanded, some of its members being transferred to the newly constituted Police Force and others to the Permanent Militia. The Police Force Act, 18S6, consolidated in 1908, was revised and brought up to date by the Police Force Act, 1913, which, with minor amendments in 1919 and 1924, is the statute under which the Force now functions.

ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES.

The Commissioner of Police, with headquarters at Wellington, has, subject to the directions of the Minister in Charge of the Police Department, the general superintendence and control of the Police Force. The Dominion is divided into fifteen districts, each under the charge of a Superintendent or Inspector of Police, who is responsible to the Commissioner for the maintenance of good order and the proper execution of police duty therein. Districts are divided into sub-districts under the charge of sergeants or constables, and cities and towns where regular beat duty is performed are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants.

The principal duty of the Police Force as defined by the Police Force Act is “the preservation of peace and order, the prevention of crime, and the apprehension of offenders against the peace.” In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the provisions of the Police Offences Act, there are several statutes of a regulatory nature which the police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Licensing Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act, Motor-vehicles Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Second-hand Dealers Act, &c. They also undertake inquiries and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service, principally the Pensions Department, Registrar-General's Office, Internal Affairs Department, and Education Department (Child Welfare Branch).

Police in country districts in many cases hold such additional appointments as Clerks and Bailiffs of Magistrates' Courts, Inspectors of Factories, Probation Officers, Inspectors of Sea-fishing, Kauri-gum Bangers, and collectors of Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics.

RECRUITING.

Recruits for the Police Force must be between the ages of twenty-one and thirty years, not less than 5 ft. 9 in. high, and have a normal chest measurement of not less than 3S in. They must have passed the Fifth Standard Examination under the Education Act or an examination of equal or higher grade. They must be of good moral character, smart, active, intelligent, and free from bodily complaint or infirmity. The selection of recruits is made by the Commissioner after exhaustive inquiries have been made into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. Before appointment they undergo a course of training in the Training Depot, in which they are drilled and receive instructions in the duties they will be called upon to perform.

Appointments to vacancies in the higher ranks of the Force are made from those members of the next lower rank who have qualified by examination, efficiency, and seniority for such promotion.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Detective Branch which is attached to each district headquarters and undertakes the investigation and detection of the more serious crimes.

STRENGTH OF FORCE.

On the 31st March, 1936, the number of permanent members of the Police Force in New Zealand was 1,164 of all ranks, being an increase of 4 during the year. The total was made up as follows: 1 commissioner, 4 superintendents, 15 inspectors, 7 sub-inspectors, 28 senior sergeants, 95 sergeants, 937 constables, 3 senior detectives, 15 detective-sergeants, and 59 detectives. There were also 63 temporary constables, 13 police surgeons, 6 matrons, 2 district constables, and 1 Native constable.

The following table shows the number of stations and of police in each police district. Temporary constables are included, but not district or Native constables.

Police District.No. of Stations.No. of Police.
Whangarei1530
Auckland48275
Hamilton2263
Gisborne1534
Napier1859
New Plymouth1540
Wanganui1945
Palmerston North1748
Wellington30201
Nelson1230
Grey mouth2043
Christchurch38146
Timaru1343
Dunedin35105
Invercargill2249

There were also 10 officers attached to headquarters, 2 were on loan to the Cook Islands Administration, 2 to the Samoan Administration, and 1 on leave prior to retirement.

The proportion of police to population is 1 to every 1,283 persons, and the expenditure (exclusive of the cost of buildings) on the whole Police Force for the year ended the 31st March, 1936, was 5s. 9¼d. per head of population.

The following table shows the growth of the Police Force during the last ten years:—

Year ended 31st MarchOfficers.Non-commissioned OfficersDetectives.Constables.Total.Police to Population (including Maoris).Cost per Head of Population.
       s.d.
19272212356S951,0961 to 1,3125
192823127549131,1171 to 1,3015
192923128569481,1551 to 1,2736
193022127549431,1461 to 1,29861
193125120659591,1691 to 1,2926
193225123659441,1571 to 1,31755
193324121679831,1951 to 1,2865
193423124729921,2111 to 1,2795
193528127749901,2191 to 1,27957
193626123771,0001,2261 to 1,2835

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS.

Maoris are included in the statistics relating to Magistrates' Courts in the following pages, as well as in those for the Supreme Court and for Prisons. Separate figures relating to offences by Maoris are given towards the end of this section.

Persons charged in Magistrates' Courts may be brought before the Court either on summons, or after arrest, according to the nature of the offence and to other circumstances. Of the total of 47,559 cases in 1935, 10,565 (males 9,909, females 656) wore “arrest” and 36,994 (male3 34,671, females 2,323) were “summons” cases.

The following table shows the number of criminal charges dealt with in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last ten years.

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
192653,2842.83850,12273·744·1139·70
192753,2562,98356,23972·444·2339·09
192852,6043,11055,71470·764·3738·00
192953,1213,00556,12670·6541738·11
193054,7233,06757,79071·834·2038·72
193149,8292,65052,47964·493·5834·69
193250,2242,80153,02564·513·7534·73
193344,8112,62047,43157·143·4730·83
193443,7712,99246,76355·403·9430·16
193544,5802,97947,55955·833·8730·33

The next table shows the results in all cases heard during each of the last three years, and similar information concerning distinct cases—i.e., counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

Result of Hearing.Total CasesDistinct Cases.
1933.1934.1935.1933.1934.1935.
Dismissed or withdrawn for want of prosecution or of evidence4,4034,2214,2242,8132,6432,580
Dismissed on the merits2,5002,1862,2221,9151,6201,616
Admonished and discharged1,3171,2421,4498907891,029
Committed for trial541589543288283277
Committed for sentence999821784345297259
Summarily convicted37,67137,70438,33730,85530,35131,483
Totals47,43146,76347,55937,10635,98337,244

The summary convictions for the year 1935 represent a rate of 24·46 per 1,000 of mean population. The figures for the last ten years are—

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
192646,20532·68
192745,93031·92
192845,13930·78
192946,30931·44
193047,24731·66
193142,09227·81
193242,36627·76
193337,67124·49
193437,70424·32
193538,33724·46

The great bulk of the cases dealt with in New Zealand are in respect of comparatively trivial offences—drunkenness and offences against traffic regulations accounting for about half of the total convictions. An analysis of traffic offences is given later in this section.

A classification of convictions during the last five years according to principal offences and groups of offences is next given.

1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Offences against the person631541578537516
Offences against property (including forgery)6,1290,7665,6885,6195,989
Drunkenness (including issue of prohibition orders)6,1135,2364,5844,5094,319
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, &c, of police, and vagrancy2,2201,8631,5061,4281,363
Breaches of traffic regulations, &c.14,36414,88713,49013,91514,634
Other offences against good order1,2011,2051,2591,4401,464
Breaches of Licensing Act2,9342,6862,5612,6492,834
Breaches of Destitute Persons Act3,3652,8872,4832,2112,241
Breaches of Impounding Act678604489446561
Breaches of Child Welfare Act446352338336390
Breaches of Arms Act424440422370390
Breaches of Unemployment Act1,0712,2981,408931606
Unlicensed wireless sets5847821,1101,047932
Other offences1,9321,8191,7552,2662,098
Totals42,09242,36637,67137,70438,337

In the preceding table offences are necessarily grouped, but in the case of convictions in 1935 certain individual offences are distinguished below.

I.—PERSON.
Common assault406
Attempted suicide58
Indecent assault on female21
Aggravated assault8
Unlawful carnal knowledge4
Indecent assault on male4
II.—PROPERTY.
Theft (not further defined)3,755
Fraud and false pretences838
Wilful damage, &c.461
Breaking and entering and attempts344
Unlawful conversion of vehicle333
Receiving stolen property167
Unlawful conversion of property38
Horse, cattle, and sheep stealing14
Embezzlement13
III.—FORGERY, ETC.
Forgery17
Uttering7
IV.—GOOD ORDER.
Breaches of by-laws534
Gambling503
Vagrancy364
Sunday trading195
Cruelty to animals75

The 390 convictions under the Child Welfare Act in 1935 included 363 in respect of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances.

The Unemployment Act came into force late in 1930. In 1931, there were 1,071 convictions for breaches of the Act, and the number rose to 2,298 in 1932. Since then there has been a gradual fall, the figure for 1935 being only 606. Of these 401 were for failing to pay levies, always the principal charge under the Act. The remainder were for false declaration (92), failing to register (4), employing person in arrears with levy (10), employer failing to deduct emergency charge (21), failing to pay emergency charge on “other income” (49), and other breaches of the Act (29).

PUNISHMENT ON SUMMARY CONVICTION.

A summary of punishments following summary convictions for the year 1935 is given.

Punishment.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.*Offences against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
* Including forgery and offences against the currency.
Released under Offenders Probation Act166704616748
Convicted and discharged581,2961,9978284,179
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence7255418194901
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent52927309613
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer331,16725471,272
Committed to institution under Child Welfare Act..5621775
Committed to Borstal institution, Salvation Army. Home, &c.10154369209
Fined23964917,6666,40324,957
Imprisonment in lieu of fine2190460231802
Peremptory imprisonment521,0443538192,268
Whipping111....12
Bound over8..12..20
Order made169951,2792,281
Totals5165,98921,78010,05238,337

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURT.

Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—viz., those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years. Maoris are included in this and following tables.

Year.Tried in Supreme Court.Sentences in Case of Committal for Sentence.Total Sentences.
Indictments and Informations.Convictions.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
    (a) Total Cases.   
193195140495101,078411,573511,624
19321,0231657771,084421,661491,710
19339123349311997121,490231,513
19347893938425768361,152611,213
19357814033825775101,113351,148
   (b) Distinct Persons   
19312911718363971458020600
19323211120564151062016636
1933302151838332751515530
1934250151009318347812490
1935271171499307745616472

Of the 288 distinct persons indicted during 1936, 158 were convicted and 97 acquitted. In the case of 22 persons no bill was returned or the prosecution otherwise not proceeded with, 4 persons were found insane, and 7 were awaiting trial at the end of the year.

The next table summarizes the offences of persons convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during the last five years:—

Year.Total Convictions or Sentences.Distinct Persons convicted or sentenced.
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against Offences the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.
19311681,172221631,6241283736930600
19322031,1502551021,7101383955251636
19332331,024185711,5131223275428531
1934215768191391,2131392844720490
193521680395341,1481432773517472

The following were the offences for which persons were convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1935:—

I.—PERSON.
Indecent assault26
Indecent assault on male11
Attempted rape3
Carnal knowledge and attempts44
Incest12
Unnatural offences and attempts7
Murder1
Manslaughter (including 6 cases in connection with motor-vehicles)8
Negligent driving causing bodily injury1
Wounding with intent2
Placing obstruction on railway-line1
Aggravated assault6
Common assault4
Assault with intent to rob1
Procuring abortion and attempts6
Bigamy10
II.—PROPERTY.
Breaking and entering125
Theft45
Robbery11
Burglary20
Breaking and entering by night14
Cattle or sheep stealing9
Receiving stolen property8
Fraud and false pretences30
Embezzlement8
Arson and attempts4
Other3
III.—FORGERY, ETC.
Forgery27
Uttering1
Forgery and uttering7
IV AND V.—OTHER OFFENCES.
Vagrancy2
Indecent, &c., conduct2
Selling liquor without a license2
Perjury1
False declarations8
Escaping from lawful custody1
Breach of Bankruptcy Act1

Forty-one Maoris were included in the 472 distinct offenders sentenced in the Supreme Court in 1035, and 341 others (including 13 women) were born in New Zealand. In 37 cases the birthplace was England or Wales, in 15 Scotland, in 7 Ireland, and in 23 Australia.

SUPREME COURT.—OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS OF DISTINCT PERSONS,1935.

Sentence.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other Offences.Totals.
Ordered to come up for sentence641112
Discharged11..13
Released under Offenders Probation Act2957162104
Fined42..39
Declared habitual criminal only..........
Death1......1
Imprisonment or detention—
   Imprisonment66109129196
   Imprisonment and reformative detention..3....3
   Imprisonment and declared habitual criminal..91..10
   Reformative detention only297231105
   Detention in Borstal institution6192..27
   Reformative detention and declared habitual criminal..1....1
   Imprisonment and flogging1......1
Total persons sentenced1432773517472
Length of sentence of imprisonment or detention—
10 and under 15 years1......1
7 and under 10 years2......2
5 and under 7 years33....6
3 and under 5 years16412..59
2 and under 3 years29594..92
1 and under 2 years257353106
6 months and under 1 year18195244
Under 6 months881522
Indefinite..101..11
Totals, imprisonment or detention1022131810343

Of the offenders, 43 were under twenty years of age, 135 between twenty and twenty-five, 88 between twenty-five and thirty, 111 between thirty and forty, 50 between forty and fifty, 38 between fifty and sixty, and 7 sixty or over.

COURT OF APPEAL.

Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, each division consisting of five Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exercises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty the Chief Justice and one other Judge may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions may be held. The Chief Justice or, in his absence, the senior Judge presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present, but if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion the judgment, &c., appealed from is deemed to be affirmed.

Under an amendment of 1933, special sittings of the Court of Appeal may be held at times and places appointed by Order in Council. This authority may be exercised only on a certificate of not less than three Judges (of whom the Chief Justice shall be one) that it is not expedient to delay hearing the appeal or other proceeding. For a special sitting any three or more Judges may exercise the jurisdiction of the Court.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to His Majesty in Council.

In criminal cases questions of law may be reserved by the Supreme Court for the Court of Appeal, and upon a refusal by the Court to reserve any question the person aggrieved may move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. Any person aggrieved may also (after conviction) apply to the Court of Appeal for a new trial upon leave being granted by the Supreme Court. Any person has now the right to apply to the Court of Appeal against a sentence passed in the Supreme Court where such person has been convicted upon an indictment or sentenced for any crime on a plea of “Guilty.”

During the last five years 19 Crown criminal cases were brought before the Appeal Court, and in 10 instances convictions were affirmed. There were 106 civil appeals, of which 54 were allowed, and also 86 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in 69 judgments for plaintiff and 17 for defendants.

Particulars concerning applications during the last five years for leave to appeal against sentences under the provisions of the Crimes Amendment Act, 1920, are: Applications filed, 167; granted, 27; refused, 1–10. In 24 cases the sentence was varied as a result of the appeal.

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.

There are fourteen prisons and State reformatories and three Borstal institutions in New Zealand, as well as 23 minor prisons and police-gaols. In addition to these there are the police-stations which, under section 17 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917, may be deemed to be prisons for any period (which must not exceed seven days) during which prisoners are detained there undergoing sentence.

On the 1st January, 1935, the various institutions had 1,234 persons under detention (males, 1,167; females, 67). During the year 4,159 were received (males, 3,986; females, 173) and 4,243 discharged or transferred (males, 4,056; females, 187). At the end of the year 1,150 (males, 1,097; females, 53) remained in confinement. The daily average number of persons in confinement during the year was 1,212 (males, 1,156; females, 56).

At 31st DecemberPersons in Gaol.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
19261,388471,4359·7110·04
19271,483661,54910·2310·68
19281,435491,4849·7810*12
19291,342531,3959049·39
19301,523461,56910·1110·42
19311,614431,65710·6110·89
19321,522611,5839·9210·32
19331,410321,4429·129·33
19341,199371,2367·677·94
19351,112381,1507·097·33

The 4,243 discharges during the year includes 1,316 transfers of inmates to other prisons or to the police. Of the remainder 6 died during the year, 1 was executed, and 1 absconded and was not retaken. Prisoners discharged on expiration of sentence numbered 2,028, 40 were released on bail, 481 were set free on the recommendation of the Prisons Board, and 137 released on special remission. Debtors discharged during the year numbered 126, and 18 lunatics were transferred to mental hospitals. The remaining 89 discharges represented persons who had been in prison on remand or awaiting trial, and who were known to have been acquitted.

In the following table persons in confinement at the end of each of the last five years are classified according to nature of sentence:—

Year.Hard Labour or Simple Imprisonment.Habitual Criminals.Detained for Reformative Purposes.Detained in Borstal Institution.On Remand, awaiting Trial, &c.Totals.
Under Three Months.Three Months and under One Year.One Year and over.
* Including 1 awaiting execution.
193112927649763301348431,657
19328021348355347343611,583*
19335724044845287333321,442
19346719042942278193371,236
19356814237254292184381,150

The total number of new receptions—counting each person once every time received—in the various institutions during the year 1935 was 4,159 (males, 3,986; females, 173), as compared with 4,529 (males, 4,282; females, 247) in 1934. Taking into account the 37 cases where persons were in prison awaiting trial or sentence at the beginning of the year brings this figure up to 4,196, the gross total of receptions. Included here, however, are debtors and lunatics (142), and deducting these gives 4,054, the gross total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for, or persons charged, with criminal offences. Of these, 750 were received on transfer from other institutions or in transitu between institutions, so that the net total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for or persons charged with criminal offences is 3,304. In 688 cases persons charged with criminal offences were handed to the police for trial or sentence and not returned to prison, and 38 persons remained in prison at the end of the year awaiting trial or sentence, so that the number of receptions of prisoners actually undergoing sentence for criminal offences—still counting each prisoner once every time received—was 2,578. Deducting from this figure multiple receptions of the same person (420), there remains, as the total number of distinct prisoners received under sentence for criminal offences, 2,158 (males, 2,070; females, 88), a decrease of 218 as compared with the previous year. Of the total of 2,158, 226 (males, 220, females, 6) were Maoris.

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the last ten years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in the next table. Debtors and lunatics received into gaol are omitted.

Year.Number.Per 10,000 of Population.
19262,75519·49
19272,71118·84
19282,54817·37
19292,59617·62
19302,86419·19
19313,20321·17
19323,40122·29
19332,73117·75
19342,37615·33
19352,15813·76

The following table shows the sexes and ages of distinct prisoners received into prison under sentence during the year 1935, and distinguishes between Maoris and others:—

Age, in Years.Excluding Maoris.Maoris.Including Maoris.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 21121121335936218015195
21 and under 252151222759..5927412286
25 and under 30274928338..383129321
30 and under 35252525724..252766282
35 and under 40237924617..172549263
40 and under 45177101871211318911200
45 and under 5015781656..61638171
50 and under 55168101781..116910179
55 and under 601293132......1293132
60 and under 657437731477481
65 and under 7035..35......35..35
70 and under 75718......718
75 and under 802..21..13..3
80 and over..................
Not stated2..2......2..2
Totals1,850821,93222062262,070882,158

Ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1935 are summarized in the next table.

Age, in Years.Offences against the Person.Theft and other Offences against Property.Drunkenness.Vagrancy.Other Offences.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assaults.Other.
Under 21115113921126195
21 and under 251211117751169286
25 and under 301516..160918103321
30 and under 35101321281512102282
35 and under 401164862718111263
40 and under 4558462311773200
45 and under 5086148421452171
50 and under 5563142561853179
55 and under 6071..25411345132
60 and under 65122133292281
65 and over2....61951446
Not stated......1....12
Totals8871168872791406712,158

The final table of this category supplies statistics of ages and previous convictions of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1935.

Age, in Years.Number of Previous Convictions.Total previously convicted.Not previously convicted.Total Distinct Prisoners.
One.Two.Three.Four.Over Four.Number not stated.
Under 21472212510..9699195
21 and under 255919262539..168118286
25 and under 3048272527872216105321
30 and under 354129201796420775282
35 and under 4022311320811117885263
40 and under 45261087841114654200
45 and under 5017219972613437171
50 and under 55181293721613049179
55 and under 60131564591110824132
60 and under 656825324572481
05 and over5316173351146
Not stated1..........112
Totals303197131128649681,4766822,158

BORSTAL INSTITUTIONS.

Included among the 1,150 prisoners undergoing sentence at the 31st December, 1935, were 184 persons (166 males, 18 females) detained in Borstal institutions under the provisions of the Prevention of Crime (Borstal Institutions Establishment) Act, 1924. This Act, which is an adaptation of Part I of the Prevention of Crime Act, 1908 (Imperial), as amended by the Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1914, is designed to prevent crime, and provides for the detention of young offenders in a special class of reformative institution. An offender between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one years (twenty-three in certain cases), who would otherwise be liable to sentence of imprisonment by the Supreme Court or sentence of imprisonment of not less than one month by a Magistrate, may be made the subject of an order of detention of from two to five years by a Judge of the Supreme Court, and from one to three years by a Magistrate, without a conviction being recorded in the latter case. Inmates may be transferred from prisons, reformatory homes, State reformatory institutions, and institutions under the Child Welfare Act, 1925, to Borstal institutions, and from Borstal institutions to prisons. The Minister of Justice has power to release an offender undergoing detention on condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of a probation officer, or of a society or person (to be specified) who may be willing to take charge of the case.

HABITUAL CRIMINALS AND REFORMATIVE DETENTION.

The following table shows the distinct prisoners received in prison during 1935 after being sentenced to detention for reformative purposes or having been declared habitual criminals, classified according to sentences:—

Original Sentence.Sentenced to Reformative Detention for a Period ofDeclared Habitual Criminals.Totals.
Under Two Years.Two and under Five Years.Five Years and over.
Reformative detention only947441173
Declared habitual criminals only..........
Hard labour—
   Under 1 year197..127
   1 year and under 2 years4....48
2 years and under 3 years......55
3 years and under 4 years11....2
4 years and under 5 years..........
5 years and under 7 years......11
Totals11882412216

PRISONS BOARD.

For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court, as President, and six other members.

It is the duty of the Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention is sufficiently reformed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration, at least once a year, the case of every habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention. Other classes of prisoners may not apply for and are not entitled to consideration until they have served at least half the sentence (or five years in the case of those sentenced to terms exceeding ten years), and no case is to be considered until six months after the date of reception into prison.

The following table shows the number of cases considered by the Board during each of the last five years:—

Year.Borstal Detention.Reformative Detention.Hard Labour.Habitual Criminals and Offenders.Habitual Criminals for Remission of Hard Labour.Probationers for Discharge from Probation or Variation of Terms.Totals.
Crimes Amendment Act.Offender Probationers.
19314954804318028181,514
193255348938471..9181,524
193358156239263..8331,639
19344184804006228241,394
193534548840776317231,359

Of the cases considered in 1935, recommendations were made for release on probation in 446 cases, and for discharge from prison or from probation in 37 cases. Twenty probationers under the Offenders Probation Act were ordered discharge. In 71 cases petitions were declined, one habitual criminal had a remission of his hard labour sentence, while there was one variation of the terms of probation. The remaining 783 cases were deferred.

PROBATION.

Legislation on this subject dates from 1886. Under the Offenders Probation Act of 1920 probation may be granted for “any offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise." Formerly there were numerous important exceptions. The maximum period of probation was fixed in 1920 at five years.

The conditions of release on probation include the necessity for a person on probation to report to the Probation Officer on specified days not more than one month apart, and to notify his address and any change of address. The nature and place of his employment must be made known to and be approved of by the Probation Officer, and he must not commit any offence against the law. The Probation Officer may warn him not to associate with any particular person or class of persons.

A breach of the conditions of the probationary license renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

The following figures are taken from successive returns prepared by the Chief Probation Officer:—

Year.Number admitted to Probation.
1926656
1927586
1928615
1929557
1930650
1931750
1932726
1933620
1934664
1935605

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1935:—

Age, in Years.6 Months or under.1 Year.18 Months.2 Years.3 Years.4 Years.5 Years.Totals.
Under 2078056610....168
20 and under 2597326982..163
25 and under 30543242811102
30 and under 403435402..194
40 and under 503203125....43
50 and under 60..13..152....30
60 and over..1..4......5
Totals27273172483532605

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.

Offences committed by juvenile offenders constitute a class worthy of special consideration. The Child Welfare Amendment Act, 1927, altered the definition of “child “to cover persons under seventeen years of age, instead of sixteen as formerly. Figures of juvenile cases in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Total Cases.Dismissed or withdrawn for want of Prosecution or of Evidence.Dismissed on the Merits.Admonished and discharged.Committed for Trial or Sentence.Summarily convicted.
19312,90870361,071131,718
19323,07188451,15941,775
19332,95682481,19441,628
19343,18590831,05821,952
19353,57977921,303..2,107

The principal of the offences against the person in 1935 were indecent assault, which was responsible for 20 cases (13 convictions), and common assault, 11 cases (7 convictions).

Theft was the principal offence against property, 1,454 charges being dealt with in 1935, resulting in 952 convictions. These figures do not include housebreaking and stealing, which was the offence in 356 cases (281 convictions).

Wilful damage, trespass, &c., is also an important class of offence in juvenile cases, being responsible for 481 charges (132 convictions) in 1935. In 158 cases (96 convictions) the charge was unlawfully converting vehicle to own use.

In the “Other ' offences the effect of the introduction of the Child Welfare Act, 1925, is very noticeable, the number of cases for 1935 (475) being over five times that recorded for 1925 (88). Over 80 per cent, of the cases in this class were brought under the Child Welfare Act, the number of cases of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances being 382, and the resulting convictions 356. In connection with these convictions orders were made for committal to the care of the Superintendent, Child Welfare Branch, or for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer in 336 cases, while in 15 cases the children concerned were committed to an institution under the Child Welfare Act.

Offences by juveniles are seldom of a very serious nature, and even when a conviction is recorded Magistrate?, frequently adopt the course of discharging the offender or of ordering him to come up for sentence when called upon. It is found that in very few cases does the future conduct of the convicted person render it necessary for him to be brought before the Magistrate again for sentence.

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—PUNISHMENTS OF JUVENILE OFFENDERS, 1935.

Punishment.Against the Person.Against Property.*Against Good Order.Other.Totals.
* Including forgery and offences against the currency.
Released on probation..27....27
Convicted and discharged14022366
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence1253..29
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent32755302585
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer241,05516401,135
Committed to institution under Child Welfare Act..44..1559
Committed to Borstal Institution4192..25
Fined..431273173
Whipped11....2
Order made..2..46
Total summary convictions341,5311753672,107
Total charges brought562,5764724753,579

Very few juvenile cases find their way to the Supreme Court, and, beyond the information disclosed by the Magistrates' Courts returns as to committals for sentence or trial, no statistics of such cases in the higher Court are available. Statistics of ages of persons sentenced show, however, that no persons under seventeen years of age were sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1935.

Eleven distinct persons (including one female) under seventeen years of age were received into Borstal institutions during 1935.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN

Of the 38,337 summary convictions in Magistes' Courts in 1935 only 2,474, or 6·45 per cent., were of females, the following being the principal offences:—

Common assault23
Attempted suicide13
Theft443
Fraud and false pretences42
Receiving stolen property13
Wilful damage, &c.13
Drunkenness125
Negligently driving motor-vehicle139
Vagrancy67
Breaches of regulations for lighting vehicles188
Non-registration, &c, of motor-vehicles150
Breaches of parking regulations173
Speeding, &c.57
Other minor traffic offences26
Application for prohibition order34
Offensive conduct or language43
Sunday trading65
Breaches of by-laws, &c.65
Indigent, &c, child182
Other charges under Child Welfare Act9
Unlicensed wireless sets166
Breaches of prohibition orders19
Other breaches of Licensing Act87
Allowing horses, cattle, &c, to wander63
Selling adulterated milk17
Charges under Destitute Persons Act37
Failing to clear noxious weeds24

In addition to the 2,474 summary convictions of women in Magistrates' Courts during 1935 there were 39 committals to the Supreme Court—22 for trial and 17 for sentence. The Supreme Court statistics show that 40 charges against females were dealt with during the year, resulting in 25 convictions, representing 9 different persons. In addition, 7 women were sentenced after committal for sentence in respect of 10 offences.

The number of distinct female prisoners received into prison during 1935 was 88, the principal offences of these being—vagrancy, 24; drunkenness, 10; and theft, 34. The actual number of receptions of female prisoners during the year was 173, this number including 9 Maoris, and the daily average number of women prisoners in gaol was 56. Two reformatories (at Addington and Point Halswell) house women prisoners only. There is also a Borstal institution at Point Halswell (Wellington) for women only.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.

The number of summary convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates' Courts for the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Year.Class of Offence.
Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
Drunkenness.*Other.
* Excluding prohibition-order cases.
1931515231383953711,478
1932565691413562871,409
1933613961203812721,230
1934815181594693501,577
1935555621954563841,652

The number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court, which exhibits the extent of serious crime amongst the Native race, is not very great, the total number convicted and sentenced during the last five years being on by 201. The 41 convictions or sentences during 1935 were made up as follows: 13 for offences against the person (including 9 for unlawful carnal knowledge), 22 for property offences (including 19 for burglary and breaking and entering), and 6 for forgery, &c. Thirty-three of these were sent up from the Magistrates' Courts for sentence, the remaining 8 being tried and convicted in the Supreme Court.

The number of distinct Maori prisoners received into gaol under sentence during 1935 was 226 (including 6 women), as compared with 211 in 1934.

DRUNKENNESS.

The extent to which convictions for drunkenness swell the total of convictions is obvious from the information given earlier in this section. The number of convictions for drunkenness, including drunkenness with disorderly conduct, drunk in charge of vehicle or of horse, and habitual drunkenness, during 1935 totalled 3,375 (males, 3,250; females, 125). The convictions in each of the last four years are the lowest recorded since 1895, when they numbered 4,792. In 1895, however, the proportion of convictions for drunkenness per 1,000 of the mean population was 6·52, while in 1935 the proportion was only 2·15.

The convictions for drunkenness in 1935 represent 8·80 per cent, of the total convictions during the year. In addition, there were 944 technical convictions in cases of applications for the issue of prohibition orders. Prohibition-order cases are not included in the following table, which shows the number of convictions for drunkenness recorded, and the proportion per 1,000 of the mean population of each sex, during the last five years:—

Year.Convictions for Drunkenness.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19314,6452194,8646·010·303·21
19323,8881854,0734·990·252·67
19333,4301513,5814·370·202·33
19343,2921613,4534·170·212·23
19353,2501253,3754·070·162·15

Of the total convictions for drunkenness during 1935, 3,282 (3,159 males and 123 females) were arrest cases, while 93 (91 males and 2 females) were cases brought before the Magistrate by summons.

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the preceding table.

The total convictions for all offences in arrest cases in 1935 were 8,631 but the distinct convictions amounted to only 6,211, the former total including 2,420 convictions for multiple charges against the same person at the same time. Of the latter 457 were in respect of charges dealt with at the same time as the offender was convicted of drunkenness, the principal associated offences being—

Offence.Number of Convictions.
Common assault20
Theft43
Wilful damage48
Indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct25
Obscene, threatening, or abusive language111
Assaulting, resisting, or obstructing police25
Vagrancy15
Casting offensive matter43
Breach of prohibition order67
Unlawfully on licensed premises after hours7

In addition, there were 28 cases where a prohibition order was issued against a person convicted at the same time for drunkenness.

Any person who has been three times convicted for drunkenness within the nine months immediately preceding any conviction for drunkenness may be declared an habitual drunkard, the number of convictions for habitual drunkenness during 1935 being 10 (including 1 female). A Magistrate may, in addition to or in lieu of a penalty, commit an habitual drunkard to any institution authorized by the Governor-General to receive and detain such persons for any period not being less than twelve months.

The sentences in the 3,375 convictions for drunkenness during the year were: Fined, 1,932; imprisonment in lieu of fine, 369; peremptory imprisonment, 83; committed to Salvation Army Home or other such institution, 15; convicted and discharged, 935; released under Offenders Probation Act, 2; other sentences, 39.

Statistics of the consumption of alcoholic liquors in the Dominion will be found in a later section of the Year-Book (Consumption of Commodities).

TRAFFIC OFFENCES.

In keeping with the enormous growth of motor traffic during recent years, there has been a huge increase in minor traffic offences, which constitute a high proportion of the cases dealt with in Magistrates' Courts. However, the number of cases and convictions during the years 1932–1935 show a substantial decrease on the figures for the three years prior to 1932, although this is probably due in part to the diminished use of motor-vehicles for economic reasons. With the improvement in economic conditions during 1935 there has been an increase in the number of motor-vehicles licensed, those actually licensed on 31st December numbering 216,905, an increase of 8 per cent, on the previous year's figure. On the other hand, cases and convictions for traffic offences show only a very slight increase during 1935, the figures being less than 1 per cent, greater than those for 1934.

The number of cases and convictions, and the number of convictions per 1,000 of mean population, for this class of offence are shown below:—

 1932.1933.1934.1935.
Cases17,48215,58215,97216,768
Convictions15,60414,13614,43015,303
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population10·229·199·319·76

The convictions for traffic offences in 1935 represent 39*92 per cent, of the total convictions during the year.

The following table shows convictions for traffic offences during the last five years:—

Offence.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Negligent driving causing death........1
Negligent driving causing bodily injury..........
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use333391344250333
Drunk in charge of motor-vehicle403308287253327
Drunk in charge of other vehicle281815128
Excessive speed in motor-vehicle2,0842,0521.4281,2691,352
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle3,1092,6932,3142,4292,806
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle4558336284
Riding bicycle on footpath425354362406381
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles2,5573,4063,6613,2343,440
Offences relating to the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles4,1844,5214,3374,4604,240
Breaches of parking regulations1,0499496941,3261,495
Other traffic offences918854661729836
Total15,13515,60414,13614,43015,303

The following table shows the number of cases and the results of hearing for the various traffic offences or groups of offences heard in Magistrates' Courts during 1935:—

Offence.Total Cases.Dismissed, or >Admonished and Discharged.Committed to Supreme Court.Convictions.Results of Convictions.
Fined.Convicted and Discharged.Other.
Negligent driving causing death272241..1 
Negligent driving causing bodily injury817........
U n 1 a w fully converting vehicle to own use433100..3332775231
Drunk in charge of motor-vehicle351231327294726
Drunk in charge of other vehicle8....86..2
Excessive speed in motor-vehicle1,42977..1,3521,3484..
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle3,337531..2,8062,7039310
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle939..8471121
Riding bicycle on footpath41730..381350223
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles3,042202..3,4403,1992347
Offences relating to the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles4,517277..4,2403,93129118
Breaches of parking regulations1,595100..1,4951,45540..
Other traffic offences91175..836764684
Total16,7681,4333215,30314,154847302

By far the greater proportion of the cases are for comparatively trivial offences such as breaches of lighting regulations and breaches of regulations for the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles (including driving unlicensed car, and driving without driver's license). These cases result in a far greater proportion of convictions in Magistrates' Courts than the more serious class of traffic offences—viz., negligent driving causing death or endangering human life—-which are usually committed to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence.

Dealing only with motor-vehicles, it is found that the total number of convictions for traffic offences during 1935 was 10,220 (which total excludes motor-vehicles without lights, &c, and unlawful conversion of motor-vehicles—separate figures not available), and of these 7,100 were in the North Island and 3,114 in the South. The number of motor-vehicles actually licensed on 31st December, 1935, were—North Island, 140,519; South Island, 70,380. The convictions were therefore: North Island 5·06 per cent., South Island 4·08 per cent., of the registrations.

Chapter 13. SECTION VIII.—DEFENCE.

NEW ZEALAND MILITARY FORCES.

THE New Zealand Military Forces are raised, maintained, and organized under the Defence Act, 1909, and its amendments, and regulations made thereunder. They are divided into the Regular Forces, the Territorial Force, the New Zealand Air Force, and the Cadets.

The Regular Forces correspond to the Regular Army of Great Britain, and provide Commanders and staffs at General Headquarters and in commands, adjutants and instructional staff for the Territorial Force and the Air Force, nucleus garrisons for the fixed defences and aerodromes, and maintenance and administrative staffs at ordnance depots.

LIABILITIES FOR AND TERMS OF SERVICE.

In Peace Time.—The Defence Act, 1909, provides for compulsory service in peace time in the Cadets, for boys from fourteen years of age (or from date of leaving school if later) to eighteen years, and from eighteen years of age to twenty-five years in the Territorial Force. From 1st October, 1930, however, the compulsory provisions of the Defence Act have not been enforced; but if the Government so directed they could, without legislation, again be brought into operation.

In July, 1931, the Forces were reorganized, and service in the Territorial Force and Cadets has since been voluntary. The only Cadets now trained are those at secondary schools, and, with few exception!!, all the larger secondary schools in the Dominion have a Cadet unit. Recruits for the Territorial Force are enrolled under a voluntary agreement to serve for three years. They may extend their service up to the age of thirty-two years. A further extension up to thirty-five years may be granted to warrant and non-commissioned officers.

In the Regular Forces enlistment for ranks other than commissioned officers is for a term of five years, after which re-engagement may be effected up to fifty-five years of age, which is the normal retiring-age. Extensions may be granted in certain cases up to sixty years.

Normally officers for the Regular Forces are first trained at one of the Service colleges in England or at the Royal Military College of Australia, Sydney, where-sixteen New Zealand cadets are at present being trained. The retiring-age for officers is the same as for other ranks.

During a National Emergency.—The Territorial Force is liable to service in any part of New Zealand, but cannot be compelled to serve outside the Dominion. Individuals could, however, volunteer to do so, and their services might then be accepted on the approval of the Governor-General, as was done on the outbreak of the Great War.

The Defence Act, 1909, establishes a liability for all male inhabitants between the ages of seventeen and fifty-five years (with certain specified exceptions), who have resided in New Zealand for six months, to serve and be trained in the Militia, but as the Militia is not embodied in peace time no training therein is carried out.

The personnel of the Regular Forces are subject at all times to the (Imperial) Army Act, save in so far as that Act may be inconsistent with the New Zealand Defence Act, and are liable for service in New Zealand or overseas if called upon.

ESTABLISHMENTS AND STRENGTH.

On the 31st March, 1931, the total establishment of all units of the Regular Forces was 110 officers and 452 other ranks, but on that date retrenchment was effected, and the strength was for some years considerably reduced. The present (11th May, 1936) strength stands at 106 officers, 16 Staff cadets, and 445 other ranks. (Since March, 1931, the Royal New Zealand Air Force has increased in strength from 10 officers and 45 other ranks to 20 officers and 100 other ranks.)

The establishment (i.e., the authorized numbers) of the Territorial Force was also reduced in 1931, and now totals 787 officers and 11,512 other ranks. In respect of both officers and other ranks, this establishment is exclusive of Air Force, Medical Corps officers not serving with Field Ambulances, Dental Corps, Veterinary Corps, Army Legal Department, Chaplains Department, Nursing Service, and bands. On the 31st March, 1936, the strength—i.e., the actual effective numbers—of the Territorial Force units was 779 officers, S,251 other ranks, and 946 bandsmen. As far as is practicable, both peace and war establishments are based on those of the British Army.

COMMAND and ADMINISTRATION.

The Governor-General is the Commander-in-Chief of the New Zealand Forces, and the Minister of Defence controls and administers the fighting services through the medium of the Department of Defence.

The command of the Military Forces is vested in the General Officer Commanding, who is responsible to the Minister of Defence. He is assisted by the following branches of General Headquarters, under the control of the officers indicated, which in New Zealand are the counterpart of the War Office organization, but necessarily on a very much reduced scale:—

  • The Branch of the General Staff. (The Chief of the General Staff.)

  • The Branch of the Adjutant-General. (The Adjutant-General.)

  • The Branch of the Quartermaster-General. (The Quartermaster-General.)

  • The Air Services. (The Director of Air Services.)

  • Artillery Services. (The Director of Artillery.)

  • Financial Services. (The Under-Secretary of Defence, who is responsible direct to the Minister.)

  • The Civil Staff, distributed among the various branches, is under the control of the. Under-Secretary.

New Zealand is divided into three Commands, viz.:—

  1. Northern Command, with headquarters at Auckland. It is equivalent to Auckland Provincial District, together with Ohura County, but less that part of Auckland from Wairoa to East Cape lying east of the main divide.

  2. Central Command, with headquarters at Wellington. This comprises the remainder of the North Island.

  3. Southern Command, with headquarters at Christchurch. It comprises the whole of the South Island.

Each Command is controlled by an officer of the Regular Forces holding the rank of Colonel, who is responsible to the General Officer Commanding. At Command Headquarters there is a staff organized in like manner to the branches at General Headquarters, also a civil staff.

The Commands are each subdivided into four regimental districts, each under a Staff Officer who is responsible to the O.C. Command. The regimental districts are subdivided into areas (not exceeding three in any one case), each of which is controlled by an Area Officer, who is responsible to the Staff Officer in Charge of the Regimental District.

COMPOSITION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE FORCES.

The following units comprise the Regular Forces:—

New Zealand Staff Corps63 officers, and 10 Staff cadets at the Royal Military College of Australia.
New Zealand Permanent Staff110 warrant officers, N.C.O’s, and men.
Royal New Zealand Artillery17 officers and 157 other ranks.
Royal New Zealand Air Force20 officers and 10U other ranks.
New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps7 other ranks.
New Zealand Army Medical Corps.1 other rank.
New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps5 officers, 24 other ranks.
General Duty Section4 other ranks.
Recruits for New Zealand Permanent Staff, Royal New Zealand Artillery and New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps.31 other ranks.
Attached or on loan1 officer, 2 other ranks.

The stores staff at the ordnance depots are members of the civil staff.

The Territorial Force is organized on the basis of 1 Division, 3 Mounted Rifles brigades, 1 Medium Artillery brigade, 2 Coast Artillery batteries, and ancillary troops, though on a reduced strength.

These are distributed as follows:—

UNIT.BRIGADE.
Northern Command
3 Mounted Rifles regiments1st Mounted Rifles Brigade.
4 Field batteries1st Artillery Brigade Group.
1 Coast battery1st Artillery Brigade Group.
2 Medium batteries1st Artillery Brigade Group.
1 Light battery1st Artillery Brigade Group.
1 Field company, Engineers. 
1 Depot, Corps of Signals. 
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion1st Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C. 
1 Field Ambulance. 
Central Command
3 Mounted Rifles regiments2nd Mounted Rifles Brigade.
3 Field batteries2nd Artillery Brigade Group.
2 Medium batteries2nd Mounted Rifles Brigade.
1 Coast battery2nd Mounted Rifles Brigade.
1 Field company, Engineers. 
1 Depot, Corps of Signals. 
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion2nd Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C. 
1 Field Ambulance. 
Southern Command
3 Mounted Rifles regiments3rd Mounted Rifles Brigade
3 Field batteries3rd Artillery Brigade Group.
1 Medium battery3rd Artillery Brigade Group.
1 Light battery3rd Artillery Brigade Group.
1 Field company, Engineers. 
1 Depot, Corps of Signals. 
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion.3rd Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C. 
1 Field Ambulance. 
Otago University Company, New Zealand Medical Corps. 

In addition, there are the following corps and departments:—New Zealand Medical Corps, of which field ambulances form part. One medical officer is attached to each other unit of the Territorial Force, including the Air Force units.

  • New Zealand Dental Corps.

  • New Zealand Veterinary Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Legal Department.

  • New Zealand Chaplains Department.

  • New Zealand Army Nursing Service.

TRAINING.

The Regular Forces throughout the year undergo courses of instruction, and, in addition, assist in the training of the Territorial Force and Cadets. In certain instances they provide a permanent nucleus to Territorial units. The officers of the Regular Forces take the same examinations for promotions and entrance to the staff colleges as officers of the British Regular Forces.

The Territorial Force carry out during the year, and prior to their annual camp, thirty-six hours’ training in drills and parades (Coast Artillery units, sixty hours), inclusive of the prescribed small-arms course. Each unit goes into camp each year for six full days’ continuous training (Coast Artillery units, ten days). Special courses of instruction for officers and N.C.O.'s are prescribed and are held preliminary to examinations for promotion. Normally, officers of the Territorial Force Reserve attend a camp of instruction with their unit once hi every three years, hut this obligation has been suspended since 1931. Other ranks of the Reserve do not train in any way.

There is no military college in the Dominion, but cadets intended for ultimate appointment to commissions in the Regular Forces are sent either to the Royal Military College of Australia, the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, or the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and on graduating are attached for twelve months' training to the British Regular Army before returning to New Zealand. In normal times from two to four cadets are sent annually. In March, 1934, four cadets were sent to the Royal Military College of Australia; these were the first appointed since 1930, seven others entered in March, 1935, and live in March, 1936.

Officers of the Regular Forces are also sent to the Staff College, Camberley, and normally one New Zealand officer is undergoing instruction there. At varying intervals other officers are sent to England for courses in gunnery, &c.

At Trentham there is a School of Instruction which provides refresher courses for officers and other ranks of the Regular Forces, besides courses in weapon training, drill, signalling, physical and recreational training, &c., for officers and other ranks of the Territorial Force, and appropriate instruction for twelve months for recruits for the Regular Forces.

At the Otago University there is a medical company, consisting of approximately 160 medical and dental students.

CADETS.

The Cadet Force is organized in battalions, but except on ceremonial occasions seldom works as such. All Cadet training is carried out at the schools or colleges during school-hours. Approximately thirty drills of one and a half hours" duration are held throughout the year, as well as a “barracks” lasting five days. All cadets carry out a course in musketry during the year.

In the main centres the Cadet units have Artillery, Engineer, Signal and (or alternately) Medical sections.

After leaving college, a Cadet under eighteen years of age may join the regimental Cadet detachment of one of the local Territorial units, and carry out drills until such time as lie reaches the age of eighteen years, when he may enrol in the Territorial Force.

The strength of the Cadet Force en 31st March, 1936, was 356 officers and 15,133 other ranks.

RIFLE CLUBS.

Defence rifle clubs are formed with a minimum membership of twenty members between the ages of eighteen and fifty-five years. The members must be bonafide residents in the locality in which the rifle club is situated. Officers and other ranks of the Military Forces are not eligible for enrolment, but may become honorary members if so elected by the members of a club.

Application for the formation of a Defence rifle club must be made to the local area officer, who affords all necessary advice as to procedure and facilities extended by the Department in the way of free issues of ammunition, rail warrants, and the supply of rifles and ammunition at reduced rates.

Rifle clubs are not included as units in the organization of the Military Forces, and in a national emergency members would be mobilized as individuals in the same way as other private citizens.

On the 31st March, 1936, there were 148 clubs, with a total membership of 5,149.

NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE.

The New Zealand Air Force consists (30th May, 1930) of a Regular Force (20 officers and 10G other ranks) for instructional, administrative and maintenance duties, and a Territorial Air Force consisting of approximately 73 officers organized as a Wing of four squadrons. Other personnel on a Territorial basis have not yet been enlisted.

The Regular Air Force is distributed between the two Air Force stations—the Royal New Zealand Air Force Base, Hobsonville, Auckland, which is a combined land and seaplane station, and Wigram Aerodrome, Christchurch—with a small administrative staff at General Headquarters, Defence, Wellington.

The service aircraft consists of four Vickers Vildebeest Torpedo Bombers, two Fairey IIIF float-planes, one D.H. Moth machine, and a small flying-boat at Hobsonville; and at Wigram Aerodrome four Bristol Fighters, four Vickers Vildebeest Torpedo Bombers, two Grebe S.S. Fighters, four Hawker Tomtit training-machines, four Avro C2G training-machines, one D.H. Moth, and one D.H. Puss Moth.

The training of the Territorial Air Force is carried out at Wigram Aerodrome, and consists of two camps per annum, one of six days and one of ten days, together with a limited amount of week-end flying training and instruction during the year. The service duties of the Royal New Zealand Air Force include the administration and training of the Territorial Air Force, co-operation with the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy and Army, and co-operation with Territorial units of the New Zealand Military Forces.

In addition, air-survey work is undertaken for other Government Departments. The Officer Commanding the Royal New Zealand Air Force also acts as Controller of Civil Aviation.

EXPENDITURE.

The net expenditure on land defence during the last nine years ha3 been as follows:—

Year.Military Forces.Air Force.Total.Contingent Defence.*
Military Forces.Air Force.Total.
* Expenditure for construction of buildings and works derived from Public Works Fund. Since 1st April, 1031, such expenditure has been provided for in Defence vote, Consolidated Fund (first three columns of table).
 ££££££
1927–28.453,58028,179481,75939,70628039,986
1928–29.425,81338,782464,59523,02944,62367,652
1929–30.401,64545,651447,2967,89638,87046,766
1930–31.229,05040,051269,10136313,44913,812
1931–32.156,31124,570180,881. .. .. .
1932–33.180,11223,472203,584. .. .. .
1933–34.215,95046,960262,910. .. .. .
1934–35.321,700132,230453,930. .. .. .
1935–36.378,179160,774538,953. .. .. .

Figures shown under Air Force do not include expenditure on civil aviation, particulars for which are given in a later section.

EXPEDITIONARY FORCES.

New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War, comprising a total of 6,500 officers and men.

Immediately the Great European War broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then went to the western front, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate against the Turks in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 98,950 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, and, of these, 16,697 lost their lives on active service. In addition to the 98,950 of all ranks of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, 944 British Army Reservists, British Naval Reservists, and others left the Dominion to rejoin their units in the United Kingdom or in a theatre of war. It is also known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand during the period of the war and joined units' of the British Forces or the Expeditionary Forces of other Dominions.

On the Armistice being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or were under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent. Of the total population of the Dominion in 1914, and over 40 per cent, of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five years, while it is known that a very large number of other New Zealanders served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

NAVAL DEFENCE.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

From the year 1887 to 1909 New Zealand's interest in Naval defence was expressed in a practical way by contributions to assist in maintaining an Imperial Naval Force in Australian and New Zealand waters. From 1887 the sum contributed amounted to £20,000 per annum. In 1903 it was raised to £40,000 per annum; and, in 1908, it was enacted that it should be increased to a sum of £100,000 per annum for ten years as from 12th May, 1909.

The proceedings of the Imperial Conference held in London in 1909 had the effect of focussing greater public interest on the Naval defence problem, with the result that New Zealand undertook to present the battle cruiser “New Zealand” to the Imperial Government. This vessel was commissioned in 1911. She served with the battle cruiser squadrons of the Grand Fleet throughout the war, and took part in the naval actions of Heligoland Bight, Dogger Bank, and Jutland.

In 1911, consequent on arrangements agreed upon at the Imperial Conference of 1909, the Imperial Parliament passed the Naval Discipline (Dominion Naval Forces) Act. This statute provided for the application of the Imperial Naval Discipline Acts to Naval Forces raised by any Dominion, with such modifications and adaptations as may be found necessary to conform to the law in the Dominion. In 1913 New Zealand decided to prepare a naval organization for the express purpose of manning ships to be employed in New Zealand waters. The Naval Defence Act of 1913 was passed to give effect to this decision. This Act empowered the Government to raise and maintain Naval Forces and to govern them by regulations issued under authority of Orders in Council. Transfers of ships and personnel as between the New Zealand Government, the Imperial Government, and other Dominion Governments were authorized. The Imperial Naval Discipline Act and the Admiralty Regulations were applied to the New Zealand Naval Forces, subject to any modifications necessitated by local conditions. The Act provided that whenever Great Britain is engaged in hostilities the Naval Forces of the Dominion pass automatically under the control and disposition of the Government of Great Britain. During periods of strained relations or emergency the Governor-General may by Proclamation place the Naval Forces under Imperial control.

In 1913 H.M.S. “Philomel” was detailed as a sea-going training-ship, while a Naval Adviser to the New Zealand Government was appointed. But war broke out in 1914 before any other executive action could be taken to give effect to the statute. H.M.S. “Philomel” was withdrawn for escort duty and for service in naval operations in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; and, at the end of the war, she was presented by the Admiralty to the Government of New Zealand as a training-ship. Subsequently she became the nucleus of a Dominion Naval organization.

In the meantime, in 1917, the question of Naval Defence was reconsidered in London, but no effective decisions were taken beyond recognizing that the administration of all Naval Forces in the Empire should follow the same lines in matters of maintenance, armament, methods and principles of training, and organization. At the Imperial Conference held in 1919 the Dominion representatives lost no opportunity of impressing on the Government in Great Britain the importance of Naval defence to New Zealand. At their request, and flying his flag on H.M.S. “New Zealand,” Admiral of the Fleet Viscount (later Earl) Jellicoe visited the Dominion to report on matters affecting Naval defence. Having considered Lord Jellicoe's report, the Government decided to give effect to the Act of 1913. H.M.S. “Chatham” was lent by the Imperial Government in 1920 for service under the New Zealand Government, and the first batch of Now Zealand recruits joined the H.M.S. “Philomel” the following year.

The administrative command of the Naval Forces was vested in a Naval Board consisting of—

Minister of Defence.Chairman.
The Commodore Commanding New Zealand StationFirst Naval Member.
A Captain, R.N.Second Naval Member.

The Secretary to the Commodore acts as Secretary to the Naval Board, with the title of Naval Secretary. The policy of the Naval Board is directed by the Minister (Orders in Council of 14th March, 1921, and 31st July, 1928).

New Zealand, therefore, having followed a consistent attitude towards the problem of Naval defence, by a natural process of evolution departed from the policy of subsidies, and thereupon assumed responsibility for a definite share in the material organization of Naval defence. She undertook to maintain a sea-going Naval Force and a training-centre under her immediate control. It was provided by Order in Council dated 20th June, 1921, that the official designation of this Force should be “The New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy.” Another step was taken in fulfilment of Naval obligations by an enactment passed in 1922 to authorize the formation of a Naval Reserve Force officered by and recruited from volunteers who do not follow the sea as a profession. This Naval Volunteer Force has headquarters at Wellington, Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin. It is under the general administration of the Naval Board.

Parliament passed an Act in 1927 binding the Dominion Government to contribute to the construction of the Imperial Naval Base at Singapore. This contribution took the form of an annual subsidy to provide for a total sum of £1,000,000. The last instalment of this sum was paid during the year ended 31st March, 1936. At the same time (in 1927) the Government announced that New-Zealand would undertake responsibility for the maintenance of modern cruisers when the Singapore subsidy had lapsed.

THE NAVAL STATION.

The Naval Base of the Division is at Devonport, Auckland. The property in this base is vested in the Auckland Harbour Board, but certain important rights therein are exercised by the New Zealand Naval Board under the terms of two contracts entered into between the Admiralty and the Harbour Board in 1899 and 1903. These contracts give fail rights of use of the machinery and of the Calliope Dock. Certain sections of the area are reserved for Naval purposes. The contracts provided for a subsidy payment of £150,000 to the Harbour Board payable over thirty years in half-yearly instalments until 31st October, 1939. The liability for these annual subsidy payments was assumed by the New Zealand Government in 1921.

H.M.S. “Philomel,” whose engines have been removed, is now based at Devonport. She continues to act as a depot-ship and instructional establishment.

During. 1924 and 1925 H.M.S. “Chatham” was relieved by H.M. ships “Dunedin” and “Diomede,” and the oil-tanker “Nucula” was hired from the Admiralty to attend them. Because of the progress made in the formation of the Volunteer Reserve, H.M.S. “Wakakura” (a mine-sweeping trawler) was purchased in 1920 for instructional work with the Volunteer Reserve Disivions.

The Imperial sloops, H.M. ships “Leith” and “Wellington” are also employed on the New Zealand Station. They are maintained by the Admiralty, but are under the command of the Commodore Commanding New Zealand Division.

In October, 1935, because of representations made to the New Zealand Government by Great Britain relating to the international situation consequent on the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, H.M.S. “Diomede” was placed under the control of the Imperial authorities for service on the East Indies Station. Having served for six months at Aden and in the Red Sea, the ship proceeded to England, where she paid off on 31st March and transferred her New Zealand crew to H.M.S. “Achilles.” This vessel was then commissioned for service in the New Zealand Division.

During the same year the Government approved of plans for the lengthening of the Calliope Dock to enable it to accommodate a cruiser of the “Achilles” class. They decided to inaugurate a three-years plan for the reconstruction and modernization of the Naval Base at Auckland, and they entered into negotiations with the Auckland Harbour Board to draw up a new contract to provide for the effective Naval control of the repair facilities to be installed. The reconstruction works were commenced in September, 1935, without, prejudice to the conclusion of the new agreement.

The Government also proclaimed part of a public domain at Kauri Point, in Birkenhead Borough, for use as a Naval Armament Depot, and inaugurated there a three-years programme of development works. The ammunition and stores now housed at Fort Takapuna will be transferred to Kauri Point in the near future.

PROVISION OF PERSONNEL.

Officers.—Officers of the Imperial Service are lent from time to time to the New Zealand Government for service in the ships and establishments of the Division. Vacancies for warrant officers are filled by the promotion of New-Zealand-recruited ratings when such ratings qualify for promotion.

The Admiralty make provision for the nomination of a limited number of New Zealand Naval cadets into R.N. College, Dartmouth, and of special-entry cadets to the training-cruiser H.M.S. “Frobisher”; candidates are required to pass medical and educational examinations. The nomination of cadets is made by His Excellency the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Director of the Education Department. The age qualification now ruling is—13 years 4 months to 13 years 8 months for R.N. College, Dartmouth; 17 to 18½ years for special-entry cadets.

These cadets are eligible for periods of “loan” service in the New Zealand Division as soon as they have passed the examinations for the rank of Lieutenant.

Arrangements were made in 1935 whereby a very limited number of ratings recruited in New Zealand for the Seamen, Signal, Wireless, and Engine-room Artificer Branches, who display exceptional ability and marked officer-like qualities, are eligible under Imperial Regulations for promotion to commissioned rank in the Imperial Navy. Officers so promoted are eligible for periods of service in the New Zealand Division from time to time.

The Admiralty Regulations also provide for the nomination of a limited number of qualified medical and dental practitioners for entry into the Medical and Dental Branches of the Imperial Service.

Ratings.—Recruiting of New Zealand boys and young men is open for all branches of the Service, provided they are medically fit, give proof of the required educational standard, and possess (where applicable) trade qualifications. The branches of the Service are—

  1. Seamen:

  2. Signal and Telegraphist:

  3. Engine-room Artificer:

  4. Stoker (outstanding Stoker ratings may be qualified as Mechanicians):

  5. Electrical and Ordnance Artificer:

  6. Shipwright:

  7. Joiner, Blacksmith, Plumber, and Painter (in very limited numbers):

  8. Sick Berth:

  9. Writer and Supply:

  10. Cooks and Stewards.

Advertisements are inserted in the press between January and March and in August of each year giving particulars of the numbers required. The recruiting of Seamen, Stokers, Signal and Telegraphist ratings is in the hands of the Defence Department. Recruiting for the remaining branches is effected by the Superintendent of Naval Training, H.M.S. “Philomel,” Auckland. A small pamphlet entitled “How to join the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy” has been published and may be obtained on application to Navy Office, Wellington; District Defence Offices; and H.M.S. “Philomel.” All candidates are required to hold Sixth Standard certificates.

The term of engagement in the Naval Service is for twelve years, or, if under the age of eighteen years, to serve until the age of thirty.

All ratings are eligible for advancement to Leading Petty Officer and Chief Petty Officer rates in their respective branches, provided they satisfy the conditions provided for in the regulations.

On completion of the first engagement all ratings may re-engage for two more periods of five years’ service provided they are recommended.

Provision is made for the qualification of ratings in technical work connected with Gunnery, Electricity, Torpedoes, Diving, Physical Training, Signals, and Wireless Telegraphy, &c, in the technical schools attached to Naval establishments in Australia and England.

Ratings may qualify for and be promoted to Warrant Officer rank in vacancies. Exceptional men in certain branches are eligible to be considered for promotion to commissioned rank in the Imperial Service.

An “Interchange” system has been devised whereby New Zealand ratings will be drafted for three years' service in the Imperial Home and Mediterranean Fleets once during their service. The object of this scheme is to give the men an opportunity of more varied experience than would be possible if they continued to perform all their service in the New Zealand Division.

On discharge from the permanent Naval Forces all ratings are required to enrol in the Royal Naval Reserve until they are forty years of age.

Ranks and Ratings borne.—On 31st March, 1936, the following numbers of New Zealand entered officers and ratings were borne on the active strength of the Division.

Officers3
Ratings555

Volunteer Reserves.—The Volunteer Reserves are appropriated to the four Divisional Headquarters at Wellington, Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Men enrol for a period of four years and may re-enrol for periods of two years up to twenty years' total service. They undergo annual training of seven or fourteen days in H.M. ships of the sea-going squadron or in H.M.S. “Wakakura.”

The strength of the Naval Reserves Forces at 31st March, 1936, was—

 Officers.Ratings.
Royal Naval Reserve11105
Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve68560

EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure on Naval defence during the last decade has been:—

 £
1926–27616,410
1927–28701,217
1928–29677,883
1929–30651,468
1930–31632,240
1931–32504,182
1932–33521,602
1933–34527,998
1934–35568,454
1935–36592,859

The expenditure in 1935–36 includes the last of ten annual contributions of £100,000 towards the cost of the Naval Base at Singapore.

Chapter 14. SECTION IX.—EXTERNAL TRADE.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

TOTAL MERCHANDISE TRADE.

DATA regarding the overseas trade of New Zealand are invested with a special significance in view of the Dominion's relatively high degree of dependence upon its external trade. According to figures compiled by the Secretariat of the League of Nations, New Zealand's total trade per caput is the highest in the world. Parenthetically, it may be observed, as a factor highly relevant in this connection, that New Zealand's overseas debt commitments are also upon a high scale.

In the official annual statistics of the trade of New Zealand the twelve-monthly period adopted is the calendar year. Summarized trade statistics for each of the last fifty calendar years are included in the Statistical Summary at the end of this volume. Monthly figures covering the principal items of export and import are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, so that summarized figures are readily available for any twelve-monthly period. As the production year ends about June and the financial year at 31st March, it is desirable to record the trade for years ended 30th June and 31st March as well as for that ended 31st December.

The following table relates to merchandise only—i.e., it excludes specie, particulars of which will be found at the close of this subsection. Figures are given in New Zealand currency for the latest decennial periods. Up to the end of 1920 New Zealand currency and sterling were at virtual parity, but thenceforward New Zealand currency has been below sterling parity (vide section relating to Banking and Currency). Consequently figures converted to a sterling basis have been appended covering the years from 1930 onwards. Used in conjunction, the two portions of the table will give data for ten years in both currencies.

Year.Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March.Year ended 30th June.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
192645,268,92449,811,70348,680,37152,993,70646,324,99452,125,552
192748,496,35444,782,66645,681,3384S,116,37046,394,58247,297,387
192855,570,38144,844,10254,957,03144,405,91355,105,28543,484,498
192954,930,06348,734,47256,526,24345,076,86556,110,65046,479,009
193044,940,51744,339,05448,411,81749,429,58446,969,21349,295,452
193134,950,69820,498,15139,527,00939,833,15736,943,77435,073,948
193235,609,91924,646,00633,942,61724,760,42134,668,40724,655,259
193341,005,91925,581,30037,510,10425,059,52037,470,05725,290,201
193447,342,84731,339,55246,042,57026,135,49649,141,91426,703,380
193546,538,38130,317,20744,918,18032,567,78542,953,09834,301,328
1936....49,675,99237,439,94453,659,96339,459,909
 £(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)
193043,158,00042,481,00047,933,00049,085,00045,908,00048,448,000
193131,852,00024,157,00037,198,00037,656,00034,321,00032,873,000
193232,373,00022,406,00030,857,00022,509,00031,517,00022,414,000
193332,805,00020,465,00032,677,00022,049,00031,516,00021,613,000
193437,874,00025,071,00036,834,00020,908,00039,314,00021,363,000
193537,380,00029,170,00035,985,00026,082,00034,450,00027,495,000
1936....39,900,00030,072,00043,101,00031,695,000

The total merchandise exports and imports are next given for each month from July, 1935, to June, 1936, and for the twelve-monthly period ending with each such month. By reason of the seasonal nature of the production of the principal commodities exported from the Dominion, approximately two-thirds of the exports are made during the latter half of the production year—i.e., the first six months of the calendar year. Imports are normally spread fairly evenly over the year.

MonthExports.Imports.Excess of Exports.
New Zealand Currency.Sterling Equivalent.New Zealand Currency.Sterling Equivalent.On New Zealand Currency Basis.On Sterling Basis.
£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
* Excess of imports.
Monthly Totals.
1935.
July3,2182,5852,9472,367271218
August2,8762,3103,6222,909−746*−599*
September2,6902,1613,1692,545−479*−384*
October2,8462,2863,6032,894−757*−608*
November3,8773,1143,0452,446832668
December3,9223,1503,2142,581708569
1936
January6,0984,8983,5972,8892,5012,009
February5,2514,2182,9862,3992,2651,819
March7,4485,9823,0382,4404,4103,542
April6,1374,9293,5592,8582,5782,071
May5,0754,0773,2462,60S1,8291,469
June4,2213,3903,4342,758787632
Twelve-monthly Totals.
1935
July43,32134,75434,38127,5688,9407,186
August43,11034,59934,77127,8918,3456,708
September43,35934,80335,38728,3957,9726,408
October44,14835,44335,57828,5598,5706,884
November45,20936,30435,90528,8319,3047,473
December46,53837,38036,31729,17010,2218,210
1936
January47,56138,20236,68829,46810,8738,734
February48,36038,84337,24629,91611,1148,927
March49,67639,90037,44030,07212,2369,828
April51,91741,70038,16030,65113,75711,049
May52,66642,30238,38230,82914,28411,473
June53,66043,10139,46031,69514,20011,406

TRADE PER HEAD.

Imports of merchandise per head were highest in the boom year of 1920 with a rate of £49 10s. 11d., the export record of £45 4s. having occurred in the previous year.

The next table shows the total merchandise trade, exports, and imports per head of the population. Values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

Year. Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
19162819221151050150
1917278818114599
1918241412018845129
19194540258370123
19203770491011861711
192135233398681111
192232149261385985
192334119321306749
19243816535176741311
1925391813717477155
1926320635486752
192733141312664167
192838125313469159
19293751033197077
193030232914059163
1931231111710240121
1932236816303998
193326131161274358
193430109204450151
19352916323555318

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF TRADE.

The table following facilitates appreciation of the movement of external trade in recent years, both in value and in actual physical volume. For notes regarding its construction reference may be made to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for December, 1933. Volume of exports and effect of price changes upon exports are dealt with at greater length in the subsection succeeding this.

Year.Value.Volume.
On Gold Basis.On Sterling Basis.On New Zealand Currency Basis.Exports.Imports.Total External Trade.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
1926100100100100100100100100100
192710790107901079010896102
1928123901239012390112100106
1929122981229812298116114115
19309685968510089119106112
19316444704877531206993
19325232724579491326697
193349287241915115766109
1934523184501056315183113
1935493583591037315397119

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE.

As a debtor country New Zealand has normally a substantial excess of exports over imports, imports having exceeded exports in only three (calendar) years since 1885—viz., in 1908, 1920, and 1926. The figures for the last twenty years-merchandise only—are as follows:—

Year.Visible Excess of Exports.
* Excess of imports.
 £(N.Z.)£(Stg.)
19168,235,6548,235,654
191710,774,94210,774,942
19184,348,7864,348,786
191923,598,75823,598,758
1920−15,148,487*−15,148,487*
19212,084,3382,084,338
19227,899,8757,899,875
19232,575,8102,575,810
19243,981,6203,981,620
19252,817,2902,817,290
1926−4,542,839*−4,542,839*
19273,713,6883,713,688
192810,726,27910,726,279
19296,195,5916,195,591
1930600,803677,000
19318,452,5477,695,000
193210,963,9139,907,000
193315,424,55312,340,000
193416,003,29512,803,000
193510,221,1148,210,000

It will be noticed that the balance for the year 1930 is greater on a sterling basis than on a New Zealand currency basis. The apparent anomaly is due to a combination of (1) successive movements in the exchange rate, and (2) the unequal distribution of exports over the year. This combination of factors affects the relationship between the sterling and New Zealand currency figures for other periods also.

The high figure of excess of imports in 1920 is a natural sequence of the much higher excess of exports in the previous year, combined with the filling of delayed orders which in many cases had been duplicated in the meantime. A substantial recovery from the low excess of exports recorded in 1930 is evident from the figures for subsequent years.

The visible balance of trade—i.e., the excess of exports over imports or vice versa—is an essential record valuable for numerous purposes. Nevertheless, it has very definite limitations, and, unfortunately, the focussing of interest on trade between two countries which has been intensified by currency instability and nationalistic tariff movements has resulted in a great deal of popular misconception of the actual facts.

In the first place, although far from the most important factor, the trade statistics themselves contain inevitable errors. For instance, it is necessary in many instances to assess the value of exports where goods are not sold until arrival at their destination; again, in the case of imports, an arbitary assumption is made to cover freight, insurance, and handling charges. While errors arising from such sources do not appreciably affect items or totals of exports or imports, they may conceivably cause significant errors in the visible balance of trade, since there is no guarantee that such errors will be of a compensatory nature. In particular, when a small visible balance emerges from a year's trading in commodities, a relatively small margin of error in the assessment of export or import values (or both) may make a quite significant error in the residual balance. The possible error arising from the necessity of pre-estimating the final realization in the case of certain exports is not likely to be of importance in years of relatively stable prices; but, in periods when world prices are fluctuating violently, an appreciable margin of error may result from this cause in the assessment of the total of export valuations for a single year.

Furthermore, there are additional difficulties where trade with individual countries is concerned. The ultimate destination of goods exported is sometimes not known at the time of export. In particular, it is evident from the United Kingdom trade statistics that a considerable proportion of New Zealand's exports to continental countries is recorded in the New Zealand statistics among exports to the United Kingdom. Such produce may be sold on the United Kingdom markets to continental purchasers; while, again, goods may be diverted to continental markets after arrival in the United Kingdom.

Of much greater importance is the fact that the visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries. Debt payments, capital investments and flow of capital, freight payments, tourist expenditure, and the like are vitally important factors which frequently reverse a credit visible balance of trade into a debit balance of payments. An estimate of New Zealand's balance of payments is given later in this subsection.

The partial disintegration of world trade, accompanied by currency difficulties, which has been such a marked feature of current economic trends, has intensified interest in the bi-lateral aspects of trade statistics as opposed to the multilateral aspect, which latter has been the really significant indication of the external trading relations of a country. In this connection it is perhaps germane to the question of New Zealand's position to draw attention to the fact that an estimated aggregate credit balance (vide “Balance of Payments” immediately following—the estimates are admittedly imperfect) of about 18 millions sterling over the twenty years ending with 1935 has been accompanied by an increase of some 92 millions sterling in Government and local-body debt domiciled abroad.

The following table shows for the year 1935 the amount of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion, the balance of trade in each case also being given. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at New Zealand import values—i.e., current domestic value in country of origin plus 10 per cent, allowance for freight, &c. The trade balances therefore represent the differences between exports and imports, both at New Zealand ports. Since this is the accepted practice internationally in statistics of trade, it follows that New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results of her trade with any given country than will be obtained from the trade statistics of that country, unless allowance be made for this practice.

Country.Exports.Imports, Country of Shipment.Balance. (+ = excess of exports; − = excess of imports.)
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom38,921,56818,519,600+ 20,401,968+ 16,3S7,000
Canada656,9842,439,253− 1,782,269− 1,431,000
India60,956532,786− 471,830− 379,000
Ceylon1,528626,907− 625,379− 502,000
South African Union27,50454,936− 27,432− 22,000
Australia1,781,8114,295,457− 2,513,046− 2,019,000
Fiji86,19193,656− 7,465− 6,000
Nauru Island12,191171,094− 158,903− 128,000
Other British countries229,813378,020− 148,207− 119,000
    Totals, British countries41,778,54627,111,709+ 14,666,837+ 11,781,000
Germany165,304469,853− 304,549− 245,000
France484,610180,423+ 304,187+ 244,000
Belgium647,212204,742+ 442,470+ 356,000
Italy21,092195,405− 174,313− 140,000
Sweden47,142278,042− 230,900− 185,000
Japan432,4951,078,774− 646,279− 519,000
Dutch East Indies2,2351,432,847− 1,430,612− 1,149,000
United States of America2,468,0664,362,516− 1,894,450− 1,522,000
Other foreign countries491,6791,002,956− 511,277− 411,000
    Totals, foreign countries4,759,8359,205,558− 4,445,723− 3,571,000
    Totals, all countries46,538,38136,317,267+ 10,221,114+ 8,210,000

The wide variations in the balance of commodity trade with individual countries merit special mention. It will be observed that a very substantial credit balance (£(N.Z.)20,401,968) resulted from trade in merchandise with the United Kingdom in 1935; whereas an adverse balance is shown in the case of all other British countries, amounting to £5,735,131 in the aggregate. A credit balance of £14,666,837 emerged from commodity trade with British countries as a whole, while trade with foreign countries resulted in an adverse balance of £4,445,723. The credit balance with the United Kingdom is subject to some deduction on account of goods credited in New Zealand exports to the United Kingdom, but re-exported thence to European countries. The assessment of the amount so involved is particularly difficult; but examination of relevant statistics suggests that the total for 1934 would be in the neighbourhood of £(N.Z.)3,000,000. (Data are not yet available from which a figure for 1935 can be estimated.) It will be realized, then, that in consequence of the United Kingdom's entrepot trade in New Zealand produce the actual adverse balance with foreign countries reduces from £4,445,723 to probably less than £1,500,000, while the credit balance with the United Kingdom reduces from £20,401,968 to almost £17,500,000.

New Zealand has a heavy adverse balance of trade in respect of invisible items. In fact, the credit balance of £10,221,114 shown in respect of commodity trade in 1935 was slightly less than the amount necessary to achieve an overall balance of payments from the year's external trading. The overseas funds of New Zealand banking institutions (on account of New Zealand business only) were £(N.Z.)4,440,075 lower on 30th December, 1935, than on 31st December, 1934; and, while the greater part of this fall is accounted for by debt repayments during the year from accumulated overseas funds, the amount of the fall exceeds by about £(N.Z.) 1,000,000 the decrease attributable to known debt repayments. The adverse balance on account of invisible items thus involved payment, of approximately £(N.Z.)11,000,000 in the calendar year 1935, of which amount over £(N.Z.)9,000,000 is accounted for by an adverse balance on this account with the United Kingdom.

An analysis of the balance of payments (on a March-year basis) follows.

BALANCE OF OVERSEAS PAYMENTS.

Bound up with the matter of the visible trade balance is the question of the balance of overseas payments. Sufficient data, are not available for the presentation of an accurate statement on the subject, but an estimate has been attempted, and the summarized results for the twenty financial years ending with 1934–35 are here given, all figures being expressed in terms of sterling:—

Year ended 31st MarchInward Balance on Account of
Visible Merchandise Trade (as recorded).Visible Trade (Merchandise and Specie).Visible Trade, plus Interest on Public and Local Bodies' Debt.Visible Trade, Public and Local Bodies' Interest and Debt Movement.All Items other than Public and Local Bodies' Debt Movement.All Items including Public and Local Bodies' Debt Movement.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
1916+ 12·2+ 10·9+ 7·2+ 11·3− 3·0+ 1·1
1917+ 5·1+ 4·4+ 0·5+ 3·0− 8·7− 6·2
1918+ 10·4+ 10·3+ 6·2+ 10·9− 2·7+ 2·0
1919+ 6·3+ 6·2+ 1·7+ 8·4− 8·8− 2·1
1920+ 19·2+ 18·9+ 14·3+ 14·1+ 10·9+ 10·7
1921− 19·2− 19·3− 24·1− 21·0− 29·6− 26·5
1922+ 8·0+ 7·7+ 2·5+ 11·9+ 0·2+ 9·6
1923+ 8·7+ 8·6+ 3·0+ 8·5+ 0·7+ 6·2
1924+ 7·2+ 7·3+ 1·4+ 8·3− 1·3+ 5·6
1925+ 4·8+ 4·9− 1·3+ 9·5− 4·1+ 6·7
1926− 4·3− 4·3− 11·1− 2·2− 13·3− 4·4
1927− 2·4− 2·5− 9·6− 2·2− 10·5− 3·1
1928+ 10·6+ 10·5+ 3·0+ 10·6+ 1·7+ 9·3
1929+ 11·4+ 12·0+ 4·0+ 15·0+ 1·9+ 12·9
1930− 1·1− 0·6− 8·9− 11·3− 10·7− 13·1
1931− 0·5− 0·8− 9·2− 1·2− 10·5− 2·5
1932+ 8·3+ 9·0+ 1·1+ 4·5+ 0·9+ 4·3
1933+ 10·6+ 12·3+ 5·2+ 4·0+ 3·5+ 2·3
1934+ 15·9+ 15·7+ 8·6+ 6·4+ 6·3+ 4·1
1935+ 9·9+ 11·9+ 5·0+ 2·7+ 3·9+ 1·6
Aggregate of twenty years+ 121·1+ 123·1− 0·5+ 91·2− 73·2+ 18·5

The first four columns are based wholly on (substantially) ascertained figures, which, by the way, relate to 90 per cent, of the total inward and outward payments. The balances shown in the fifth and sixth columns, however, are given out only as the best possible with the data at present available. The small net balance (£18·4m.) for all items over the twenty years, taken in conjunction with the probability that London balances on New Zealand account were at 31st March, 1935, substantially higher than at the corresponding date twenty years earlier, indicates that the balance for the period as a whole is not seriously in error, having regard to the magnitude of total inward and outward payments. This close coincidence, however, may be due in part to counterbalancing inaccuracies as between individual items or years.

As indicating the relative importance of trade, of debt increase, and interest payments of the Government and local authorities, and of other items, the following aggregates (in sterling) for the twenty years are given:—

 Inward or Credit Payments.Outward or Debit Payments.
Trade—£m.£m.
   Merchandise849·9728·8
   Specie7·75·7
Government and local-body debt—
   Increase91·7..
   Interest..123·6
Other items (largely estimated)72·0144·7
     Totals1,021·31,002·8

The figures for the last five years available are given in more detail in the following table. As indicated above, arbitrary assessment has had to be resorted to in the case of certain items, notably interest, &c, on private debt and investments. All the amounts shown in this table are in terms of sterling.

——Year ended 31st March
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
* See letterpress following.
Inward or credit items—
  Merchandise exports (f.o.b.)37,19830,85732,65736,83435,985
  Specie exports17201,7963732,939
  Additions to Government and local bodies' debts8,0583,371......
  Interest on inter-Governmental debts88777
  Other interest and dividend receipts234239162140161
  Freights220150170165197
  Passage-money450250200253317
  Port receipts823620610627652
  Funds of immigrants390170807281
  Expenditure by tourists940590550563644
  Consular, &c, expenditure3030303030
  Reparation receipts508167......
  Governmental sales of overseas long-term securities..1,50075835
  Governmental receipts, n.e.i.134143276273297
      Total credit items48,99438,81536,54539,34242,145
Outward or debit items—
  Merchandise imports (as recorded)37,65622,51022,04920,90826,082
  Additional allowance for freight, &c*342204500490245
  Specie imports36758123647901
  Decreases in Government and local bodies' debts....1,1992,2402,293
  Interest on Governmental debt7,0656,6705,9356,0106,042
  Interest on local bodies' debt1,3051,2351,1051,090936
  Interest, &c, on private debt and investments1,0008008009001,000
  Funds of emigrants270280290320368
  Tourist expenditure2,6201,7401,4401,4141,940
  Consular, &c, expenditure6060606060
  Governmental purchases of overseas long-term securities......774..
  Governmental expenditure, n.e.i.849922711370713
      Total debit items51,53434,47934,27235,22340,586

As mentioned previously, exports are valued f.o.b., New Zealand ports, while imports are counted—both for duty and for statistical purposes—at their value in the country of shipment, plus 10 per cent, to cover freight, insurance, &c. This 10-per-cent. allowance is usually on the conservative side, and estimated additional charges are allowed for on the debit side of the above statement.

Freight and other charges on exports at the present time are estimated to approximate £(stg.)6,000,000 annually (mostly earned by United Kingdom vessels), but these do not enter into the balance of payments on the basis adopted, exports being, as stated, shown f.o.b., or at their net value to New Zealand. Freight, &c., on imports in 1935 is estimated at £2,616,000 (stg.)—i.e., 1/11 of £26,082,000 plus additional allowance of £245,000 (see table on page 177).

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE.

There is no Mint in New Zealand, while there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion. Uncoined gold, therefore, ranks as an ordinary export of the Dominion, along with wool, frozen meat, and dairy-produce. In earlier days this export of gold was much more important than now, amounting in 1863 to 70 per cent, of the total exports, from which figure it shrank steadily to 6 per cent, in 1913. The proportion in recent years has been only about 1 per cent, but, as a combined effect of the falling-off in commodity values and of the consequential fillip given to the gold-mining industry and to the export of gold contained in old jewellery, gold represented a little more than 3 per cent, of exports in 1935.

A table is given showing imports and exports of specie during the last ten years. Exports in 1934 were easily a record, mainly due to gold shipments by the Reserve Bank; while imports in the same year were the second highest yet recorded, the high figure being ascribable to importations of silver coinage for the New Zealand currency. The values given represent the face value of the specie.

Year.Specie Imported.Specie exported.Excess of Specie Imports (+) or Exports (−).
 £££
192677,8006,651+71,149
1927280..+280
192842,164618,100−575,936
192963,505649,000−585,495
1930363,087175+362,912
193156,155202,330−146,175
193255,3101,355,861−1,300,551
1933424,704296,032+128,672
19341,242,0002,283,900−1,041,900
1935381,821521,000−139,179

Chapter 15. SECTION IX.—EXTERNAL TRADE—continued.

SUBSECTION B.—EXPORTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN New Zealand the Department of H.M. Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination.

In all cases exports are valued “free on board at the port of shipment.” In many cases, however, the goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, and in such cases values must be assessed in New Zealand with reference to current prices. Exports of merchandise are valued in terms of New Zealand currency, which has been below sterling parity since the beginning of 1930 (vide section on Banking and Currency). The value of total exports, 1930–35, in sterling will be found in the preceding subsection.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. In the trade records a distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS.

The total merchandise exports (i.e., excluding specie) during the last ten years are given in the following table, classified according to five broad divisions. A table showing specie exports and imports for the same period will be found at the close of the preceding subsection.

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous.Bullion.Total Merchandise Exports.
 ££££££
192625,691,32016,801,8541,716,162494,405565,18345,268,924
192727,921,06217,762,1941,749,231492,194571,67348,496,354
192831,022,18321,785,6831,851,874381,224529,41755,570,381
192932,609,83619,766,7051,547,947485,863519,71254,930,063
193031,676,69310,835,1461,494,255345,618588,80544,940,517
193125,724,1997,255,7491,107,610254,031609,10934,950,698
193225,794,1127,269,9461,093,495239,7731,212,59335,609,919
193328,437,1909,784,9251,141,632261,8231,380,34941,005,919
193429,210,95615,294,0361,121,438323,0691,393,34847,342,847
193533,315,23210,141,6511,209,680357,5611,514,25746,538,381

The most important class is that for food, drink, and tobacco, which, in the case of exports from New Zealand, is composed almost wholly of foodstuffs, the principal items being butter, cheese, and frozen meat. Of the total exports during the five years 1931–35 this class accounted for 694 per cent. Next in order of magnitude is the raw-materials class (mainly wool, hides, skins, and tallow), which during the last five years constituted 24·2 per cent, of the total exports tor that period. The remaining classes do not figure prominently in the table, and during the five years under review accounted for but 6 4 per cent, of the total.

In the following table exports of New Zealand produce—i.e., exclusive of specie and other re-exports—are classified under the main industries, according to a broad division, to illustrate the relative importance of the pastoral, agricultural, forestry, mining, and other industries as far as the export trade is concerned. It must be remembered that in a particular industry the home trade may be relatively more important than the external trade.

PROPORTIONS OF EXPORTS SUPPLIED BY THE MAIN INDUSTRIES.

Year.Exports (New Zealand Produce).Percentage of Total Exports.
Pastoral.Agricultural.Forest.Mining.Other.Pastoral.Agricultural.Forest.Mining.Others.
 £££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191628,894,422183,797734,0341,661,0501,502,00487·60·62·25·04·6
191727,329,599179,902711,1881,274,2221,593,04887·90·62·34·15·1
191824,638,531190,291719,538479,0171,903,63388·20·72·61·76·8
191948,011,240788,187698,8491,008,3141,537,79491·21·51·33·12·9
192041,560,170530,0561,262,8941,103,3441,135,82491·11·22·82·42·5
192140,698,867490,094884,279787,591754,62793·31·12·01·91·7
192238,182,793908,9441,006,054850,409630,88891·62·32·62·01·5
192342,128,295568,3561,080,320937,238657,69892·91·32·42·11·3
192448,944,828431,325937,178787,064819,83394·20·91·81·51·6
192551,370,479467,8971,000,453770,439911,76394·20·91·81·41·7
192640,703,348902,104820,917854,995997,72991·92·01·91·92·3
192744,207,037887,893725,047804,834946,42292·91·91·51·72·0
192851,509,520964,950620,096710,450848,74394·21·81·11·31·6
192950,780,1131,030,700717,088809,676832,43693·81·91·31·51·5
193041,368,145971,259503,170784,125582,70793·62·21·11·81·3
193132,112,634910,937311,050707,126276,89193·62·60·92·10·8
193232,102,2181,043,277321,9231,190,300318,66391·83·00·93·40·9
193337,102,5101,221,979318,8911,374,211391,16091·83·00·83·41·0
193443,330,9601,153,050411,5111,410,911452,85592·72·40·93·01·0
193542,509,660935,821448,0S01,573,362524,19892·42·01·03·41·2

The table demonstrates the tendency of the Dominion to rely mainly upon the pastoral industry for her exports. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,” but in the early years of the present century fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining produce. After 1901, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1924 and 1925 it amounted to 94·2 per cent, of the total, the highest percentage then recorded, this 6gure being reached in 1928 also.

New Zealand's agriculture is now upon a level barely sufficient to provide for her own needs in the matter of cereals, and only in exceptional years is there a surplus available for export. Agricultural exports showed an abnormal increase from 1899 to 1903, the period which covers the South African War, but their importance then steadily declined. Their lowest level (0·6 per cent, of total exports) was reached in 1916 and 1917. The higher levels recorded from 1926 onwards are attributable mainly to a considerable development in the export of apples; pears, peas, and grass- and clover-seeds also contributing. Forest products, though steady, show a relative downward tendency. Mining products which have declined considerably of late years recorded a marked increase since 1931 due to the enhanced price of gold, which led to greater activity in gold-production and to the export of a large quantity of gold recovered from old jewellery, &c.

Included in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume are figures showing the main exports from New Zealand during the last fifty years. A more detailed list of commodities is covered by the five-years tables on pp. 190–94, A comparison of values between 1934 and 1935 gives the following results for fourteen principal commodities.

INCREASES OR DECREASES IN THE MAIN EXPORTS IN 1935.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).Value.Amount ofPercentage
1934.1935.Increase.Decrease.Increase.Decrease.
 ££££ 
Wool12,516,4257,097,133..5,419,292..43·3
Frozen meat11,886,95512,768,968882,013..7·4..
Butter10,042,77613,616,7403,573,964..35·6..
Seeds166,511215,73849,227..29·6..
Peas138,261107,173..31,088..22·5
Casein149,666161,70012,034..8·0..
Cheese4,694,4594,376,512..317,947..6·8
Dried and preserved milk407,708370,890..36,818..9·0
Sausage-casings625,394787,201101,807..25·9..
Apples716,780467,422..249,35S..34·8
Tallow480,354630,638150,284..31·3..
Skins, hides, and pelts2,204,6902,410,828206,138..9·4..
Silver39,37261,31721,945..55·7..
Gold1,320,6901,441,790121,100..9·2..
Coal51,48962,91011,421..22·2..
Kauri-gum86,91779,113..7,804..9·0
Phormium52,01857,5535,535..10·6..
Timber320,527304,35943,832..13·7..

In the following table exports during 1935 are grouped in classes in accordance with the statistical classification which has been used for both exports and imports since 1914:—

No.Class.New Zealand Produce.Re-exports.
 ££
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)32,520,2803,308
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt738,3655,506
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic), and substances used in making up the same4,5227,756
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors7,6075,324
VTobacco and preparations thereof11,0741,898
VILive animals85,863630
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs9,516,935164
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres292,0023,297
IXAApparel1,4079,702
IXBTextiles7,21326,970
IXCManufactured fibres1,93314,748
XOils, fats, and waxes657,204188,054
XIPaints and varnishes3743,536
XIIStones and minerals used industrially151,34850
XIVAMetal (unmanufactured'and partly manufactured) and ores1,545,68412,061
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines2,84116,329
XVMachinery and machines19,96059,204
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)..1,531
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof (including substitutes)5,4921,943
XVIIATimber364,359829
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures1,175780
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials5011,920
XIXAPaper5941,126
XIXBStationery12,20312,742
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy-goods29011,563
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments1,95917,846
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares16,4906,890
XXIIBManures21,83863
XXIIIAVehicles10831,606
XXIIIBMiscellaneous33,63239,272
..Parcels-post28,414..
      Totals, merchandise46,051,733486,648
XIIISpecie (face value)..521,000

Exports for 1935 (including specie and re-exports) are now grouped according to a classification adopted by the British Board of Trade for the compilation of Empire trade statistics. Exports to British and foreign countries are distinguished.

Commodity (including lie-exports).United Kingdom.Other British Countries.United States of America.Other Foreign Countries.Totals.

* Not including bunker coal, £62,781.

† Not including bunker fuel oil, £183,969.

‡ Face value.

 £££££
Grain and milled products79,41833,0207,5831,509121,530
Meat (including poultry and game)12,857,60257,51752,34023,97412,991,439
Butter, cheese, and eggs17,545,828108,294226,024135,52218,015,068
Fruits (fresh and dried)442,19825,92210,19247,188525,500
Sugar25014,6032031,15616,212
Tea476,6483414197,455
Alcoholic beverages1,0434,8961,7825,10412,825
Tobacco7,2314,86670616912,972
Coal*376..50129
Ores, concentrates, and scrap17,1954,920..20,16742,282
Iron and steel—
  Pig, ingots, &c...........
  Bar, rod, plate, sheet, &c.222515..6041,341
  Other manufactures of iron and steel3,4558,74749072713,419
Agricultural implements and machinery8724,710..335,615
Electrical machinery and equipment7,14812,98S1,31156122,008
Other machinery10,76437,8291,0671,88151,541
Motor-cars and parts thereof5,80717,59S4,06431327,842
Other metals and metal manufactures2,7552,8535614396,608
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)16,00641,346..20957,501
Wool, raw4,888,190421,989302,4761,484,4727,097,133
Yarns and threads963800..531,816
Cotton piece-goods7756,500..4167,751
Woollen Piece-goods565617....1,182
Other piece-goods1,0275,532..3,86110,420
Other textiles (including apparel)2,79732,7908543,29239,733
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, &c.)671,520137641,794
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)7,294359,38338273366,988
Newsprint..97....97
Seeds and nuts for expressing oil therefrom2012,393....2,594
Oil—Petroleum, crude and refined312,2312937553,310
Hides, skins, and furs, undressed608,008371,9281,011,722359,2552,410,973
Leather and manufactures thereof (including boots and shoes)3,9713,0524881,1919,302
Other1,157,5901,006,443806,893198,1123,169,038
   Total37,729,4492,603,2892,429,5712,291,76945,054,078
Gold and silver bullion1,192,119253,08938,495..1,484,303
Total exports (excluding specie)38,921,5082,856,9782,468,0662,291,76946,538,381
Specie486,00035,000....521,000

The principal items of export may again be regrouped under six definite heads, as in the table below, which shows in more detail the commodities exported from the Dominion. Only New Zealand produce is included.

Practically all the main commodities are homogeneous articles, and it is therefore possible to give the quantities exported. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price-variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* Ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.
The mine—
  Coal(tons)48,33435,86634,13140,36146,146
  Gold*(oz.)140,970200,648177,241162,490171,553
  Silver(oz.)551,441520,647410,091359,540389,263
  Other minerals(tons)388274753
The fisheries—
  Fish(cwt.)16,18020,47932,39956,20555,463
  Oysters(doz.)45,55729,377106,241204,020197,117
  Whalebone(lb.)..........
  Whale-oil(gal.)40,78830,86128,89535,00171,601
The forest      
  Fungus(cwt.)1,8401,3301,0281,2781,418
  Kauri-gum(tons)3,0582,0683,0893,2092,872
  Timber, sawn and hewn(sup. ft.)17,532,30427,286,88425,829,40434,530,27939,585,198
Pastoral products—
  Bacon and hams(cwt.)828874903962738
  Meats, Baited and smoked(cwt.)1,3731,4691,2024,873725
  Butter(cwt.)1,988,5662,185,5452,035,2472,614,5192,789,298
  Casein(cwt.)52,91742,77048,67457,74465,167
  Cheese1,636,3471,790,4311,982,9421,984,4901,727,552 
  Eggs in shell(doz.)113,000163,078327,161384,545354,580
  Hides and skins(number)1,025,1301,183,2291,456,2411,852,6821,999,473
  Honey(lb.)584,739226,243757,100669,6831,155,247
  Live-stock—
   Cattle(number)23972934257
   Horses(number)95198250336257
   Sheep(number)2,2423,5782,3331,8442,283
   Pigs(number)404207753733
  Preserved meats(cwt.)26,75035,38739,45344,34874,256
  Frozen meats(cwt.)4,138,8064,645,4805,203,1134,969,4475,200,514
  Milk, dried and preserved(lb.)12,845,39416,033,17517,040,07221,562,45020,783,080
  Sausage-casings(cwt.)32,68933,67940,40440,39737,429
  Rabbit-skins(number)6,174,0926,660,14010,378,388IS,035,01513,530,745
  Sheep-skins and pelts(number)12,085,69313,640,41215,193,79912,193,69714,170,544
  Tallow(cwt.)465,280507,540560,400553,240505,540
  Wool(lb.)211,718,868238,179,002280,307,441255,796,783222,661,403
Agricultural products—
  Bran and sharps(tons)125051,0051,353165
  Chaff(tons)1622..213
  Flour(tons)48271
  Apples(lb.)51,907,73060,438,51852,406,01057,763,64337,790,819
  Pears(lb.)1,699,0702,783,3765,130,5384,915,0703,786,700
  Grain and pulse—
   Barley(centals)51567048..
   Peas(centals)69,441106,282200,414258,977147,969
   Oats(centals)1,2801,8167,29521,84638,191
   Wheat(centals)23545603,43177125
  Hops(cwt.)8021,7885,2823,0693,993
  Oatmeal(tons)12910054....
  Onions(tons)652,0798801,891144
  Potatoes(tons)8641,1404,6079471,072
  Seeds (grass and clover)(cwt.)40,95334,33780,30848,75171,649
  Tobacco, unmanufactured(lb.)....2344260,419
Miscellaneous—
  Ale, stout, and cider(gal)12,00213,86514,58231,63635,701
  Leather(cwt.)1,6151,979981492377
  Phormium fibre and tow(tons)2,3983,8504,4024,1734,101
  Sugar(cwt.)18,05020,94918,35917,19122,266
  Metals, scrap (not precious)(cwt.)10,85913,161651,785243,961171,590
  Pumice—sand and stone(tons)2,3213,1662,3872,4913,300
  Blood and blood-and bone manures(tons)3381,2412,4232,9422,157

The values of these principal exports are tabulated in the following table, and the statement is rendered complete by the addition of miscellaneous groups and the provision of totals for each group and for all combined:—

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
£££££
* As recorded. Certain exports of ambergris by parcels-post are not available, but are included in “Miscellaneous—Other” at the end of the table.
The mine—
  Coal83,39356,32153,69051,48962,910
  Gold581,0321,092,2881,281,6121,320,0901,441,790
  Silver34,43640,73736,66039,37261,317
  Other minerals8,2059602,2435,3007,345
      Totals707,1261,190,3061,374,2111,416,9111,573,362
The fisheries—
  Fish44,58851,30775,019134,311140,083
  Oysters5313821,0481,8602,136
  Whalebone..........
  Whale-oil3,7612,7002,2742,5405,051
  Ambergris*..6222296844
  Other14105124456740
      Totals48,89454,55678,087140,135148,054
The forest—
  Fungus9,9885,9033,2693,7885,194
  Kauri-gum128,09562,13777,97386,91779,113
  Timber172,033253,883237,528320,527304,359
  Other940..12127920
      Totals311,050321,023318,891411,511448,686
Pastoral products—
  Bacon and hams4,4544,3684,6744,9454,530
  Meats, salted and smoked3,1303,0962,4149,6111,524
  Butter10,049,52710,639,05311,648,69910,042,77013,616,740
  Casein88,72059,02993,742149,666161,700
  Cheese4,401,2934,951,2084,760,3514,694,4594,376,512
  Eggs in shell5,7827,79715,88418,34122,378
  Hides and skins349,047309,800601,043697,014740,274
  Honey19,4017,05421,82319,73133,788
  Live-stock—
   Cattle1,1542,1701,7779,3102,950
   Horses29,73043,57741,81558,77464,037
   Sheep7,28017,3378,05328,52918,058
   Pigs1,223497201144178
   Other1,5725286171,202140
  Milk, dried and preserved246,483269,121315,904407,708370,890
  Preserved meats92,05496,123105,272127,090210,417
  Frozen meats8,892,5558,430,3009,845,02711,880,95512,708,968
  Sausage-casings399,418266,273394,401625,394787,261
  Rabbit-skins108,84170,016224,199257,585395,090
  Sheep skins and pelts805,838694,2171,043,2081,250,0911,275,464
  Tallow413,080462,081510,063480,354630,038
  Wool5,515,3765,742,8217,422,26612,516,4257,097,133
  Other16,66419,68028,35750,79049,820
      Totals32,112,03432,102,21837,102,51043,336,90042,634,490
Agricultural products—
  Bran and pollard1131,4943,3084,146599
  Chaff128183111296
  Flour96171398812
  Fruits—
   Apples641,055755,158655,746710,780467,422
   Pears28,09044,26265,02062,06057,071
   Other1015429,685210144
  Grain and pulse—
   Barley51032927..
   Peas58,69181,507123,876138,898109,057
   Oats7891,0432,2377,30011,220
   Wheat15827138,8253966
   Other159661354..
  Hops3,5787,89723,66021,80927,359
  Oatmeal6,1024,5222,195..9
  Onions6620,2024,70210,9701,200
  Potatoes5,5306,14023,0295,3178,490
  Seeds (grass and clover)155,410109,632152,458166,511215,738
  Seeds (various)6,4587,8777,3547,6998,065
  Tobacco....20146,642
  Other3,6882,5448,68411,17222,031
      Totals910,9371,043,2771,221,9791,153,056935,821
Miscellaneous (including manufactures)—
  Ale, stout, and cider2,4652,6203,3047,0217,575
  Apparel (inducing hats, caps, hosiery, and millinery)1,4151,0841,3251,0721,348
  Dairying machinery8,4237,5744,1157,02610,229
  Blood and blood-and-bone manures2,8667,42916,06721,80317,557
  Metals, scrap (not precious)11,0019,75254,47134,84235,199
  Cordage1,7201,4721,387808856
  Foods, infants' and invalids'2,20010,2468,19413,60112,500
  Leather9,0059,7779,1015,1855,090
  Phormium fibres and tow38,40747,31247,63252,01857,553
  Soap5,4707,6017,0049,17010,986
  Sugar14,58015,77013,84412,90716,448
  Binder-twine20218917753172
  Woollen manufactures1,5007841,8844,0294,904
  Other127,090142,302143,248141,475130,297
      Totals227,097204,107312,473312,720310,720
Totals, New Zealand produce34,319,24434,976,38740,408,75146,771,29346,051,733
Re-exports of merchandise631,454633,532507,108571,554480,048
Total exports of merchandise34,050,00835,609,91941,005,91947,342,84740,538,381
Specie exports (face value)202,3301,355,801296,0322,283,900521,000

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865, 70 per cent., and even in 1871, 44 per cent., of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines the United Kingdom has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875–1914, £365,880,997 (78 per cent.) of a grand total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the Great War, did not vary greatly from year to year, but naturally there have been considerable variations since 1914.

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) during the last twenty years are given in the table below. The principal “other countries” in 1935, in order of magnitude, were Belgium, France, Japan, Poland, Fiji, the Netherlands, and India.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.Pacific Islands (other than Australia).United States.Germany.Other Countries.Total Merchandise Exports.
 ££££££££
191620,860,9882,191,545691,980302,1892,493,9875671,35733,281,057
191726,023,3961,460,980901,053409,9051,804,3176700,81531,517,072
191818,244,2501,803,7391,793,570476,2324,045,648..2,117,13328,480,578
191944,312,0482,240,827980,190485,9624,200,861..1,079,03753,907,925
192034,354,3002,351,7991,357,774681,7037,456,04123203,72040,405,300
192138,710,5932,070,013454,597510,9902,702,10440,102321,99544,828,400
192230,154,1742,208,280446,457399,0782,072,775218,338020,84742,725,049
192337,324,0052,614,894665,696466,1043,631,272190,0001,140,50245,939,793
192441,909,6912,474,879716,543575,5303,278,1351,100,3022,328,14352,509,223
192544,066,9812,489,230423,008548,5914,349,7581,014,0001,751,32955,243,047
192635,102,0873,048,282801,717514,7533,818,232304,0201,559,22445,208,924
192736,877,8873,665,9021,660,598495,4022,081,0911,139,6541,909,70048,490,354
192840,510,0752,902,0552,409,150574,8004,100,3151,290,0713,663,24955,570,381
192940,417,0432,338,4103,353,975517,9583,553,4271,220,5523,528,69854,930,003
193036,015,1281,562,2812,539,212471,9742,110,752401,0841,834,08644,940,517
193130,730,9761,167,103250,890302,034920,931309,8471,253,01734,950,098
193231,344,6701,444,800244,100205,425690,015289,9171,330,87235,009,019
193335,275,9091,393,311500,875232,0901,188,972376,8861,977,90641,005,919
193438,029,2401,882,510697,805223,4801,250,364944,3103,715,06647,342,847
193538,921,5681,781,811656,984284,0352,408,066165,3042,260,61340,538,381

The statistics quoted in the above table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded by the Customs Department. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This consideration applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics, it is possible, of course, that the destination of goods may be diverted while on the water; and this, in fact, happens on occasion in the case of wool. In such cases the actual destination will be different from that to which the goods have been credited in the statistics; but it is quite impossible to keep a record of movements of this nature.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported each year on an “optional” basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In such instances, the wool is entered in the New Zealand statistics as exported to the United Kingdom.

It will be realized from the considerations outlined above that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. The qualifications to the statistics as an indication of the final destination of New Zealand exports point, generally speaking, to the conclusion that our exports to Continental countries are somewhat higher than the figures shown; while, on the other hand, our exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

The table which follows shows for each of ten years the percentage of total exports (excluding specie) taken by each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion. For reasons given above, the proportion credited to the United Kingdom is overstated, and that to other European countries understated.

Country.19261927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
United Kingdom77·5376·0472·9073·5880·1487·9688·0286·0381·5983·63
Canada1·903·444·456·115·650·740·691·371·461·41
India0·180·300·680·700·910·170·150·080·140·13
Ceylon0·000·000·010·010·020·010·010·010·000·00
South African Union0·070·060·120·090·040·020·030·030·06·06
Australia6·757·565·224·263·483·344·063·403·983·83
Fiji0·340·250·230·230·240·250·250·210·180·19
Other British countries0·530·520·500·420·480·430·440·370·420·52
Totals, British countries87·3088·1784·1185·4090·9692·9293·6591·5087·8389·77
Germany0·802·352·322·220·890·890·820·922·000·36
France1·512·083·243·221·151·201·431·802·601·04
Belgium0·380·340·550·450·440·420·470·811·291·39
Japan0·360·521·180·780·340·760·670·861·810·93
United States of America8·435·537·516·514·712·661·942·912·645·30
Other foreign countries1·221·011·091·421·511·151·021·201·831·21
Totals, foreign countries12·7011·8315·8914·609·047·086·358·5012·1710·23

A little more than five-sixths of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom during 1935. A certain amount of this produce, as indicated previously, is subsequently reshipped, principally to other European countries, the result being that exports to Continental countries are understated to this extent in New Zealand export statistics. The principal commodities, in order of magnitude, taken by the United Kingdom from New Zealand in 1935 were frozen meat, butter, wool, cheese, gold, hides and skins, apples, dried milk, tallow, and sausage-casings.

The year 1935 witnessed a great increase in exports to the United States. This country now ranks second among the Dominion's export customers, a position held by Australia in the four previous years. In 1935 the United States took 5·30 per cent, of New Zealand's total exports. Comparative figures of the principal items in 1935 and 1934 (the latter in parentheses) are as follows: Wool, £302,470 (£104,005); sheep-skins, £570,192 (£410,686); rabbit-skins, £348,784 (£187,287); sausage-casings, £345,279 (£312,620); calf-skins, £50,931 (£43,084); butter, £220,020 (£4,093); frozen meat, £51,153 (£219); tallow, £339,858 (£39,907).

The percentage of exports to Australia in 1935 was 3·83, as compared with 3·98 for the previous year. Principal items in 1935 were as follows (1934 figures in parentheses): Wool, £216,861 (£331,980); timber (chiefly kahikatea), £347,908 (£305,077); cattle-hides, £144,737 (£183,517); calf-skins, £40,060 (£63,027); fibres, £40,244 (£40,929); fish, £135,790 (£118"422); gold, £263,067 (£228,763).

Canada's share of New Zealand's exports mowed a slight decline from 1·46 per cent, to 1·41 per cent, of the total. The following were the principal items in 1935 (figures for 1934 in parentheses): Wool, £197,163 (£301,058); sausage-casings, £223,633 (£156,645); sheep-skins, £48,056 (£0,902); cattle-hides, £42,198 (£49,293); calf-skins, £70,980 (£44,291).

Of the other major export customers a slight increase was recorded with Belgium, but Japan, France, and Germany showed marked decreases in the main export (wool), while in the case of Germany no tallow or apples were taken.

Minor trade for 1935 was as follows (1935 figures shown first, with those for 1934 in parentheses)—Irish Free State: Hops, £14,003 (£7,003). India: Butter, £11,664 (£8,574); dried milk, £10,099 (£6,747); tallow, £30,994 (£42,223). Malaya: Butter, £17,277 (£11,615); preserved milk, £41,839 (£34,701). South African Union: Wool, £6,554 (£11,303); peas, £5,012 (£4,712). British West Indies: Butter, £50,406 (£38,519). Fiji: Bags and sacks, £11,152 (£12,133); tinned meat, £9,808 (£6,331); films, £6,677 (£9,064); potatoes, £6,212 (£4,233); tea, £4,967 (£4,442); soap, £4,017 (£3,643); sugar, £3,009 (£4,203). Tonga: Tinned meat, £8,122 (£3,338); timber, £1,340 (£1,054). Western Samoa: Tinned meat, £8,345 (£6,235); timber, £6,911 (£4,309); sugar, £7,528 (£4,467). Czechoslovakia: Wool, £12,743 (£1,957). Denmark: Wool, £5,382 (£17,169); cattle-hides, £4,002 (£3,075). Finland: Cattle-hides, £9,899 (£5,158). Greece: Wool, £9,647, (£1,126). Italy: Wool, £7,768 (£178,014); hides and skins, £11,204 (£26,742). Netherlands: Wool, £15,583 (£72,932); hides and skins, £47,180 (£20,601); apples, £11,030 (£51,100). Poland: Wool, £103,190 (£132,175). Spain: Sheep-skins, £17,280 (£14,207). Sweden: Wool, £38,473 (£113,310). China: Butter, £5,230 (£6,285). Philippine Islands: Butter/ £3,804 (£2,007). Egypt: Wool, £6,519 (nil). Argentina: Sheep, £2,006 (£4,010)9 Brazil: Apples, £11,516 (£13,080). Panama Canal Zone: Butter, £74,830 (£56,535); cheese, £2,799 (nil). Uruguay: Apples, £9,790 (£5,297); sheep, £4,403 (£4,821). Hawaii: Butter, £36,700 (£12,195); frozen meat, £4,420 (£1,053). Society Islands: Butter, £9,869 (£8,090); tinned meat, £11,317 (£7,014); preserved milk, £6,085 (£8,253); soap, £4,005 (£3,589). Tutuila: Tinned meat, £4,708 (£2,146); ale, beer, &c, £4,008 (£3,419). Gilbert and Ellice Islands: Tinned meat, £3,761 (£4,101).

RE-EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM.

The lack of direct shipping facilities between New Zealand and the Continent has led to the development of a considerable entrepot trade in New Zealand produce between the United Kingdom and the Continent. Wool is (and has been) the principal commodity entering into this trade, accounting for 65·70 per cent. of the total of such re-exports in 1326–29, and as much as 80 per cent, in 1933 and 1934; while hides and skins account for a considerable proportion of the remainder. Butter and cheese formerly occupied an important place in the trade; but, with the development of agrarian policies by Continental Governments, re-exports of these commodities have fallen off very considerably in recent years. Wool, being a raw material of manufacture, has not been subjected to trade restrictions to the same extent as farm-produced foodstuffs, although the growth in production of substitute fibres and the increased use of “recovered” wool have tended to decrease Continental purchases of New Zealand (and other) raw wools.

In the following table the value of re-exports of New Zealand produce from the United Kingdom during the calendar years 1930–34 is shown. The figures are taken from the official trade statistics of the United Kingdom issued by the Board of Trade.

RE-EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Commodity.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)
Butter317,728217,615365,320195,899185,729
Cheese42,86134,20832,18334,29551,201
Casein80,09749,72920,3846082,921
Milk-powder, not sweetened79,13156,41932,12523,75712,914
Oleo-margarine, oleo-oil, and refined tallow11,2301,1901,0592,2203,285
Peas, not fresh8911,6942,5171,67011,377
Apples50,97955,328108,98044,49519,542
Pears5,02010,46813,25615,21317,111
Grass and clover seeds17,21214,2952,7361,60216,830
Beef, frozen11,02112,5755,3664,5415,206
Beef, tinned, canned, &c. (including tongues) and extracts and essences2,0161,7822,3067551,598
Mutton and lamb, frozen50,41546,61543,55051,36553,913
Meat, other kinds7,4549,4298,24013,6758,521
Sausage-casings33,58482,74951,97355,56523,693
Hides250,334174,93189,604104,114181,034
Sheep and lamb skins290,880186,377177,009281,050281,797
Rabbit-skins70,92411,2838,11512,44228,171
Kauri-gum44,54639,54811,7195,5997,617
Tallow242,698103,10562,72037,45340,790
Phormium-fibre42,7701,7555492,6401,635
Wool, raw; sheep and lambs' wool2,886,2242,970,0952,741,5604,340,1894,365,570
All other commodities74,75037,48217,04035,65733,970
     Totals4,612,7654,118,7023,798,3115,264,8045,354,425

The above figures indicate the constitution of the United Kingdom's entrepot trade in New Zealand produce, the movements in the values for individual commodities, and the total value of the trade at United Kingdom values. The figures should not, however, be regarded as directly comparable with the New Zealand statistics of exports to the United Kingdom quoted elsewhere in this section. In the first instance, the re-export statistics quoted above are valued in sterling currency, the basis of valuation being value at United Kingdom ports; secondly, the statistics include a proportion of exports credited in the New Zealand trade statistics as exported to other countries, and merely shipped to the United Kingdom on account of lack of direct shipping facilities (sec remarks on page 186); thirdly, the United Kingdom statistics for any single year do not cover the identical exports included in the New Zealand statistics for the same year owing to the time-lag.

EXPORTS TO EACH COUNTRY, 1931–35.

The table following shows the exports (including re-exports, but excluding specie) for five years according to the countries of destination. Reference should be made to remarks above regarding re-exports of New Zealand produce from the United Kingdom.

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND.

Country.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
United Kingdom30,739,97631,344,67035,275,90938,629,24038,921,508
British Possessions, Protectorates, Mandated Territories, &c.
Europe—
  Irish Free State2276,5696,6497,05114,086
  Malta and Gibraltar169411..
 2436,5786,6907,05214,086
Asia—
  Ceylon5,0933,4982,6703931,528
  Hong Kong14,16514,15315,14316,23811,249
  India59,18553,37834,32665,16160,956
  Malaya14,92226,86822,92949,72763,771
  Other858958872302830
 94,22398,85575,940131,821138,334
Africa—
  South African Union8,05212,12014,42729,15227,504
  Other1,001488926893398
 9,05312,60815,35330,04527,902
America—
  Canada256,890244,160560,875697,865656,984
  British West Indies2,3611520,97042,22853,966
  Other5913672314,077
 259,310244,311581,917740,124715,027
Pacific islands—
  Australia1,167,4031,444,8601,393,3111,882,5161,781,811
  Fiji89,24587,39387,03585,49386,191
  Gilbert and Ellice Islands7,1307,7875,2278,9108,429
  Nauru Island5,9549,0954,18110,82112,191
  Norfolk Island11,7738,9311,8993,5131,106
  Papua1,7571,5042,2971,8676,816
  Solomon Islands7,7894,420660867576
  Tonga29,92627,26619,40712,94819,104
  Western Samoa51,10649,43851,34834,65244,567
  Other495748975532838
 1,372,5781,641,4421,566,3402,042,1191,961,629
Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
  Belgium146,335167,629330,284612,646647,212
  Czechoslovakia8029231,98612,969
  Denmark12,9698,9899,40422,09212,098
  Finland1,0191645155,2789,977
  France419,016508,960738,1761,228,699484,610
  Germany309,847289,917376,886944,310165,304
  Greece2,8891,9681,3271,7689,649
  Italy64,90985,35397,330205,67321,092
  Netherlands125,56564,48464,827165,07479,615
  Poland32428,463133,234103,321
  Spain1,2977,2305,85820,69624,283
  Sweden13,99620,92533,984117,52947,142
  Switzerland5,6761,8651,2196992,892
  Other1,17912,1706,0865,0694,670
 1,104,7801,169,7071,694,3823,464,7531,624,834
Asia—
  China17,02515,41354,56419,0997,718
  Dutch East Indies10,2055,2555,4962,5482,235
  Japan267,899236,799354,462856,014432,495
  Philippine Islands5,4141,0814132,4933,945
  Other57518433,59724
 301,200258,599415,778883,751446,417
Africa—
  Egypt2448405,567157,687
  Other383283316175
 2828725,6503317,862
America—
  Argentina1,1172,9791,6384,0793,401
  Brazil5,068..15,90413,08011,517
  Chile1,3918,5972511,50076
  Panama Canal Zone33,63247,02561,34657,14078,179
  United States of America920,931690,0151,188,9721,250,3642,468,066
  Uruguay8,33914,78441,08410,72214,268
  Other95734201,695990
 971,435763,4341,308,9891,348,5802,576,497
Pacific Islands—
  Hawaii61,95033,90319,72014,92741,520
  New Caledonia826272561473,906
  Society Islands24,81726,16733,11035,30941,917
  Tuamotu Archipelago4,8791,6741,0051,8941,182
  Tutuila4,5424,6934,21511,48714,524
  Other6042,3796651,2671,176
 97,61868,84358,97165,031104,225

Ninety pet cent, of the total exports from New Zealand went to British countries in 1935. The United States, Belgium, France, and Japan took the bulk of the remainder.

Full details of quantities and values of commodities exported to various countries are given in Part I of the Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping, while in Part H of the same report values of exports of principal commodities to various countries are summarized. The table which follows shows quantities of principal export commodities sent to various destinations during the last five years. Both New Zealand produce and re-exports are covered.

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS.

Country to which exported.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Wool.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom165,351,019184,587,304213,545,236171,190,802149,895,217
South African Union34,999179,33198,012258,106237,162
Canada2,115,2952,867,5675,105,8356,728,8796,140,992
Australia4,801,1893,002,5346,087,7408,098,5968,213,554
Belgium3,736,6536,632,10913,661,75111,979,01518,545,082
Czechoslovakia......31,001311,611
Denmark428,631323,373225,842292,041141,045
France15,692,19218,256,81119,773,42318,431,50911,815,415
Germany9,952,2728,217,87210,070,75514,322,2082,741,283
Greece......20,291257,361
Italy1,006,8612,823,9232,738,0452,973,237311,051
Netherlands566,1511,569,876664,5401,321,108447,757
Poland....1,443,4992,897,5733,567,049
Sweden230,412575,6111,042,9982,408,4571,164,575
Japan6,162,8637,534,3489,436,17812,405,7008,519,283
Egypt........205,076
United States of America1,423,2731,017,7752,209,9922,267,6969,810,046
Other countries217,058590,628202,995170,438331,844
      Totals211,718,868238,179,002286,307,441255,796,783222,661,403
Frozen Meat.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom4,108,2834,637,7115,189,8344,901,6105,154,757
Canada1,6483,5252,7642,3451,488
Australia264329612,141573
Italy16,666........
Egypt....6,230....
United States of America89322699610743,905
Hawaii9,4111,8849612782,659
Pacific islands (other than Hawaii)1,4531,3171,5071,4541,880
Other countries1884887601,5121,252
      Totals4,138,8004,645,4805,203,1134,909,4475,206,514
Butter.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,962,3202,156,1272,597,0082,508,0562,090,832
Hong Kong4531,0791,0322,423817
India7869681,1201,0742,050
Malaya1,6503039312,6543,474
British West Indies400..4,55010,04310,200
Canada3,6126,0396,9986,2501,918
Australia5291,8801,481112151
China6481,4491,7321,6101,074
Japan71260337558585
Philippine Islands85518850400774
Panama Canal Zone6,1618,98013,40014,34515,226
United States of America16336561,15940,419
Hawaii7,4215,2343,4932,7547,510
Society Islands7109381,3611,3011,458
Other countries2,1401,6941,0541,1831,310
      Totals1,988,5602,185,5452,035,2472,614,5192,789,298
Cheese.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,035,2331,788,9891,980,8721,983,0581,723,197
Hong Kong6583303281205
British West Indies......316142
Canada733811721,811
Australia15212961136177
Fiji219251231230205
China445745524297219
Panama Canal Zone448433..1,057
Other countries116147107106479
     Totals1,030,3471,790,4311,982,9421,984,4961,727,552
Dried and Preserved Milk.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom11,198,83013,455,95415,678,29618,477,60117,140,427
Ceylon31,36010,80011,2003,30020,070
India5,4608,22078,509194,800299,748
Malaya93,6481,302,574882,2062,181,4162,702,984
British West Indies....30333,43955,557
Canada........45,300
Australia1,168,949518,319158,204151,91937,432
Fiji48,01328,42338,99622,10325,882
Western Samoa15,45121,06525,24813,53013,508
China1,248197,728276,68383,02384,374
Dutch East Indies58,88010,57026,81231,07018,340
Japan6,72048,06024,40015,08029,140
Panama Canal Zone31,732108,431134,60139,30233,600
Society Islands140,286101,537246,208201,442221,363
Other countries44,81734,63658,34055,85948,689
      Totals12,845,39416,033,31717,640,07221,504,55020,783,080
Tallow.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom16,05820,62623,54820,3009,701
India1,1691,6269181,9061,093
Australia2,9558931,116678149
Fiji1405111417273
Germany196377520483..
Netherlands1853562227036
Japan1,4924731,0881,470356
United States of America155131702,34413,480
Other countries914374391339389
     Totals23,26425,37728,02027,66225,277
Hides (Cattle and Horse). 
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom98,98684,03679,066101,528145,613
India4,3229005501,400..
Canada15,2672,852105,74463,57359,823
Australia60,178117,87488,585140,170118,122
Belgium25,3S55,1236,62311,80919,835
Denmark3,200650..5,2505,781
Finland1,1422506007,49813,993
France13,9099,2366,6558,76810,807
Germany36,93751,93041,15865,00670,951
Greece4,4754,500745....
Italy26,30413,96822,37131,77212,091
Netherlands2,1965046,4845,4056,445
Japan513183043,17310,168
Norway5004,1172,8903,683175
Turkey....1,4804,964..
United States of America10,5006,05637,35221,69443,931
Other countries6,2042,2131,3111,5026,226
      Totals309,550304,527401,924477,255524,051
Calf-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom53,1412,09417,97116,02033,399
Canada85,746277,935315,406259,719373,262
Australia120,418316,200101,028337,964178,806
Belgium42,3456,25142,52087,757101,158
France....2505,0949,887
Germany1,3505,48010,48524,00230,858
Greece6,999..5,4553,000..
Netherlands5,000..18,02497,860205,442
United States of America330,891234,151379,308274,754330,999
Other countries8573,5841203,8292,447
      Totals652,747845,707890,6871,109,9991,266,253
Opossum-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom43,1462,323121,287232,825145,557
Australia....2,2012,480821
Austria1,000..2,0001,707..
Germany....6002,000..
United States of America6,31974230,484..500
Other countries......1,746..
      Totals50,4053,065156,572240,758146,878
Rabbit-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom2,774,7172,915,0083,578,9093,798,7102,003,541
Canada......237,73829,400
Australia23,05241,81530,1783,66214,937
Belgium19,200..158,840177,37220,620
France67,477357,674375,453340,641124,302
Germany....16,214....
Japan4,34813,72020,0163,0009,130
United States of America3,285,2983,331,9236,197,8788,473,59211,332,429
Other countries......3002,420
      Totals6,174,0926,660,14010,378,38813,035,01513,530,745
Sheep-skins (with Wool).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom1,183,748773,7341,216,9391,300,9931,107,090
India..104,17911,3246,916
Canada9,18160,933155,573209,258179,587
Australia3,47312,96616,1455782,190
Belgium3,6906,49670,696161,68734,310
France231,538628,4071,505,320987,970747,128
Germany15,80120,55664,22862,48421,432
Netherlands46,80835,42357,8385,663112
Italy..2561,7001,03317,359
Spain2,190..11,95555,34390,858
Japan5,84019,50936,07422,18411,375
United States of America163,39282,852239,161131,454170,232
Other countries........4,050
      Totals1,005,8111,641,2023,380,1142,949,9712,405,251
Sheep-skins (without Wool).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom5,054,8906,306,3834,044,0823,747,7883,745,669
Canada8,24375,88444,17869,069163,225
Australia244,082365,915257,493217,533293,745
Belgium246,97054,384156,40068,019101,832
France242,885256,651152,55934,337125,911
Germany13,2822,7702,2057,20025,618
Italy......15,3121,258
Netherlands..1,470..5,02230,012
Sweden........15,624
Japan39,50455,739123,578134,670210,546
United States of America4,509,4204,818,5107,032,2784,914,1707,050,353
Other countries..1,554312..1,500
      Totals10,419,88211,999,21011,813,0859,243,72611,765,293
Sausage-casings.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom1,506,0401,674,2481,023,109936,1011,140,087
Canada767,208635,0271,270,517974,1551,143,620
Australia190,169270,302281,721248,245301,380
France........29,397
Germany106,29186,096441,207396,70132,010
United States of America1,090,5261,105,2351,513,6101,074,1031,563,335
Other countries9575607,1261,175958
      Totals3,661,2513,772,0684,543,2904,530,5434,211,387
Peas.
 Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.
United Kingdom37,99571,904157,083181,040100,669
Canada2633606174843,870
Australia24,11325,77417,48219,88320,017
South African Union2,7131,8535,4256,6225,493
Germany4361827817,281..
Netherlands....10,63239,363462
United States of America2,0534,7425,6983,60110,148
Other countries1,2079991,498286973
      Totals68,780105,814199,816258,560147,132
Apples (Fresh).
lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom42,781,57055,667,27044,668,44044,877,84331,129,773
Canada40,670606,0801,068,6802,052,2801,805,080
Australia1526841,58996023,520
Fiji146,950131,05078,01885,58488,257
Western Samoa7,2288,89015,81014,84313,489
Belgium........1,053,000
France..1,129,900804,480....
Germany..1,572,0101,434,4005,076,160..
Netherlands8,054,51823,0401,282,6004,088,040882,300
Sweden....25,040..133,920
Argentina..180,800......
Brazil405,440..1,222,080l,121,000921,320
United States of America....492..814,800
Uruguay466,2801,103,2801,744,720434,280783,240
Other countries13,73118,33012,00312,84054,436
      Totals51,916,55160,443,23652,418,95257,704,43037,793,195
Seeds (Grass and Clover).
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom12,0028,01745,04718,79241,037
Canada2,4471,3811,6031,8141,399
Australia12,83615,94419,47518,29220,725
Denmark14514820157264
Germany1,128108407259..
Netherlands1553224459991,177
United States of America11,8898,69112,8247,9756,280
Other countries55999385428457
      Totals41,15834,71080,44749,13171,745
Gold.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom82,130118,770130,895137,133135,309
Australia48,68773,54841,52930,02432,894
United States of America10,15525,0278,445..4,510
Other countries..2051083..
      Totals140,972217,550186,977167,160172,779
Silver.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom163,284503,298388,604328,336302,611
India382,700........
Australia3,77217,92922,65833,61226,652
United States of America1,625........
      Totals551,441521,227411,202301,948389,263
Kauri-gum.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom1,8571,2521,5371,9791,827
Canada1721607113062
Australia5391123149145
Belgium525411..1
France6668146151114
Germany723624834369
Italy..10495524
Japan2026285420
United States of America734344866332568
Other countries3221101042
      Totals3,0582,0683,0893,2092,872
Phormium-fibre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom4059151,8409141,103
Canada73201455067
Australia1,0382,0851,8572,6072,419
United States of America23814956....
Other countries3025302012
      Totals1,7843,3753,8283,5913,661
Timber (Sawn and Hewn).
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
United Kingdom208,749288,814104,887572,434475,834
Australia16,842,83926,204,90524,907,35633,207,53437,608,967
Fiji33,23028,39732,85721,86444,937
Tonga30,021315,61650,93666,39582,441
Western Samoa400,260347,941656,238650,3261,407,288
Other countries36,57546,03228,37951,88322,553
      Totals17,551,67427,291,70525,840,65334,570,43639,042,020

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30th JUNE.

As indicated elsewhere in this section (page 180), farm products account for an extremely high proportion of exports from New Zealand (94·4 per cent, in the calendar year 1935). The farm-production export season fits much more closely to a June year than to a calendar year. The flush of the dairy-production season, the whole harvest season, and most of the wool-selling season occur in the early months of the calendar year. By 30th June the great bulk of the season's farm-produce destined for export is shipped, excepting held-over wool and a certain amount of dairy-produce kept in cool store to equalize shipments. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, a desideratum which, may it be observed, applies to most countries in the Southern Hemisphere.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (VALUES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.

Commodity.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
 £££££
Butter10,127,50710,897,89411,830,07010,625,12114,789,049
Casein64,74767,158141,408146,419179,180
Cheese4,570,1324,808,1484,732,0894,524,0244,509,174
Fish41,38156,272113,357133,125163,181
Honey14,80813,07921,66623,64130,225
Beef, frozen (inc. chilled)364,307630,781962,145848,159978,722
Lamb, frozen6,275,3836,222,5017,358,4358,832,2897,642,813
Mutton, frozen1,575,4771,200,3781,398,7091,905,4111,634,457
Pork, frozen246,045393,720950,1831,313,5021,507,553
Veal, frozen153,220113,383184,88062,207154,401
Meats, tinned90,29686,518109,646154,984281,610
Sausage-casings302,433304,418544,620791,015695,811
Milk, preserved17,19239,77252,79596,284117,005
Milk, dried205,173310,703282,857271,985332,217
Apples, fresh758,016649,553723,204402,401551,305
Peas87,288117,359108,513113,575119,313
Oats1,1022,06573917,793948
Wheat6488,71450,1455688
Hops1,74627,98317,06632,04819,997
Potatoes6,0609,88718,1128,2217,539
Live-stock50,95265,61367,56495,71488,874
Calf-skins100,20096,178235,259175,655273,440
Hides, horse and cattle195,640241,105404,299375,142488,630
Rabbit-skins96,72568,887254,745232,963562,710
Opossum-skins9,02730966,45757,88952,281
Sheep-skins, with wool169,204268,481652,895306,671452,716
Sheep-skins, without wool604,742515,133706,310833,7111,098,315
Wool5,552,8856,703,35913,287,4586,327,79312,762,498
Phormium-fibre31,32047,71445,44847,84985,244
Seeds, grass and clover137,52787,332151,045248,323192,941
Tallow450,936466,474487,819614,991539,210
Coal70,87263,49550,60159,03562,450
Kauri-gum107,23959,42286,81189,40478,657
Gold797,4761,199,0021,332,0491,385,1191,485,077
Silver42,39335,11939,76354,29259,159
Leather11,3888,3098,0952,6787,024
Timber, sawn229,172252,721239,547370,17S350,031
Other New Zealand produce499,912587,505685,255778,081834,070
      Totals34,059,99330,808,51048,516,17942,418,35153,188,515
EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (QUANTITIES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.
 Commodity.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Butlercwt.1,968,6802,430,2342,825,8892,575,5952,786,641
Caseincwt.34,44745,33254,73958,57077,095
Cheesecwt.1,623,4021,919,1551,992,2441,858,7331,620,394
Fishcwt.16,46523,28546,91554,93161,888
Honeylb.447,520469,336742,543806,2671,031,287
Beef, frozen (inc. chilled)cwt.377,659674,386933,835754,797752,909
Lamb, frozencwt.2,502,6962,733,6142,548,8982,796,0372,395,824
Mutton, frozencwt.1,274,8101,081,611906,6231,043,925888,260
Pork, frozencwt.115,015200,288397,031485,677578,160
Veal, frozencwt.116,211102,047142,86354,073115,008
Meats, tinnedcwt.29,58932,94838,91253,79790,343
Sausage-casingslb.3,734,8704,289,7934,009,6354,444,5164,514,730
Milk, preservedlb.844,6422,221,5293,073,5086,014,4327,211,609
Milk, driedlb.11,405,77019,906,57514,115,56413,432,42917,728,558
Apples, freshlb.60,049,82351,925,10058,270,83437,291,15444,737,425
Peascentals112,475170,282182,680208,516167,421
Oatscentals1,9516,5311,90058,5991,062
Wheatbushels153705,580306,240178287
Hopslb.49,411697,349306,073516,002323,514
Potatoestons1,2022,0343,2561,2501,026
Calf-skinsNo.725,799735,0681,059,4501,126,9381,264,992
Hides, cattle and horsNo.305,087328,011470,331452,469529,982
Rabbit-skinsNo.6,062,2706,599,24712,237,72011,285,83517,866,001
Opossum-skinsNo.48,5111,747189,943209,031156,147
Sheep-skins, with woolNo.1,693,9122,783,1173,608,1522,239,8012,045,373
Sheep-skins, without woolNo.11,494,83412,769,4299,352,34411,808,25010,531,862
Woolbales661,991801,633822,396582,763918,471
Phormium-fibretons2,1024,3003,5603,5984,771
Seeds, grass and clovercwt.40,28234,91077,53580,93653,847
Tallowtons25,25326,51026,50729,43419,941
Coaltons43,30733,25038,77343,34747,433
Kauri-gumtons2,9541,1573,4163,3542,710
Goldoz.167,518193,977172,197165,518177,167
Silveroz.584,705436,436406,655393,910428,075
Timber, sawnsup ft24,220,93027,499,94626,173,26139,794,87938,059,908

RE-EXPORTS.

The forwarding trade of New Zealand has never at any time been of great significance. The bulk of the total amount is made up by various classes of machinery, hardware, metal manufactures, motor-vehicles, and also items such as apparel, books, tobacco, and spirits.

There is, however, a genuine entrepot trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is still comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands, which are treated as part of the Dominion, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

RE-EXPORTS (EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND.
 £
1915387,960
1916305,150
1917429,115
1918543,568
1919603,541
1920813,072
19211,213,002
19221,026,801
1923567,885
1924588,395
1925722,016
1926929,741
1927925,121
1928910,016
1929754,050
1930731,111
1931631,554
1932633,532
1933597,108
1934571,554
1935480,648

Re-exports of merchandise in 1935 were equal to 1·05 per cent, of total exports of merchandise for the year and to 1·23 per cent, of imports.

The destination of this re-export trade is shown in the following table:—

Country.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
United Kingdom194,153172,217157,610146,572110,192
Canada11,65415,01418,5494,2013,933
Australia228,493298,446278,684287,469244,996
Fiji29,01337,01839,06137,86434,430
Tonga7,5466,7374,7252,6382,877
Western Samoa15,01215,74313,65210,19911,820
United States of America108,68755,03154,68853,91347,579
Society Islands1,9543,0094,3213,9313,840
Other countries35,04230,31725,87824,76728,228
      Totals (excluding specie)631,554633,532597,168571,554486,648

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The incidence of fluctuating prices over a number of years operates to render the currency aggregate of a country's trade of little value as an indicator of movement in the volume of trade—i.e., from a quantity point of view. Owing to the homogeneous nature of the bulk of the Dominion's exports it is, fortunately, possible in nearly every case to obtain the quantity exported as well as the value. By taking the prices of a selected base year or other period it is then possible to find what the value of the exports of each subsequent year would have been on the basis of prices ruling in the base period. This method is especially suitable for application to New Zealand, and, in point of fact, 98 per cent, of the Dominion's exports can be treated quantitatively, leaving only 2 per cent, to be calculated pro rata.

In the following table the actually recorded exports (exclusive of specie and other re-exports) are shown for 1900 and for each of the last ten years. Values are also shown on the basis of prices ruling in 1900, and index numbers have been computed to show movement in the physical volume of exports of New Zealand produce, both for the total and on a per caput basis.

Year.Recorded Value of Exports of New Zealand Produce.Value at Rates ruling in 1900.Index Numbers of Volume of Exports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 ££££  
190013,055,24916·2713,055,24916·2710001000
192644,339,18331·3723,772,83116·8218221034
192747,571,23333·0725,695,95517·8619681098
192854,660,36538·0026,689,74618·3320441127
192954,176,01336·7827,490,07918·6721061147
193044,209,40629·6328,220,74818·9121611162
193134,319,24422·6728,549,65118·8721871160
193234,976,38722·9231,819,94620·8524371281
193340,408,75126·2637,425,92824·3328671495
193446,771,29330·1735,901,92123·1627501423
193546,051,73329·5036,333,40523·2827831431

The effect of prices on the total value of exports is seen at a glance from the accompanying diagram showing the yearly movement since 1900. The curve representing values on the basis of prices ruling in 1900 may also be taken as representing the course of the volume of trade on a quantity basis.

The total volume in 1935 was 178'3 per cent, above that of 1900, and has been exceeded only in the record year of 1933. The per caput rate in 1935, representing an increase of 43·1 per cent, over 1900, was also the second highest on record.

It is necessary to observe that the foregoing table is expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and consequently, for certain uses, allowance must be made for changes in the external value of New Zealand currency, particularly the depreciation in relation to sterling. This applies also to the graph following.

EXPORTS AS RECORDED AND AS ASSESSED AT PRICES OF 1900.

In order to show the effect of changes in price from year to year, and particularly in the latter years, the table following has been compiled by recomputing the values of each year's exports according to the prices of the previous year. In this way it is possible to compare succeeding years directly, instead of comparing each year with a given base. The method used is the same, except that the base is changed.

Year.Total Exports (New Zealand Produce).Effect of Price-changes.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.
 ££££
192644,339,18354,696,306..10,357,123
192747,571,23348,094,196..522,963
192854,660,36549,091,4665,568, S99..
192954,176,01356,465,248..2,289,235
193044,209,40655,655,835..11,446,429
193134,319,24444,630,116..10,310,872
193234,976,38738,128,569..3,152,182
193340,408,75140,999,141..590,390
193446,771,29339,039,1927,732,101..
193546,051,73355,944,412..9,892,679

The comparison of each year with the preceding year brings out the advantage or loss resulting from a rise or fall in prices. The gain shown represents the surplus value added by rising prices to the exports of any year, and, similarly, the loss shows how falling prices penalize New Zealand. Figures are in New Zealand currency, and, inter alia, reflect during the last four years the depreciation in relation to sterling.

A study of the figures given in the Statistical Summary at the end of this book, and showing quantities and values of the principal commodities exported over a period of fifty years, will give a good idea of the relative effects of increased volume and of price-movements in the huge growth of external trade during the half-century as measured by the total value of exports.

The following comparison between the year ended 30th June, 1914, and the corresponding periods—1934–35 and 1935–36—is of interest as showing the influence of price variation on the most recent years as contrasted with the year preceding the war.

As mentioned earlier, June years are in many respects preferable to calendar years, as affording a comparison between one season and another.

Commodity.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1914.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1935.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1936.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of 1913–14.Recorded Value.Value at Prices of 1913–14.
 £££££
Butter2,197,77110,625,12113,919,80214,780,64915,060,405
Cheese2,317,9704,524,0245,511,5214,509,1744,804,797
Beef, frozen (and chilled)501,817848,1501,080,300978,7221,077,740
Lamb, frozen (whole carcasses)2,545,1758,832,2806,107,2587,042,8135,233,091
Mutton, frozen (whole carcasses)1,880,5831,905,4141,600,0281,634,4571,301,960
Pork, frozen5,8431,313,5021,127,4701,507,5531,342,17S
Meat, preserved122,078154,084191,080281,610342,199
Sausage-casings132,038791,015134,818695,811130,003
Apples12,160402,401301,238551,305301,380
Hides310,005374,725720,887488,030853,822
Rabbit-skins90,350232,963148,838502,710235,017
Sheep-skins (without wool)545,037833,711880,7881,098,315790,032
Wool8,202,1536,327,7038,410,38212,702,40813,355,428
Phormium-fibre576,09547,84080,33085,244114,480
Tallow711,858614,991845,270530,210572,050
Kauri-gum790,33889,404273,08178,057220,047
Gold1,485,0371,385,110641,0411,485,077687,120
Timber, sawn372,092370,178200,646350,031191,898
      Totals22,929,20030,734,24242,203,41050,041,46640,743,400
Other N.Z. produce1,383,4542,684,109..3,147,049..
     Grand totals24,312,74442,418,351..53,188,515..

In 1929–30, when the decline in prices had not attained such serious dimensions as regards New Zealand products, the recorded value of the commodities dealt with exceeded the value at 1913–14 levels by £9,985,967. Three years later the recorded value of these commodities exported was actually £8,880,425 below the figure it would have attained at 1913–14 prices. In 1935–36, the first occasion since 1929–30, the recorded value exceeded that based on 1913–14 prices, the difference being £3,298,066. The adjusted values afford a reliable comparison of the volume of exports, which has shown a progressive increase during the last four years, the volume in 1935–36 being 11 per cent, greater than in 1934–35, and 104 per cent, greater than in 1913–14. The eighteen items utilized in arriving at the foregoing percentage comprise 94 per cent, of the total exports of domestic produce, and therefore may be taken as thoroughly representative of the whole. This growth in volume has been achieved in spite of an increase of over 400,000 in the consuming population of the Dominion, with little increase in the number of those engaged in producing the principal export commodities.

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS.

Trade with the Cook Islands and other islands annexed in 1901 is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the Dominion, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. Separate returns are made of the transactions between the Dominion and the annexed islands, and exports to the islands are summarized below:—

Year.Exports.
 £
192684,573
192784,652
192892,184
192979,962
193078,512
193159,202
193256,599
193356,254
193454,201
193553,109

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with Dependencies.

Chapter 16. SECTION IX.—EXTERNAL TRADE—continued.

SUBSECTION C.—IMPORTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The value shown for all merchandise imported is the current domestic value in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus an allowance of 10 per cent, to cover freight, insurance, &c. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, in contradistinction to the practice in Year-Books prior to the 1936 issue. In Subsection A will be found (in conjunction with export figures) a summary of import totals for recent years, expressed both in New Zealand currency and in sterling, together with a series of index numbers of the volume of import trade and of the value, expressed in terms of gold, sterling, and New Zealand currency. Import totals are exclusive of specie, except where the contrary is clearly stated. A decennial table of movement of specie will be found at the end of Subsection A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.

A classification of imports under five broad divisions is given in the following table for the last ten years. Taken in conjunction with a table based on the same classification which is given in the Exports subsection of this section, the figures show plainly how New Zealand's export trade is derived predominantly from the products of her primary industries, and her import trade consists very largely of manufactured goods.

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Bullion.Total Merchandise.
 ££££££
19268,471,7752,767,19338,190,328379,1543,31349,811,763
19277,541,3382,512,61334,462,816263,1582,74144,782,666
19287,152,7742,385, S7635,001,157299,8474,44844,844,102
19296,635,6892,289,48339,496,050306,1077,14348,734,472
19306,066,5421,889,67336,121,373259,0952,97144,339,654
19314,453,2121,437,49520,460,797144,2502,39726,498,151
19324,180,2841,234,75439,072,507156,7521,70924,646,006
19334,010,8421,157,53220,257,535147,4032,05425,581,366
19344,510,4281,377,41025,241,859207,1312,72431,339,552
19355,038,7191,564,16329,497,032214,8432,51036,317,267

The principal groups of commodities imported are clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, motor-vehicles and accessories, chemicals and drugs, manures, and timber. The proportions of these imports have changed little for many years, except that motor-vehicles and oils (including motor-spirits), although showing a marked decline since 1929, have increased very rapidly in post-war years.

Imports for the year 1935 are classified in the following table on the same basis as that used in the case of exports on page 179. The grouping by countries is on the basis of country of origin.

IMPORTS, 1935.

——United Kingdom.Other British Countries.United States of America.Other Foreign Countries.Total Merchandise.
* At face value.
 £££££
Grain and milled products50,669414,94069,66413,535548,808
Meat (including poultry and game)160760..891,009
Butter, cheese, and eggs8717..698802
Fruit (fresh and dried)..529,615116,62442,853689,092
Sugar33113,55823,370626,433663,692
Tea..642,041..6,504648,545
Alcoholic beverages399,63271,211100109,577580,520
Tobacco431,25164,956205,9002,325704,432
Coal..94,197....94,197
Ores, concentrates, and scrap1,55478121,7413,385
Iron and steel—
  Pigs, ingots, &c.5,80436,9693,189..45,962
  Bars, rods, plate, sheet, &c.1,083,042268,8162,1262,1431,356,127
  Other manufactures of iron and steel1,564,587440,886220,592112,3362,338,401
Agricultural implements and machinery72,44858,42264,3S615,944211,200
Electrical machinery and apparatus960,111264,927336,05985,0871,646,184
Other machinery963,021185,983461,158175,7911,785,953
Motor-cars and parts thereof2,329,252857,500971,2997,3324,165,383
Other metals and metal manufactures409,760218,97831,12586,968746,831
Cotton, raw59236876..1,171
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)3911,411..17,57819,380
Wool, raw42113,338....13,759
Yarns and threads320,49943,39970314,196378,797
Cotton piece-goods1,508,86618,67519,916159,3721,706,829
Woollen piece-goods638,1335,726168,818652,693
Other piece-goods466,739210,87218,899565,8111,262,321
Other textiles (including apparel)2,006,169612,31670,170408,9173,097,572
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, &c.)385,55070,00316,468118,494590,515
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)21,843376,42350,25598,215546,741
Newsprint10,491309,011..7,808327,310
Seeds and nuts for expressing oil therefrom..........
Oil—Petroleum, crude and refined61,5245,160832,404892,4561,791,544
Hides, skins, and furs, undressed118,03149,13816,67583,845
Leather and manufactures thereof (including boots and shoes)347,990129,11352,73728,830558,670
Rubber (raw)542,637....2,691
Gold and silver bullion1,151603735212,510
Other merchandise4,241,5012,339,256917,1391,552,5009,050,396
      Total merchandise18,283,0968,320,0644,535,0605,179,04736,317,267
Gold and silver coin*379,170300....379,476

Since 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports have been compiled according to a statistical classification which assembles the item in well-defined classes as shown in the following table, where the imports for the year 1935 are given under the various classes:—

No.Class.Value in 1935.
* At face value.
 £
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)207,001
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt2,730,784
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same784,419
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors641,841
VTobacco and preparations thereof704,432
VILive animals51,305
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs107,082
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres606,523
IXAApparel2,365,419
IXBTextiles4,710,594
IXCManufactured fibres475,078
XOils, fats, and waxes2,123,303
XIPaints and varnishes373,088
XIIStones and minerals used industrially113,790
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partly manufactured, and ores517,430
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines3,972,433
XVMachinery and machines3,531,766
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)170,429
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes275,130
XVIIATimber398,510
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures127,312
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials710,920
XIXAPaper1,129,372
XIXBStationery795,381
XXJewellery, time-pieces, and fancy goods504,760
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments551,288
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares1,505,332
XXIIBManures479,205
XXIIIAVehicles4,044,677
XXIIIBMiscellaneous947,997
         Total merchandise36,317,267
XIIISpecie*381,821

Twenty-eight of the thirty merchandise classes show increases as compared with 1931, the merchandise total for 1935 being £4,977,715 greater than the previous year's figure.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.

The import trade of the Dominion, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is yet confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Canada. In the days of the first settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, tended to decrease steadily till from 60 per cont. in 1862 it fell to between 10 and 12 per cent., a figure which remained fairly constant until 1925, after which there was a progressive decline to less than 7 per cent, in 1929, since when the trend has been upward.

Imports from the United Kingdom comprised between 60 per cent, and 70 per cent, of total imports during the “eighties” and “nineties”; so that, at that time, the United Kingdom and Australia between them supplied approximately 80 per cent, of the total imports of the Dominion. In the decade immediately preceding the war the United Kingdom supplied about 60 per cent, of total imports; but, with the disruption in trading relations during the war, other countries—notably the United States and Japan—increased their share of New Zealand's import trade.

The post-war economy of New Zealand and other countries has been characterized by a marked growth in the diversity of products entering into international trade, despite the fact that in recent years the total quantum of such trade fell very materially. Notable examples of important new industries are to be found in the growth of the motor, artificial silk, motion picture, and (more recently) radio industries. International trade in the products of these and certain other new industries became almost a monopoly of the United States; in fact, the dominating position of that country in such spheres of industrial activity has only recently been seriously challenged. The traditional position of the United Kingdom in the forefront of manufacturing activity was further shaken severely by circumstances arising from the war; her textile industries, for example, being subjected to severe and increasing foreign competition. In the circumstances. it is not surprising to find that the proportion of goods of United Kingdom origin included in New Zealand's imports of merchandise fell from about GO per cent. before the war to about 46 per cent, in the late “twenties” (the lowest actual percentage being 45·67 per cent, in 1920).

The relative position of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's import trade has improved in the last few years, partly due to New Zealand's tariff policy, in which preference to Empire countries plays an important part. During the last five years over 50 per cent, of our imports of merchandise were of United Kingdom origin, this recovery having been made despite the growth in imports from Australia of certain goods—e.g., iron and steel—which were formerly almost entirely imported from the United Kingdom. A more detailed treatment of changes in the import trade between British and foreign countries is given in a later paragraph under the heading “Imports of British and of Foreign Origin.”

The United States was sending goods to New Zealand practically from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent., though the proportion maintained a steady increase for several years after the war, and, indeed, considerably surpassed its old level. In 1935 one-eighth of the total imports came from the United States, this, although representing a slight increase over 1934, being considerably lower than the pre-depression proportion.

India captured the New Zealand jute-market in the early “eighties,” and since then there has been a regular import of corn-sacks, woolpacks, &c. In former times the colony imported its sugar from Fiji, but in late years Fiji has been largely supplanted by the Dutch East Indies and Cuba. Similarly, the import of tea from China has given way to imports from Ceylon.

The table which follows shows imports from each of the principal countries during the last twenty years.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF SHIPMENT.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 ££££££££
191613,601,2752,979,171757,286572,257300,7531,052,7543,969,925502,974
19178,647,3613,657,948757,041612,063353,6131,203,3723,900,058628,822
19188,890,6605,117,849930,964712,633319,498939,3414,980,7481,214,805
191911,496,5745,062,2931,622,234772,838383,209980,1867,570,3141,258,010
192029,767,24110,552,8672,380,915900,577725,2781,824,01211,100,2591,470,071
192121,257,6546,482,9891,687,595593,151316,8131,909,1027,746,457593,343
192219,246,5094,210,7051,545,037437,851499,7051,459,3454,948,778485,327
192323,991,1614,259,3232,930,026732,359701,665859,7576,696,723548,632
192424,904,1786,303,0733,909,152720,4S3822,987984,2747,551,357458,964
192527,232,9095,855,4803,906,152888,787836,4191,251,7978,626,059659,140
192024,253,6105,059,7793,430,988850,720857,011941,3209,729,251557,113
192722,678,5824,264,1752,721,812755,907840,808435,0347,827,755579,984
192822,489,7163,863,2813,237,750771,450843,088584,1827,958,701558,033
192923,675,4423,631,0254,774,493749,293899,828180,4929,073,268613,235
193021,938,7863,383,9433,971,400655,002723,925227,3577,714,785574,078
193113,834,7442,284,5071,335,978427,040672,539119,5044,057,022327,205
193212,906,4202,571,0801,098,210381,466383,629125,9513,380,898408,471
193313,498,7452,807,9211,258,311504,018543,548118,0862,782,533668,803
193416,152,7623,532,0682,088,132648,834582,358114,7943,547,140828,482
193518,519,6004,295,4572,439,253532,786626,90793,6564,362,5161,078,774

The figures given in the foregoing table are on the basis of country of shipment. From 1914 onwards, figures are also available showing countries of origin, and a supplementary table on this basis is now given. Both the foregoing and the succeeding tables exclude specie imported.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 ££££££££
191613,031,7082,067,179701,105588,196380,8481,050,0254,358,806616,903
19178,416,8752,686,140771,952646,190397,4191,198,5894,294,279693,808
19188,601,2054,043,383950,588729,419323,123935,8855,472,1221,266,416
191911,173,3223,903,9081,649,550787,6693S8,428977,3198,053,1271,313,205
192028,513,8128,023,6852,453,379940,569729,8931,818,52911,750,0901,522,075
192120,634,0578,459,5231,727,593607,920320,1881,906,0388,166,967603,275
192218,109,6863,293,0321,550,213441,581501,4191,448,9985,379,372501,055
192322,517,6953,653,4202,950,084712,551705,622853,1036,956,602560,064
192423,203,8255,651,0273,914,404741,202837,506970,3937,788,593496,835
192525,542,6525,248,9933,910,237912,741844,5901,239,4508,885,205693,032
192622,749,6964,625,2003,431,533801,578868,821892,89410,000,507582,352
192721,403,8343,869,2402,739,826759,829855,018424,7858,079,407501,903
192821,247,1113,499,1513,258,828782,144800,836571,7288,204,107570,495
192922,490,0383,258,7274,792,820766,756923,748174,8946,319,920625,714
193021,102,1103,023,0653,909,037665,428735,421209,6677,893,114589,413
193113,306,0012,073,3611,342,321429,132676,290112,9554,227,550332,281
193212,575,9542,368,2931,107,074389,443380,318110,6453,565,840470,758
193313,126,0322,570,0921,204,932570,915551,388106,0962,952,009675,571
193415,789,7613,238,1242,008,010667,552585,689103,1663,749,559830,595
193518,283,0963,957,3982,450,457571,030633,59480,0904,535,0601,100,150

Of the total imports of merchandise in 1935, the eight countries shown above supplied 87 per cent, on the basis of origin and 88 per cent, on the basis of shipment. Other countries which supplied more than one-half of 1 per cent, of the Dominion's imports in 1935 were—

Country.Imports according to
Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
Value.Per Cent. of Total.Value.Per Cent. of Total.
 £ £ 
Dutch East Indies1,432,8473·951,436,9643·90
Germany469,8531·29534,0741·47
Sweden278,0420·77285,7920·78
Belgium204,7420·56217,5130·60
Italy195,4050·5422,5,1570·62
France180,4230·50222,0490·61

About three-quarters of imports produced on the Continent of Europe are received direct, the balance coming mainly through the United Kingdom. Direct shipments from the United Kingdom in 1935 exceeded by £236,504 the imports of goods produced in that country. In view, however, of the considerable quantities of British goods that enter New Zealand by way of Australia it would not be correct to take that figure as fully measuring the re-export trade done by Great Britain in goods from abroad intended for the Dominion.

Australia acts as a re-exporting centre for a certain proportion of goods received from India and Ceylon. British West Africa and the British West Indies both produce more of the imports than they ship direct. The figures for Canada show a small balance in favour of goods of Canadian origin. Goods of United States origin exceeded direct imports from that country by £172,544 in 1935.

The following table shows for the last ten years the percentage of total imports (excluding specie) from each of the principal countries concerned.

IMPORTS (COUNTRY OF ORIGIN).
Country.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
United Kingdom45·0747·9347·3846·1647·5850·1450·9551·2850·3850·39
Canada6·890·127·279·838·955·064·494·936·696·75
India1·731·701·741·581·501·621·582·252·131·58
Ceylon1·741·911·921·901·662·551·572·161·871·75
South African Union0·280·270·230·200·220·290·340·200·180·15
Australia9·298·647·806·696·817·819·5910·0310·3310·90
Fiji1·790·951·270·360·470·420·470·410·330·22
Other British countries0·861·071·001·061·201·632·122·131·921·57
Totals, British countries68·2568·5968·6167·7868·3969·5271·1173·3973·8373·31
Germany1·351·872·001·932·292·372·051·841·541·47
France1·641·991·831·501·431·351·200·970·770·61
Belgium0·790·891·111·201·061·200·800·6S0·440·60
Japan1·171·321·281·281·331·261·942·642·673·03
Dutch East Indies1·601·972·232·371·913·503·533·894·413·96
United States of America20·0818·0418·3019·1217·8216·0414·5511·6211·9812·50
Other foreign countries5·125·334·644·825·774·764·824·974·364·52
Totals, foreign countries31·7531·4131·3932·2231·6130·4828·8926·6126·1720·69

Prior to the war, imports from the United Kingdom represented about 60 per cent, of the total, and those of United Kingdom origin would appear on this basis to have been about 55 per cent, of the aggregate. The latter are now a little over one-half of the total. Since 1929 there has been a progressive increase in the proportion of United Kingdom goods, particularly motor-vehicles, and tires, tubes, and covers entering the Dominion. Although concerned mainly with hardware and soft-goods, the range of the trade is a very wide one indeed.

Ranking next to Great Britain in the list of exporters to New Zealand is the United States of America; of recent years imports from that source have accounted for one-fifth to one-seventh of the total. The highest percentage (20·08) was reached in 1926, the lower level of subsequent years being due to decreases in motor-vehicles and motor-spirits. Motor-spirits now make up the greater part of the reduced total, motor-vehicles having undergone a pronounced decline since 1929 in favour of the United Kingdom. In 1929 the United States supplied (on a value basis) 41 per cent, of the motor-cars entering the Dominion, and 53 per cent, of the lorries, trucks, vans, and buses; in 1935 the corresponding percentages were 26 and 32 respectively. Important factors in the declining trade with the United States have been the high rate of exchange against New Zealand, particularly before the United States currency measures of 1933 and 1934, and the preferential tariff favouring importations of British goods.

Imports of Australian origin in 1934 were more than £650,000 greater than in 1933, Australia's share (on a percentage basis) of the total imports in 1934 being the greatest since 1924. There has been a considerable decline in imports of hardwood timber and of tobacco during recent years, but this has been counteracted by greater imports of other commodities.

Imports of Canadian origin, after a temporary decline during the depression, have risen again with the marked improvement in the motor trade and the Canada-New Zealand Trade Agreement commencing in May, 1032 (vide next subsection).

IMPORTS OF BRITISH AND OF FOREIGN ORIGIN.

The influences tending towards a greater diversion in the sources of New Zealand's imports in the post-war years are briefly referred to in a preceding paragraph (p. 204). The following diagram illustrating the trend in the direction of our imports during the last twenty years shows the effect of such influences, and the recent recovery in imports from Empire sources.

VALUE OF MERCHANDISE IMPORTS (IN NEW ZEALAND CURRENCY), 1915–35.

Semi-Logarithmic Scale.

From the tables given under the preceding heading, it will be seen that the great bulk of New Zealand's imports of merchandise are of British origin, the proportion of total imports derived from British countries having varied between 73 and 74 per cent, during each of the last three years, as compared with about 68 per cent, in 1927–29. The strong bias towards Imperial preference in the Customs tariff (which, however, is low relative to that of most countries, even for imports of foreign origin), and the virility of Empire manufacturers, notably Australian and United Kingdom, in meeting foreign competition have been important factors contributing to the recent improvement in the proportion of imports of British origin. The Ottawa Agreement, which resulted in increases in the margin of Imperial preference in the tariff on certain commodities, and the placing of several commodities previously dutiable on the free list, if of Empire origin, must also be mentioned as a factor of considerable moment.

One of the outstanding facts brought into relief by, the foregoing diagram is the recent marked relative expansion in imports from Australia. It should be noted also that New Zealand's total imports from Australia were higher in 1935 than in any single year since 1926, and almost double the 1931 total. The increase has been achieved despite the fact that New Zealand's imports of certain natural products—e.g., timber and coal—from Australia are now on a considerably lower level than was normal for many years prior to 1930. The decline in imports of these items has been more than compensated' for by increased imports from Australia of certain manufactured and semi-manufactured goods, notably iron and steel. Australian industries have advanced under the stimuli of a depreciated currency and tariff protection to the stage when they can compete effectively in the New Zealand market with the manufactured products of the older countries. The comparative nearness of Australia to New Zealand is a very strong factor operating to the benefit of Australian firms in the New Zealand import market, the closeness of personal contact possible between importers and the Australian manufacturers, the short period in which goods can be delivered after ordering, and the intimate knowledge of New Zealand requirements all acting strongly to the mutual advantage of the Australian exporter and the New Zealand buyer. Moreover, the New Zealand market presents a very strong attraction to an Australian firm, since the potential demand in this country is of sufficient size to represent a very profitable addition to the home market. This stimulus does not act with anything like comparable force in the case of United Kingdom, and continental manufacturers.

Despite the recent growth in New Zealand's imports from Australia of commodities which compete with the products of the United Kingdom and other countries catering for export markets in manufactured goods, it will be noted from the diagram that the United Kingdom has in recent years more than maintained its share in the New Zealand market. New Zealand's import trade from the Empire as a whole has grown at the expense of its imports from foreign countries—reversing the trend which became evident between 1922 and 1929, during which period imports from foreign countries gained ground—though not to a marked extent.

The predominance of imports from British countries in New Zealand's import trade is very marked, the following table showing the percentage of imports from British and foreign countries for each of the principal members of the British Commonwealth of Nations being of particular interest in this connection:—

Country.Percentage of Total Imports.
Imports of British Origin.Imports of Foreign Origin.
New Zealand (1935)73·326·7
Australia (1934–35)60·339·7
South Africa (1935)57·642·4
India (1934–35)49·450·6
United Kingdom (1935)37·662·4
Canada (1934–35)29·970·1

It will be seen that imports from British countries form a much higher percentage of total imports in the case of New Zealand than for any of the other countries listed. In respect of imports of United Kingdom origin New Zealand also occupies a leading position, as is illustrated from the following table:—

 Imports of United Kingdom Origin: per Cent. of Total Imports.
New Zealand, 193550·4
South Africa, 193548·0
Australia, 1934–3543·1
India, 1934–35..40·6
Canada, 1934–3521·4

On a population basis New Zealand is the best customer of the United Kingdom, as is shown by the following summary of a table published by the British Board of Trade. All countries taking United Kingdom exports to the value of £1 per head in 1935 are included.

Countries to Which consigned.Exports of United Kingdom Merchandise (per Head of Population): Year 1935.
 £s.d.
British countries—
   New Zealand8119
   Irish Free State61311
   Australia475
   South Africa3182
   Canada1196
   British Malaya1150
Foreign countries—
   Denmark3143
   Norway261
   Sweden1112
   Netherlands178
   Argentine Republic1410
   Belgium1011

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.

The table which follows shows by main countries of origin details of the principal imports into New Zealand during each of the last five years.

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.

Country of Origin.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
Confectionery.
United Kingdom64,62228,18125,11425,85424,470
Canada6,752102106302383
Australia35,29640,20936,32931,38136,582
France1,2433908091,1321,221
Switzerland1,383........
United States of America2,5377117109642,800
Other countries1,4906237579351,093
       Totals113,32370,30663,82560,56866,555
Fruits (Dried).
South African Union20,36530,95635,2674,6123,028
Australia152,407229,654137,374255,577293,824
Iraq31,85636,54230,69545,59130,530
Turkey8,8879,6369,57110,80310,504
United States of America102,40793,95785,27251,43361,878
Other countries3,0282,7332,3472,478808
       Totals319,040403,478280,526370,494400,632
Fruits {Fresh).
British West Indies....67,80219,739
Canada5,9092,3732,5538511,459
Australia120,056106,65745,90893,45880,250
Fiji47,85760,31374,96986,65464,113
Norfolk Island11,7632,409992..963
Tonga9110,2699,94115,50314,295
Western Samoa54,07426,70838,01248,69851,417
United States of America50,72120,58734,08051,47354,746
Other countries6,0615,4705,7971,0821,478
       Totals296,532234,792212,258305,521288,460
Sugar.
United Kingdom46010,09010,57511,75511,491
Australia7,2137,4678,3487,7738,089
Fiji56,78852,17525,80111,2419,734
Netherlands132,31513575619,531
Dutch East Indies535,081485,699558,273526,421580,884
Cuba..90,21844,54345,53945,524
United States of America27,83622,39820,13439,63433,305
Other countries1,3552,3093,2003,0312,080
       Totals628,746672,671671,009646,150710,638
Tea.
Ceylon654,689369,583529,276567,594610,490
India54,54743,41787,849144,47231,540
China3,8333,4205,2446,3215,608
Dutch East Indies4271094044,110..
Japan7522462,496836
Other countries....42717165
       Totals713,571416,551623,246725,164648,545
Tobacco and Preparations thereof.
United Kingdom273,763262,672229,082319,303431,251
Australia171,654120,90369,84942,06856,033
United States of America227,862218,372218,939196,433205,900
Other countries11,0004,0115,3336,65811,248
       Totals684,279605,958523,203564,522704,432
Hosiery.
United Kingdom238,128233,897197,090153,087108,042
Canada97,18382,05171,22186,18061,416
Australia10,38635,67035,92017,24013,433
Czechoslovakia1,3071,8114,3685,1915,630
Germany6,9694,0892,1454,9553,792
Japan2,8053,5128,8195,3233,203
United States of America18,8302,214408150239
Other countries2,529752264233275
       Totals378,137363,996320,241272,359196,630
Millinery.
United Kingdom128,121104,60292,77491,07990,513
Australia3,8306,0288,28911,12014,201
France8,1066,6192,1103,8966,456
Germany6,4869,1605,1505,3603,845
Italy17,08310,6048,7745,1793,116
Dutch East Indies6,1003,9358661,6351,487
Japan4,9816,02410,57012,44915,180
United States of America3,7881,8568624,5566,677
Other countries8,5236,0818,34111,61410,803
       Totals187,018154,909137,736146,888152,278
Miscellaneous Apparel and Heady-made Clothing.
United Kingdom1,035,153768, 251730,442789,404843,220
Canada34,82012,3346,9629,44410,295
Australia10,71817,83731,09543,06440,406
Austria7,0233,0883,5404,2462,593
Belgium6,1884,0743,3602,9811,726
France28,95812,0889,4687,9334,818
Czechoslovakia8,6244,7918,74615,19510,089
Germany51,23749,35159,66360,87246,908
Italy25,42520,19821,27527,00624,988
Switzerland7,1021,535724523591
Japan19,97927,01454,62350,21864,006
United States of America30,97512,2505,97819,03132,070
Other countries5,2423,3724,8416,2246,971
       Totals1,271,444930,789940,9171,036,2011,101,887
Soots and Shoes.
United Kingdom336,207255,272249,200241,390253,597
Canada85,55494,03969,08875,350100,380
Australia23,39931,38447,32442,43140,841
Malaya5,82832,12316,4486235
Czechoslovakia7,0396,4708,7768,40915,465
Japan8,32524,44765,55156,03250,140
United States of America12,5978554268,0745,125
Other countries2,4632,9841,5092,4336,503
       Totals482,012447,574458,022434,802472,050
Miscellaneous Drapery.
United Kingdom310,840303,820299,009355,710253,297
Australia11,0226,5643,4003,6233,922
France14,9528,7073,0949,3008,353
Germany16,32413,38911,30110,41810,419
Switzerland28,58219,94320,14917,23010,255
China8,0399,8105,2056,2848,502
Japan3,0933,21412,93915,18813,438
United States of America6,6584,0241,3321,3642,197
Other countries16,06812,7948,03318,98010,505
       Totals416,178382,325371,382428,181333,008
Cotton, Linen, and Canvas piece-goods.
United Kingdom1,148,3971,413,8011,499,3071,521,4011,502,707
Canada6,5881,0543,2542,8038,802
Australia8,0205,1331,8878,5677,713
Belgium25,80820,43035,86034,14347,432
France8,8964,3581,8862,0693,794
Germany6,2552,5753,4148,2745,008
Netherlands3,4403,2541,3153,5053,373
Switzerland7,2911,6938,4034,3073,290
Japan24,08020,21762,05489,435141,586
United States of America25,45019,04715,01020,56319,882
Other countries6,5083,7187,7507,5028,198
       Totals1,271,3391,507,9401,641,4891,703,2891,751,845
Silk, &c., Piece-goods.
United Kingdom257,314302,829303,840371,013291,774
Canada1,1333,3281,7071,59339,033
Australia9,87518,91835,71768,04730,758
Czechoslovakia13,1805,7682,2701,6652,781
France87,62287,85354,04040,09033,887
Germany20,50021,39420,20923,54222,491
Italy23,39125,13325,14920,94435,019
Switzerland50,17420,88329,18012,5537,304
China14,0897,2777,80010,1865,997
Japan163,069230,132231,138294,273396,450
United States of America10,3816,2025,32510,4147,635
Other countries8,7604,7138,57112,3886,415
       Totals666,403740,430725,078875,714879,544
Woollen Piece-goods.
United Kingdom396,943441,655519,255650,305638,133
France10,5312,6541,115533888
Germany20,40011,6303,5997,7493,450
Italy6,5397,3579,2253,0231,759
Other countries5,8114,0442,7296,2943,403
       Totals440,224407,340535,923673,904652,093
Paints and Varnishes.
United Kingdom143,226127,914141,758105,899221,931
Australia24,48932,21244,60467,11099,035
Germany5,3007,4458,1296,7416,202
United States of America29,25819,73315,50320,40934,959
Other countries6,3457,9509,00711,60110,361
       Totals808,708195,260219,001277,820373,088
Iron and Steel.—Bar, Boll, and Rod.
United Kingdom97,12762,29752,117100,02597,841
Canada11,804..7296,3321,487
Australia15,08045,93271,372159,033189,054
Other countries1,789835283646358
      Totals125,806109,114124,501260,036289,340
Iron and Steel.—Plate and Sheet.
United Kingdom474,386414,480525,829677,648347,758
Australia5213509,37929,77432,952
Other countries7172,3042,2142,8663,039
       Totals475,024417,140537,422710,288884,349
Iron and Steel.—Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings.
United Kingdom210,307214,930167,072255,402312,172
Canada11,83013,88622,10133,47052,884
Australia3,5302,1776,0706,2054,010
United States of America3,182838300582844
Other countries3,9472,8941,9183,9334,270
       Totals232,805234,725197,401299,592374,810
Artificers' Tools.
United Kingdom93,03389,766100,510126,413149,414
Canada13,3278,79013,58124,13427,420
Germany8,5828,0189,26011,80314,115
United States of America29,31012,34610,51330,48148,710
Other countries6,5085,4146,2199,69813,704
       Totals160,820124,334140,083202,534253,309
Fencing-wire.—Plain and Barbed.
United Kingdom110,545122,297105,203111,395161,394
Canada9,3014289,00813,87124,958
Australia2,71221,49031,51827,40049,700
United States of America7,735..5,44023,75714,991
Other countries9,8383,657210..318
       Totals140,191147,872151,385170,423251,307
Miscellaneous Hardware.
United Kingdom288,078252,286260,129342,726423,412
Canada13,03710,1516,8009,94021,094
Australia20,92518,02624,98250,03944,314
France7,8295,2245,5104,7532,104
Germany20,83721,39019,94118,04319,100
Sweden5,0035,9977,2209,93112,908
Japan1,2052,77811,40811,62520,825
United States of America55,79920,01115,18434,650100,060
Other countries5,0153,7514,7446,7287,437
       Totals425,048340,214350,047489,085651,974
Agricultural Machinery.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom25,21835,62146,07455,86772,448
Canada7,0738,50920,63716,93039,618
Australia4,1275,34918,43917,21918,697
France4726251,7911,354989
Sweden14867410,79213,23211,384
United States of America13,04724,27336,14340,74164,386
Other countries2,4531,7892,8063,3613,678
       Totals52,54376,840136,682148,704211,200
Dairying Machinery.
United Kingdom13,73643,75662,04467,77451,514
Australia17,00019,21719,04924,13720,334
Denmark1,0771,0306092,2943,372
Germany3,7913,2272,7485,7493,466
Sweden52,752111,32563,88940,25246,873
United States of America7,67510,9428,7687,2544,364
Other countries3,6091,8613,0712,3923,928
       Totals100,245191,964160,778149,852133,851
Electrical Machinery and Equipment (including Wireless Apparatus and Telephones and Accessories).
United Kingdom819,036592,739582,941714,249920,893
Canada73,34046,97951,43875,93788,842
Australia49,47791,676140,183150,364161,151
Belgium10,4162,6801,1383,3254,453
Germany22,74917,79613,08213,77016,664
Netherlands23,93011,98411,10617,76526,814
Sweden72,5039,4357,8599,31320,185
United States of America327,184222,561200,754291,231335,582
Other countries15,76911,58116,75417,04021,254
       Totals1,414,5001,007,4311,025,2551,293,0031,595,838
Leather and Leather Goods (excluding Boots and Shoes).
United Kingdom103,177107,405115,657109,902132,059
Canada6,1312,4821,5824,9156,728
Australia23,62639,67266,66486,29068,465
Germany11,2665,3173,4566,7078,280
United States of America52,23235,01821,13635,52049,553
Other countries4,3233,2045,3668,49110,045
       Totals200,755193,158213,861251,825275,130
Timber.
Canada19,66411,40411,87025,11331,015
Australia105,84432,09591,635144,506301,306
Sweden37,36819,47830,15114,96611,583
Japan16,30114,30716,58127,88523,495
United States of America24,7406,3017,81516,04121,086
Other countries9,8402,6021,7803,52710,025
      Totals213,81786,277159,832232,038398,510
Earthenware and Chinaware.
United Kingdom109,149122,587117,155152,530212,210
Australia8208371,3031,8543,039
Czechoslovakia2,048442355389437
Germany3,1348597875871,313
Japan9,38711,23332,85927,50020,077
Other countries2,030999504527333
       Totals180,574130,957153,023183,447244,009
Glass and Glassware.
United Kingdom90,34274,18772,985111,963140,903
Canada3,2701,0182,2403,6573,411
Australia11,55019,40730,80843,74357,192
Belgium17,37619,10318,30320,49727,707
Czechoslovakia9,3418,2019,67014,70223,530
Germany10,1604,3565,6567,58310,490
Japan3,0524,61110,9379,91714,421
United States of America23,2039,7559,14014,62914,603
Other countries4,0585,9996,3987,14211,676
       Totals172,352146,637166,197239,833303,933
Printing-paper.
United Kingdom221,714224,522177,702167,802165,081
Canada250,373205,034242,553288,014323,980
Finland6002,8083,0576,0243,524
Germany8,0697,1305,9288,71215,641
Norway2,0945,10011,54811,44211,949
Sweden6,6185,2973,4023,7284,005
United States of America20,33616,2205,2696,98820,038
Other countries8,5443,7024,0845,5156,058
       Totals518,348469,873454,143498,825550,276
Paper, other than Printing.
United Kingdom192,818205,908210,923251,594208,940
Canada75,15769,60477,89893,80192,482
Australia4,0344,2203,4205,8976,997
Austria1,0481,7134,2095,1804,731
Belgium10,1277,85116,0666,9647,719
Finland1,5926,3696,59410,11315,730
Germany10,55014,95020,42922,23827,135
Netherlands6,0758,6318,6549,9117,781
Norway12,04626,65122,49926,36220,352
Sweden27,21534,34937,83849,27252,157
United States of America61,62149,65636,93545,17161,183
Other countries3,3055,8286,0645,8547,877
       Totals415,197435,736457,589532,423579,096
Books, Papers, and Music.
United Kingdom282,290255,113295,054311,913320,974
Australia45,71544,70254,42462,86675,455
United States of America41,21931,53427,04630,28030,173
Other countries4,2512,8763,2453,6015,315
      Totals373,481334,315380,309408,690437,917
Miscellaneous Stationery.
United Kingdom178,093142,450180,360201,420213,352
Canada9,8663,6686,1758,4738,042
Australia37,05540,77455,07468,94875,010
Germany11,9028,5907,0307,3376,824
United States of America46,84037,98132,07732,16831,174
Other countries8,7717,68311,89110,96620,912
       Totals293,133241,158294,113335,312355,914
Fancy Goods and Toys.
United Kingdom120,23980,50285,92789,615111,860
Australia5,8994,11913,03223,83370,103
Czechoslovakia19,66814,56610,71010,72810,266
France42,66844,57620,79420,3977,496
Germany37,85816,91117,63111,76612,802
Japan13,68212,31839,24539,93945,522
United States of America10,5333,7532,3994,3377,740
Other countries15,21811,17611,74712,79115,375
       Totals205,705188,011208,085213,400287,230
Motor-cycles.
United Kingdom39,74310,40717,60523,70840,208
Germany32........
United States of America236....871651
       Totals40,01110,40717,60524,57940,910
Motor-cars.
United Kingdom400,131389,893378,549900,4551,567,559
Canada55,17854,65677,940395,025439,153
United States of America68,74219,27823,959403,850710,154
Other countries4,385241250....
       Totals528,430404,068480,0981,819,3302,717,100
Motor Lorries, Trucks, Tang, and Buses.
United Kingdom50,92999,147142,806249,517222,083
Canada14,8615,24615,95160,019110,587
United States of America39,54010,72625,910133,096157,511
Other countries264..478....
       Totals105,600115,119185,145442,632490,181
Tires, Tubes, and Covers for Motor-vehicles.
United Kingdom412,197571,670418,739419,410446,009
Canada130,42572,797141,121285,594254,020
Australia4,5056,41714,03112,92213,561
France6,2689,32311,4704,6624,321
Italy81358991309241
Japan..15612,8903,597499
United States of America13,5057,5527,78713,77715,615
Other countries1832064562111
       Totals567,896668,079607,074740,333735,043
Motor-spirit.
Dutch East Indies259,626243,539289,209659,305623,851
Russia22113,08536,792125,850
United States of America1,103,903983,495689,283385,146359,523
Other countries21031298161101
       Totals1,363,7411,227,3481,091,7351,081,4041,109,325

IMPORTS FROM COOK ISLANDS.

Trade with the Cook Islands is not included in the export and import totals for the Dominion, but in shown separately in official publications. The following table shows imports into New Zealand from the group. Further particulars of the trade of the islands will be found in the section dealing with Dependencies.

Year.Imports.
 £
1926115,391
1927111,095
1928119,521
1929124,043
1930122,156
193187,581
193289,136
193392,910
193477,018
193567,779

The principal articles imported into New Zealand from the Cook Islands are as follows:—

Article.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Fruits, fresh—£££££
  Bananas36,17838,99829,90331,71522,868
  Oranges36,08231,31849,52730,10921,089
  Tomatoes10,93914,2767,19211,76519,096
  Other791646385393285
Coconuts647425844779533
Copra3991,2541,295..1,056
All other items2,6452,2193,7642,2572,852

Chapter 17. SECTION IX.—EXTERNAL TRADE—continued.

SUBSECTION D.—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE.

THE TARIFF.

A SUMMARIZED historical account of the Customs tariff of New Zealand, setting forth the principal developments and changes from earliest times to 1930 will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. The tariff has now developed into a complex schedule of duties, and consideration of space prevents a detailed account of the rates of duty now levied on goods imported into New Zealand.

Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from the obtaining of revenue, has for its objects the following:—

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The encouragement of intra-Empire trade.

Under the Ottawa agreement of 1932, New Zealand, in common with the other Dominions, was committed to hold an inquiry into the tariff and, if necessary, to revise it in accordance with certain explicitly stated principles. New Zealand undertook to afford protection against United Kingdom products only to industries which are reasonably assured of sound opportunities for success and to grant protection on such a level as to enable the United Kingdom producer to compete on the basis of the relative cost of economical and efficient production.

As soon as possible after the Ottawa Conference dutiable goods, the produce of the United Kingdom or of any British possession except Canada, Union of South Africa, Irish Free State, Newfoundland, or India, were exempted from the surtax on duty previously payable. Reductions were made in the rates of duty charged on confectionery, apparel, hosiery, and silk and artificial silk piece-goods, and additional preference to British countries was granted by the imposition of a duty or an increase in the existing rate on foreign cocoa-beans, raw coffee, cigars, rum, asphalt and bitumen, certain unground spices, and paper.

A Tariff Commission was set up in 1933 to inquire into the Customs tariff and to recommend for the consideration of the Government any alterations therein with a view to implementing the agreement made at Ottawa, and having regard, inter alia, to the financial, economic, and industrial conditions in the Dominion.

On the basis of the report of this Commission, resolutions amending the tariff were introduced on 10th July, 21st August, and 13th September, 1934, and ratified by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934.

Some of the principal alterations made to the British preferential tariff were:—

  1. Protective duties were abolished on: Certain stock foods; nails (as from 1st November, 1936)*; certain iron and steel pipes; linseed oil; white-lead ground in oil (as from 1st November, 1936)*; wireless sets in cabinets; maizena and cornflour in small packages.

  2. The protective duties were reduced on: Preserved and dried milk; baking powder; coffee essence; confectionery; sauce; soap; hats, caps, and millinery; boots and shoes; leather manufactures; glass bottles; oil engines; manufactured stationery; galvanized iron manufactures; metal office furniture; tinware; furniture and upholstery; paints and varnishes; biscuits; plaster pulp sheets; polishes; apparel; whole maize; vinegar; cement; matches; furs and fur skins; floor-mats and floor-rugs of wool.

  3. The revenue duties were reduced on: Carpets; fancy goods; sporting requisites; jewellery; platedware; tobacco pipes; toilet preparations; pianos and other musical instruments; engines for tractors; cigarettes; table chinaware; oak timber; builders' and cabinetmakers' hardware.

  4. The protective duties were increased on: Maize, ground or crushed; porcelain enamelled cast iron baths; and household gas meters.

    * Extended to 1st November, 1937, by Order in Council dated 14th July, 1936.

  5. Revenue duties were increased on: Cigarette papers.

  6. The protective duty previously payable on motor-ear bodies was abolished, and the duties were amended to encourage the assembling of motor-vehicles in New Zealand by a reduction in the rate of duty on vehicles imported unassembled or completely knocked-down.

In addition to the ordinary rates of duty imposed on goods entering the Dominion, additional revenue has been obtained in recent, years by a surtax, on dutiable imports and a primage duty on goods otherwise free.

The surtax was imposed in 1930 in lieu of a primage duty of 1 per cent, or 2 per cent, ad valorem previously charged on practically all imports whether free or dutiable. This surtax was not, however, applied to dutiable goods of Australian origin, which continued to pay the primage duty of 1 per cent, or 2 per cent.

The rate of surtax was fixed at one-twentieth of the total duty otherwise payable on certain goods (e.g., spirits, tobacco, timber, sugar, motor-spirit), and nine-fortieths of such duty on all other dutiable goods, except wheat and flour, and some other lines which have since been exempted.

As stated above, surtax was not charged on goods the produce of the United Kingdom or any British country except Canada, Union of South Africa, Irish Free State, Newfoundland, or India, on and after the 14th October, 1932, and the primage duty payable on Australian goods in lieu of surtax was also removed as from that date.

A primage duty of 3 per cent, was charged, as from the 31st July, 1931, on imports from all countries which were otherwise free of duty. Certain specified items were, however, exempted from primage duty.

The following is a list of the principal items which are free of duty (and in some cases are also exempt from primage duty) under the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934:—

Free in any Case.—Live animals; barley (if to be used as stock-food); bran; pollard; seeds; vegetable butters or fats; currants; dates; figs; prunes; glucose and caramel; nuts, except walnuts; rice; acids, other than acetic; inorganic salts of metallic elements and many other drugs and chemicals; bags and sacks; wool-packs; raw cotton; hatmakers' materials; buttons; needles and pins; wadding; cotton piece-goods for meat-wraps and cheese-bandages; umbrella-makers' materials; upholsterers' materials; coir, flax, and into yarns; grindery; leather made from goat and kid skins; japanned or enamelled leather; bricks other than firebricks; marble in the rough; grindstones and whetstones; cinema films (subject however to film-hire tax); bookbinders' materials; cardboard and similar boards; parchment and greaseproof paper; printed books, papers, and music; beekeepers' apparatus; percussion caps, detonators, and explosives; hay-rakes, reapers and binders, mowers, and certain other agricultural implements; dairying machinery; sewing-machines; iron and other metal in ingots, pigs, or billets; fish and vegetable (other than linseed) oils; kerosene and other refined mineral oils other than motor-spirit; waxes; cork; crude tanning materials; manures; skins and hides.

Free if British, but dutiable if Foreign.—Bananas, oranges, mandarins, and grapefruit; raisins; infants' and invalids' foods; mustard; salt; cocoa-beans; raw coffee; sago and tapioca; maizena and cornflour; macaroni; acetic acid; cream of tartar; disinfectants; chloroform and other anaesthetics; antiseptics; manufactured dyes; most surgical, dental, optical, and scientific instruments and materials; felt, cotton. linen, and canvas piece-goods; silk and artificial silk piece-goods; leather-cloth; oil baize; sewing, &c, cottons and threads; elastics; plain tape; tailors' lining materials; cotton, silk, and artificial silk yarns; plain tablecloths, towels, and similar plain articles; belting (other than leather); children's boots and shoes; gum boots; rubber hose; most rubber manufactures, except tires for motor-vehicles; sheet glass; lenses: watch-glasses; pianos and other musical instruments; gramophone records; artists' materials; paperhangings; sensitized surfaces; waxed paper; paper (other than wrapping) in sheets of size not less than 20 in. by 15 in., or in rolls; ball bearings; bolts and nuts; rivets and washers; buckles; chains; fire-engines, fire-extinguishers, and other fire-extinguishing appliances; adding and computing machines; typewriters; most electrical apparatus; measuring, testing, &c, appliances; sheep-shearing machines; tractors; artificers', &c, tools; machine tools and machinery peculiar to industrial processes; iron and other metal in bars or sheets; wire and wire netting; metal cordage; rails for railways and tramways; under-carriage springs and metal fittings for vehicles asphalt and bitumen; table chinaware.

An indication of the incidence of Customs taxation on various classes of commodities imported will be found in the last two columns of the table on page 223, where the Customs duty collected in 1935 is distinguished as a proportion of the dutiable imports and total imports in each of the statistical classes.

It is impossible to give any account of the range of duties payable on all of the numerous tariff items, but the duty on some of the principal commodities in general use is mentioned hereunder. It should be noted that, in addition, surtax or primage may also be payable.

Wheal and Flour.—A sliding scale of duty was provided in 1927 in the case of wheat and flour. The duty on wheat is (from the 1st March, 1932) 8d. per bushel (of 60 lb.) when the current domestic value at the port of export to New Zealand is 5s., the duty falling by ½d. for every ½d. by which the value rises, and vice versa. The standard flour duty is £1 12s. for a £13 ton (2,000 lb.), the rate moving up or down by 1s. inversely to price changes of the same extent. Under the provisions of an Order in Council dated 11th March, 1936, the importation of wheat and flour is prohibited except where a written permit has been issued by the Department of Industries and Commerce.

Tea.—Tea in bulk, when of British origin, was placed on the free list as early as 1907, when the duty on foreign tea was fixed at 2d. per lb. In 1917 a duty of 3d. per lb. was imposed on British tea, the foreign rate being increased to 6d. per lb. British tea in bulk was again placed on the free list in 1923, and the duty on foreign tea reduced to 2d. Rates of 3d. and 5d. per lb. respectively have been reinstated from 31st July, 1931.

Sugar.—Sugar also was placed on the free list in 1907, prior to which the duty was ½d. per lb. Refined sugar of foreign origin was charged ½d. per lb. under the 1921 tariff, the rate being altered in 1923 to 5/16 d. and in 1924 to ¼d., irrespective of origin. The duty on refined sugar was increased to ¾d. per lb. in 1931; and raw sugar, which is imported for refinement at Auckland, was made dutiable at ½d. per lb., or, alternatively, ½d. per lb. excise duty on manufacture. An additional ½d. per lb. on both refined and raw sugar was imposed as from 9th February, 1933.

Tobacco.—The present duties on tobacco are as follows: Cigarettes, exceeding in weight 2½ lb. per 1,000, 10s. 6d. per lb.; cigarettes, not exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 25s. 6d. per 1,000. Cigars, 12s. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 16s. under the general tariff. Manufactured tobacco, cut, 6s. 10d. per lb., and plug, 6s. 8d. per lb. Unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of cigarettes, 3s. per lb.; and unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of tobacco, cigars, or snuff, 2s. per lb. A duty of ½d. British preferential tariff or ¾d. general tariff is now levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof. The excise duties on tobacco, &c, made in New Zealand are shown later under “Excise Duties.”

Alcoholic Beverages.—The rate of duty payable on most beverage spirits is 40s. per proof gallon, except rum of foreign origin, dutiable at 44s. per proof gallon.

Sparkling wine is liable to a duty of 10s. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and 15s. under the general tariff, and still wines to 4s. and 6s. respectively.

The present duty on imported beer is 1s. 9d. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and 3s. under the general tariff. The excise duty on beer of local origin is given under “Excise Duties.”

Timber.—Certain types of special timbers and Australian hardwoods, if imported in logs, or rough sawn or rough hewn, are admitted free. Oak timber is free of duty under the British preferential tariff, and dutiable at 6s. per 100 sup. ft. under the general tariff. Other kinds of timber, such as Douglas fir (Oregon pine), redwood, Baltic pine, are subject to the following rates: Logs, round, unworked, 25s. per 100 cubic ft; rough sawn or rough hewn, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. per 100 sup. ft. under the British preferential tariff, and 9s. Gd. or 11s. 6d. under the general tariff; dressed, 19s. per 100 sup. ft. British preferential tariff and 21s. general tariff.

Motor-vehicles.—Motor-vehicles imported in an unassembled or completely knocked-down condition are dutiable at 5 per cent, under the British preferential tariff and 50 per cent, under the general tariff. Chassis for electrically propelled motor-vehicles are free if British and dutiable at 20 per cent, if foreign. Other kinds of motor-vehicles are subject to a duty of 15 per cent, if admissible under the British preferential tariff and 60 per cent, if liable to the general tariff.

Tires for Motor-vehicles.—Previously dutiable at 10 per cent, ad valorem under the British preferential tariff and 40 per cent, under the general tariff, these were in 1934 made subject to a duty based on the weight of the tires. Pneumatic rubber tires for motor-vehicles, inner tubes of rubber therefor, and moulded rubber strip for repair of such tires are now dutiable at 2½d. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 8d. per lb. under the general tariff. Solid rubber tires are liable to a duty of 1d. per lb. and 4d. per lb. under the British preferential and general tariffs respectively. The duty on tires is earmarked for the maintenance of highways.

Motor-spirits.—Towards the end of 1927 the Motor-Spirits Taxation Act of that year imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (increased in 1930 to 6d.) on motor-spirits. The proceeds of this tax were devoted to reading purposes. In 1931 and 1933 an increase in duty of 2d. per gallon in each year was made, making the total dut3' on motor-spirits l0d. per gallon, plus a surtax of ½d. per gallon on foreign. The proceeds from 6d. per gallon of this tax is earmarked for reading purposes, and the balance (4d. per gallon and surtax) is levied for general purposes and remains in the Consolidated Fund.

EXCISE DUTIES.

An important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3¾d. per gallon when the specific gravity did not exceed 1,047, and increasing by ęd. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by ⅛d. thereafter. On the 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3¾d. to 4¾d. per gallon, and further (on the 15th September, 1917) to 5¾d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon. In 1921 a rate of 11½d. per gallon (increased to 1s. in 1930, and to 1s. 6d. in 1931) was imposed where the specific gravity of the worts used does not exceed 1,047, the rate being increased by ęd. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047. The basic rate of excise duty on beer was reduced from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 3d. per gallon by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Cut tobacco is now charged an excise duty of 4s. 6d. per lb.; other kinds, 4s. 4d. per lb. Cigars and snuff pay 4s. per lb., and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand is 13s. 6d. per 1,000 on cigarettes under 2½ lb. per 1,000, and 5s. 6d. per lb. on cigarettes over 2½ lb. per 1,000. Imported leaf tobacco used in the manufacture of tobacco, &c, in New Zealand pays on importation a duty of 3s. per lb. if for the manufacture of cigarettes, and 2s. per lb. if for tobacco, cigars, or snuff. An excise duty of ½d. is now levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1931, imposed an excise duty of ½d. per lb. (increased to 1d. per lb. from 9th February, 1933) on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has since 1921 been provided on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: On alcohol used in the manufacture of perfumed spirits, 36s. per gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent, of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon. In similar preparations containing less than 50 per cent, the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.

The Gold Duty Act of 1858, amended from time to time, first imposed an export duty on gold. Under the Gold Duty Abolition and Mining Property Rating Act of 1890, the export duty on South Island gold was replaced by a system of rating mining property. The consolidating Gold Duty Act of 1908 maintained an export duty of 2s. per ounce of 20 carats fineness on gold produced in or exported from the North Island. A further export duty of 6d. per ounce (on gold of New Zealand origin only, and exclusive of gold produced by alluvial or dredge mining) was levied by the Mining Act of 1926, and this additional duty applied also to South Island gold. The Customs Acts Amendment Act passed in February, 1933, imposed an additional export duty of 12s. 6d. per ounce troy weight of gold of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards, and covered all gold, with certain minor exceptions, wherever produced or exported. Provision was made for reduction, by Order in Council, of the rate of duty in the event of a reduction in the value of gold in New Zealand.

An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pine and kauri) by Acts of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The rate is 3s. per 100 superficial feet for flitches, and 5s. per 100 superficial feet for logs. This duty is not payable in respect of sawn timbers.

The Customs Department collects the levies imposed on meat and honey exported. The proceeds (less expenses of collection) are, however, handed over to the respective Boards set up to control the export, &c, of these commodities in the interests of the producers. A levy on butter and cheese produced either for export or for local consumption is collected, the proceeds, less cost of collection, &c, being handed over to the Dairy Board.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.

In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties produced a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it does to-day. Down to the outbreak of the Great War there was a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the taxation legislation of the war period temporarily accelerated the movement. The percentage rose after 1921–22, but did not regain its pre-war proportions, and of recent years has shown a tendency to fall again. The figures for the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st MarchTotal Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.
Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 ££Per Cent.
191710,549,6544,037,62838·27
191812,340,8533,601,38329·18
191913,801,6434,104,01629·74
192016,251,7695,185,72831·91
192122,184,4148,769,25139·53
192216,370,5165,554,33433·93
192315,715,3806,644,42042·28
192410,540,4387,870,30947·58
192510,549,6098,187,27349·47
192617,254,6888,974,23552·01
192717,437,8278,820,28750·62
1928117,145,1458,501,24540·58
192917,832,0338,505,73048·04
193019,471,1319,517,35948·88
193118,878,2858,181,07043·34
193217,405,6226,545,42837·61
193319,703,7036,785,64134·44
193421,470,8277,140,47833·26
193524,737,9398,094,60532·72
193625,476,3728,870,20334·84

The figures for Customs and excise duties from 1922–23 onwards are exclusive of tire-tax, and for 1927–28 and subsequent years the highways proportion (6d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits tax—two classes of duties collected through the Customs for road-maintenance purposes, and included in total taxation.

In the foregoing table the financial year has been taken for purposes of comparison with total taxation, figures concerning which are not available for calendar years. In subsequent tables the Customs-taxation figures relate to the calendar year, which is the statistical year for most trade purposes.

In the two tables which follow the figures do not include taxes for highway purposes, excise duties, or export duties, and are also exclusive of surtax, primage, and depreciated-currency duties for the years during which these have been in force.

YearFoods and Nonalcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.Total.
Amount of Duty collected.
 £££££
1911147,456682,7101,286,6011,048,8903,165,657
1916170,009985,3351,390,3221,036,2273,581,893
1921237,8781,297,1211,930,8981,826,3575,292,254
1926389,6861,760,4082,679,0803,102,6237,931,797
1931366,709981,1391,760,3051,360,4244,488,577
1932311,125900,4301,561,8151,423,8724,200,242
1933357,157721,0501,463,8091,834,7634,376,779
1934310,470780,1491,464,2812,471,9395,026,845
1935321,561761,3611,597,5572,879,0525,559,531
Percentage of Total Duly collected.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19114·0621·5740·6433·13100·00
19164·7527·5138·8128·93100·00
19214·4924·5136·4934·51100·00
19264·9122·1933·7939·11100·00
19318·1721·8639·6630·31100·00
19327·4821·4437·1833·90100·00
19338·1616·4733·4541·92100·00
19346·1815·5229·1349·17100·00
19355·7813·7028·7451·78100·00

The Customs and excise duties received during the last five years are shown in more detail in the next table. Primage duties and surtax are included, but not tire-tax, or the highways proportion of petrol-tax, which do not really represent Customs taxation though for the sake of convenience collected through the Customs on imported commodities.

——1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
* Included in other duties.
Customs Duties.
Spirits767,648653,212641,707658,348685,473
Wine31,10324,42126,81931,67936,899
Beer4,0462,0762,4372,5844,013
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff430,709338,822279,407332,127441,431
Tobacco539,970536,214507,080433,532425,114
Tea48,765123,592137,793124,065132,254
Motor-spirit***1,033,5741,037,161
Other duties2,666,2762,521,3052,781,5362,410,9362,797,180
Primage111,050251,214234,731270,060319,919
Depreciated currency and dumping duties2727,29349457..
Surtax682,611577,164308,589421,542474,461
     Totals, Customs duties5,282,5105,035,9134,920,5935,724,5046,353,911
Excise Duties.
Alcohol used in perfumed spirit, &c.—New Zealand17,45818,71317,73022,88621,375
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff—New Zealand manufactured292,659271,159317,172257,201168,209
Tobacco—Now Zealand manufactured245,607439,882510,406645,818631,203
Beer—New Zealand602,944665,655647,119673,788696,527
Sugar67,095318,155595,207664,433657,142
Totals, excise duties1,225,7631,713,5042,093,6342,264,1262,174,456
Revenue per head:—£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
  From Customs duties391036034031310415
  From excise duties01621251731921710
      Totals4604854113530593

The following table furnishes a general view of the ratio of Customs revenue to merchandise imports since 1895, which is taken as the base year:—

Year.Merchandise Imports.Revenue.Index Numbers of Customs Revenue compared with Imports.
Value.Value per Head.Amount.Actual Value per Head.Value per Head at 1895 Ratio.Percentage of Revenue to Total imports.
 ££s.d.££s.d.£s.d.Per Cent. 
18956,115,9538671,619,97024124126·491000
190010,207,326121462,170,354214137421·26803
190512,481,178131342,652,6662181312421·25802
191016,74S,223161112,954,989216945217·64666
191520,658,720171963,190,8832156415215·45583
192061,553,8534910117,953,477697135612·92488
192552,425,757371748,287,2885199100715·81597
193044,339,654291407,776,103542717417·54662
193126,498,151171025,282,5103910412919·94753
193224,640,00(516305,035,91336045720·43771
193325,581,360161274,920,59334048019·24726
193431,339,55220445,724,5043131057018·27690
193536,317,26723556,353,91141563217·50661

The figures given in the column “Value per head at 1895 ratio” indicate the amount of revenue per head of population which would have been obtained had the same ratio of Customs taxation to imports prevailed as in 1895.

Substantial reductions in the scale of duties were responsible for the sharp fall in the percentage of revenue to imports between 1895 and 1920. The percentage rose again after 1920, due partly to heavier taxation and partly to a rise in the proportion of imports from foreign countries. To some extent also the position is affected by a change from the 1st April, 1926, in the system of computation for British preference purposes in the case of articles only partly manufactured in British countries. Allowance must be made over the last three years for the case of sugar, on which excise duty is now paid under the alternative provisions of the tariff, whereas formerly this considerable item was included in Customs revenue.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

At the present time nearly one-half of New Zealand's imports are admitted free of duty.

The figures given in the following table are exclusive of specie, which is admitted free. Imports free of duty include items otherwise dutiable but admitted free for Government use, &c.

Year.Value of Merchandise Imports.Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.Amount.Percentage of
Dutiable Imports.Total Imports.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
192622,255,76527,555,99849,811,76344·6855·328,398,53730·4816·86
192718,788,51725,994,14944,782,66641·9558·058,110,49731·2018·11
192820,154,61724,689,48544,844,10244·9455·067,648,74730·9817·06
192920,886,79827,847,67448,734,47242·8657·148,582,39330·8217·61
193020,255,01924,084,63544,339,65445·6854·327,776,10332·2917·54
193112,306,83914,191,31226,498,15146·4453·565,282,51037·2319·93
193211,634,88313,011,12324,646,00647·2152·795,035,91338·7120·43
193312,424,19813,157,16825,581,36648·5751·434,920,59337·4019·24
193415,019,01716,320,53531,339,55247·9252·085,724,50435·0818·27
193517,358,65218,958,61536,317,26747·8052·206,353,91133·5117·50

The next table gives for 1935 detailed figures arranged according to the statistical classification, for the key to which reference should be made to p. 181. The main features of the table are the overwhelming proportion of dutiable goods in the classes covering alcoholic beverages, tobacco, foodstuffs of animal origin, paints and varnishes, vehicles, and apparel, and the high proportion of free goods in non-alcoholic beverages, live animals, animal substances other than foodstuffs, manufactured fibres, stones and minerals (mainly coal), raw metals, paper, and manures.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

Class No.Value of Merchandise Imports.Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.Amount.Percentage of
Dutiable Imports.Total Imports.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
I887206,114207,0010·4399·5734,51016·7416·67
II1,298,0041,432,7802,730,78447·5352·47163,25211·395·98
III64,192720,227784,41981·7418·26123,7998·1891·82
IV22641,819641,841..100·00731,012113·90113·89
V11704,421704,432..100·00866,545123·02123·01
VI51,305..51,305100·00........
VII103,8363,240107,08296·973·0382925·540·77
VIII467,095139,428606,52377·0122·9920,72014·863·42
IXA443,9691,921,4502,365,41918·7781·23447,02023·2618·90
IXB2,469,3502,241,2444,710,59452·4247·5S314,34114·036·67
IXC421,49554,183475,67888·6111·399,15916·901·93
X735,0291,388,3342,123,36334·6265·381,174,89584·6355·33
XI129,827243,261373,08834·8065·2034,45714·169·24
XII110,1823,608113,79096·833·1756415·630·50
XIVA516,1551,275517,43099·750·25967·530·02
XIVB2,993,284979,1493,972,43375·3524·65214,98821·965·41
XV2,209,5931,322,1733,531,76662·5637·44244,50718·496·92
XVIA155,32315,106170,42991·148·862,55316·901·50
XVIB126,466148,664275,13045·9754·0323,96216·128·71
XVIIA204,120194,384398,51051·2248·7831,40816·167·88
XVIIB36,53490,778127,31228·7071·3022,42924·7117·62
XVIII379,085331,841710,92653·3246·6856,48317·027·94
XIXA985,494143,8781,129,37287·2612·7419,32213·431·71
XIXB544,890250,491795,38168·5131·4955,87922·317·03
XX11,7195,33,041564,7602·0897·92151,76127·4420·87
XXI448,7S4102,504551,28881·4118·5918,43117·983·34
XXIIA1,024,717480,6151,505,33268·0731·93105,87222·037·03
XXIIB479,205..479,205100·00........
XXIIIA341,1434,303,5344,644,6777·3492·60630,38114·6513·57
XXIIIB606,930341,067947,99764·0235·9860,35617·706·37
Primage and surtax..........794,380....
   Totals17,358,65218,958,61536,317,26747·8052·206,353,91133·5117·50

RATES OF DUTY.

The table on the next page shows imports in 1935 according to the nature or rate of duty. The rates shown are exclusive of primage and surtax.

IMPORTS, 1935, BY RATES OF DUTY.
Nature of Duty.United Kingdom.Other British.Foreign.Totals.
 ££££
Free (excluding specie)9,772,5624,994,8602,591,23017,358,652
Specific duties1,821,3261,574,4862,679,8126,075,624
Ad valorem duties—
   5 per cent.573,575129,88515,535718,995
10 per cent.408,83772,374510,790992,001
15 per cent.1,322,575568,644811,7942,703,013
20 per cent.3,257,954585,574240,1924,083,720
25 per cent.1,121,354187,839666,2171,975,410
30 per cent.4,25839,83039,19883,286
32½ per cent...61,416..61,416
35 per cent...105,072108,659213,731
40 per cent.6558460,64761,3S6
45 per cent.....529,883529,883
50 per cent.....1,175,4951,175,495
55 per cent.....38,82138,821
60 per cent.....245,834245,834
     Totals ad valorem6,689,2081,750,7184,443,06512,882,991
Total merchandise imports18,283,0968,320,0649,714,10736,317,267

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.

Preference to British countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand—that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since 1922, and with Canada since 1932.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items wero covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items. The effect of the 1921, 1927, 1930, and 1934 tariffs has been to widen the disparity in the duty as between goods of British and of foreign origin. Under the Ottawa agreement, New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods when the margin of preference did not exceed 20 per cent., and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent, without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom. In the tariff of 1934, where reductions in duty were made under the British Preferential Tariff, the rates of duty under the general (foreign) tariff were, except in a few cases, retained.

The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:—

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries:

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw material and/or from one or more of the partly manufactured raw materials which are enumerated in the regulations:

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and (or) labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British countries, the products of which are admissible under the British Preferential Tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Prior to the 1st April, 1926, the minimum mentioned in paragraph (c), which is now one-half, was one-fourth.

In the calculation of the proportion of produce or labour none of the following items is to be included or considered:—

  1. Manufacturer's profit, or the profit or remuneration of any trader, agent, broker, or other person dealing in the article in its finished condition:

  2. Royalties:

  3. The cost of outside packages or any cost of packing the goods thereinto:

  4. Administrative and general office expenses:

  5. Any cost of convoying, insuring, or shipping the goods subsequent to their manufacture:

  6. Any other charges incurred subsequent to the completion of the manufacture. of the goods.

Tea to be entitled to be entered at British preferential rates must be grown in some part of the British Empire, and the final process of manufacture must also be performed in some British country.

As explained later, certain imports from Australia pay more than corresponding items from other British countries, while, from June, 1931, to 24th May, 1932, the bulk of imports of Canadian origin paid the general rate of duty.

The following table shows the extent of the imports which are affected by preference, by giving the percentage of the total imports and of foreign imports so affected. The proportions increased generally after the tariff changes of 1907, 1017, and 1921. The effect of any change in this direction under the 1927 and 1930 tariffs is hidden, owing to the falling-off of imports, particularly in motor-vehicles—an important item subject to the preferential surtax.

Year.Value of Merchandise Imports.Imports on which Preferential Surtax payable.Percentage of
Total.Of British Origin.Of Foreign Origin.Total Imports.Foreign Imports.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
192649,811,70333,995,94115,815,8228,750,17817·5355·33
192744,782,60630,717,28114,065,3857,504,47416·7053·35
192844,844,10230,708,02514,070,0777,401,90310·6353·01
192948,734,47233,031,46415,703,0088,437,21717·3053·73
193044,339,65430,317,84714,021,8076,048,14215·0047·41
193120,498,15118,401,8878,090,2043,097,99511·6938·26
193224,640,00617,510,3177,135,0892,388,1189·6933·47
193325,581,30618,759,0066,822,3002,573,04510·0637·72
193431,339,55223,139,0138,199,9393,778,15512·0646·08
193536,317,20726,603,1609,714,1074,898,06313·4950·42

For the purpose of studying better the scope and effect of the preferential surtax, imports for 1935 are classified in the next table into four groups:—

——United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.
 £££
Free in any ease2,548,3212,111,5402,591,230
Free when of British origin, but dutiable when of foreign origin7,224,2412,883,3142,453,419
Dutiable with same rates whether of British or foreign origin838,510503,0372,224,814
Dutiable with a lower rate of duty when of British origin7,072,0242,821,5072,444,044
      Totals18,283,0968,320,0649,714,107

Of foreign goods imported in 1935, 27 per cent, were free of duty, as compared with 58 per cent, in 1921. A further 23 per cent. (7 per cent, in 1921), although dutiable, paid no higher rate than if they had been of British origin. This leaves 50 per cent. (35 per cent, in 1921) with the disadvantage of the higher rate of duty applicable to foreign goods. Of the total imports of British origin in 1935, 56 per cont. were classified as free. Of goods of United Kingdom origin, 53 per cent. were free.

RECIPROCITY WITH SOUTH AFRICA.

As stated above, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with British South. Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was revised in 1922, the duties on wines being increased and tobacco being deleted from the list. A further alteration, whereby maize and dried apples were deleted from the list, was made in 1925.

The main items of import benefited by the reciprocal arrangement are dried apricots and peaches and wine. The former pay no duty under the reciprocal tariff, as compared with 2d. under the general tariff. Sparkling wine is admitted at 9s. 6d. per gallon, as against 15s. under the general and 10s. under British preferential rates. On still wine the rate is 3s. 6d. per gallon, as compared 'with 6s. under the general and 4s. under the British preferential tariff. Other items specially provided for are feathers, fish, fresh fruit, and tea; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits and tobacco, a reduction of 3 per cent, of the duty payable is made.

The following table shows the merchandise trade with South Africa during the last ten years:—

Year.Merchandise Imports.Merchandise Exports to South Africa.
From South Africa.Of South African Origin.
 £££
1926121,240140,02131,540
1927119,305122,59731,251
192899,054104,04364,892
192998,839100,98851,707
193091,69396,03215,589
193176,20176,7578,052
1932S4,83284,66712,120
193348,79150,04614,427
193455,17456,09229,152
193554,93055,80127,504

The imports of merchandise of South African origin during the last five years are classified into four divisions in the following table:—

——1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Special reduction or remission of duty26,82634,93521,10112,53010,152
Reduction of 3 per cent, in duty19,77122,55417,47525,51225,441
No reduction4,9012,3323,0754,1345,885
Free under general or British preferential tariff25,25924,8468,99513,91014,323
     Totals76,75784,66750,64650,09255,801

Of commodities specially provided for in the reciprocal tariff, dried apricots represented £3,019 in 1935, other dried fruits £9, and wine £7,124. Bark and other tanning materials (£12,019) accounted for the great bulk of the £14,323 free imports other than under the reciprocal tariff. “Precious stones” is the principal item in the category “reduction of 3 per cent.,” the 1935 figure being £24,240.

RECIPROCITY WITH AUSTRALIA.

A trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand was first entered into on the 11th April, 1922. Under this agreement each country granted to goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods on which special rates were fixed.

During 1933 a Minister of the Commonwealth Government visited New Zealand to discuss the commercial relations between the two countries. A provisional agreement was reached in April, 1933, and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act, 1933. The new agreement came into operation from 1st December, 1933.

Under the agreement lower duties than those under the British preferential tariff on New Zealand products entering Australia are provided for on many lines, the chief of which are: Stilton cheese; fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; hay; chaff; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne-seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor-rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale-oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Duties lower than those under the British preferential tariff in force in New Zealand at the time of the agreement were granted on certain lines of Australian goods, chiefly cotton-seed meal, hay, chaff, oats, dried peas, fish, fish pastes and soups, wine, eucalyptus oil, chamois leather, certain oil-engines, and timber. In addition, a duty of Id. per lb., 'plus surtax, was imposed on foreign raisins on importation into New Zealand, while Australian raisins were admitted free, except for a primage duty of 3 per cent, ad valorem.

To protect New Zealand industries, the duties on many classes of Australian goods were fixed at rates higher than those in force in 1933 on similar United Kingdom goods. The principal commodities affected are potatoes, fresh cherries, canned fruits, jams, soap, rennet, woollen rugs, woollen blankets, woollen textiles, leather manufactures, leather boots, tiles, tinware, gas heating and cooking appliances, certain kinds of machinery and of metal manufactures.

The agreement provides that goods which are partially manufactured in Australia or New Zealand shall not be regarded as the produce or manufacture of the Commonwealth or the Dominion, as the case may be, unless the expenditure in material produced in either country and/or labour performed within either country represents not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of the goods in their finished state.

Article IX of the agreement provides that where with respect to any goods not specially enumerated in the agreement the rate of duty thereon under the New Zealand British preferential tariff is less than the duty under the Australian British preferential tariff, the Now Zealand Government may request the Australian Government to admit into the Commonwealth New-Zealand-produced goods of such class at the rate of duty chargeable on goods of that class under the New Zealand British preferential tariff. If within three calendar months after the receipt of the request the Australian Government does not comply therewith the New Zealand Government may, without further notice, impose on such goods of Australian origin a rate of duty not being greater than the rate of duty for the time being in force in Australia on the like goods under the Australian British preferential tariff. A similar provision is made with respect to the admission of Australian-produced goods into New Zealand.

Merchandise trade between New Zealand and Australia during the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year.Imports from Australia.Imports of Australian Origin.Exports to Australia.
 £££
19265,059,7794,625,2003,048,282
19274,264,1753,869,2463,665,962
19283,868,2813,499,1512,902,655
19293,631,6253,258,7272,338,410
19303,383,9433,023,0651,562,281
19312,284,5072,073,3611,167,403
19322,571,0802,368,2931,444,860
19332,807,9212,576,0921,393,311
19343,532,0683,238,1241,882,516
19354,295,4573,957,3981,781,811

The rates of duty payable on Australian goods imported into New Zealand and nut specifically mentioned in the agreement are automatically affected by changes in the New Zealand British preferential tariff. A modification of the agreement was made in May, 1935, whereunder the duty on certain Australian goods which would otherwise have been reduced or removed from 1st June, 1936, following changes made in the British preferential tariff by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934, remained unaltered.

RECIPROCITY WITH CANADA.

From October, 1925, reciprocal trade arrangements with respect to certain items of Canada-New Zealand trade were in force, but ceased in May, 1930.

Negotiations between the Canadian and New Zealand Governments bore fruit in a trade agreement which came into force in both countries for a period originally of one year, as from the 24th May, 1932. This agreement has been extended from time to time, and the present date of expiry (if not renewed) is the 30th September, 1937.

Under the present Canadian tariff on New Zealand produce are included, inter alia: Butter, 5 cents per lb.; cheese, 1 cent per lb.; and lamb, mutton, or beef, 3 cents per lb.; while sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri-gum, and phormium fibre are amongst those admitted free.

The rates of duty payable in New Zealand on certain imports from Canada are as under: Salmon, l¾d. per lb.; silk or artificial silk stockings, 32½ per cent.; boots and shoes, &c., 20 per cent.; electric cooking and heating appliances, 30 per cent.; certain agricultural implements, 35 per cent.; timber, 7s. (id. or 9s. 6d. (rough sawn) and 19s. (sawn and dressed) per 100 sup. ft. The general tariff rate on such timber was increased by 2s. per 100 sup. ft. to afford preference to Canada and other British countries. Canadian goods not mentioned in the agreement enter New Zealand at the ordinary British preferential rates of duty. In some instances where the British preferential rates of duty was reduced by the 1934 tariff the rates on certain Canadian goods mentioned in the agreement were also reduced to the British-preferential level.

TRADE ARRANGEMENT WITH BELGIUM.

A trade arrangement between the Economic Union of Belgium and Luxemburg and New Zealand was entered into on the 5th December, 1933, and came into force on the ]6th December, 1933. The principal provisions of this agreement were: (a) Each country granted most-favoured-nation treatment to the other; (b) Now Zealand reduced the duty on certain Belgian goods, chiefly matches (by abolition of surtax), carpets, glassware, sensitized surfaces, and firearms; and 0(c) Belgium reduced the duty on New Zealand cheddar cheese and fresh apples, and provided for the free admission into Belgium of New Zealand tallow, hides, skins, greasy wool, and phormium fibre.

An extension was made to this agreement, and became operative on and from 1st September, 1936. Reductions in the New Zealand tariff rates were made in respect to maizena and cornflour, cigars, sparkling wines, gloves, belting for machinery, leather manufactures, bevelled and silvered glass, certain cartridges, certain electrical machinery, certain other machinery, and certain pipes and pipe fittings. Surtax was remitted on the above items, and also on wine (other kinds), paper, cartridges, printing-machines, metals, nails, and pipes.

New Zealand produce, upon which a concession in duty or free admission into Belgium is given in the modification to the agreement, is honey, sausage-casings, kauri-gum, and casein.

OTHER TRADE ARRANGEMENTS.

New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries other than those referred to above. In certain instances these became applicable to New Zealand automatically as a member of the British Empire, while in others New Zealand has become a party signifying her willingness to adhere to treaties negotiated by the United Kingdom. New Zealand has also in some cases entered into agreements with foreign countries by direct negotiation with those countries, and in others the United Kingdom has acted for New Zealand in making trade agreements on her behalf. In some instances the trade involved is insignificant.

By Order in Council of the 21st February, 1934, the duties and exemptions from duty provided for in the Trade Arrangement (Belgium and New Zealand) Ratification Act, 1933, were applied to similar goods the produce or manufacture of the following countries: Argentina, Austria, Brazil, China, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Norway, and Spain. Sweden was added to the list of countries by Order in Council of the 7th June, 1935.

The Customs (Tariff Preference and General) Regulations, 1930, set out the classes of goods from foreign countries which may be entered at concessional rates of duty applying to any such countries as a result of treaty obligations between New Zealand and such countries,—

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such a country:

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such a country from unmanufactured raw materials;

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such a country, provided (1) that the final process of manufacture has been performed in that country or in any British country the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered under the British preferential tariff otherwise, than pursuant to any agreement or arrangement made between New Zealand and such country; (2) that the expenditure in material, the produce of that country and/or in labour performed in that country on each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

Chapter 18. SECTION IX.—EXTERNAL TRADE—continued.

SUBSECTION E.—TRADE OF PORTS.

OVERSEA IMPORTS.

NEW ZEALAND has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes, eleven in the North Island and ten in the South.

The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. Waitara had no overseas imports or exports during the period, Tokomaru Bay no imports, and Tauranga no exports.

Port.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Auckland8,801,7408,870,3679,041,27510,780,91512,136,235
Kaipara......558..
Tauranga4,9913,1914,5204,5925,544
Gisborne90,14685,61380,30893,181103,280
New Plymouth419,187422,620420,662388,339471,370
Patea16,00811,6198,1817,3818,323
Wanganui235,593249,132213,274274,025298,312
Wellington9,136,8018,338,6668,409,28011,031,60413,212,457
Napier441,699407,957361,948410,884452,536
Wairau (inch Picton)30,73029,15135,53135,20330,792
Nelson191,414161,907109,785148,350154,004
Westport28,74417,01419,82515,96919,670
Greymouth71,27276,84379,918107,961139,193
Hokitika7,2925,9404,0626,3276,298
Lyttelton3,534,2773,013,9173,577,3584,081,0894,813,190
Timaru301,707230,002225,625253,557263,848
Oamaru71,68864,37636,35153,42047,710
Dunedin2,636,7662,264,4842,490,4483,090,3593,502,274
Invercargill428,036386,607456,415549,838652,231
      Totals26,498,15124,046,00625,581,36631,339,55236,317,267

During each of the five years covered by the above table over two-thirds of the imports came in by way of Wellington or Auckland, the actual proportion in 1935 being 69·1 per cent. Over the five years imports into Wellington averaged £10,025,762 annually (34·7 per cent, of the total), and into Auckland £9,937,306 (34·4 per cent.). On the basis of aggregate imports for the five years the next most important ports are Lyttelton, Dunedin, Invercargill, New Plymouth, Napier, and Timaru.

OVERSEA EXPORTS.

From 1914 to 1921 the Customs Department allocated exports as far as possible to the appropriate district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or not, and no complementary figures are available to show the export trade from each individual port for this period. The system, however, did not prove satisfactory in practice, and the former method of showing exports according to the port at which the goods are placed on board the vessel by which they leave the Dominion was reverted to from the 1st January, 1922.

Over the last five years exports through Auckland averaged £13,196,229 annually (32·1 per cent, of the total), and through Wellington £9,805,510 annually (23*9 per cent.). Combining imports and exports, Auckland is given place as premier port of New Zealand on this basis. Aggregating exports for the last five years, other important ports are placed hi this order: Lyttelton, New Plymouth. Invercargill, Napier, Dunedin, Timaru, Wanganui, and Gisborne.

The following table gives for the last five years the overseas exports according to the port at which they were actually placed on board the overseas vessels. The concentration of the export trade in the ports of Auckland and Wellington is less marked than with the import trade. Nevertheless, in each of the five years shown below, these two ports together accounted for more than half the total exports of the Dominion.

Port.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Auckland11,341,87911,653,71713,438,94313,401,08310,084,922
Kaipara3,8592,1827912,7732,182
Tokomaru Bay139,190240,905197,960222,408179,482
Gisborne821,899816,8701,032,6561,244,803932,424
New Plymouth2,382,6872,278,9362,472,3942,489,2433,010,784
Patea1536....
Wanganui952,506909,9891,133,8001,392,1141,108,300
Wellington8,540,1778,370,6629,524,94211,793,83810,797,933
Napier1,661,0022,055,7312,775,7383,097,9562,844,330
Wairau (incl. Picton)154,722195,957245,460231,342243,479
Nelson69,353184,270197,009238,054123,985
Westport19,92537,52934,81752,01853,188
Greymouth248,050218,797243,151283,077308,311
Hokitika9,86918,70720,29524,95035,140
Lyttelton3,003,7813,044,5053,429,5444,298,4163,803,315
Timaru1,264,6241,115,0701,467,4731,798,2201,391,247
Oamaru404,852299,244327,982446,313413,626
Dunedin1,759,8611,767,1492,046,5043,165,8122,418,250
Invereargill2,127,3802,351,1092,376,0573,064,9352,639,063
Parcels-post45,00748,58740,39734,23228,414
       Totals34,950,69835,609,91941,005,91947,342,84740,538,381

The west coast ports of both Islands, as well as Nelson and Wairau in the northern portion of the South Island, send much of their produce to Wellington for loading into overseas vessels.

PORT TONNAGE STATISTICS.

The following table gives for the aggregate of all ports a summary of the cargo handled.

Year.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.Overseas.Coastal.Overseas.
* Excluding transhipments.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
19261,976,7132,309,056470,5532,071,638733,5648,032,077
19272,044,0442,107,024425,4442,098,926785,2967,886,178
19282,109,7242,147,103430,9252,207,194799,4218,125,292
19292,160,8832,319,471406,0542,170,878853,8108,323,150
19302,080,0802,106,784398,7392,115,759801,9597,902,066
19311,565,7951,556,275278,9271,637,703723,0236,040,650
19321,403,9771,489,347248,5361,488,052829,9165,708,364
19331,383,8451,374,774235,7221,447,258995,6505,672,971
19341,493,2691,655,838273,8141,540,510953,5286,190,773
19351,603,8251,886,316258,2661,626,784936,3376,569,794

In order to obtain statistics of the total trade of each port a system of monthly returns from the various port authorities was instituted in 1922, showing under some forty headings the quantity of goods handled, distinguishing inwards and outwards cargo, coastal and overseas, and transhipments. The resultant statistics show on a tonnage basis the total exports of each port, whether placed on the overseas vessel there, sent to a central port for shipment overseas, or despatched coastwise to another port for consumption in New Zealand. For obvious reasons, total values of goods shipped coastwise cannot be obtained.

For all data given under the head it is advisable to note that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. For a portion only of the goods handled is it practicable to obtain the actual weights involved. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulae as to the number of bales, cases, sacks. &c to the ton. In a few instances the tons are “short” tons of 2,000 lb. A considerable portion of trailing goods, however, are recorded in “measurement” tons. 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on. in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in “measurement” tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

The following table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1935. The high proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is very noticeable.

Port.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.Overseas.Coastal.Overseas.
* Excluding transhipments.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Awanui4,944....1,892..6,836
Mangonui1,631....825..2,450
Russell5,655....3,4626,04715,104
Hokianga3,044....1,509..5,153
Whangarei23,1041,700..78,30560103,259
Kaipara2,124....2775282,929
Mangawai581....125..700
Auckland492,580724,02949,503220,184242,8001,785,415
Onehunga19,2132911930,052..49,594
Great Barrier526....422..948
Port Waikato5,465....649..6,114
Raglan2,734576..1,135..4,445
Kawhia1,262....1,658..2,920
Thames8,300....1,909..10,209
Coromandel1,003....374..1,377
Whitianga762....309..1,131
Tauranga11,447....1,641..13,088
Whakatane12,620....15,446..28,066
Opotiki9,095....5,702..14,797
Tokomaru Bay6,629..3293,7243,87914,890
Tolaga Bay2,109..231,2956784,188
Gisborne40,1705,50450122,02110,73085,487
Waikokopu3,494....8452,5256,864
Wairoa3,301....1,278..4,579
Napier61,70921,0104,71019,03157,168109,910
Mokau56....774..830
Waitara759....67..826
Now Plymouth52,27562,932..7,08953,480175,782
Patea4,085....25,472..29,557
Wanganui51,13144,304..15,80729,340140,708
Foxton8,616....577..9,193
Wellington384,285555,691181,799257,007220,3201,781,591
Picton24,116....35,3554,30863,779
Wairau6,110....4,502..10,072
Nelson60,5433,36514,74542,4002,590138,397
Waitapu2,603....1,934..4,537
Motueka6,946....11,379..18,325
Westport8,022283..270,01726,285310,607
Grey mouth11,8361,532..174,00269,328250,758
Hokitika2,679....4,720..7,399
Lyttelton120,606223,8302,227182,82069,534601,244
Akaroa564....153..717
Timaru21,78711,8693864,61424,050122,396
Oamaru5,2841,095..17,0206,78730,792
Dunedin77,575180,2754,29462,37539,390374,203
Invercargill17....7..24
Bluff28,96940,4041220,03360,402149,832
Half-moon Bay739....355..1,094
      Totals1,603,8251,886,316258,2661,620,784930,3376,509,794

The penultimate column of the preceding table shows the quantity of cargo placed on board the overseas vessels at the respective ports, and a table will be found in Section X showing the number and tonnage of overseas vessels calling at each port. These tables give a good indication of the extent to which each port enters directly into the overseas trade of the Dominion. The following table shows for the year 1935 the total shipments from each port (overseas and coastwise and including transhipments) of nine principal commodities exported overseas by the Dominion, and thus shows the extent to which the various ports handle our overseas exports, although the goods may be sent outwards coastwise for transhipment at another port.

Port.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.Tallow.Hides, Skins, and Pelts.Coal.Fruit, Fresh.Timber.All other Goods.Total
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Awanui..................1,8921,892
Mangonui73..483....l3......256825
Russell2085,4481,253..332242502091511,6169,509
Hokianga....1,419............901,509
Whangarei199..3,8721581525,5401482,88065,00578,455
Kaipara............101..704..805
Mangawai7........2......116125
Auckland14,18637,776107,52917,3998,1619,6503,6415,49311,766302,742518,043
Onehunga....5911458917824229,03330,071
Great Barrier..................422422
Port Waikato20..........515....114649
Raglan559..444....1......1311,135
Kawhia204..186..........1,1221461,658
Thames1..1001,106........166861,909
Coromandel..................374374
Whitianga10..305..24....147369
Tauranga26......416..656299011,641
Whakatane33..5,0493963193....4,2135,03115,440
Opotiki195..2,637771791....8521,8335,702
Tokomaru Bay2,3052,445....1911351....2,8557,932
Tolaga Bay873......7......821,0341,996
Gisborne5,74810,9783,115401,073l,580..256416,45839,252
Waikokopu1852,380....98122......5793,370
Wairoa69194....76120......2971,278
Napier18,21630,0774,5311043,5495,1542,540l,2721,10614,96681,515
Mokau34..........728....12774
Waitara................56267
New P1ymouth51620,01712,52317,8281,278l,768....946,55160,575
Patea....2,18222,226..........1,06425,472
Wanganui10,10917,7213,6872,509l,850l,32760..1,9306,02045,213
Foxton..........252....325577 
Wellington33,10449,80723,27640,5728,24110,41141,94233,5205,302413,581659,810
Picton4,4431,973282703155303..2,084..29,72039,003
Wairau628..5844..17....173,7084,562
Nelson1,0371,003825201904758,10322,9808724,83859,744
Waitapu176..921............8371,934
Motueka122..86........9,158..2,01311,379
Westport2..235..438929l,288..6,7093,876302,302
Greymouth........5833107,003..74,3911,245243,390
Hokitika................3,0381,0824,720
Lyttelton16,79829,5282,3441,1114,2204,935953,2304,574187,740254,581
Akaroa............131..1210153
Timaru7,91914,347246638l,470871..1471462,48388,702
Oamaru8255,381....27727......17,90324,413
Dunedin12,72313,2286422,1971,8002,5531315,78326466,738106,059
Invercargill..................77
Bluff8,62620,90753913,2042,632l,527161218,34924,48180,447
Half-moon Bay..................355355
       Totals141,101263,206173,774120,19035,82441,907523,30984,417129,9741,302,5652,821,387

TRANSHIPMENTS.

Transhipments of cargo during 1935 totalled 258,206 tons, of which 181,799 tons were transhipped at Wellington.

Transhipments are of four classes, as follows:—

Coastal to Coastal.—Cargo which has been loaded on a vessel at one New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at another New Zealand port.

Coastal to Overseas.—Cargo which has been loaded on a vessel at a New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a port outside of the Dominion.

Overseas to Coastal.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a New Zealand port.

Overseas to Overseas.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge outside. New Zealand.

The first class represents purely coastal trade, but each of the others may be added to the appropriate figures of overseas trade shown previously to ascertain the total tonnage of goods arriving from or departing overseas. The total inwards tonnage from overseas is found to be 1,983,972 and the total outward tonnage going overseas 1,044,894. As stated previously, import and export figures are not on the same basis, and are thus not comparable.

Two tables are appended showing the transhipment trade of each port affected for 1935, and the transhipments of the various items of merchandise, &c.

TRANSHIPMENTS, BY PORTS AND CLASS, 1935.
Port.Coastal to Coastal.Coastal to Overseas.Overseas to Coastal.Overseas to Overseas.Totals.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons
Auckland7,2599,11327,3485,84349,563
Onehunga19......19
Tokomaru Bay8321....329
Tolaga Bay..23....23
Gisborne47328....501
Napier3,0481,210458..4,716
Wellington33,68187,54760,077494181,799
Nelson13,0131,453279..14,745
Lyttelton1651,241821..2,227
Timaru..38....38
Dunedin7241,2342,330..4,294
Bluff..12....12
     Totals58,390102,22091,3196,337258,266

TRANSHIPMENTS, BY ITEMS AND CLASS, 1935.

Item.Coastal to Coastal.Coastal to Overseas.Overseas to Coastal.Overseas to Overseas.Totals.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Beans and peas100678122..900
Butter576,584....6,641
Cement1,957..10..1,967
Cheese2623,647....23,673
Coal26,08017,111717..43,908
Flour1,332..1,0837583,173
Fruit, preserved20281,1781061,494
Fruit, fresh3,63422,1772,034227,847
Hemp (fibre and tow)..30510..315
Hides, skins, and pelts844,392..684,544
Manures, artificial9444372,595..3,976
Meat, frozen (beef, mutton, and lamb)1248....249
Motor-spirit, kerosene, and other fuel oils302..26,884..27,186
Seeds27298916831,432
Sugar2,527..9682,631
Tallow494,994....5,043
Timber3338844,531655,813
Wines, spirits, and beer9861738391,764
Wool9115,894..8316,068
All other goods19,4133,87151,1535,20579,642
     Totals58,390102,22091,3196,337258,266

Chapter 19. SECTION X.—SHIPPING.

REGISTERED VESSELS.

THE number and tonnage of vessels on the New Zealand register at 31st December, 1935, were as follows:—

Port of Registry.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.Motor-vessels.
vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Gross Tonnage.vessels.Net Tonnage.Gross Tonnage.vessels.Net Tonnage.
Auckland322,2511,7816114,7187,3721899,5714,530
Napier4266253152,7041,525112,2671,230
Wellington101,1441,0064995,34451,034215,7853,002
Nelson11919128,7184,004111,317656
Lyttelton01,7411,667135,5832,51561,594802
Timaru......19424881113
Dunedin......2523,22513,178l14669
Invercargill......121,7436477658226
Totals525,4214,726188152,97780,76325521,34910,518

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 282 vessels on the Auckland register being only 49 tons. At Wellington and Dunedin many of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered, while several of the larger vessels of this company employed in both the coastal and foreign trade of the Dominion are registered in the United Kingdom. The registration figures at the end of each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Sailing-vessels.Steam- and Motor-vessels.Totals
vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
19269212,90011,634466189,454105,703558202,354117,337
19279012,65411,418475192,106106,386565204,760117,804
19288812,50411,303472181,80099,586560194,304110,889
1929719,8858,868470201,563110,649541211,448119,517
1930656,6855,892466194,965106,078531201,650111,970
1931656,6855,892465193,264104,047530199,949109,939
1932586,1635,380461208,589111,985519214,752117,365
1933565,5884,809460200,141106,786516205,729111,595
1934555,5354,789441182,90396,570496188,438101,359
1935525,4214,726443174,32691,281495179,74796,007

Of the 151 vessels employed in the coastal trade only, 5 were sailing-vessels with an aggregate net tonnage of 173, and 146 steam- and motor-vessels of 28,017 tons. Two of the sailing-vessels were under 50 tons, and the other one of 50 to 100 tons. The 13 vessels employed in both coastal and foreign trade were all steam- or motor-vessels. Very few sailing-vessels are employed in the foreign trade, there being only 1 for 1935, with a tonnage of 785.

In the following table registered vessels in the Dominion have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals givenhere do not agree with those shown previously, as in this table vessels employed exclusively in the “river” trade have not been included.

Size of Vessel.Employed in the Coastal Trade only.Employed partly in the Foreign Trade.Employed in the Foreign Trade only.
Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.
Under 50 tons561,087........
50 and under 100 tons322,303....4352
100 and under 200 tons273,6951166....
200 and under 300 tons123,0091286....
300 and under 400 tons72,4982725....
400 and under 600 tons52,5031586....
600 and under 800 tons53,628....21,539
800 and under 1,000 tons43,393....1944
1.000 and under 1.500 tons....89,503....
1,500 and under 2,000 tons23,355....47,318
2,000 tons and over12,629....626,759
Totals15128,1901311,2661736,912

OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Throughout the remainder of this section all tonnage figures relate to net tonnage.

The tonnage of vessels entered and cleared during 1935 amounted to 5,188,781, as compared with 5,221,115 for 1934. The number of vessels increased from 1,160 to 1,236.

Of late years the tendency has been for vessels of a larger size to be employed in the New Zealand trade, in order to cope with the growing imports and exports of the Dominion and for the purposes of the passenger traffic. The increase over a period of years is thus more noticeable on a comparison of tonnage than by comparing the number of vessels.

NATIONALITY OF VESSELS.

Considering only vessels entered inwards, the number registered in the United Kingdom represented in 1935 38 per cent, of the total, but on a tonnage basis the percentage is found to increase to 51. The average tonnage of the vessels was 5,632. Although vessels registered in New Zealand and other (i.e., other than United Kingdom) British countries comprised 47 per cent, of the total vessels, the tonnage, on the other hand, was only 27 per cent, of the aggregate. The average tonnage was comparatively low, being only 2,453. Foreign vessels constituted 15 per cent, of the number, and 22 per cent, of the tonnage, with an average tonnage for each vessel of 4,222.

The foreign vessels entered inwards consisted of 39 American (353.512 tons), 21 Norwegian (95.ISO tons), 15 Japanese, 0 Danish, 4 Swedish, 2 German, and 1 Grecian.

Year.United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.Total.
Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.
Entered.
19312641,388,307210453,62890313,9855642,155,920
19322531,345,600223496,28798505,7695742,347,656
19332371,310,005229636,126101582,0625672,528,253
19342491,410,180241681,26595541,5935852,633,038
19352321,306,680286701,48391562,9496092,571,112
Cleared.
19312651,391,006213456,00381308,7045592,155,713
19322481,332,160226510,011109510,7425832,352,913
19332331,299,641227638,188102582,6215622,520,450
19342411,386,171234677,364100524,5425752,588,077
19352351,322,672292707,675100587,3226272,617,669

DIRECTION OF OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during the years 1934 and 1935 are given below:—

Country.1934.1935.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom100715,061125771,15384571,335112694,438
India316,38015,460526,612210,920
Malaya26,924....313,69813,342
Seychelles Islands13,657............
South African Union........15,612....
Canada59282,89629178,18552250,55323144,214
Australia234914,6932681,051,808275992,2583101,102,314
Fiji1418,2132251,0421518,2051838,062
Nauru Island1543,6881132,4851750,869617,874
Gilbert and Ellice Islands719,922411,260823,859617,770
Tonga11,04933,057113,146126,225
Western Samoa139,7371614,874129,008139,802
Belgium........27,550....
France....26,996....13,190
Italy12,948....25,996....
Russia (Union of Socialist Soviet Republics)13,840....311,059....
Spain13,017............
Dutch East Indies28110,9551565,02026106,4781254,880
China....11,382........
Japan1445,2541341,9431550,8721645,031
Madagascar25,920............
Egypt11,098....1529....
Argentina12,649............
Cuba13,110....13,118....
Mexico26,375....38,962....
Panama............14,211
United States of America70410,52661349,04566397,73784445,020
Guam............26,063
New Caledonia1l,04911,04944,19644,196
Society Islands16............
Tuamotu Archipelago......2,747....26,321
Tutuila........15,665....
Whale-fisheries34,071257123,79623,796
Totals5852,633,0385752,588,0776092,571,1126272,617,669

Forty-three per cent, of the vessels and 37 per cent, of the total tonnage inwards during the two years covered by the foregoing table came from Australia, while a somewhat higher proportion of the shipping outwards was cleared for Australia. The United Kingdom ranks second, the United States third, Canada fourth, and the Pacific islands next.

Shipping between New Zealand and certain principal countries for each of the last five years is as follows:—

Year.Australia.United Kingdom.United States.Canada.Fiji.Pacific Islands (other than Fiji)
Entered.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1931728,541526,844434,374155,71046,91875,195
1932859,231512,593470,985199,09316,650104,038
1933916,958613,453442,514260,86317,91083,325
1934914,693715,061410,526282,89618,21375,451
1935992,258571,335397,737250,55318,20596,742
Cleared.
1931923,722661,729239,032104,14460,35083,103
1932984,572692,652318,059120,62346,58980,978
19331,010,869795,245346,119137,87247,52968,364
19341,051,808771,153349,045178,18551,04265,472
19351,102,314694,438445,020144,21438,06268,251

SHIPPING TRADE OF PORTS.

New Zealand has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes (vide Subsection E of the preceding section), and there are numerous other ports around the coast. A vessel arriving from overseas may call at several ports in the Dominion to discharge and load cargo, and is recorded as an overseas arrival at the first port of call, and as an overseas departure from the port from which it finally sails. Its movements from one port to another in New Zealand are treated as coastwise shipping. The figures in the following table must simply be taken as showing the extent to which various ports are made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure, and not as indicating the relative overseas trade of the various ports.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING, BY PORTS OF FIRST ARRIVAL AND FINAL DEPARTURE.

Port.Entered.Cleared.
1933.1934.1035.1933.1931.1935.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Kaipara..1,175..3421,175..
Auckland1,499,6721,527,3561,490,4021,168,0201,192,8951,113,144
Gisborne10,46122,3925,000..6,4457,304
Napier21,31023,10524,44759,33672,50668,725
New Plymouth56,55372,149100,93211,95812,42330,961
Wanganui13,88513,2709,91224,69211,53768,466
Wellington599,940611,995608,626797,995763,020787,892
Picton7,45712,88013,4301,154..3,590
Nelson14,60310,142........
Westport3,8354,88699233,37371,88052,182
Greymouth1661,15416632,06842,67852,417
Lyttelton95,01462,85779,70394,964100,73664,059
Timaru20,15515,13810,53214,28010,19011,740
Oamaru10,41420,84140,477......
Dunedin65,68397,91045,841169,454206,561231,574
Bluff109,105135,788140,652112,81496,031125,615
Totals2,528,2532,633,0382,571,1122,520,4502,588,0772,617,669

Tables showing for each port the total shipping entered and cleared, and distinguishing between overseas and coastal vessels, irrespective of whether theformer had been entered or cleared overseas or coastwise, are published annually in Part II of the “Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping.”

The movement of overseas and coastal vessels on the New Zealand coast is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the aggregate number and tonnage of the total calls made during each of ten years.

Year.Overseas Vessels.Coastal Vessels.Total.
Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.
19262,5868,324,12622,4025,450,82524,98813,774,951
19272,3548,237,45122,1235,633,29124,47713,870,742
19282,3938,309,17921,0285,463,60423,42113,832,783
19292,4078,752,83720,8065,447,17123,21314,200,008
19302,5959,494,30620,2385,150,03222,83314,644,338
19312,4128,357,86517,5734,658,13619,98513,016,001
19322,1837,940,90417,4235,025,74219,60612,966,646
19332,1968,531,20717,9815,247,37320,17713,778,580
19342,3088,679,62718,5465,223,90920,85413,903,536
19352,5689,105,55318,2814,947,11720,84914,052,670

Overseas vessels show a substantial recovery from the low level of the depression years. The number of visits made by vessels engaged exclusively in the coastal trade reached its peak in 1924, since when there has been a decline. The tonnage has not shown so marked a movement, the figures indicating a tendency to employ a larger type of vessel in this class of trade.

Figures showing the number and tonnage of all vessels entered into each port during 1935 are given in the following table. In this table, however, no distinction is made between overseas and coastal vessels.

Port.Number.Tonnage.
Parengarenga574,338
Awanui14610,364
Mangonui789,150
Whangaroa17234,292
Russell20391,446
Hokianga10210,232
Whangarei739111,142
Kaipara114,838
Mangawai452,372
Auckland6,5732,755,138
Onehunga21127,914
Raglan557,568
Kawhia496,603
Thames61749,056
Coromandel21416,234
Whitianga1336,242
Tauranga24123,167
Whakatane18911,366
Opotiki1127,074
Tokomaru Bay186134,655
Tolaga Bay8636,177
Gisborne351299,448
Waikokopu8663,583
Wairoa873,100
Napier463574,232
Mokau38228
Waitara39234
New Plymouth305454,824
Patea16817,030
Wanganui404280,009
Foxton725,623
Wellington2,9173,666,736
Picton476304,517
Wairau15714,031
Havelock389
Nelson956327,673
Waitapu1336,692
Motueka23520,443
Westport394260,748
Greymouth299156,805
Hokitika653,294
Lyttelton1,2622,008,495
Akaroa51,030
Timaru394452,666
Oamaru188174,329
Dunedin5631,021,942
Invereargill110
Bluff470571,599
Half-moon Bay673,886
Totals20,84914,052,670

Wellington ranks as the first port of the Dominion as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Napier, Bluff, Timaru, and New Plymouth in that order. Wellington and Lyttelton are termini of the principal inter-island steamer-express service, and to this fact is due a large part of the coastwise shipping credited to these two ports.

The number and tonnage of overseas vessels included in the totals quoted above for the various ports concerned are now given. The table covers all vessels engaged in the overseas trade, whether entered overseas or coastwise, and the figures for individual ports differ greatly from those given in a previous table, wherein the tonnage of overseas vessels entered is counted only for the port of. first entry in the Dominion.

Port.Number.Tonnage.
Whangaroa718,948
Russell1877,353
Whangarei2125,227
Kaipara22,340
Auckland5402,307,664
Onehunga1342
Raglan1342
Tauranga120
Tolaga Bay13,702
Tokomaru Bay1086,782
Gisborne40210,634
Waikokopu842,794
Napier112469,850
New Plymouth113398,392
Wanganui53202,826
Wellington6052,177,246
Picton2573,251
Nelson1346,250
Westport126167,147
Greymouth106114,681
Lyttelton249996,598
Timaru107291,454
Oamaru3598,659
Dunedin226803,013
Bluff148490,038
Totals2,5689,105,553

Overseas vessels are shown to have called at twenty-five ports during 1935, including eleven which were not first ports of call for a single overseas vessel. The total entries of the 609 overseas vessels during the year were 2,568, which gives an average of a little more than four ports called at on each visit to the Dominion. Many vessels—as, for instance, those engaged in the transport of timber and coal, and those merely touching at a New Zealand port while on route between Australia and America—call at only one port in the Dominion, while, on the other hand, vessels engaged in the United Kingdom trade generally call at half a dozen or more ports.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.

The examinations for masters, mates, engineers, &c, of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the Imperial Board of Trade, with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions; but the British Board of Trade recognizes the following New Zealand certificates only as of Imperial validity: Master, extra; master, ordinary (endorsement); master, steamship; first mate and second mate, ordinary (endorsement) and steamship: first- and Second-class marine engineers, and first- and second-class motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the British Board of Trade.

New regulations for the examination of masters and mates were issued by the Board of Trade on 1st January, 1931, and corresponding regulations were made in New Zealand and came into force on the same date. Since that date masters' and mates' ordinary certificates have not been issued, steamship certificates endorsed to the effect that the holder is eligible to act in a sailing-ship having been substituted therefor.

New regulations relating to the examination of engineers in the Mercantile Marine have been issued, and came into force on the 9th April, 1936.

During 1935–36 some 246 candidates sat for examinations. Of the 161 who passed, 72 were masters, mates, and engineers of seagoing steamships and motor-vessels; 5 were masters and engineers of steamers plying within restricted limits; 2 were masters of seagoing yachts; 7 signals examinations: 2 voluntary signals examinations; 35 were engineers of New Zealand seagoing motor propelled boats; 30 were engineers of such boats plying within restricted limits; 1 sailing ship endorsement; 1 certificate of efficiency (R.N.V.R.); and 6 Sub-Lieutenants (R.N.V.R.).

SURVEY OF SHIPS.

The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1908, and its amendments, provide for an annual survey by Government surveyors of all vessels, with a view to ensuring their seaworthiness. Certificates of survey were issued in 1935–36 to 159 seagoing steam and motor ships, 382 restricted-limits steam and motor ships, and 4 sailing-vessels. Vessels to the number of 212 were also surveyed for seaworthiness and efficiency under section 226 of the 1908 Act.

LIGHTHOUSES.

There are fifty-one coastal lighthouses of various types.

The buildings also are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations. In twenty-three cases the light apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its rays through a combination of surrounding lenses. Automatic lights are used in the remainder of the coastal lighthouses.

Fog-signals of the Diaphone type are established at Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, and Tiri Tiri Island; while radio-beacons have been established at Cape Maria van Diemen, and Tiri Tiri Island.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen Island, which, placed some 600 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32½ nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Brett light (altitude 510 ft.) and East Cape (505 ft.), both visible at 30i miles; Godley Head (altitude 450 ft.), visibility 29 miles; Cuvier Island light (altitude 390 ft.) and Moko Hinou (altitude 385 ft.), both of which have a visibility of 27 miles. Sixteen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over.

All manually-attended coastal lighthouses are equipped with signalling Hags and lamps, the keepers being competent to transmit or receive messages. Coastal lights—i.e., those outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities—are maintained by the Marine Department.

The average cost of erection and equipment of the main coastal lighthouses was about £6,000 per light. The two most costly were Cape Brett Lighthouse (£11,237) on the Auckland Peninsula, and Dog Island Lighthouse (£10,481) in Foveaux Strait. The cost of maintenance of all lighthouses under the control of the Marine Department was for 1935–30#8212;Salaries and wages, £14,531; stores and general maintenance, £7,854; working-expenses of tender, £21,367; administration expenses. £7,580; interest and sinking-fund charges, £13,100; depreciation, £11,755: total. £76,187. Light dues for 1935–36 totalled £94,021.

WRECKS.

In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer where the damage has resulted from his wrongful act or default.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

During the year 1935–36 seventy-four inquiries, three of which were Magisterial and one of which was reheard in the Supreme Court, were held into shipping casualties, the number of vessels involved being So. There were three serious casualties during the year, but none involving a loss of life. A summary of the casualties is given.

 No.Tonnage.
Strandings—
Damaged97,370
No damage106,683
Collisions—  
Damaged18736
No damage4572
Fires—
Total loss Nil.
Damaged1Ill
No damage Nil.
Miscellaneous4182,935
Total casualties8598,491

Chapter 20. SECTION XI.—RAILWAYS.

INTRODUCTORY.

RAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton and the first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on the 5th February, 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

Although practically all the railways are State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and the Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companies.

In the year 1876 the railways of New Zealand passed from, the control of the Provincial Governments to the Public Works Department. A few years later the opened lines were handed over to the Working Railways Department, and in 1889 a Board of three Railways Commissioners was appointed. This form of management, however, lasted only for five years, at the end of which period a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, took over the administration, and this system continued for close on thirty years. In 1925 the system of railway management was reorganized under the control of a Railways Board of three members, but in 1928 the system of control by a General Manager was again reverted to. Three years later legislation was passed constituting the Government Railways Board of five members. This form of management was in operation from 1st June, 1931, to 31st March, 1930, after which date the system of control by a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, was again introduced.

The development of automatic and electric-power signalling has been greatly extended since its introduction the on New Zealand Railways some years ago. At the present time automatic signalling controlling the safe running of trains is in use on 68 miles 65 chains of double line and 190 miles 41 chains of single line. Further extensions are under construction.

In addition to automatic signalling, power signalling for the operation of yards has largely superseded the older form of mechanical signalling.

The use of electric power on the New Zealand Railways is increasing to a great extent for many purposes, including pumping plants for the supply of water for engines outside stations, for driving electrical machinery in the shops, and for the lighting of stations, locomotives, and carriages. There are 17 railway substations, with a total capacity of 12,000 kv.a. The Christchurch-Lyttelton section of railway, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1928–29. The Otira-Arthur's Pass section, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923. Work in connection with the electrification of the Wellington-Paekakariki section (24 miles 60 chains) is in hand.

The Railways Department owns and operates its own telephone and telegraph communication system, and over all the main lines the running of the trains is controlled from the District Traffic Managers' offices by means of selective telephone equipment. For general communication, the use of automatic telephone exchanges, carrier current telephony, and voice frequency repeaters on the longest lines give a high-grade service between all stations. Selective inter-calling equipment has been introduced on long lines with success, and extensions of modern telephone and telegraph apparatus are being undertaken.

MILEAGE OF STATE RAILWAYS.

At the 31st March, 1936, there were some 3,320 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into seven distinct sections, as follows:—

Section.Length. Miles.
North Island main line and branches1,486
Kaihu24
Gisborne60
Total, North Island1,570
South Island main line and branches1,594
Westport36
Nelson64
Picton56
Total, South Island1,750

Government railways are constructed by the Public Works Department, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and a steel rail of 70 lb. weight per lineal yard is the standard for the permanent-way, and is in use on 1,880 miles of line. Practically all the remaining mileage is in 53 lb., 55 lb., 56 lb., and 100 lb. steel rails. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,300 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood and New Zealand silver-pine or totara.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.

The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five financial years is given below.

31st March, 1932.31st March, 1933.31st March, 1934.31st March, 1935.31st March, 1936.
* For composition of subsidiary services, see later table In this section.
Open for traffic—£££££
Railway49,661,93049,744,74452,173,14252,352,98552,462,587
Lake Wakatipu steamer service17,94217.64817,64817,64817,645
Subsidiary services*1,735,1151,708,6611,708,6611,708,6611,762,931
General9,8969,8969,8969,8969,896
Total51,424,88351,480,94953,909,34754,089,19054,253,059
Lines under construction7,630,8187,747,9455,428,5705,387,9535,358,775
Grand total59,055,70159,228,89459,337,91759,477,14359,611,834

The increase during the year 1935–36 in capital invested in open lines was £163,869. Practically the whole of the capital expenditure was in connection with the provision of new terminal facilities at Wellington, which comprise three major works—namely, Wellington new station and yard, Wellington-Paekakariki electrification, and the Tawa Flat deviation.

So varied are the geographical features of the Dominion that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of linen. The numerousmountain-chains and the innumerable rivers fed by the heavy rainfall make railway-construction in general both difficult and expensive, as the next statement shows.

Section.Capital Cost of Open Lines to 31st March, 1036.Capital Cost per Mile (Open Lines).Net Revenue.
Per Mile of Open Line.Per Cent, of Capital Cost.
1934–35.1935–36.1934–35.1935–36
* Loss.
North Island—££££  
Kaihu160,0606,669-37*-110*....
Gisborne7634,67612,745-14*-71*....
Main line and brandies31,880,33521,4543303341·551·56
Totals, North Island32,805,07l20.895311312:1·501·49
South Island—      
Westport354,6959,8533342872·472·91
Nelson507,4547,929-80*-92*....
Picton578.50810,331-4*-14*....
Main line and branches18,216,85911,4281721431·531·25
Totals, South Island19,657,51611,2331601321·431·18
Totals, Railways52,402,58715,8022322171·471·37
Lake Wakatipu steamer service17,645..........
Subsidiary services1,762,931..........
General9,890..........
Grand totals54,253,05916,3413283172·011·94

ROLLING-STOCK.

Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways in 1935–36 is given in the following table:—

Locomotives—
Tender366
Tank196
Electric11
Battery5
Total578
Passenger-vehicles—
Sleepers17
Combination day-sleepers4
Saloon27
First-class217
Second-class841
Composite366
Ladies'4
Passenger-vehicles—
Postal11
Other11
Total1,498
Wagons—
Horse-boxes260
Cattle085
Sheep2,48
Frozen and chilled meat905
Cool-storage860
Covered goods955
High-side15,357
High-side bogie435
Low-side1,745
Brake-vans482
Other3,141
Total27,314

All carriages and wagons required for use on the State railways have, since 1901, been manufactured in the railway workshops of the Dominion, with the exception of 2.500 four-wheeled wagons imported from England in 1921–22. Locomotives also are built in the railway workshops of the Dominion.

The weights of the locally-built tender-engines in working trim vary from 63 to 135 tons, while those of the tank-engines run from 29½ to 71 tons.

The following engines of more recent construction deal with the bulk of the traffic:—

Class.Type.TrafficWeight.Tractive Force.
 Tons.lb.
AB4–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed8520,000
A4–6–2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderMixed7817,000
K4–8—4 superheated; simple, with tender..Mixed13530,815
X4—8–2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderGoods9426,620
WAB and WS4–6–4 superheated; simple tank engineMixed7222,250
C2–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderShunting6613,798

Twenty-three of the thirty new mixed-traffic engines designated K Class under construction at the Hutt shops were completed and in service at 31st March, 1936.

Standard carriages are 50 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate twenty-nine to forty-four passengers, steam-heated, and lighted by electricity. Some 628 carriages were equipped with electric light at 31st March, 1936. Locomotives to the number of 324 are fitted with electric head-lights. The Westinghouse brake is fitted to all rolling-stock with the exception of that on the Kaihu, Picton, Nelson, and Westport Sections.

The construction of rail-cars for the operation of services in various selected localities was commenced during 1935–36, and at the close of the year an order for seven such cars for service in the Wairarapa district was well in hand.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The railways have contributed in a great measure towards bringing the Dominion to its present high state of productiveness, have given practical assistance in the development of the country, and have encouraged local industry. For many years a profit of 3 per cent, was regarded as sufficient, and any excess over this rate was followed by reductions in passenger charges or in freights. Consequent on the extension of settlement and the soundness of the Dominion's industries, a rate of 3¾ per cent, was aimed at, commencing with the year 1909–10. During the next twelve years the actual return averaged 4·20 per cent. The year 1921–22 saw a severe depression throughout the country, the return of 1·07 per cent, for that year being the lowest in the history of the railways. For the three years 1922–23 to 1924–25 the return averaged 3–48 per cent.

In 1924 the Government decided upon a financial reorganization of the railways, and an entirely new system of accounts, based on commercial practice, was brought into operation on the 1st April, 1925.

The first and most important step in this direction was the establishment of a separate Working Railways Account into which all earnings are paid and from which all working-expenses, superannuation subsidies, and interest on capital up to the full amount of the net revenue are met. The interest on capital is based on the actual rates payable on the various loans.

The changed financial policy embodied the setting-up of Renewals, Betterments, and Equalization Funds, and also provided for payment of subsidies from the Consolidated Fund for losses on operation of certain developmental lines.

The return for the next four years was 4·35 per cent., 3·99 per cent., 3·64 per cent., and 3·45 per cent.; but in 1929–30 it fell to 1·61 per cent., due mainly to the discontinuance of the subsidy on developmental lines which had been paid by the Treasury since 1925. The economic depression which set in during 1930 caused the return for 1930–31 to fall to 1·16 per cent., bat in the succeeding years it has risen to 1·64 per cent, for 1931–32, 1·65 per cent, for 1932–33, 2·05 per cent, for 1933–34, 2·01 per cent, for 1934–35, and 1·94 per cent, for 1935–36.

The total revenue and expenditure of the railways during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st MarchGross Revenue.Expenditure.Net Revenue.Percentage of Net Revenue to Capital Cost. 
 ££££s.d.
19278,434,6546,490,8801,943,77431910
19288,524,5386,685,1231,839,41531210
19298,747,9756,849,3831,898,592390
19308,288,1167,358.859929,2571124
19317,571,5376,882,810688,727133
19326,508,9485,670,955837,9931128
19336,034,4035,183,859850,5441130
19346,332,7115,247,1531,085,558210
19356,627,9285,540,4371,087,491203
19367,004,3165,952,8391,051,47711810

Interest on railway capital liability for 1935–36 amounted to £2,300,051, there thus being a deficit of £1,248,574 for the year, as compared with £1,243,395 for the preceding year. A sum of £791,759 was set aside for depreciation and renewals, and is included in the total of expenditure for the year.

The figures in the above table are inclusive of subsidiary services, which in recent years have increased considerably. From 1925–26 to 1928–29 also the figures of receipts are swelled by the inclusion of moneys transferred from the Consolidated Fund to make good losses on branch lines and isolated sections. This provision, however, was then cancelled. In 1931–32 the capital was written down by £10,400,000, which has advantageously affected the return per cent. The revenue and expenditure for the last five years are now given, distinguishing between railway operating and other items:—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.Net Operating Revenue.
Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.
 £££££
19325,788,965719,9835,301,653369,302487,312
19335,339,075695,3284,833,754350,105505,321
19345,628,835703,8764,877,146370,007751,689
19355,908,064719,8645,138,588401,849769,476
19366,243,519760,7975,523,193429,646720,326

The various subsidiary services now conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years are given below. Full working-costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

Service.Revenue.Expenditure.
1934–35.1935–36.1934–35.1935–30.
 ££££
Lake Wakatipu steamers10,64710,59810,2699,399
Refreshment service79,81789,13277,68584,976
Bookstall service36,84645,79734,56443,042
Advertising service30,03031,77427,94229,391
Departmental dwellings105,338129,255155,302156,692
Leases of bookstalls, &c.17,34617,90911,48111,464
Road services90,278103,2S084,60694,682
Miscellaneous receipts349,562333,052....
Totals719,864760,797401,849429,646

REVENUE.

In the following table the operating revenue during the last ten years is classified according to the class of traffic, &c, from which it was derived.

Year ended 31st MarchPassenger-fares.Parcels, Luggage, and Malls.Goods and Live-stock.Labour, Demurrage, &c.Total.
 £££££
19272,304,180377,3674,596,166145,7597,423,472
19282,145,296379,9334,680,135138,4817,343,845
19292,124,746378,1414,846,125175,8527,524,864
19301,995,927386,7924,904,324186,9507,473,993
19311,778,726359,2764,487,357156,0296,781,388
19321,339,589316,2454,019,600113,5315,788,965
19331,207,296283,8223,745,777102,1805,339,075
19341,336,334281,8893,911,24599,3675,628,835
19351,368,689292,0974,138,434108,8445,908,064
19361,466,617299,9644,359,750117,1886,243,519

Revenue from the carriage of goods and live-stock had been steadily increasing up to 1929–30, but from then until 1932–33 successive declines were recorded, due mainly to the economic depression and to motor competition. Passenger traffic since 1926 has shown a rapid falling-off due in the earlier years to intensive motor competition and later to the depression. During the past three years, however, a definite upward trend has been shown, due to the improvement in economic conditions.

The revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1935–36 represented an expenditure on railway travel of 18s. 9d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £3 19s. l0d. per caput.

A table is added showing information as to railway revenue in each of the Australian States for the year ended 30th June, 1935. Figures for New Zealand for the year ended 31st March, 1935, are also given.

State.Miles of Line open.Train-miles run (,000 omitted).Gross Revenue (.000 omitted).Net Revenue.
Amount (.000 omitted).Per Train-mile.Per Cent. of Capital.
* Loss.
 ££s.d. 
Queensland6,56712,9597,1672,080325·94
New South Wales6,16426,27516,8035,237403·74
Victoria4,72115,5369,4212,915393·86
South Australia2,5295,0802,65S537211·97
Western Australia4,3595,8683,312929323·72
Tasmania6451,23040018*.... 
Commonwealth Railways2,14553734634*.... 
Totals for Australia27,13067,48540,10711,646353·54
New Zealand3,32010,6266.6281,087212·01

The net revenue in the case of New Zealand is arrived at after making full provision for renewals and depreciation and. subsidies to the Superannuation Fund and Sick-benefit Society.

EXPENDITURE.

The total railway expenditure in 1935–36 represented 84·99 per cent, of the gross earnings, and the operating-expenses 88 46 per cent, of operating revenue. It is of interest to trace the movement over a period of years, as in the following statement. The figures for the last eleven years relate to operating revenue and expenditure, while those for previous years show the proportion of total expenditure to gross earnings.

Year ended 31st, MarchPer Cent.
191664·00
191760·97
191864·91
191966·32
192071·37
192181·59
192293·89
192381·79
192477·37
192577·97
192681·23
192782·96
192885·81
192984·71
193091·62
193194·47
193291·56
193390·54
193486·65
193586·98
193688·40

The operating expenditure under various heads is now given for each of the last ten years.

Year ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Ways and Works.Maintenance of Signals.Maintenance of Rolling-stock.Locomotive Transportation.Traffic Transportation.Head Office and General Charges.*Total.
* Including superannuation subsidy.
 £££££££
19271,074,334100,8611,303,4441,669,3521,752,998257,2946,158,283
19281,147,067102,8711,380,7261,662,0741,760,459248,9226,302,119
19291,111,229112,2061,424,1651,650,7931,825,965250,2216,374,579
19301,146,014117,5771,680.9191,755,2091,883,918264,3896,848,026
19311,150,329104,4641,502,6981,594,6721,798,490255,4906,406,143
1932997,629107,5851,270,5851,254,7691,424,520246,5655,301,653
1933931,273105,5861,188,4741,114,8011,255,280238,3404,833,754
1934993,207110,2981,220,1021,064,82711,253,833234,8794,877,146
19351,047,825137,4771,236,3241,127,1601,360,928228,8745,138,588
19361,070,085147,4421,406,6851,201,6361,405,052232,2935,523,193

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.

In addition to the traffic figures shown in the following table for 1935–36, 3,242,469 passengers were carried by the Railways Department's road services, and 28,304 passengers and 7,883 tons of goods on the Lake Wakatipu steamer service. Passenger train-miles run during the year totalled 4.747,525 and the passenger revenue received represents 74·14d. per train-mile and £449 per mile of line operated.

Year ended 31st MarchLength open (Miles)Train-mileage.Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods and Live-stock.*
Including Season-ticket Holders.Excluding Season-ticket Holders.
* The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been estimated.
      Tons.
19273,16410,723,86425,966,74010,274,878585,0787,299,752
19283,18010,838,59425,348,2419,272,547632,7417,358,388
19293,28711,113,48225,542,8639,046,981656,1557,613,445
19303,28712,022,04325,380,1148,466,779667,4197,788,973
19313,32211,281,89822,783,0567,265,912600,4316,957,709
19323,31510,168,72019,151,4806,503,566459,0635,824,811
19333,3159,828,85318,366,6546,870,570437,7755,490,686
19343,32010,163,47419,047,1867,511,346442,7425,642,199
19353,32010,626,40019,654,4677.809,035457,5466,023,960
19303,32011,050,37620,358,5247,963,824482,1466,188,805

Live-stock carried in 1935–36 comprised 407,148 cattle, 717,192 calves, 9,131,321 sheep, and 670,035 pigs, equivalent to a tonnage of 570,328.

Detailed figures showing the number of rail passengers carried during the last five years are given in the following table:—

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Ordinary and holiday excursion2,884,6773,025,8433,272,4103,280,3703,285,197
Suburban1,924,2962,041,5812,205,1722,221,4202,298,021
Other reduced fares1,694,5931,803,1462,033,7642,307,2452,380,606
Totals6,503,5666,870,5707,511,3467,809,0357,963,824
Season tickets issued—     
Workers' weekly234,397210,269214,819226,877243,120
Weekly twelve-trip108,58798,16399,863103,981109,418
Trip-bearer57,18277,77276,07173,04772,607
School27,69525,47025,20625,56826,148
Tourist511398369373368
Travellers' annual461416395376359
Other30,23025,28726,01927,32430,126
Totals459,063437,775442,712457,546482,146

The following table gives interesting information as to the constitution of the goods traffic for the last five years. The figures are exclusive of steamer traffic on Lake Wakatipu:—

Commodity.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Grain273,003269,367276,105304,936185,754
Meals109,908110,787115,139118,666113,992
Fruit, New Zealand43,12144,37241,23747,99736,978
Root crops, fodder126,395111,123106,844111,718114,614
Flax, hemp, and tow7,09811,05712,71510,69510,315
Seeds18,66116,75222,34321,76716,275
Cattle and horses121,996119,097134,269136,490171,576
Sheep and pigs430,564425,997414,534442,493398,752
Meat187,891217,538226,021238,404227,993
Butter122,604146,367146,275131,590146,765
Cheese86,90395,33689,48078,39771,095
Wool149,145149,678152,036126,682102,045
Dairy by-products15,30214,86816,66620,78425,308
Fat, hides, skins39,26037,45842,14244,79237,035
Fish7,7117,8088,5917,858S,434
Agricultural lime140,201173,932195,018244,896246.716
Coal, imported37,08828,44132,02430,53132,676
Coal, New Zealand hard763,926704,984645,461654,170652,637
Coal, New Zealand brown915,579681,643752,823756,123802,541
Road-metal113,41078,09591,904128,540132,096
Lime and coke54,49531,95929,41828,20228,225
Timber, imported10,3086,6157,70813,01713,476
Timber, New Zealand243,224247,018293,514355,400407,323
Firewood, posts, &c.74,93361,88661,58381,34972,543
Benzine, kerosene, &c.130,439117,660110,731119,739131,510
Cement66,86336,87047,18944,91649,799
Manures572,696614,352552,441626,717663,185
Miscellaneous962,087929,6261,017,9881,097,0911,229,147
Totals5,824,8115,490,6865,642,1996,023,9606,188,805

A table showing for the various commodities the tonnage carried, ton-miles, average haul, revenue, and revenue per ton-mile during 1935–36 is now given:—

Commodity.Tonnage carried.Per Cent. of Total.Tons One Mile (.000 omitted).Average Haul.Revenue.Revenue per Ton-mile.
 Miles.£d.
Grain1.85,7543·009,6275293,4042·32
Meals113,9921·847,5666668,4792·17
Fruit, New Zealand36,9780·606,70018154,9731·96
Root crops, fodder114,6141·858,6587670,2211·94
Flax, hemp, and tow10,3150·17752738,3352·65
Seeds16,2750·269275712,2213·16
Cattle and horses171,5762·7714,17183184,9673·13
Sheep and pigs398,7526·4429,78675381,5743·07
Meat227,9933·687,29132192,0056·32
Butter146,7652·3710,93875157,4653·45
Cheese71,0951·153,7815366,0944·19
Wool162,0452·629,49259154,8S23·91
Dairy by-products25.3080·412,2388824,2912·60
Fat, hides, skins37,0350·601,8214937,5544·94
Fish8,4340·141,45417213,1512·17
Agricultural lime246,7163·9915,9496588,4751·33
Coal, imported32,6760·536402011,7924·41
Coal, New Zealand hard652.63710·5429,19445219,3971·80
Coal, New Zealand brown802.54112·9796,604120524,6901·30
Road-metal132.0962·134,4543434,5841·86
Lime and coke2S,2250·462,3738416,9141·71
Timber, imported13,4760·220795011,8344·18
Timber, New Zealand407,3236·5846,797115379,7791·94
Firewood, posts, &c.72,5431·176,3148734,3531·30
Benzine, gasoline, kerosene131,5102·1311,85190225,1064·55
Cement49,7990·806,67713453,9041·93
Manures663,18510·7241,59163317,3321·83
Miscellaneous1,229,14719·8665,32253991,4643·64
Totals6,188,805100·00443,647724,429,3002·39

The total number of freight train-miles run during the year 1935–36 in carrying the above tonnage was 0,302,851. The revenue received represents averages of 14s. Id. per train-mile, 14s. 4d per ton, and 2–39d. per ton-mile.

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.

The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31st March, 1936, was 17,073. The staff is divided into two divisions—namely, the first or clerical division, and the second or out-of-door division—and is further classed in four branches, as shown in the following table:—

Average, Year ending 31st March.General.Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive.Total.
19321,5095,0563,4256,12416,114
19331,3764,7323,0095,57914,696
19341,3864,6633,1945,72814,971
19351,4604,7723,5656,25116,048
19361,4884,8883,7886,90917,073

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since then, applies to Railway employees.

An Appeal Board is constituted to hear grievances of members dissatisfied with decisions respecting promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Railways Board and the other elected by the members of the Department.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railways service was established in 1903. Information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Pensions, Superannuation,” &c.

A sick-benefit fund, providing for the payment of weekly allowances for periods up to seventy-eight weeks to employees other than salaried staff who are incapacitated by sickness, was instituted in 1929. The fund is subsidized by the Department at the rate of approximately 10s. to each £1 contributed by members. Reserve funds amounting to £34,410 had been built up at 31st March, 1936.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.

With the exception of the Ongarue accident in 1923 (when seventeen passengers were killed and twenty-nine more or less severely injured, through a falling boulder derailing the engine), the history of railways in New Zealand baa been one of comparative freedom from accidents of a Serious nature. A table is given dealing with railway accidents during each of the last five years.

Year ended 31st March.To Passengers.To Employees.To Others.Fatal.Other.Total.
1932191,21036371,2281,265
1933171,13954271,1831,210
1934121,28959301,3301,360
1935211,34662281,4011,429
1936251,54047251,5871,612

None of the 25 persons meeting with fatal accidents were passengers. Seven were employees, and, of the remainder, 12 were killed at railway-crossings.

Included in the total accidents (1,612) were 18 train accidents, 33 accidents on line, 89 shunting accidents, 35 railway-crossing accidents, and 417 accidents in railway workshops, while miscellaneous accidents totalled 1,020—mainly minor injuries to employees.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.

Private railways in New Zealand are mainly restricted to lines whose chief object is to serve collieries or sawmills. The following list has been compiled from inquiries made in 1935, and is possibly not free from minor inaccuracies or omissions. The length of main line is 172 miles 70 chains, brought up to a totalof 189 miles 24 chains by the inclusion of branches, sidings, &c, where such information was available.

Principal use.Owner.Location.Length of Railway.*

* Including main line, branches, sidings, and jig line.

† Sidings additional, but not available.

 M.C.
CoalWilton Collieries, Ltd.Ngaruawahia-Glen Massey Wilton Coal-mine675
Timber and goodsBartholomew Timber Co., Ltd.Te Whetu-Bartholomew`s's Siding940
OresWaihi Gold-mining Co., Ltd.Waihi-Waikino876
TimberWellington Industrial Development Co., Ltd. (operated by Taupo Totara Timber Co., Ltd.)Putaruru-Tokoroa-Mokai5040
Stock, wood, and coalGisborne Harbour BoardGisborne (Turanganui)060
Mixed RoodsNapier Harbour HoardNapier-Port Ahuriri36
TimberEllis and Burnand, Ltd.Mangapehi-Pukemako Bush2240
Coal and mixed goodsCastlecliff Railway Co., Ltd.Wanganui (Castlecliff)539
Road metalManawatu County CouncilHimitangi-Pukenui180
CoalPuponga Coal-mine, Ltd.Puponga175
CoalWestport Coal Co., Ltd.Waimangaroa Jn.-Conn's Creek430
CoalBurke's Creek Collieries, Ltd.Reefton-Burke`s Creek's Creek220
CoalPaparoa Coal Co., Ltd.Blackball-Paparoa160
TimberStuart and Chapman, Ltd.Boss-Duffer's Creek150
Coal, lime, and sandAshburton County Council (operated by Blackburn Coal Co., Ltd.)Mount Somers860
 Dunedin City CouncilDunedin (Ocean Beach)133
CoalKaitangata Coal Co., Ltd.Kaitangata-Stirling40
Coal and goodsSargood and CheesemanLovell's Flat-Taratu Colliery80
Coal, passengers, and goodsOhai Railway BoardWairio-Birchwood1610
Total mileage....18924

Chapter 21. SECTION XII.—TRAMWAYS.

SYSTEMS AND OWNERSHIP.

ELECTRIC-TRAMWAY services in New Zealand have since their inception been controlled by local authorities. This is, however, subject to two exceptions—viz., (1) Auckland, where a public company carried on from 1902 until 1st July, 1919, when the system was taken over by the Auckland City Council; and (2) Dunedin, where a section of the system was until 1921 operated by a private company. Five of the seven electric-tramway systems operating at the present time are controlled by the council of the city or borough concerned. At Christchurch the Christchurch Tramway Board is the controlling body, while at Auckland the City Council has handed over the tramways to the Auckland Transport Board.

The local authorities derive their powers for controlling tramways from the Tramways Act, J 90S. There are also special Acts empowering the construction, &c, of tramways in certain places.

System.Year of Inauguration.Length of Track as at 31st March, 1936.Approximate Population in Area served, April, 1936.
Thoroughfare.Single Line (including Loops).
  M.ch.M.ch. 
Auckland190244168643173,000
New Plymouth19166774717,000
Wanganui19081424166423,000
Wellington190430604840116,000
Christchurch19054853727112,000
Dunedin19001772301673,000
Invercargill191274094023,000

In addition to the tramway systems shown above, there were formerly tramways in Gisborne and Napier, both of which were closed down, the former in 1929, and the latter after the earthquake of 3rd February, 1931. It is of interest to record that the Maori Hill electric tramway (part of the Dunedin system) ceased operating on 1st July, 1936, being replaced by diesel-engined buses. This length of tramway was the first electric tramway constructed in New Zealand, having been opened for traffic on 23rd October, 1900.

Passenger rolling-stock at 31st March. 1936, comprised 741 cars with a capacity of 31,715 passengers, including 11 trackless trams, capacity 418 passenger). The total route mileage was 170 miles, and track mileage (including loops) 271 miles. In addition to the passenger rolling-stock there were 4 water-sprinklers and 2 freight cars.

REVIEW OF TRAMWAY OPERATIONS.

The principal statistics of tramway operations during the last ten years are given in the two following tables. The closing-down of the Gisborne service in 1929, and the Napier service in 1931, affects somewhat the comparability of the statistics for 1930 onwards with those for previous years.

Year ended 31st March.Number of Undertakings.Number of Employees.Passenger Car-miles run.Passengers carried.Number of Passengers per Car-mile.
* Includes tramway bus services for the year 1926–27.
1927*93,29117,066,086167,599,6619.82
192893,13616,857,342162,550,4829.64
192993,06216,565,221l60,559,3139.69
193082,93616,298,984154,811,2629.50
1931 ..82,91516,459,615146,804,9708.92
193272,72315,692,505131,654,2868.39
193372,57815,335.351121,272,9517.91
193472,56515,343,078119.789,3847.81
193572,58315,540,601125,669,5028.40
193672,62115,679,576131.651,3958.40

Of grave importance in recent years, particularly since about 1921, has been the competition of motor-omnibuses, taxi-cabs, and private motor-vehicles.

In 1926 partial relief came in the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926, which prohibited the competition of buses with trams, except where the fare charged per section by buses is 2d. more than the tram fare.

The general trend in the number of passengers carried is definitely downward, although the 1935 and 1936 figures show some improvement from the depression levels of 1933 and 1934.

The financial operations of the tramways are summarized in the following table:—

Accrued Funds.
Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.Percentage of Expenditure to Revenue.Capital Outlay.Sinking Funds.Depreciation and Renewal Funds.Accident Funds.
* Includes tramway bus services for the year 1926–27.
 ££ ££££
1927*1,640,3301,659,802101.195,066,008770,100877,11686,889
19281,612,9641,574,59897.625,036,853915,301787,89184,887
19291,606,7421,531,55195.325,137,9181,015,920780,067:98,131
19301,549,0021,499,74096.175,297,2231,126,850886,913109,033
19311,530,0101,506,15198.445,696,2601,231,0841,037,977113,603
19321,331,1731,379,596103.645,592,3371,306,9121,042.310112,313
19331,232,1901.281.567104.015.480,3021,410,7621,039,814108.059
19341,204,7481,242,630103.145,488,4401,636,725842,966108,945
19351,221,2311,245,954102–025,508,7311,371,341809,029110,998 
19361,257,5051,306,256103.885,528,0221,407.558842.865112,545

Figures showing details of the total expenditure during each of the last five years are given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenses.Total.
 £Per Cent.£Per Cent.£Per Cent.£Per Cent.
1932913,30766.20420,54130.4845,7483.321,379,596100.00
1933843,52365.82391,66930.5646,3753.621,281,567100.00
1934841,99967.76347,90228.0052,7294.2412,242,630100.00
1935859,56068.99351,40028.2034,9942.811,245,954100.00
1936920,05370.43358,40727.4427,7962.131,306,256100.00

An analysis of the capital outlay of tramway undertakings follows, figures for each of the last five years being given:—

As at 31st March, 1Permanent-way.Electric Equipment of Lines.other Vehicle*.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and Undefined.Total.
Absolute Figures.
 £££££££
19322,333,985543.4101,441,842163,652648,870460,5785,592,337
19332,298,074536,0921,417,391160,959603,933463,8535,480,302
19342.302,607538,4031,427,511157,219604,337458,3635,488,440
19352,311,023539,1771,439,082157,039604,469457,9415,508,731
19362.319,612539,6301,443,608155,828604,540464,8045,528,022
Proportion of Total
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
193241.749.7225.082.9211.608.24100.00
193341.939.7825.862.9411.028.47100.00
193441.959.8126.012.8711.018.35100.00
193541.959.7926.122.8510.978.32100.00
1936 .41.969.7626.112.8210.948.41100.00

A more detailed analysis of tramway statistics for 1936—36 is given in the succeeding paragraphs.

VOLUME OF TRAFFIC.

The number of passengers carried per car-mile is a useful guide to the relative volume of traffic handled by the various undertakings. As a highly relevant factor the length of track should be kept in mind.

?System.Total Passengers carried.Car-miles run(Passenger Cars and Trailers).Passengers per Car-mile.Average Fare per Passenger.
 d.
Auckland47,299,1205.922,7507.99)2.74
New Plymouth1.937.488283,2556.841.93
Wanganui1,635,713399,7224.092.86
Wellington40,882,0104,138,3899.882.01
Christchurch18,445.2502,873.6396.422.29
Dunedin18,967,6861,689,92811.221.56
Invercargill2,484,128371,8936.681.81
Totals131.65l.39515.679,5768.402.25

FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

The Auckland and Wellington services provided 71 per cent, of the total traffic revenue for 1935–36, the former returning £540.163, or 43 per cent., of the total, against £341.342, or 28 per cent., in the case of Wellington. Christchurch and Dunedin fall a long way below Auckland and Wellington in traffic revenue.

Following is an analysis of revenue in each centre in 1935–36:—

System.Traffic (Passengers and Freight).Traffic Revenue Per Car-mile.*Other.Total.
Cash.Concession.
* Passenger vehicles.
 ££d.££
Auckland450, 24483,91921.894,661544,824
New Plymouth7.0478,58313.2424215.872
Wanganui16.5993,03811.791,16520,802
Wellington116,724227,61819.975,767350,109
Christchurch84,93991,15214.715,884181.975
Dunedin89,24333,79817.471,274124.315
Invereargill7,07111,67112.1086619,608
Totals777,867459,77918.9419,8591,257,505

On the expenditure side it is informative, in view of the competition from other means of transport, to note that the total expenditure—covering operating-expenses, capita] charges, and other expenditure—was £48,751 above the total revenue for the year. In fact, the Wellington tramway was the only undertaking that recorded an excess of revenue over expenditure. The position of each service in 1935–36 is shown below:—

System.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenses.Total.
 ££££
Auckland415,036143,6S52,289561,010
New Plymouth13,0096,42037719,806
Wanganui18,79415,64979935,242
Wellington257,73278,9128,263344,907
Christ ch arch116,37967,80812,492196,679
Dunedin83,67542,3411,375127,391
Invereargill15,4283,5922,20121,221
Totals920,053358,40727,7961.300,256

The principal item comprised in the total operating expenditure in 1935–36 is expenses on account of traffic, which represented 57 per cent. Cost of power follows traffic expenses in order of magnitude, accounting for 14 per cent. Car-maintenance was approximately 12 per cent, of the total, and track-maintenance 9 per cent. Management and office expenses accounted for the remaining 8 per cent. The distribution of operating expenditure in 1935–36 was as follows:—

System.Power.Traffic.Car-maintenance.Track-maintenance (including Electrical Equipment).Management and Office Expenses.Total.
 ££££££
Auckland58,975221,54849,91440,71843,881415,036
New Plymouth1,8006,5572,3821,61066013,009
Wanganui3,0447,4363,1243,9861,20418,794
Wellington31,955158,34731,57820,13615,716257.732
Christchurch15,27869,92515,6759,8145,687116,379
Dunedin11,43552,7616,5385,5117,43083,675
Invereargill2,0367,9562,2762,32883215,428
Totals124,523524,530111,48784,10375,410920,053

Annual capital charges in the way of provision for interest and sinking fund and depreciation, reserve, and renewal funds comprised 27 per cent, of the total expenditure during the year ended 31st March, 1936. The magnitude of these charges is not surprising, having regard to the relatively large capital outlay that is a necessity of tramway undertakings. Of the total provision for capital charges for the year ended 31st March. 1936, approximately 60 per cent. consisted of interest charges, and nearly 18 per cent, of sinking fund charges. As the Wanganui tramways are unable to meet capital charges out of revenue, the City Council levies a special rate each year for that purpose. The amounts expended in various capital charges fly each system in 1935–36 were:—

System.Interest.Sinking Fund Charges.Depreciation Fund Charges.Renewal Fund Charges.Reserve Fund Charges.Accident Fund Charges.Total.
 £££££££
Auckland112,11125,532....6,042..143,685
New Plymouth3,3191,7201,381......6,420
Wanganui9,3316.183......13515,649
Wellington38,86412,207....24,4713.37078,912
Christchurch35,45211,011..20,702..64367,808
Dunedin14,7927,3017,46512,758..2542,341
Invercargill1,396..2,158....383,592
Totals215,26563,95411,00433,46030,5134,211358,407

The following table showing the relationship between revenue and expenditure per car-mile run gives a useful indication of the relative prosperity of the various undertakings:—

System.er Car-mile* run, 1035–36.
Total Revenue.Operating Costs.Capital Charges.Other ExpenditureTotal Expenditure
* All vehicles.
 d.d.d.d.d.
Auckland22.0616.805.820.0922.71
New Plymouth13.4511.025.440.3216.78
Wanganui12.4911.289.400.4821.16
Wellington20.3014.954.580.4820.01
Christchurch15.159.695.641.0416.37
Dunedin17.6511.886.010.2018.09
Invercargill12.659.962.321.4213.70
Weighted average19.2314.075.480.4319.98

Wellington alone shows a surplus of revenue per car-mile run.

CAPITAL OUTLAY.

At the 31st March, 1936, existing electric tramways represented a capital outlay of £5,528,022.

System.Permanent-way.Electric Equipment of Lines.Cars and other Vehicles.Land.BuildingsMiscellaneous and undefined.Total.
 £££££££
Auckland1,065,368221,500520,11126,819178,54865.9982,078,344
New Plymouth63,4349,15823,8557305,4341,524104,135
Wanganui45,55012,32020,710..4,9508,62492,154
Wellington448,333131,377420,10858,858199,644116,1691,374,489
Christchurch441,465115,310313,72039,279157,671262,7301.330,175
Dunedin211,00842,177105,49529,99050,3878,183447,240
Invercargill44,4547,78839,6091527,9061,576101,485
Totals2,319,612539,6301,443,608155,828604,540464,8045,528,022

It would perhaps be more informative if these figures could be expressed in terms of capital value. Though attempts have been made to obtain data as to the amount of depreciation written off tramway plant, it has not been possible to elicit the required information from all tramway undertakings.

Closely allied to the capital expenditure is the question of accrued funds. At the 31st March, 1936, these totalled £2,362,968. Seventy-nine, forty-seven, and seventy-five per cent, of sinking funds, depreciation and reserve funds, and accident funds, respectively, are invested in securities outside the tramway undertakings.

Figures of accrued funds as at 31st March, 193G, are as follows:—

System.Sinking Funds.Depreciation and Reserve Funds.Accident Funds.Total.
 ££££
Auckland817,091131,0872,372950,550
New Plymouth..19,683..19,683
Wanganui31,203....31.203
Wellington387,202534,16266,143987,507
Christchurch120,0045,53815,336140,878
Dunedin36,843129,81828,694195,355
Invercargill15,21522,577..37,792
Totals1.407,558842,865112,5452,362,968

POWER CONSUMPTION.

The electrical energy in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin is obtained from the hydro-electric works at Horahora-Arapuni, Mangahao-Waikare-moana, Coleridge-Waitaki, and Waipori respectively. These are the largest hydroelectric works functioning in the Dominion, and energy is now obtainable from them at comparatively cheap rates. In using the per-unit cost figures in the next table, due attention should be paid to the fact that, with the exception of Auckland, power is purchased in bulk by the tramway authorities, and is adapted for the use of the trams over the tramway authorities' own distribution systems. In Auckland the whole of the plant installed for the transformation and conversion of power for the tramways is the property of the authority supplying the power, the price paid by the tramway authorities being virtually for electricity delivered to the trams.

Figures for the fiscal year ended 31st March, 1936, are:—

System.Total Units of Electrical Energy used.Cost per Unit.Units per Car-mile.*Passengers per Car-mile.

* All vehicles.

† Passenger vehicles.

 d. 
Auckland19,210,5550.743.247.99
New Plymouth841,3230.512.976.84
Wanganui1,022,4590.682.564.09
Wellington10,332,3090.742.509.88
Christchurch7,921,1050.452.756.42
Dunedin3,804,4220.722.2511.22
Invercargill610,9310.801.646.68
Totals43,743,1040.682.798.40

OMNIBUS SERVICES OPERATED BY TRAMWAY AUTHORITIES.

Omnibus services were carried on by tramway authorities in the following centres in 1935–36: Auckland, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Statistics for the year 1935–36 show that expenditure exceeded revenue by £4,967. Auckland, Wanganui, and Dunedin were the only undertakings that reported revenue in excess of expenditure. Wellington recorded the biggest deficit, £4,410. Persons finding employment during 1935–36 totalled 89, made up as follows: Management and office staff, 7; garage, 29; and traffic, 53. The number of vehicles in use was 65.

Passengers carried in 1935–36 increased by over 340,000 as compared with 1934–35, while bus-miles run advanced by 90,000. Auckland and Dunedin buses both carried slightly more than 3.000,000 passengers during 1935–36, while over 990,000 passengers were carried in Wellington, and approximately 526,000 in Christchurch.

Year ended 31st March.
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
Undertakings No.76666
Employees No.12290798289
Salaries and wages £33,48024,45118,85221,98624,304
Capital cost of vehicles £115,539108,772109,65799,392104,392
Depreciation reserves £88,14483,49486,30171,90672,651
Total expenditure £94,35272,22956,38354,83260,834
Revenue £59,07143,35339,61850,40655,867
Passengers carried No.4,364,8413,366,2282,939,4583,790,2464,133,029
Bus-miles No.1,196.501953,758795,723975,7841,069,217
Average fare per passenger- d.3.233.093.222.923.00
Passengers per bus-mile No.3.653.533.693.883.87

CABLE TRAMWAYS.

There are four cable-tramway systems in the Dominion, one in Wellington and three in Dunedin. The systems, all of which operate on a 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, extend over routes totalling 5 miles 43 chains. The total revenue in 1935–36 amounted to £46,451, while expenditure totalled £41,247. The total revenue derived from traffic during the year was £45,820, showing an average of l081d. per passenger carried. The total capital value stood at £141.692 at 31st. March. 1936.

Year ended 31st March.
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
Undertakings No.44444
Employees No.7879757574
Salaries and wages £19,76017,98515,39517,09916,892
Capital value £135,080135,234139,046140,856141,692
Expenditure—
 Operating-expenses £33,34931,43830,16231,62732,338
 Capital charges £9,7169,0268,2117,7928,909
 Total £43,06540,46438,37339,41941,247
Revenue £48.85045,82144,74345,23346,451
Passengers carried No.6,388,7435,976,3235,773,3375,910,6456,079,398
Car-miles run (including trailer miles) No.400,276393,350384,945386,643388,665
Passengers per car-mile No.1615151516

Chapter 22. SECTION XIII.—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT.

ROADS AND BRIDGES.

THE total mileage of formed roads in the Dominion at the 31st March, 1935, was 51,802¼, in addition to which there were 5,871 miles of bridle-tracks and 16,999 miles of unformed legal roads. Details are given in the following table:—

 Counties.Boroughs.Road Districts.Total.
* Includes 78½ miles unspecified.
Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width and paved or surfaced with—MilesMiles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
Bituminous or cement concrete125233½12379¼
Bitumen or tar1,0301,11562¾112,819
Metal or gravel*33,1121,994404¾932¾30,443½
Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width, but not paved or surfaced11.700¾181¾98¾179¼12,160½
Total formed roads46,567¾3,524¼5751,135¼51,802¼
Bridle-tracks5,79921½43¾5,871
Unformed legal roads16,252¾332¾72¾340¾16,999
Total of all roads68,619½3,878½654½1,519¾74,672¼

The formation of roads in many parts of the Dominion has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system of the Dominion as at 31st March, 1935, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft. or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges.

Material of which bridge constructed.Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road District.Totals.
No.Total Length.No.Total Length.NoTotal Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.
 Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft.
All concrete or stone54744,024657,4015570615162352,146
Steel and concrete38036,286436,377311538742942,865
Steel, concrete, and timber25030,294191,570........26931,864
Steel and timber47235,901254,794281....49940,776
Australian hardwood1,830199,439768,134122,046145571,932210,176
Native timbers2,395166,775554,9482195441062,475172,783
Totals5,874512,71928333,224433,766279016,227550,610

ROADS ADMINISTRATION.

The control of roads and bridges in New Zealand comes under the administration of the Minister of Public Works, the main statutes covering roads administration being the Public Works Act, 1928, and the Counties Act, 1920, and amendments. The Main Highways Act receives specific mention later.

Outside of the cities, boroughs, and independent town districts, the local administration is very largely vested in County Councils, and all roads, unless specially exempted and declared Government roads or highways, are controlled by the County Councils or by Road Boards. Local authorities have the assistance and advice of the Public Works Department through its various engineers stationed in most of the main centres.

The allocation and legalization of roads is arranged by the local authorities and the Public Works Department conjointly.

The Government assists materially towards the construction of roads and bridges, by grants and subsidies made to the County Councils according to the particular circumstances of each individual case. The county quota of the cost is usually found by raising loans secured by a special rate levied over the area to be served by the road. In this connection it may be noted that local-body loans are now closely controlled, and under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, a Board has been established consisting of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department, and five other persons appointed by the Governor-General. The function of the Board is to consider and investigate all applications from local authorities for developmental loans. The ability of the district concerned to carry the loan and the soundness of the proposal generally are thus fully considered, and, moreover, the operation of the Board tends to exercise a check on excessive borrowing by local bodies.

By statutory provision loan-money is devoted solely to expenditure on construction, maintenance and general repairs being financed from revenue derived from rates, &c.

With the exception of main highways (for which special provisions have existed for some years, as will be seen farther on in this section), the Government's funds for roading purposes, from which the grants and subsidies above referred to may be made, have hitherto been derived,—

  1. For construction work, from the Public Works Fund, consisting mainly of loan-money raised in Great Britain.

  2. For maintenance and repairs, from the Consolidated Fund.

The Finance Act, 1930, made provision for moneys in the Main Highways Account to be appropriated for the construction and maintenance of roads other than main highways, and thus added a third source from which funds for general roading purposes may be furnished by the Government.

For the allocation of Government grants and subsidies to local authorities for road-construction works the Public Works Department ascertains, as early in the financial year as is possible, the approximate amount of Government money which will be available for that year's roading operations. This is then allocated to the several Public Works districts of control on the basis of each district's claim under such factors as area, population, rating, loans available, mileage of roads in use, estimated amount to complete all roads, value of Crown and Native lands suitable for settlement, and mileage of working railways in each district. These district quotas are then in turn allotted, on the same basis and taking similar factors into consideration, to the various counties within each Public Works district. Each local body is then advised of the amount of Government money it is entitled to for the financial year, and in consultation with the District Engineer of the Department it in turn allots its quota to individual roads in order of urgency.

The benefit of the advice of the Government official removes any parochialism which might tend to arise, and by the operation of this scheme no one local authority receives a greater proportion of Government funds than that to which it is justly entitled, nor does one local body benefit at the expense of another.

The allocations by the counties and the Department are subsequently submitted to Parliament for final confirmation and approval.

Maintenance of roads is administered almost entirely by local authorities, the necessary funds being obtained from general rating, but in cases of exceptional circumstances such as those of roads of considerable length in sparsely populated districts where the local rate is totally inadequate to cover efficient maintenance, the Government may grant assistance by way of subsidies from the Consolidated Fund.

Since the advent of modern fast and heavy motor traffic efficient maintenance of roads is becoming increasingly important, and, with a view to protecting the capital expenditure on roads, no opportunity is lost by the Public Works Department of impressing on local bodies their responsibility in this direction. Some years ago the Public Works Department instituted a policy of obtaining from local authorities, before issuing any assistance for metalling work, a definite assurance that the Council was in a position and prepared to allot annually from its Revenue Fund sufficient money to maintain the metal efficiently when placed.

On account of New Zealand's climate and configuration damage to roads by heavy rains and floods frequently occurs, and it sometimes happens that the cost of restoration is beyond the financial resources of the County Council. In such cases the Government, through the Public Works Department, may assist the local body with grants or subsidies from the Consolidated Fund. It must be remembered that Local Bodies were created for the specific purpose of attending to the maintenance of local public facilities such as roads, bridges, &c, and when flood and storm damage occurs, Government assistance is not extended unless it can be shown that the local authority's position financially is such that financial assistance is deserving. In such circumstances the Government makes a grant towards the cost of restoration.

From the inauguration of the public-works scheme in 1870 until the 31st March, 1936, the sum of £23,000,000 has been expended out of the Public Works Fund on the construction of roads and bridges, &c. Considerable further expenditure has been paid out of other accounts on the construction of roads to open up lands for settlement purposes, and out of the Consolidated Fund for the maintenance of roads. Expenditure out of the Main Highways Account is dealt with farther on in this section.

MAIN HIGHWAYS.

Only a small proportion of the total road-mileage outside of boroughs was represented by roads with permanent surfacing prior to the advent of the motor-vehicle. This development, however, entirely changed the complexion of the roading problem in New Zealand, as elsewhere, and the demand for better roads arose very shortly after motor transport became an appreciable factor. Later on, with the rapid increase in the use of motor-vehicles, particularly heavy ones, the position became acute, and it was soon quite evident that the type of road that was suitable for slow-moving horse-drawn traffic was inadequate.

In counties where the country was sparsely populated, and the revenue derivable from rates was low, certain lengths of road had in the past been maintained more or less by means of grants or subsidies from the Government. It was found in New Zealand, as in other parts of the world, that under the strain of motor traffic the roads, particularly those running parallel with railways, wore deteriorating, while the popular clamour that they be improved to meet modern conditions was insistent. This led in 1922 to the passing of the Main Highways Act. The Act of 1922 has since been amended in several respects.

For the purposes of the Act a Board called the “Main Highways Board” was set up. The Board consists of six members—viz., two members appointed by the Government, an officer of the Public Works Department, two representatives of county councils, and one representative of owners of motor-vehicles.

An important amending Act passed in October, 1936, provides, inter alia, that the Main Highways Board may, with the approval of the Minister, classify any main highway as a “State highway”; the whole of the cost of construction and maintenance of State highways to be met (with certain exceptions) from the Main Highways Fund.

HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

In 1924 the Dominion was divided into eighteen highway districts, composed of groups of counties, suitable by geographical situation and community of interest for being so grouped. In the majority of cases the constituent counties acquiesced in the grouping; in the few cases where they did not do so the Main Highways Board exercised the authority conferred by the Act.

Consequent on the provision of additional revenue accruing from the taxation of motor-spirits, the main highway districts were redefined in 1927 to include all boroughs with populations under 6,000. Town districts, both dependent and independent, are also included in the main highways scheme.

District Highway Councils are set up in each highway district, these Councils being constituted to include a Public Works Engineer, and one person to represent each constituent county, with an executive of three appointed by the members of the Council.

The functions of the District Highway Councils are to make recommendations to the Board each year as to which roads within the several districts should be declared main highways, and what works should be done and what expenditure incurred on these highways during the year.

The District Highway Councils are guided by the following considerations when recommending roads for declaration as main highways:—

  • As to whether the roads may be regarded as arterial in that they carry appreciable volumes of through as well as local traffic:

  • As to whether the roads connect large centres of population within the highway district:

  • As to whether the roads carry appreciable traffic to and from seaports or railway centres within or without the highway districts.

LENGTH OF MAIN HIGHWAYS.

The Main Highways Board assumed control of the main highways on the 9th June, 1924, on which date the first and principal schedule of main highways was proclaimed.

On the same date 1,046 miles (later increased to 1,637 miles) of main highways were gazetted Government roads, this action being in terms of section 22 of the Act, whereby the Board might declare any main highway to be a Government road, and might provide a greater proportion of the cost of works of (a) construction and reconstruction, and (b) maintenance and repair. The highways which were declared Government roads were chiefly those in districts where settlement was sparse, and where the revenue from rates collectable by the local authorities was insufficient to meet the expenditure necessary for the construction, reconstruction, and maintenance of the highways therein.

A Main Highways Amendment Act passed in 1928 gave the Board authority to increase its subsidies without the necessity of any highway on which such increased subsidies are paid being declared a Government road. Such an amendment was made necessary mainly in consequence of the increased subsidies being paid by the Board towards the coat of reconstruction and surfacing of main highways adjacent to the large centres of population.

The lengths at 31st March and maintenance-costs during 1935–36 of main highways in each highway district were as follows:—

 Length of Main Highways.Maintenance Expenditure 1935–36.
Dustless Surface.Gravel or Macadam Surface.Clay or Pumice Surface.Total.Board.Local Authorities.Total.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.£££
Auckland North55923..97885,23522,482107,717
Auckland South34785981,214171,19849,017220,215
Tauranga74339312725100,79910,103110,902
Gisborne66309..37552,60814,20866,816
Napier166565673778,09324,342102,375
King-country276362668952,9988,45761,455
"Taranaki3211401247347,24411,13958,383
Wanganui98422552549,80014,25004,050
Wellington West199298..49765,37916,21681,595
Wellington East107397..50467,99520,40588,400
Totals, North Island1,4604,8883696,717771,289190,619961,908
Nelson426171066962,59915,61978,218
West Coast255079541104,56611,330115,896
Canterbury North28306..33417,2253,72120,946
Canterbury Central139600..73947,93511,99959,934
Canterbury South111691..80260,85216,72077,572
Otago Central56757281544,77712,34457,121
Otago South48475..52340,40010,70751,107
Southland34874..90840,53611,36451,900
Totals, South Island4834,827215,331418,89093,804512,694
Totals, Dominion1,9439,71539012,0481,190,179284,4231,474,602

The Main Highways Act, 1922, gave power to the Board to contribute towards the cost of maintenance or repair in a borough, of any street which is a continuation of a main highway, the payment being limited to a rate equal to that paid in respect of the maintenance and repair of the adjoining main highway. The Board decided in 1925 that in all cases where the population of a borough did not exceed 6,000 inhabitants assistance would be given under this authority. As a result of the imposition of the petrol-tax in 1927 (vide below, under “Finance”) the Board extended assistance to these boroughs by declaring the continuation of all main highways to be main highways. Additional highways in these boroughs have been added from time to time.

SUBSIDIES.

Under the Act of 1922 it was provided that the Main Highways Board should pay one-half of the cost of construction and reconstruction of main highways and one-third of the cost of maintenance and repair. The Main Highways Amendment Act, 1925, however, authorized the Board to increase its subsidy on the cost of maintenance on ordinary main highways from one-third to one-half, retrospective to the 1st April, 1925, while an amending Act passed in 1926 authorized a still further increase to three-fifths. The amendment of 1925 also enabled the Board to inaugurate a special system of graduated subsidies towards the cost of erection of large bridges. The amendment provided for payment by the Board of (a) one-half of the cost up to £10,000, (6) three-fifths of so much of the cost as exceeds £10,000 but does not exceed £20,000, and (c) two-thirds of so much of the cost as exceeds £20,000. It also provided for (a) a more liberal subsidy than £1 for £1 in the case of a major deviation of a main highway, (b) the repair of any extraordinary damage, and (c) certain allowances out of the funds of the Highway Board to be paid to members of the executive bodies of District Highway Councils.

In 1926 the Board was authorized, in special cases, to increase the maintenance subsidy to local authorities without the necessity for declaring the sections of main highways involved to be Government roads in terms of section 22 of the original Act. The 1926 amendment further provided for additional assistance towards the cost of maintenance in boroughs where large bridges are situated on continuations of main highways, but by the declaration of these continuations as main highways it is no longer necessary for the Board to operate under this authority.

A still further amendment passed in 1928 enabled the Board to increase the rates of subsidies, and under this authority the maintenance subsidy was increased to £2 for £1 and bridge subsidies generally were increased to £2 for £1 on expenditure up to £10,000, and £3 for £1 on expenditure in excess of £10,000. The Board may in special cases pay subsidies exceeding these rates.

In August, 1931, a further increase to £3 for £1 was made in the case of maintenance subsidies, this provision being made retrospective to 1st April, 1931.

FINANCE.

Until the two separate Funds created by the original Act were amalgamated by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, the Main Highways Account was subdivided as under:—

  1. Revenue Fund, which included proceeds of: (a) tax on tires and tubes, as collected through the Customs Department; (b) registration and license fees of motor-vehicles, but not heavy traffic fees; (c) part of the proceeds of motor-spirits taxation. The present total motor-spirits tax is 10d. (or 10½d. for foreign imports) per gallon, of which 4d. (or 4½d. as the case may be) is ordinary Customs revenue. Ninety-two per cent, of the revenue from 6d. per gallon is credited to the Main Highways Account. The remaining 8 per cent, is distributed to cities and boroughs of six thousand or more population for expenditure on streets forming continuations of main highways; and (d) a similar share of mileage tax on (1) motor-vehicles as defined, the motive power of which is not wholly derived from motor-spirits, and (2) trackless trolley buses.

  2. Construction Fund, to which were paid all moneys borrowed for purposes of construction and reconstruction, to a limit of £4,000,000. In addition, sums might be transferred from the Revenue Fund to the Construction Fund in terms of section 15 of the Main Highways Act, 1922.

The Revenue Fund also formerly received an annual transfer of £35,000 from the Consolidated Fund, and the Construction Fund one of at least £200,000 from the Public Works Fund. Both transfers have been discontinued since 1930. Interest is paid on the amount (£1,226,000) transferred from the Public Works Fund up to 31st March, 1930. In addition, subsidies to local authorities in respect of general rates collected, are payable out of the Main Highways Account instead of the Consolidated Fund as formerly.

The Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4), as amended by the Finance Act, 1932, authorized the payment to County Councils and Road Boards, out of the Revenue Fund, of a subsidy for the purpose of granting to ratepayers a refund or rebate of 12½ per cent, on the rates levied for the year ended 31st March, 1932. The Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, and the Finance Act, 1935, authorized a similar subsidy of 12½ per cent, on rates levied on farming-lands. The sum of £253,776 from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account was expended in 1931–32, £178,246 in 1934–35, and £186,388 in 1935–36 in respect of this subsidy.

The Finance Acts, 1932, 1932–33 (No. 2), and 1934 (No. 2), authorized during the financial years ended 31st March, 1933, 1934, and 1935, the retention in the Consolidated Fund of an amount or amounts out of the tax on motor-spirits otherwise payable to the Revenue Fund not exceeding £500,000 in each year. In 1932–33 and 1933–34 the full half-million was so retained, but in 1934–35 only £321.754 was retained.

The following statement outlines the receipts of and payments from the Main Highways Account during the financial year 1935–36:—

Receipts.£
Fees and fines under section 24 of Motor-vehicles Act, 1924431,896
Tire-tax93,308
Petrol-tax1,449,125
Mileage-tax (Finance Act (No. 2)), 1932–331,616
Interest6,601
Repayments of advances14,064
Recoveries and miscellaneous1,776
Loan-money (stock issued)150,000
Total£2,148,386
Payments.£
Construction433,268
Maintenance1,254,758
Subsidies to local authorities184,855
Commutation of Hutt Road fees23,999
Abolition of toll-gates1,663
Advances to local authorities22,024
Interest charges180,405
Amortization of debt85,419
Exchange1,920
12½ per cent, subsidy on rates levied on farming-lands186,388
Total£2,374,699

The estimates of amounts required for maintenance and repairs, construction and reconstruction, and all other items are forwarded by the District Highway Councils, and after review by the Board are incorporated in the Estimates, which in turn are submitted to Parliament for approval and for inclusion in the annual appropriations.

The revenue from the licensing of motor-vehicles and from taxes on tires and tubes is apportioned between the North and South Inlands in the discretion of the Board, but generally so that the amount apportioned to either Island is fixed by reference to the number of motor-vehicles in that Island. No statutory provision exists in the case of the petrol-tax, which is, however, apportioned approximately on the basis of the relative consumption of petrol in the two Islands.

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island as compared with the number of motor-vehicles in each Island at the 31st March of each of the last five years gives the following results, expressed in percentages of the Dominion totals:—

 1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
North Island—
Maintenance expenditure62·3162·8463·8065·4464·80
Motor-vehicles63·7763·7863·9464·3164·84
South Island—
Maintenance expenditure37·6937·1636·2034·5635·20
Motor-vehicles36·2336·2236·0635·6935·16

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.

The following table shows, up to 31st March, 1936, the extent and type of work accomplished on main highways by the Main Highways Board.

Year.Formation and Widening.Gravelling and Metalling.Tar and Bituminous Sealing.Road-and Plant-mix Bituminous Surfacing.Bituminous Macadam (Penetration).Bituminous Concrete.Portland-cement Concrete.Bridges.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Ft.
1926–2717415135..3812166,408
1927–2817313383..34..67,760
1928–29224185122..5114119,482
1929–30173179133..3931127,547
1930–3113012895..4114911,175
1931–3213969129..32934,062
1932–33564572..8....3,178
1933–34442875..7..14,988
1934–3511369172273..26,641
3935–3615298245912....8,718
Totals, from inception to 3lst March, 19361,4421,2361,183118306846677,561

At an early stage in the history of the main highways scheme, the District Highway Councils were advised that the standards of road-construction recommended for adoption should be such as were warranted by the existing or early prospective traffic. To ensure uniformity in construction as far as possible throughout the Dominion standards were laid down for the guidance of local authorities.

As a guide to local authorities in the preparation of proposals the Main Highways Board issued Bulletin No. 2, which comprises a number of typical standard specifications for all classes of road formation and surfacing, together with a series of helpful notes on highway design. These specifications are not laid down as hard-and-fast rules which local authorities must in every case adopt, but are regarded as standard practice, the following of which will result in satisfactory work. The standard of construction in all cases should, of course, be regulated by local conditions, and should be commensurate with the traffic requirements. As much construction work is financed wholly or in part by loan, it is essential that the character of the work should be such as to ensure a life at least equal to the period of the loan.

The average expenditure on maintenance per mile per annum on the whole main highways system by the Main Highways Board and local authorities has been:—

££
1926–27111·9
1927–28119·9
1928–29100·1
1929–30128·6
1930–31103·1
1931–3292·5
1932–3370·7
1933–3478·6
1934–35100·3
1935–36122·4

The following tabulation shows the amount which has been provided by the Hoard and by local authorities for expenditure on both maintenance and construction of main highways during the last five years. Maintenance figures exclude indirect charges such as supervision, interest, &c, but include the cost of earthquake and Hood damage restoration.

 1031–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–30.
 £££££
Maintenance by Board849,734600,324674,026932,6751,190,179
Maintenance by local authorities215,568168,466187,735226,554284,423
Construction by Board301,969159,323198,295325,483428,084
Construction by local authorities94,97343,18155,99757,97578,263
Totals1,522,244971,2941,116,0531,542,6871,980,949
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Percentages.
Maintenance by Board79·878·178·280·580·7
Maintenance by local authorities20·221·921·819·519·3
Construction by Board79·278·778·084·984·5
Construction by local authorities20·821·322·015·115·5

The use of up-to-date machinery on construction and maintenance of main highways is recognized to be in the interests of economy and efficiency, and, for the purpose of encouraging local bodies to use such plant, power enabling the Main Highways Board to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, equipment, and appliances to local authorities on the hire-purchase system was given by the Main Highways Amendment Act, 1925. As a consequence of this legislation a great number of local authorities have purchased modern roadmaking plant through the Board.

A petrological laboratory was established in Wellington at the beginning of 1925. Full reports are made on the various materials submitted by local authorities for use as road-metal as well as for other purposes.

Tests for bitumens, tars, &c, are carried out by the Dominion Analyst, Wellington, while the testing of steel is carried out by the Public Works and Railways Departments, and at the Canterbury (University College) School of Engineering.

ROADING COSTS.

The following statement of the Dominion's annual roading bill has been derived by the Transport Department from various official sources. In some cases estimation has been resorted to chiefly in regard to the distribution of expenditure under the headings of main highways, urban roads, streets, &c., but it is considered that the figures are sufficiently close to fact to justify their use as a basis for reliable broad conclusions.

ROAD EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure on1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1034–35.
Maintenance—£££££
Main highways1,326,3721,202,343858,577919,1941,268.6111
Urban roads and streets581,734529,104453,969397,371392,032
Other roads1,130,8111,009,702763,648708,424947,057
Totals3,038,9172,741,1492,076,1942,024,9892,607,699
Construction—
Main highways838,477540,841261,602275,676406,562
Urban roads and streets1,077,3801,338,6771,224,2141,104,047944,235
Other roads1,656,3951,489,1271,122,1451,085,6721,010,182
Totals3,572,2523,368,6452,607,9612,465,3952,360,979
Interest and sinking fund charges—
Main highways595,845635,930622,128632,846612,129
Urban roads and streets615,530640,728642,282585,900554,400
Other roads1,125,0271,198,7861,129,4821,136,0701.136,515
Totals2,336,4022,475,4442,393,8922,354,8162,303,044
Grand totals8,947,5718,585,2387,078,0476,845,2007,271,722

In view of the large increase in motor traffic, and of the additional road expenditure necessitated thereby, the following recapitulation of returns from special taxation of motor-vehicles is of direct interest:—

Yield of1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1035–36.

* Estimated.

† Not yet available.

 £££££
Tire-tax85,43764,16363,80192,58794,071
Motor-spirits tax1,358,0231,263,8811,291,8791,424,8091,596,407
Fees, &c, under Motor-vehicles Act, 1924370,126352,561346,250391,660431,896
Heavy-traffic fees179,105178,183171,503204,767209,000*
Drivers' licenses58,80057,13260,35861,38565,000*
Mileage tax....1,5971,3961,756
Totals2,052,1511,915,9201,935,3882,176,6042,398,130
Proportion per cent, of total to total road bill shown in preceding table23·927·128·329·9

Included in the figure for motor-spirits taxation for each of the years 1932–33 and 1933–34 is an amount of £500,000, and in 1934–33 an amount of £321,754, which has been retained in the Consolidated Fund and thus diverted from roading purposes. Customs duties on motor-vehicles and parts are excluded from the above table. Such taxation is not special taxation, as all imported goods of similar nature pay duties towards the general expenses of the State.

The total motor-spirits taxation is at the rate of 10d. per gallon—i.e., British preferential tariff (the general tariff pays one-twentieth surtax, and thus equals 10½d.). The first 6d. collected under this head is devoted to road purposes, and this is the figure (including cost of collection) which is quoted in the above table. The remaining 4d. or 4½d. (2d. from October, 1931, and 2d. additional from February, 1933) is ordinary Customs revenue, and was imposed for that purpose, being only a part of increased taxation imposed for the various purposes of Government.

The comparison of the two preceding tables is necessarily not an exact or a complete one. There are numerous items directly or indirectly caused by road traffic which do not appear in the road costs shown. For instance, there are such items as traffic control, increased police duties, cost of collection of petrol and other taxes, general administration charges, examinations for drivers' licenses, hospital maintenance costs resulting from motor-vehicle accidents, &c.

REGISTRATION OF MOTOR-VEHICLES.

Before the Main Highways Act was passed the Government recognized the reasonableness of motor-vehicle owners contributing towards the cost of the construction and upkeep of the road-surfaces which were required principally for them.

Amongst the funds laid down in the Main Highways Act as being available for the Revenue Fund was a sum to be derived from the licensing of motor-vehicles. When the Main Highways Act was passed it was expected that a Motor-vehicles Act dealing with the registration and licensing of motor-vehicles would be simultaneously passed, but owing to the difficulty of co-ordinating all interests it was not until November, 1924, that the Motor-vehicles Act became law.

This Act provided for the registration and annual licensing of all motor-vehicles.

Registration fees are 10s. for a motor-cycle and 20s. for any other motor-vehicle. License fees include 10s. for a motor-cycle; £2 for a motor-car; £3 for a motor-omnibus; £5 for a traction-engine; and from £2 to £3 for a motor-lorry, according to weight and tires. Other fees include drivers' licenses, 5s.; changes of ownership, 5s.; and manufacturers' and dealers' fees. Heavy-traffic fees are not levied under the Motor-vehicles Act; they are referred to later.

All such fees, except that for a driver's license, which is payable to the local authorities, have in terms of the Motor-vehicles Act to be credited to the Main Highways Account. Heavy-traffic fees (estimated at £209,000 in the fiscal year 1935–36) are distributed among local bodies.

The Motor-vehicles Amendment Act, 1936, amends the pre-existing law in several important respects. A uniform speed limit of thirty miles per hour is fixed in boroughs and town districts, while authority is taken to extend the operation of this limit to other localities by notice published in the New Zealand Gazette. This speed limit may also be abrogated in specified localities by similar notification. Penalties are provided for careless and inconsiderate driving. The general penalty for offences is increased from £10 to £50; while the pre-existing authority for the issue of regulations is extended to provide for periodical examination of motor-vehicles (fee, 5s.), and limiting the hours during which, or regulating conditions under which, a person may drive a trade motor-vehicle in use for commercial purposes. Power is taken to issue regulations governing pedestrian and other traffic.

The customary figures of motor-vehicles licensed (quarterly figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics), show a classification based upon licensing requirements. The figures in the table following have been specially compiled to distinguish completely the actual types of vehicles.

Type of Vehicle.Licensed as at 31st March.
1934.1935.1936.
Cars129,517138,188152,175
Taxis1,5391,5971,732
Service cars81572099
Omnibuses548661573
Trucks, 2 tons and under20,44522,23624,322
Trucks, over 2 tons15,03816,36218,068
Motor-cycles24,82324,57024,099
Tractors and traction-engines3,9601,0351,271
Trailers3,9603,4284,159
Others600659849
Totals197,285209,402228,247

Dormant registrations are those of vehicles the registration of which has not been cancelled, but which have not been relicensed for the current year. Dormant registrations stand for two years, and are then cancelled if not previously relicensed. The number of dormant registrations is always high in the early months of the registration year, but declines rapidly during the year.

The number of dormant registrations as at the 31st March, 1936, was 22,387, consisting of 13,617 1934–35 and 8,770 1933–34 registrations. Dormant registrations of cars as at the 31st March of the last three years have manifested a remarkable change, the approximate figures being: 1934, 12,100; 1935, 8,700; and 1930, 7,900.

Upon the arbitrary assumption that, of vehicles whose registration is “dormant,” three-fourths of 1934–35 registrations and one-half of 1933–34 registrations still existed as practicable vehicles, the approximate number of motor-vehicles in New Zealand at 31st March, 1936, was 243,000, of winch 228,247 were actually upon the roads.

The latest figures available show the number of motor-vehicles licensed as at 30th June, 1936; totals for the previous year are given for purposes of comparison:—

Type of Vehicle.North Island.South Island.Dominion.
Cars86,21544,204130,419
Light trucks12,6666,47119,137
Heavy trucks10,2754,08414,959
Passenger trucks570274844
Omnibuses391143534
Taxis1,0655191,584
Rental cars215156371
Service cars355237592
Trailers9461,1212,067
Dealers' cars9664251,391
Local authority road vehicles9665551,521
Government vehicles1,1284821,610
Motor-cycles8,8895,05513,944
Dealers' motor-cycles7740117
Totals, 30th June, 1936124,72464,366189,090
Totals, 30th June, 1935110,34657,951168,297

In number of motor-vehicles per head of population New Zealand ranks high, and is, in fact, usually credited in statistical compilations as being exceeded in this respect only by the United States and Canada.

A comprehensive traffic survey conducted by the Transport Department in 1934–35 gave the following results:—

——Estimated Annual Passenger Mileage.All passenger Vehicles.Estimated Annual Ton mileage of Goods.
Private Cars.Public Passenger Vehicles.Motorcycles.
 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
North Island739,51552,24824,175815,93884,322
South Island424,12330,84316,249471,21544,214
Totals1,163,63883,09140,4241,287,153128,536

The country of manufacture of motor-vehicles registered during each of the last five years is indicated in the table following. Figures refer to vehicles registered, and should not be confused with vehicles licensed.

Motor-vehicles Registered, Year ended 31st March.
Country of Manufacture.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
Motor-cars—
United Kingdom2,6072.8323,0916,0969,396
U.S.A. or Canada3,4771,8342,4066,73010,023
Other countries6750546950
Commercial vehicles—
United Kingdom4476869411,2661,515
U.S.A. or Canada1,5741,1491,4712,7913,785
Other countries6358059279541,145
Motor-cycles—
United Kingdom1,5671,5151,4281,6691,897
U.S.A. or Canada483545514542486
Other countries812142238

ROAD TRANSPORT.

The post-war period ushered in a rapid development of an already considerable road motor transport which has necessitated extensive legislation, not alone for its control but also for the provision of adequate road-surfaces. Certain principal enactments are referred to briefly in chronological order.

The Customs Amendment Act, 1921, among numerous tariff changes, imposed a tire-tax on rubber tires and tubes, previously duty free. The proceeds are credited to the Main Highways Account. For an account of the moneys derived from this and other highways taxation, vide Section XXIVB(Taxation).

The Main Highways Act of 1922 constituted the next landmark. It has been referred to earlier in this section. Two years later came the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924 (amended in 1927 and in 1936), which has received specific mention under the immediately preceding title. At the same time the Public Works Amendment Act 1924, was passed. Under it regulations could be made fixing, in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local bodies for road-maintenance purposes, and also classifying roads and providing other measures. Regulations to this effect were passed in 1925. In the financial year 1934–35 local bodies received £204,767 by way of heavy-traffic fees.' Present annual license fees under the heavy motor-vehicle regulations range from £5 2s. to £63 15s. for a pneumatic-tired vehicle, and from £6 to £75 for a vehicle solid-tired on any wheel.

With the object of controlling motor-omnibus competition with tramways, regulations under the Board of Trade Act were issued in 1926. In the same year they were superseded by the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, itself later repealed by the comprehensive Transport Licensing Act, 1931 (amended in 1936).

The Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927, imposed a Customs duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases are not connected with road taxation). From the net proceeds 92 per cent, is paid into the Main Highways Account, and the balance distributed pro rata on a population basis amongst cities or boroughs of a population of 6,000 upwards.

In 1927 the administration of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924, was transferred to the Public Works Department, which subsequently issued in draft form regulations containing a uniform code of rules for motor-traffic in the Dominion. After full opportunity for criticism by interested parties the regulations were brought into law in 1928.

The Public Works Act, 1928, contained extensive provisions relating to the construction, maintenance, and use of roads. Almost simultaneously came the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928, vide Section XXIXB(Accident Insurance).

In 1929 the Transport Department Act constituted the portfolio of Minister of Transport, and the Transport Department under a Commissioner of Transport. The Act placed the administration of the following Acts under the Transport Department:—

  • Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

  • Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926.

  • Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927.

  • Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928.

  • Public Works Act, 1928, in so far as it relates to heavy traffic or to motor-vehicles.

The Transport Licensing Act, 1931, is also under the administration of the Department.

TRANSPORT LICENSING.

The Transport Licensing Act, passed on the 11th November, 1931, is designed to regulate road motor transport with a view to securing co-ordination between it and other forms of transport and to secure its organization from the standpoint of maximum utility. The Act was substantially amended in 1936, the principal amendment being the abolition from 1st April, 1936, of the Transport Co-ordination Board (set up under an amending Act of 1933), the powers previously exercised by the Board being vested in the Minister of Transport.

The more important provisions of the law as amended are described in the following paragraphs:—

Four metropolitan districts were constituted under the Act, and provision was made for the division of the remainder of the North and South Islands by Order in Council. There are now nine transport districts, of which five are in the North Island. Each transport district consists of a group of geographic counties, and the whole with the four metropolitan districts comprises the total area of the mainland.

A district licensing authority is constituted for each transport district. Prior to the amending Act of 1936 each district licensing authority consisted of three members, but the Minister of Transport may now delegate these powers to one person. Previously a central licensing authority was constituted to deal with certain classes of services, but this body has now been abolished, its functions being taken over by the district authority.

Motor-vehicle passenger-services are not permitted to operate except under license. This does not apply to taxis unless running on defined routes, to carriage of school-children, or to carriage in certain cases of a private party by a contract vehicle on a special occasion; but authority is taken in the 1936 amending Act to extend, at the discretion of the Minister, the definition of a passenger service to include any service by motor-vehicle for the carriage of passengers.

In considering applications for licenses the licensing authority is required first to have regard to the necessity or desirability of the service in the public interest and to the needs of the district in relation to passenger transport. Should these requirements be fulfilled, the Licensing Authority must further take into account, inter alia, the financial ability of the applicant, time-tables, fares, existing transport services, transport requirements, vehicles to be used, conditions of roads or streets to be traversed, and representations by the Railways Department, local authorities, other transport owners, &c. In certain circumstances applications by the Government or by local authorities receive preference. Where the Minister of Railways holds a passenger-service license, no licenses are to be granted to any other person in respect of the same route and terminal points without the consent of that Minister. This does not apply to renewals which merely authorize the continuance of existing services to the extent to which they were being carried on at the time of the acquisition by the Minister of the license held by him.

It was the intention of the Legislature first to examine, regulate, and co-ordinate the passenger-transport services of the Dominion, and then, with the administrative experience thus gained, to proceed with the more complicated undertaking of rationalizing the goods-transport services. Regulation of passenger-transport was introduced at a time when adverse economic conditions had brought about intense competition, with its attendant evils. As a result of the Act, unnecessary or undesirable competition was eliminated, time-tables were drawn up and strictly enforced, standards of serviceability of vehicles were imposed, and routes and fare-schedules laid clown.

The Transport Licensing Amendment Act, 1935, extended the duration of passenger-service licenses to three years, except in the case of temporary licenses.

During the year 1933 goods services were brought under the jurisdiction of the Act, which, together with subsequent Orders in Council, provides for the licensing of all goods services conducted between any two points or areas involving the traverse of at least five miles of a rural main highway, subject to certain exceptions—e.g., where the only goods carried are milk or cream being carried from farms to dairy factories, goods carried in a vehicle used solely in connection with funerals, or goods towed or carried on “break-down” vehicles. The rationalization of the goods-service industry has not yet reached the same stage as that obtaining in the passenger-service industry. Licensees have been restricted to fixed routes or areas, subject to certain provisions enabling them to obtain temporary licenses to perform occasional jobs outside their respective territories; but a section in the 1936 amendment enables the provisions of the law applying to passenger services to be applied also to goods services.

The 1936 amendment contains several sections consequential to its abolition of the Transport Co-ordination Board. A right of appeal to the Minister against decisions of licensing authorities is given in the amending Act, the decision of the Minister to be final. The investigating powers formerly held by the Board are transferred to the Minister, who is also declared to be the sole issuing authority for commercial aircraft services.

PASSENGER-SERVICE LICENSES.

The following table deals with passenger-service licenses for the year ended 31st March, 1936. It covers licenses Issued by the nine district authorities, by the four metropolitan authorities, and by the Central Licensing Authority.

——Continuous.Seasonal.Temporary.Total.
Applications—    
Lodged738283,2003,966
Granted669263,1283,823
Refused2826494
Withdrawn282838
Deferred13....13

The main passenger-service statistics for the Dominion are as under. The figures cover the last two years available.

 1933–34.1934–35.
Vehicle-journeys run1,878,7461,730,521
Vehicle-miles covered21,920,58721,541,921
Empty trips57,38248,818
Passengers carried16,548,71715,975,336
 £Per Vehicle-mile.£Per Vehicle-mile.
d.d.
Operating-costs—
Vehicle-running439,1034·81434,0134·84
Vehicle standing charges280,8323·07277,9533·10
General overhead charges90,3580·9994,1731·05
Total810,2938·87806,7398·99
Revenue—
Passengers736,5308·06753,4258·39
Mail contracts35,1770·3931,1120·35
Newspapers13,2340·1416,9490·19
Goods and parcels44,8920·4957,4570·64
Other18,0640·2113,1890·15
Total848,4979·29872,1329·72
Net profits38,2460·4265,3930·73
Total assets980,404..870,583..
Vehicles (included in “Total assets”)444,748..410,785..
Capital and reserves679,107..585,347..
Other liabilities301,297..285,236..
Total liabilities980,404..870,583..

GOODS-SERVICE LICENSES.

The following table deals with goods-service licenses under the Transport Licensing Act, 1931, for the year ended 31st March, 1936. It covers operations of the nine district authorities, and also of post-offices in respect of temporary licenses.

——Continuous.Seasonal.Temporary.Total.
Applications—
Lodged2,0801048,48910,673
Granted1,999938,45810,550
Refused5643191
Withdrawn146..20
Deferred111..12

Statistics of goods-services operating (in both North and South Islands) under license during the years 1934–35 and 1935–36 are given:—

 1334–35.1935–36.
Vehicle-miles covered45,991,00049,465,000
 ££
Operating-costs1,822,0001,805,000
Revenue2,037,0002,070,000
Net profit215,000265,000
Capital and reserves1,505,0001,289,000
Other liabilities732,000635,000

Total operating-expenses in 1935–36 averaged 8·76d. per vehicle-mile, while revenue averaged 10 04d.

It should be noted that the licensed goods-services engaged only a small portion (3,368 out of a total of 42,390) of the total number of motor-trucks actually on the road.

Half-yearly collections of motor-transport statistics were made by the Census and Statistics Office from November, 1927, to July, 1932. The inquiries covered only regular public services on defined routes, as it was considered that this would give the best indication of changes in the volume and character of the transport business being developed by motor-vehicles on the roads of the Dominion. In 1932 passenger-services were no longer included in the field of inquiry. Detailed results of the data obtained will be found in the 1932 and earlier editions of the Year-Book, and summarized figures, covering the last five collections, in the 1934 number.

Statistics of petrol consumption in New Zealand are given in Section XLIII (Consumption of Commodities).

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS.

There is no comprehensive statistical series giving information concerning traffics accidents on the roads of the Dominion. Figures are available in cases of accidents resulting in fatalities, and these are discussed briefly in an earlier section (vide p. 90). Further details of fatal motor accidents are given below.

Nature of Accident.Year ended 31st March.Total of Five Years.
1932.1933.1934.1935.1036.
Collisions, motor-vehicle with—
Pedestrian3045264656203
Motor-vehicle2939213645170
Train83910434
Tram11..226
Bicycle11l15232792
Horse-vehicle or horse under control16431l5
Fixed object15567942
Straying stock..12238
Went over bank22918221889
Otherwise3115242326119
Total accidents148140125174191778

Of 820 persons killed in motor accidents during the same five years as in the table preceding, 199 were pedestrians, 211 were on motor-cycles, 310 were on other motor-vehicles, and 100 were on other vehicles or on horseback. Thirty-three were under five scars of age, 45 were between five and ten years, 31 were between ten and fifteen years 542 were between fifteen and fifty-five years, 162 were fifty-five years or over, and in 7 cases the age was not known.

It is noticeable that Saturday records a distinctly heavier toll of motor-accident fatalities than any other day of the week. The majority of fatal motor accidents occurred in daylight. Of the total of 778 for the five years, 429 occurred in daylight. 75 at dusk, 52 in artificial lighting, and 222 in dark or moonlight.

Chapter 23. SECTION XIV.—AVIATION AND AIR TRANSPORT.

DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION.

APART from a few isolated experimental flights, there was little active interest in aviation in the Dominion in the very early stages of aeronautical development; but there were two aviation companies operating in New Zealand during the years of the Great War. In both instances the activities of the companies were confined to the training of pilots and “joy-riding” tours, while flying exhibitions were given in numerous towns and townships throughout the country.

An Act to control aviation in New Zealand was passed in 1918. This Act empowered the Governor-General in Council to make regulations for the licensing of aircraft and flying schools, and for the issuing of flying certificates.

During the financial year 1919–20, £25,000 was voted by the Government for aviation purposes, but of this amount only £8,368 was expended. No definite aviation policy had been laid down up to that time; but early in 1920 an Air Board was set up, consisting of three naval and military officers and five senior administrative officers of the Government, to act in an advisory capacity to the Government in all matters concerning aviation in the Dominion. The existing aviation companies were being run at a loss-partly as a result of the cessation of training of pilots as candidates for service in the Royal Air Force—and it was deemed advisable to subsidize these companies in order to keep them in operation until such time as plans for the future development of aviation were definitely formulated. In September, 1920, an aviation policy was approved by Cabinet dealing with (a) matters of defence, (b) commercial undertakings, and (c) aviation generally.

The necessity for the encouragement of commercial aviation as an essential part of Defence policy was recognized, and arrangements were made for the loan of Defence machines to civil companies for training purposes, while a subsidy scheme was brought into operation. In 1922–23 subsidies amounting to £2,975 were paid to the three aviation companies then in existence. In addition, these companies received £2,700 as payment for refresher courses earned out by Defence officers.

On the 14th June. 1923, the New Zealand Air Force was formed, consisting of (a) the Permanent Air Force, and (b) the New Zealand Air Force—a part of the Territorial Forces of the Dominion; while an area was purchased at Hobson-ville (Auckland) for the establishment of a Defence air base.

Civil aviation in New Zealand did not progress beyond the experimental stage until comparatively recently. Apart from the difficulty of terrain and the insufficiency of adequate and well-equipped landing-grounds, the comparative smallness of the country did not encourage the development of civil aviation. After the first pioneer stage there was little activity for several years; but a fillip to aviation in the Dominion was given by the Government's offer in 1929 of financial assistance to approved flying clubs.

Recognizing that the development of civil aviation in New Zealand was being seriously retarded by the cost of providing adequate ground organization. Parliament passed legislation in 1929 empowering local bodies to establish and maintain aerodromes and to make charges for the use thereof. The Act empowered ail classes of local authorities and public bodies to contribute towards the cost of establishing such aerodromes and to contribute to the funds of recognized aviation authorities. In September, 1933, a scheme for establishing a chain of landing-grounds throughout the Dominion was approved by the Government. Its objects are to increase the mobility and defensive power of the New Zealand Air Force and to provide for the development and safety of civil aviation.

The scheme, in addition to providing employment, will create a permanent national asset, and will ultimately result in a very considerable saving of capital expenditure on the part of the Government and local bodies.

Briefly, the scheme involves the location and inspection of suitable sites along the main air routes by a specially qualified engineer of the Public Works Department, working in close collaboration with the Director of Air Services. Once the areas are selected, engineering surveys are carried out and the grounds levelled by Public Works employees working under skilled supervision. The scheme calls for the close, co-operation of the Public Works Department, the Labour Department, and the Director of Air Services, and involves the expenditure of additional moneys over and above the cost of the labour supplied in order to provide for the cost of surveys, technical supervision, tools, and special items incidental to the scheme. During the last financial year £6,391 was expended on the development of landing-grounds; but provision has been made in the current year's estimates for £341,000, including £120,000 for supervision and material, and £188,000 for labour.

In all there are forty aerodromes complete in New Zealand (some of which were formed before the inauguration of the scheme) and seventy other grounds. including emergency landing-fields, complete or partially complete.

The Public Works Amendment Act, 1935, authorizes the taking of land required for the purposes of aerodromes. Such authority is extended to local authorities, this including an “aviation authority,” which is a body corporate and is recognized under section 3 of the Local Authorities Empowering (Aviation Encouragement) Act, 1929. Other provisions deal with fixing the maximum height of buildings and trees in the vicinity of aerodromes, or for the removal of buildings and trees, where required for the protection of aerodromes.

The general statutory law relating to aviation in New Zealand is contained in the Air Navigation Act, 1931. The main purpose of this Act was to enable the Governor-General in Council to make regulations for carrying out the Convention relating to aerial navigation signed at Paris on behalf of the New Zealand Government in 1919. Civil aviation is subject to the Air Navigation Regulations, 1933, their administration being in the hands of the Minister of Defence. The executive officer is the Controller of Civil Aviation, who is an officer of the Defence Department. Statutory provisions of a localized nature are contained in the New Plymouth Airport Act, 1933, and the Napier Airport Act, 1935, which make provision for the control of these airports. This control is to be exercised by Boards consisting of representatives of the aero clubs and local authorities concerned, together with members appointed by the Director of Civil Aviation.

The isolation of New Zealand has up to the present proved a bar to the linking-up of this Dominion by air with the long-distance airway services of the world. The first attempt to fly the Tasman was the ill-fated attempt by Messrs. Hood and Moncrieff in 1928, the first successful flight being made later in the same year by Captain (the late Sir Charles) Kingsford Smith and party. Trans-Tasman flights have since been made on eighteen occasions, of which five were in single and thirteen in multi engined planes; and of these flights, seven were in a westward direction (from New Zealand to Australia) and eleven in an eastward direction. All westward flights, with one exception, have been made in multi engined planes. That one exception, a flight made by Mr. F. C. Chichester in 1931, was also unique in that it was the only occasion on which a flight was not made in one hop, calls being made at Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands. As yet, however, no final announcement has been made in the matter of a trans-Tasman service.

A review of civil aviation activities in New Zealand is given in the following paragraphs. Information regarding the Royal New Zealand Air Force is included in the Defence section of the Year-Book (page 165).

COMMERCIAL AIR TRANSPORT.

With the establishment of two air lines of a major nature during the past year commercial aviation can be said to have become firmly established in New Zealand. Hitherto commercial activities have been limited mainly to air-taxi work undertaken by aero clubs) and to two scheduled services of a minor nature. However, in December, 1935, Cook Strait Airways commenced an air service across Cook Strait, and a month later Union Airways commenced a two-way daily trunk service from Palmerston North to Dunedin. An extension of both these services before the end of 1936 is anticipated. Cook Strait Airways are awaiting completion of aerodrome facilities before operating between Nelson and Hokitika, while Union Airways have made an application for a license to make Auckland their northern terminal. Present indications are that overseas air connections will not be established before the end of 1937.

Legislation controlling the licensing of commercial aircraft services was introduced in 1934, when the Transport Licensing (Commercial Aircraft Services) Act was passed. Under the provisions of this Act the issuing of licenses was placed under the jurisdiction of the Transport Co-ordination Hoard, set up under the Transport Law Amendment Act of 1933; but on the 3rd March, 1936, this Hoard ceased to function, its powers being vested in the Minister of Transport in accordance with the Transport Licensing Amendment Act, 1936. All air-transport services must hold licenses under these Acts, except those in which aircraft leave from and return to the same aerodrome without any intermediate stop. Licenses may be issued to commercial aircraft companies for the maintaining of regular time-table schedules or for air-taxi work; while special licenses, available for a period of four years from the passing of the first Act, may be granted to recognized aero clubs in existence when the legislation came into force.

By the Customs (Aircraft) Regulations of 1935 it is necessary for aeroplanes arriving from or departing to other countries to do so at a “Customs aerodrome,” and Customs declarations similar to those required of ships and their passengers are necessary before departure and on arrival of such aeroplanes.

Licenses permitting the operation of regular scheduled services have been granted to four companies as under:—

New Zealand Air Travel. Ltd. East Coast Airways, Ltd. Cook Strait Airways, Ltd. Union Airways, Ltd.

Following are some particulars of the companies:—

NEW ZEALAND AIR TRAVEL, LTD.
Date commenced operations18th December, 1934.
Number of planes2.
Description of planesD.H. Fox Moths.
Seating-capacity5 (including pilot).
Route and periodicity of serviceHokitika to Franz Joseph Glacier—daily. Hokitika to Haast and Okuru—weekly.

The company is authorized to use Inchbonnie, Greymouth, or Hokitika as ports, but in practice the Hokitika aerodrome is the regular starting-off and terminal port. The company operates a regular fortnightly mail-service to Okuru—the first regular air-mail service in New Zealand, and one of the few in the world on which no surcharge is made for air transport of mail.

The following table gives details of operations to 30th June, 1930:—

MileagePassengers.Goods.Mails.
   lb.lb.
Period ended 31st March, 193531,5005992,6371,841
Quarter ended 30th June, 193517,4333102,2213,527
Quarter ended 30th September, 193517,1002081,7624,231
Quarter ended 31st December, 193524,3003724,6895,190
Quarter ended 31st March, 193628,4006612,1024,620
Quarter ended 30th June, 193620,9002311,6658,649
Totals139,6332,38115,07628,058
EAST COAST AIRWAYS, LTD.
Date commenced operations16th April, 1935.
Number of planes2.
Description of planesD.H. Standard Dragons.
Seating-capacity11 (including pilot).
Route and periodicity of serviceGisborne to Napier—two return trips daily.

The company has also been granted an air-taxi license for the carriage of passengers and goods to any part of the North Island, commencing from or terminating at the aerodromes at Gisborne, Napier, or Hastings. It is also permitted to use Hastings as a port in its regular scheduled flights, although at present the service operates between Gisborne and Napier only.

This service has been suspended for some months (from March, 1936) owing to the cancellation of the aerodrome license of the Gisborne terminal. The withdrawal of this license by the Director of Civil Aviation has permitted the necessary alterations and improvements to be made to the previously unsatisfactory landing-field.

The following table gives details of operations to 18th March, 1936, on which date the service was temporarily suspended:—

Mileage.Passengers.Goods.Mails.

* For period 1st October, 1935, to 18th March, 1936.

† Carried on day of commencement of services only.

 lb.lb.
Period ended 30th June, 193526,167754..98
Quarter ended 30th September, 193534,300849....
Quarter ended 31st December, 193538,5761,172101..
Period ended 18th March, 193630,3201,033146..
Totals129,3633,808247*98
COOK STRAIT AIRWAYS, LTD.
Date commenced operations30th December, 1935.
Number of planes3.
Description of planesD.H. 89 (Rapides).
Seating-capacity7 (including pilot).
Routes and periodicity of serviceNelson to Wellington and vice versa (direct and via Blenheim): and Wellington to Blenheim and vice versa. Schedule: Four return trans-Strait trips daily.

The headquarters of this company are at Nelson, with terminal facilities at Wellington. The route flown is a comparatively short one (under one hundred miles), which permits a frequent service daily.

The following table gives details of operations to 30th June, 1936:—

Mileage.Passengers.Goods.Mails.
* From 10th March only.
   lb.lb.
Period ended 31st December, 19351,1255582..
Quarter ended 31st March, 193656,8753,0013,899710
Quarter ended 30th June, 193657,5803,1145,6393,528
Totals115,5806,1709,6204,238*
UNION AIRWAYS, LTD.
Date commenced operations16th January, 1936.
Number of planes3.
Description of planesD.H. 86.
Seating-capacity12–14 (including 2 pilots).
Route and periodicity of servicePalmerston North to Dunedin via Blenheim and Christchurch. One trip both ways daily.

This company's headquarters are at Milsom (Palmerston North), where it has erected the largest commercial hangar in New Zealand to date. Its time-table is run in conjunction with that of Cook Strait Airways, allowing passengers to connect at Blenheim with planes to and from Wellington and Nelson. Both Cook Strait Airways and Union Airways are subsidiary companies of the Union Steamship Co., which is the premier shipping company operating in the New Zealand coastal and inter-colonial trade.

The following table shows details of operations to 30th June, 1936:—

Mileage.Passengers.Goods.Mails.
* From 16th March only.
   lb.lb.
Period ended 31st March. 193671,5751,2118611,055
Quarter ended 30th June, 193690,0901,6381,1667,751
Totals161,6652,8492,0278,806*
SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS OF REGULAR AIR SERVICES TO 30TH JUNE, 1936.
FromMileage.Passengers.Goods.Mails.

* Up to 18th March, 1936.

† From 1st October, 1935, to 18th March, 1936.

‡ Carried on day of commencement of service.

§ From 16th March only.

 lb.lb.
Air Travel (N.Z.), Ltd.18/12/34139,6332,38115,07628,058
East Coast Airways, Ltd.16/4/35129,303*3,808*24798
Cook Strait Airways, Ltd.30/12/35115,5806,1709,6204,238§
Union Airways, Ltd.16/1/36161,6652,8492,0278,806§
Totals..546,24115,20826,96641,200

At 30th June, 1936, these four companies employed thirteen pilots and operated nine airliners on their regular services, together with ten other machines for air-taxi work.

Air-taxi licenses are also held by the following companies (in addition to those held by aero clubs):—

New Zealand Airways, Ltd. Waikato Aviation Co., Ltd. Mount Cook Tourist Co. of New Zealand, Ltd.

New Zealand Airways, Ltd., operates a fleet of five Hermes Spartans, one Puss Moth, and two Boeings 40 H-4. On the advice of the Director of Civil Aviation the Boeing machines can be used only at aerodromes licensed for other than “light aircraft only.” The company was originally authorized to carry goods and passengers to any part of the South Island, commencing from or terminating at the aerodromes at Timaru or Dunedin.

The Waikato Aviation Co., Ltd., was granted a license to carry out air-taxi work to any part of the North Island, commencing from or terminating at the Hamilton Aerodrome. The company uses one machine—a Desoutter Cabin monoplane, Mark I, which has a seating-capacity of three (including pilot), or, alternatively, may be used as an ambulance plane.

Regulations governing air-taxi licenses were co-ordinated in October, 1935, following a conference of all parties interested, and such regulations govern both commercial companies and aero clubs. Included therein were the following conditions as to the fares to be charged for air-taxi work: Minimum fares—One passenger, £3 for each 100 miles; two passengers, £3 10s. for each 100 miles; three passengers, £3 15s. for each 100 miles; four passengers, £4 for each 100 miles: but where the flight takes place between two points served by the same licensed regular service the individual fares shall in no case be less than the fare charged by the licensed service plus 10 per cent.

In addition, these regulations enable an air-taxi-license holder to fly between any two licensed aerodromes in New Zealand, thus removing restrictions previously imposed as to which aerodromes air-taxis might fly to or from, and as to which territories they might fly over.

The advancement of commercial flying in New Zealand has necessitated an extension of the activities of the Government Meteorological Office. During the past year the number of recording stations has been increased, while reports for the benefit of aircraft are now issued during the day at three-hourly intervals from 7 a.m. onwards. As yet no night flying of a commercial nature has been undertaken, owing to the lack of facilities both in the matter of lighting of grounds and of radio-beacon apparatus. At the present time radio-telephone contact is maintained by airliners in flight with their termini through Government wireless-telegraph stations controlled by the Post and Telegraph Department.

OVERSEAS SERVICES.

Though plans were announced last year for the establishment of a trans-Tasman service, the company concerned has since abandoned the original project, following the failure of negotiations with the Commonwealth Government. A recent (October, 1936) conference of representatives of the three interested Governments reached substantial agreement in the matter of an extension of the Imperial Airways service. Preliminary surveys for the establishment of a trans-Pacific service by Pan-American Airways are well advanced, and it is hoped that the service will be established before the end of 1937. In an agreement entered into with the New Zealand Government it was stipulated that the service was to be of a frequency of not less than twice a month and of not more than twice a. week. The route proposed is from Honolulu to Auckland, with stops at Kingman's Reef and Pago Pago, and will involve forty hours' flying time spread over three days. By the establishment of this service New Zealand will have direct connection with the U.S. A.-China service; while the Australian air connection with this route will be via New Zealand. Under the agreement signed, allowance has been made for the operation of a British service over a similar route.

AERO CLUBS.

Practical interest in aviation was greatly stimulated by the first trans-Tasman flight of Kingsford Smith and Ulm in 1928, and to this flight the aero club movement largely owes its inception. The steady progress made by the movement has been in a great measure due to the scheme initiated by the Government of subsidizing a limited number of light aeroplane clubs. This subsidy takes the form of the loan of light aircraft and payments to clubs on account of pupils who qualify for their “A” flying licenses, and, for the last two years, payments on male pilots renewing licenses. Up to the present the clubs have undertaken most of the air-taxi work in New Zealand, and have also provided certain recreational as well as instructional facilities.

The following are the clubs in receipt of the Government subsidy:—

Club.Aerodromes at
AucklandMangere (Auckland); Te Rapa (Hamilton).
Western Federated (North Island)New Plymouth; Hawera; Wanganui.
Hawke's Bay and East CoastHastings; Napier; Gisborne.
Middle DistrictsMilsom (Palmerston North); Feilding; Levin.
Wairarapa and RuahineMasterton; Martinborough; Dannevirke.
WellingtonRongatai (Wellington).
MarlboroughBlenheim.
CanterburyRoyal New Zealand Air Force Aerodrome, Wigram (Christchurch); Ashburton.
OtagoMosgiel (Dunedin).
SouthlandInvercargill.
West Coast (South Island) UnitedHokitika.

Some of these aerodromes are owned by the cities or boroughs and leased to the aero clubs. In addition, there are a few aero clubs carrying on without Government assistance.

Statistics indicating the activities of the various clubs are given in the following tables:—

club.Founded.Flying-hours to 1st November, 1935.Pilots securing
“A” Licenses.“B” Licenses.
Auckland192811,0591166
Western Federated (North Island)19304,745733
Hawke's Bay and East Coast19294,740641
Middle Districts1936......
Wairarapa and Ruahine19303,444542
Wellington19305,295763
Marlborough19283,292583
Canterbury19307,169865
Otago19305,026662
Southland19303,645514
West Coast (South Island) United19352085..
Totals..48,62364929

Moreover, the clubs up to 1st November, 1935, had carried 37,582 passengers and had flown 1,036,700 miles since 1928.

The extent of a single year's operations in air-taxi work by aero clubs is given in the table below, the figures being for the year ended 31st December, 1935:—

Club.Passengers carried.
1st Quarter.2nd Quarter.3rd Quarter.4th Quarter.Total.
Auckland4505753797812,185
Western Federated (North Island)1812122
Hawke's Bay and Fast Coast99703754260
Manawatu (Middle Districts)179204792338
Wairarapa and Ruahine401611875
Wellington583586315731,557
Marlborough91564347237
Canterbury1833882972161,084
Otago4093881862941,277
Southland35527613266829
Totals2,4072,3761,4491,6327,864
Number of flying-hours5323843044601,680

The inauguration of the two inter-Island air services will not have affected these figures, as the full operation of the services did not commence till 1936, but future records will undoubtedly show an appreciable drop in the number of passengers carried by those clubs whose district are served by the air lines.

A more general idea of the activities of the light aeroplane clubs can be obtained from the following table, the results being for the year ended 31st March, 1936:—

Club.Pilots trained.Number of Aircraft.Hours flown.Total Number of Members.Licenses Valid.
Training.Passenger.Associate.Flying.Private.Commercial.
Auckland1572,060471572111656
Western Federated (North Island)12371527030067471
Hawke's Bay and East Coast1139392221225733..
Middle Districts10251315218537221
Wairarapa and Ruahine4349419624032211
Wellington14592342625675404
Marlborough9350116210338141
Canterbury2631,39960410787583
Otago9477435615744321
Southland1349444178543321
West Coast (South Island) United623561184352211..
Total129399,6183,3942,56261337519

At 31st March, 1930, there were also eighty-five ground engineers' licenses in force.

In furtherance of the policy of subsidizing clubs in respect of pilots trained and licenses renewed, £4,480 was paid by the Government during the financial year ending 31st March, 1936, as compared with £3,456 for 1934–35. The following table indicates the amounts paid to clubs, together with the number of pilots trained and licenses renewed:—

Club.Number of Pilots trained for “A” License.Number of Licenses renewed.Amount of Subsidy.
 £
Auckland1120485
Western Federated (North Island)1220495
Hawke's Bay and East Coast916430
Middle Districts714370
Wairarapa and Ruahine313235
Wellington1120485
Marlborough69315
Canterbury1820555
Otago820425
Southland1218485
West Coast (South Island) United44200
Totals1011744,480

For the payment of subsidies on renewal of licenses the pilots must be males and between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five years. Of the total amount paid, £3,095 was paid in respect of 101 pilots trained for “A” licenses, the remainder of £1,375 being; for 174 pilots whose licenses were renewed. There were also thirty-four surplus renewals on which a subsidy could not be paid, while sixty-three pilots outside the subsidy scheme renewed their licenses, of whom twelve were women. On 30th June, 1936, there were in force 348 pilot's “A” licenses and 67 “B” licenses.

As mentioned previously, the Government, besides subsidizing clubs for pilots trained, lends machines for training purposes and contributes towards the upkeep and improvements of landing-grounds controlled by the various aero clubs. The expenditure on civil aviation during the last five financial years is as follows:—

 £
1931–322,093
1932–334,243
1933–341,813
1934–3511,316
1935–3613,172

AIRCRAFT.

In addition to the aircraft of the aero clubs and commercial companies there are a number of privately-owned planes in the nonunion. The following are the numbers of each type registered on 15th January, 1936:—

Commercial planes19
Aero club planes47
Privately-owned planes24
 90

The above list does not include twenty-eight planes controlled by the Defence Department.

Of the civil aircraft (October, 1936),. the following list shows the principal makes represented:—

Moth37
Puss Moth5
Moth Major5
Spartan5
Fox Moth3
Avro Avian3
Avro3
Avian3
D.H. 863
D.H. 893

AIR FATALITIES.

During the year 1935 four fatalities occurred as a result of aeroplane mishaps.

AIR MAILS.

The history of air-mail service in New Zealand dates back to 1920 and 1921, when several experimental services were operated, principally between Auckland and the North, and between Christchurch and Timaru. These services were not used to a payable extent, however, and were abandoned. Towards the end of 1930 tenders were invited for the conveyance of mail by air once daily each way between Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch. and Dunedin, but none of the tenders received complied with the conditions. The next attempt to establish a service was during 1931–32, when a number of special air-mail flights were carried out by arrangement with the New Zealand Air-mail League, the first for over a decade if occasions of national emergency be disregarded.

As formerly mentioned, it was not until the inauguration of the South Westland service that an air-mail service of any permanency was established. The district served in this instance is one which possesses very poor transport facilities; and, though the population is sparse and the area small, the carriage of mails by air has great advantages over a land service. It is for this reason that no surcharge is made on the mail-matter, and the sparse population accounts for the small quantity of mail carried—the figures for which are shown in the operations of New Zealand Air Travel, Ltd., in a preceding paragraph on commercial air transport.

The establishment of regular inter-Island air lines during the past year presented the opportunity for the development of air-mail services of a national character; and, accordingly, on l6th March, 1936, such a service was inaugurated by making use of both the Palmerston North-Dunedin, and Wellington-Nelson routes. It was announced that the service was for a trial period of three months, after which the results would be reviewed. Although the returns did not come up to expectations, it was decided to continue the service for a further period.

For the letter service the Post and Telegraph Department makes a charge of 2d. per ounce, as compared with the ordinary charge of Id. for the first ounce and ½d. for each succeeding ounce. As the air routes do not extend to the length of the two Islands, the saving of time is not at present as great as it might be; but by using both rail and air services a maximum saving of twenty-seven hours is obtainable between Auckland and Dunedin. With the proposed extension of the Union Airways service to Auckland a still greater saving will be possible.

The following table shows weekly returns for the service over a period of nineteen weeks:—

Week endingLetters flown.Weight
 lb.
22/3/3636,793697
29/3/3612,470424
5/4/3614,189518
12/4/3611,776442
19/4/3610,936386
26/4/3612,402462
3/5/3615,993548
10/5/3612,129433
17/5/3613,528470
24/5/3613,007465
31/5/3614,600542
7/6/3613,507491
14/6/3614,280510
21/6/3615,678532
28/6/3617,048530
5/7/3615,787565
12/7/3616,525565
19/7/3615,618565
26/7/3615,637543
2/8/3614,086517
9/8/3616,848623
16/8/3616,546586
23/8/3617,429601
30/8/3616,654573

Several points are to be observed from these figures. Firstly, the high figures for the week of commencement are attributable to the patronage of philatelists, as is the increase in the seventh week, when a new issue of stamps was made; secondly, the average during the second three-monthly period is appreciably higher than that during the first three-monthly period, and this in spite of the fact that a winter time-table is in operation, which is not so convenient for postings; thirdly, the end of each month sees an increase in patronage, due to business settlements and overseas steamer connections being made. A detailed analysis made by the Post and Telegraph Department at the end of the first month showed that approximately one-fourth of the letters were carried from terminus to terminus, while before the service commenced it had been calculated that 765,000 letters per month could be carried with a gain in time over the existing ground connections. To date the actual number carried has been in the vicinity of 60,000 per month.

From 31st May, 1936, further air-mail facilities were given by the commencement of a parcels air-mail. The charges are approximately four times greater than the ordinary rates, and, though the patronage has been necessarily small, it has been steady and is increasing.

Although experimental carriage of mails has been made on trans-Tasman flights, the lack of permanent overseas services precludes New Zealand from enjoying full overseas air-mail facilities. At the present time mail is conveyed to Australia by steamer to connect with the Imperial Airways service to the United Kingdom. The reverse procedure takes place for inwards mails; but, owing to lack of regular steamer and air connections, mail-matter is frequently delayed at Sydney. The minimum time taken for the carriage of mails between New Zealand and England, making use of the England-Australia air service, is in the vicinity of seventeen days, as compared with twenty-five to twenty-seven clays via America by steamer and rail. It is the. announced intention of Imperial Airways to extend their service to New Zealand.

AERIAL SURVEYS.

A new aerial activity for New Zealand was the commencement in 1936 of an aerial survey. in the Hawke's Bay District. The initial survey was one of 70 square miles undertaken at a height of 7,000 ft., and in a light plane belonging to the local aero club.

Following the success of this venture, a permanent mapping committee has been set up under the Surveyor-General with the object of producing a complete topographical map of New Zealand. At first it is proposed to extend the survey to one of 1,000 square miles in the Hawke's Bay area, where three Government Departments require topographical information. This survey is to be followed by others in various districts as funds permit. In these instances a Defence Department's bomber is to be used at a height of 8,000 ft.

Chapter 24. SECTION XV.—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC.

POSTAL BUSINESS.

AT the 31st December. 1935, there were 1,777 post-offices in New Zealand, and at the same date there were 2,441 street letter-boxes in the Dominion.

The following table shows the number of articles posted and delivered during each of the last five years.

year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Pattern-packets.Newspapers.Parcels.
1931263,633,9527,609,964151,369,56839,454,9713,415,554
1932246,395,1306,827,012147,208,46733,410,3722,774,416
1933261,979,3127,053,628155,038,05533,775,3893,286,188
1934275,063,9437,499,491167,320,61533,485,8323,460,719
1935288,645,4848,328,714191,066,26234,547,4943,538,725

Articles which are posted in New Zealand and delivered in the Dominion as well, represent of course, the great bulk of the business, and such articles are necessarily counted twice in the foregoing table. Separate figures of articles posted and delivered during the year 1935 are as follows:—

 Posted.Delivered.
Letters and letter-cards135,069,826153,575,658
Post-cards3,547,8524,780,862
Books, &c.94,548,23596.518,027
Newspapers14,879,05919,668,435
Parcels1,645,5921,893,133

These figures include registered articles, of which 2,178,999 were posted in the Dominion and 2,265,700 were delivered therein.

The average numbers of letters, &c., posted in the Dominion per head of mean population (including Maoris) during each of the last five years are:—

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Parcels.Newspapers.Total.
193183·642·2851·1711·58148·67
193277·492·0251·019·73140·25
193381·801·9951·9910·34146·12
193485·472·1655·869·48152·97
193586·542·2761·639·53159·97

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY.

The rural-mail-delivery system was instituted in the Dominion about 1900, but due to the high comparative cost little progress was made with it until 1922. As from the 1st January of that year a scheme was introduced whereby a nominal fee is charged for this service; the rates are 10s. per annum for a delivery thrice weekly or less frequently, or £1 for a delivery having a greater frequency. These charges do not bear heavily on the farmer, and they enable the Post Office to extend rural-mail-delivery benefits to districts which are without such amenities. Every comparatively well-settled district now has its network of deliveries. The rural-mail carrier delivers and collects correspondence and parcels at the gates of farmers living sometimes far removed from post-offices, andstamps and obtains, as required, money-orders and postal notes. In effect, the fanner has what practically amounts to a post-office at his gate.

It is an indication of the popularity of the system that, whereas there were 8,700 rural boxholders in 1920, there were 24,723 on the 31st March, 1936.

OVERSEAS PARCEL-POST.

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and beyond the Dominion have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 22 lb. in weight being sent to Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Fiji, French Settlements of Oceania, Hong Kong, and Tonga, and of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to all other countries of the world. Inland parcels may weigh up to 28 lb.

Year.Overseas Parcels received.Overseas Parcels despatched.
Number.Weight.Declared Value.Customs Duty.Number.Weight.
 lb.££ lb. 
1931189,2201,330,243744,530202,05045,629163,685
1932151,436999,035603,891147,52842,432157,629
1933142,571929,223549,195116,15944,244164,922
1934154,0921,023,133593,714116,83541,498162,777
1935160,1461,052,921625,735121,64140,056160,584

The figures show a huge preponderance of inward parcels. Of the parcels received from overseas in 1935 no fewer than 69,397 came from Great Britain (including those from foreign countries via London), while 30,286 came from the United States and 45.84S from Australia and foreign countries via Australia. These countries, to which 13,099, 3,217, and 17,315 parcels respectively were despatched, also ranked highest among countries to which parcels were sent from New Zealand.

NEWSPAPERS.

There are (July, 1936) 300 publications on the New Zealand Register of Newspapers. Of these, some 56 are published daily, 17 being morning papers and 39 evening papers. Twenty-two appear three times per week, 23 twice per week, 66 weekly, 10 fortnightly, He and 5 at irregular intervals.

MONEY-ORDERS.

During 1935 money-orders from places beyond New Zealand numbered 47,511 for the amount of £133,787, while those issued in New Zealand for payment overseas numbered 94,188, and represented an aggregate value of £216,203.

Calendar Year.Number of offices at end of Year.Money-orders issued.Money-orders paid.
Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
 ££ £
1931886714,4783,993,03540,704641,5083,838,829
1932878648,9513,335,55231,629592,8433,264,578
1933875635,6743,112,72938,772587,6843,112,194
1934873654,6213,209,71342,310598,3163,157,703
1935894673,0573,374,02944,029615,8903,301,377

POSTAL NOTES.

The popularity of the postal-note system for remitting small amounts is clearly illustrated in the table given below:—

Year ended 31st March.Number of offices at end of Year.Postal Notes issued.Postal Notes paid.
Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
  ££ £
19321,1072,884,654952,44422,7042,964,928941,990
19331,1002,686,648958,37323,9022,668,697930,355
19341,0972,883,0701,061,94626,2492,853,0541,027,434
19351,1013,325,5611,140,69529,0773,301,0491,105,793
19361,1183,827,4171,293,95533,1463,811,1811,257,622

British postal orders issued in the Dominion during the year ended 31st March, 1936, numbered 77,422, of a value of £36,319. Those paid numbered 29,210, and represented £14,801.

TELEGRAPH AND TOLL SERVICES.

Up to the 31st March, 1936, a total sum of £9,928,060 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1935–36 was £195,380.

There were 12,109 miles of telegraph and toll pole line in existence at the end of March, 1936, carrying 65,384 miles of wire.

During the year ended 31st March, 1936, the revenue from telegrams and toll communications was £788,600, to which should be added £1,252,964 revenue of telephone exchanges and £41,915 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £2,083,479.

Year ended 31st March.Number of Telegrams and Toll Messages forwarded during the Year.Revenue (including Miscellaneous Receipts).Value of Government Messages.*Total Value of Business done during the Year.
Paid.Free* Government.Total.Telegraph and Toll.Telephone Exchange.
* Urgent marine telegrams: no payment received.
    ££££
193214,132,95333,45014,166,403752,6051,218,0723,4081,974,085
193313,105,55732,20913,137,766730,7651,169,5123,2961,903,573
193413,255,59131,71213,287,303740,9461,164,7113,2891,908,946
193514,038,55631,45714,070,013767,9401,190,7732,6671,961,380
193616,002,06431,06710,033,131830,5151,252,9642,1912,085,670

For ordinary telegrams the charge is a fiat rate of one penny per word, with a minimum charge of sixpence.

The charge for letter-telegrams is a flat rate of one shilling for twenty-four words, and one penny for each additional two words.

An additional charge of sixpence is made for an urgent telegram, irrespective of the number of words contained in the message.

(Letter-telegrams are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment.)

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE.

Telephone facilities are extensively utilized in New Zealand. According to data compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. as for the 1st January, 1935, New Zealand ranks fourth in number of telephones per 100 of population. Leading countries in this respect are: United States of America, 13·36; Canada, 11; Denmark, 10·31; New Zealand, 10·20; Sweden, 0·90; Switzerland, 9·25; Australia, 7·51; Norway, 6·96; Hawaii, 6·36; United Kingdom, 5·06; Germany, 4·69; Netherlands, 4·20.

At the 31st March, 1936, there were 348 telephone exchanges in the Dominion. Of this number, 329 are of the magneto type, 2 common battery, and 17 automatic. The automatic exchanges are: Whangarei, Auckland, Hamilton, Hastings, Dannevirke, Stratford, Hawera, Wanganui, Marton, Palmerston North, Masterton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Blenheim, Christchurch, Oamaru, and Dunedin.

The following statement shows the automatic-exchange equipment installed and in use in the Dominion on the 31st March, 1936:—

 Capacity of Equipment installedEquipment in use.
 No.No.
Individual lines73,30052,234
Party-lines—
Two-party4,1003,693
Four-party2,1001,513
Multi-party450337
 No.
Individual-line stations..52,234
Party-line stations..14,074
Total of main stations..66,308
Extension stations..23,852
Total number of automatic-telephone stations connected 90,160

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service:—

——1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.1931.19351936.
Exchanges341349349349349349349348
Subscribers, main stations102,509126,763127,606125,826120,511119,689121,841127,056
Toll and service stations3,9403,9463,9123,9643,9824,0294,1074,146
Public call offices409679735745750787796870
Extension stations18,51425,63525,51426,43726,51427,17828,66330,598
Telephone-station totals125,372157,023157,767156,972151,757151,683155,407162,670

The total number of telephone-stations shows an increase of 37,298, or 29 per cent., during the period covered by the table. The increase in subscribers' stations amounted to 24,547, or about 24 per cent., while extension stations show an increase of 12,084, or over 65 per cent. The demand for public call offices is clearly revealed in the table, these showing an increase from 409 in 1926 to 870 in 1936. The increase in the number of telephone-exchange subscribers during the year was accelerated to a remarkable extent, the year showing a net gain of 7,263 telephone-stations.

In addition to the above, there are 3,895 stations connected by private telephone-lines with departmental toll-stations, making a grand total of 166,565 telephone-stations in New Zealand on the 31st March, 1936.

The “party” line system of telephone service is being largely availed of, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March, 1936, the number of party-line connections was 13,100, with a total of 47,872 stations.

The first public call offices (coin-in-the-slot telephones) erected in the Dominion were installed at Wellington in August, 1910. Of the total of 870 such instruments in use in the Dominion at the 31st March, 1930, the charge in 825 cases is Id.; in five, 2d.; and in forty, 3d. The revenue of slot telephones during the year ended 31st March. 1936, was £45,423.

The telephone-exchange system included on the 31st March, 1936, 15,530 miles of pole line and 557,834 miles of wire.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &c., of the telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1936. was £S,586,844, equal to an average cost of £52 15s. 9d. for each connection.

RADIO COMMUNICATION.

GOVERNMENT STATIONS.

The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on the 26th July, 1911.

There are now 21 stations under the control of the New Zealand Government, the principal being those at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Apia in Western Samoa, at Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations on the mainland or on adjacent islands are those at Kawau Island, Milford Sound, Stephens Island, Puysegur Point, and Portland Island, while there are radio-beacon stations at the lighthouses at Cape Maria van Diemen, Portland Island, Stephens Island, and Tiritiri Island.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga-Radio through small feeder-stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, and Mauke. Small stations at Aleipata, Fagamalo, Fakaofo, Salailua, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia-Radio, while Niue communicates with both Apia-Radio and Wellington-Radio.

By means of the radio-stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the three last-mentioned stations having direct communication with New Zealand. Wellington-Radio has also direct communication with Papeete-Radio (Tahiti) and Nukualofa (Tonga).

The radio business transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the last five years was as follows:—

year ended 31st March.Forwarded.Received.
Messages.Words.Value.Messages.Words.Value.*
* Amount collected by New Zealand.
   £  £
19328,88895,9263,34416,865174,1353,150
19338,59195,1923,39414,543142,6502,689
19348,960103,6253,57215,131160,1053,142
19359,688129,2343,87416,485189,6073,885
193611,332149,6864,34518,703219,9793,996

The foregoing table does not include free (service) messages.

The charge for the transmission of an ordinary radio-telegram to or from ships registered in New Zealand or Australia, or engaged exclusively in trading between these two countries, is 6d. per word. The rate for transmission to other vessels is generally lid. per word. Messages to His Majesty's ships within wireless range of a New Zealand coast station are charged for at the rate of 3d. per word, and messages to vessels engaged in the Wellington-Lyttelton steamer-express service and to the “Tamahine” while engaged in the Wellington-Picton ferry service at the rate of 2½ per word. Ship stations registered in New Zealand numbered sixty-one at 31st March, 1936.

PRIVATE STATIONS.

Private radio-stations are governed by the Radio Regulations which were gazetted on the 21st July, 1932.

The licenses for radio receiving-stations are designed to provide for reception from radio-telephone broadcasting stations as well as for experimental reception, and may be obtained at any postal money-order office on payment of the prescribed fee.

The licenses for private experimental (amateur) stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued subject to the qualifications of the applicants being satisfactory.

The licenses for private experimental (research) stations are intended to provide facilities for the work of pure research in radio science, and are issued only to persons of recognized attainment in the theory or practice of radio-telegraphy, or to universities or other scientific institutions engaged in conducting experiments for the development of the science of radio-telegraphy.

The part of the regulations relating to “Radio-dealers” is intended to provide for the proper control of the sale of apparatus designed and intended for use in connection with wireless telegraphy.

OCEAN CABLES.

The Pacific cable, opened for traffic between New Zealand and Australia and Fiji on the 9th April, 1902, was completed to Bamfield, Vancouver Island, on the 31st October following, and opened for international business on the 8th December, 1902.

The route is from Auckland to Vancouver, via Norfolk Island, Fiji, and Fanning Island. The Australian connection is at Norfolk Island. The deep-sea portion of the Vancouver-Fanning Island cable is stated to be the longest in the world.

Direct communication between Auckland and Sydney was established on the 31st December, 1912, thus giving the Pacific Cable Board an alternative route to Australia.

Additional facilities were provided between New Zealand and Fiji by the laying, by the Pacific Cable Board, of a new cable between Auckland and Suva. The work was completed on the 12th August, 1923. The duplication of the two northern sections—Vancouver to Fanning Island and Fanning Island to Fiji—was completed on the 20th November, 1926. These new sections were opened for traffic on the 18th December, 1926.

The Pacific Cable Board and the Eastern Extension, Australasia, and China Telegraph Co., Ltd., previously controlling the two cable systems connecting New Zealand with overseas countries were, together with certain cable and wireless services in existence in other British countries, in 1929 absorbed in a merger company now known as Cable and Wireless Ltd. As a result, the Eastern Co.'s station at Wellington, the New Zealand terminal of the “Eastern” cable, was closed on the 31st May, 1932, from which date all cable traffic to and from New Zealand has been bandied by the Pacific cable office at Auckland, where the Pacific cable terminates. One of the two “Eastern” cables previously in use between Wellington and Sydney has been diverted to Auckland, while a portion of the second cable—extending from Wellington to a point a considerable distance out to sea—has been picked up.

The length of submarine cable in use in connection with the inland telegraph and telephone services is 451 nautical miles, containing 3,022 nautical miles of conductors.

STAFF.

The huge volume and multifarious nature of the business of the Post and Telegraph Department entail he employment of a largo staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, with the Director-General as executive head.

The staff at 31st March, 1936, was as follows: Permanent, 9,298; temporary, 296: total, 9,594. In addition there are 1,669 country postmasters and telephonists who act as such in conjunction with other pursuits and do not rank as officers of the Department. There are also 85 officers of the Railways Department who act as postmasters.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the last two financial years are shown in the following table:—

 1934–35.1935–36.
 ££
RECEIPTS.
Postages937,0411,047,903
Money-order and postal-note commission59,54463,482
Private-box and bag rents and rural delivery fees48,32851,819
Miscellaneous receipts378,606345,568
Paid telegrams280,123288,775
Paid tolls448,563499,825
Telephone exchanges1,190,7731,252,964
Totals£3,342,978£3,550,336
PAYMENTS.
Salaries1,569,4981,683,888
Conveyance of mails by sea84,23498,830
Conveyance of inland mails..119,247123,021
Conveyance of mails by railway79,46382,104
Maintenance of telegraph and telephone lines ..73,02779,706
Depreciation Fund81,864120,617
Motor services and workshops28,31939,633
Miscellaneous262,902371,485
Interest on capital liability546,000541,000
Sick-benefit Fund..1,600
Totals£2,844,554£3,141,884

The year 1935–36 commenced with a credit balance of £37,378. Of the gross balance of £445, S30 at the end of the year. £5,000 was paid to the Consolidated Fund as profits and £400,000 invested in the Renewal and Replacement of Assets Fund, leaving £40,830 to be carried forward.

Receipts and payments for the past ten years are shown by the following figures:—

Year ended 31st March.Receipts.Payments.
* Does not include payment to Depreciation Fund and interest on capital liability, which were first included in expenditure In 1928–29.
 ££
19273,220,6662,346,274*
19283,329,5112,299,571*
19293,445,5452,920,158
19303,641,6203,111,199
19313,707,4203,304,648
19323,715,2292,794,565
19333,293,9322,688,119
19343,200,4142,648,600
19353,342,9782,844,554
19363,550,3363,141,884

Chapter 25. SECTION XVI.—RADIO BROADCASTING IN NEW ZEALAND.

INTRODUCTORY.

PRIOR to the year 1924 interest in radio-broadcasting was principally confined to a small section of the populace who were engaged in experimental transmission or reception of radio signals. As early as 1921, to meet the demands of this section of the public, a system of “provisional permits” was inaugurated by the Post and Telegraph Department, by which approved persons were permitted to erect and operate radio transmitting or receiving stations. (Approximately four: hundred such permits were issued during that year.) The year 1922 saw further interest being taken; and, in January. 1923, regulations were gazetted under which provisions were laid down for the conduct of transmitting and receiving stations, including, inter alia, provision for the appointment of District Radio Inspectors. Licenses were issued under these regulations upon application being made and a reference as to personal character being certified to by a reputable citizen. The approval of the District Radio Inspector and of the Post and Telegraph Department was then required, and the payment of the prescribed annual license fee (in the case of an amateur receiving-station, 5s.).

This new avenue for experiment and entertainment developed to such an extent that on 31st March, 1924, there were 2,830 licensed amateur receiving-stations. A number of comparatively low-powered broadcasting-stations had been erected and operated by private enterprise with a measure of success, but the development of this class of station was retarded chiefly through lack of funds.

In consideration of the plight of these broadcasting-stations, and to ensure a reasonable standard of performance of such stations, regulations were gazetted by Order in Council providing that as from the 1st April, 1925, the annual license fees were to be increased (in the case of an amateur receiving-station to £1 10s.). The intention was that the additional amount of revenue obtained should be used by way of subsidizing broadcasting-stations. A fee was also made payable in respect of dealers in radio apparatus, 90 per cent, of the receipts from this being used for the conduct of a radio-broadcasting service.

The regulations empowered the Minister of Telegraphs to enter into a contract with a person or company with a view to providing a broadcasting-service, such service to be given by the operation of a broadcasting-station in each of the four main centres. Provisions were laid down as to the power of these stations, and the service to be given—a twelve-hour service per week (exclusive of Sunday) being specified as the minimum, with provision for one silent night per week.

The Radio-broadcasting Company of New Zealand, Ltd., undertook on 1st August, 1925, to provide a radio-broadcasting service on the conditions laid down in the Post and Telegraph Amendment Act, 1924, and the gazetted regulations of 1st April, 1925. The agreement entered into provided for the establishment and maintenance of an efficient broadcasting service for a term of five years, and the company was to provide any new apparatus that might be necessary in order to keep the stations and equipment up to date. The agreement also stated that two of the four stations (Auckland and Christchurch) mentioned in the regulations were to be in operation within six months of the date of the agreement, and also that a company with a capital of £20,000 was to be formed within one month to ratify the agreement. The company purchased^, existing stations in the four main centres, and commenced operations at their new Auckland station on 7th August, 1926. The new Christchurch station commenced operations on the 1st September, 1926; both stations were considered high-powered units (500 watts) as provided for in the regulations.

Following out the terms of the agreement, the company also opened up new-stations at Wellington and Dunedin during the term of its contract. In the case of the new Wellington station, the company, in consideration of a loan from the Government of £15,000, erected a high-power station of 5,000 watts, this station being opened on the 16th July, 1927. The provision of this broadcasting service had the effect of increasing the number of licensed receiving-stations from approximately four thousand in 1926 to approximately seventy thousand at the end of 1931.

NEW ZEALAND RADIO-BROADCASTING BOARD.

In January, 1932, the five years' contract with the Radio-broadcasting Company of New Zealand, Ltd., having expired, the control of the broadcasting service was vested in the New Zealand Broadcasting Board (constituted by the Broadcasting Act, 1931), which took over tile existing plant at the purchase-price of £58,646. The Post and Telegraph Department advanced this amount by way of loan, together with legal costs incidental to the valuation and transfer to the Board.

One of the first actions of the Broadcasting Board was to set up a Commission to go into the question of coverage, in order that the future policy of the Board could be decided with due consideration as to the most effective locations for its stations, and the most suitable equipment to be used in order to give the greatest service to listeners throughout the whole Dominion. Following on the recommendations of this Commission, and exhaustive tests carried out by the Board's staff, it was decided that the location of the four main stations should be altered to give better coverage, while, coupled with this, was the decision to make these four new stations high-powered units. The new locations of the “YA” stations are: Auckland, at Henderson; Wellington, at Titahi Bay (in course of construction); Christchurch, at Gebbie's Pass; and Dunedin, at Highcliff.

Under section 4 of the Broadcasting Act of 1931 an Advisory Council of eight members (“five of whom shall be ordinarily resident in the North Island, and three shall be ordinarily resident in the South Island”) was appointed by the Governor-General, on the recommendation of the Minister, to advise the Board in respect of its functions under the Act. This Advisory Council was abolished under section 5 of the Broadcasting Amendment Act of 1934–35.

The amending Act increased the numerical strength of the Board from three to seven, and charged it with the additional responsibility of supervising the programmes broadcast by private broadcasting-stations. Two of the seven members of the reconstituted Board were to be appointed from persons nominated in that behalf by organizations recognized by the Minister as being representative of the holders of receiving-licenses. Of the reconstituted Board, the Chairman was to hold office for a period not exceeding five years, while three of the remaining members were appointed for a period not exceeding four years, and the remaining three for a period not exceeding three years from the date of first appointment. Subsequent appointment of the chairman and members was to have been for a period not exceeding three years.

NATIONAL BROADCASTING SERVICE.

The Broadcasting Act of 1936 abolished the then existing Broadcasting Board as from the 1st July, 1936, and in its place vested the control of the National Broadcasting Service in a Minister of the Crown. All property, rights, liabilities, and engagements of the Board were transferred to the Crown.

The administration of the service is in the hands of the Director of Broadcasting, who was appointed by the Governor-General in Council to hold office for a period not exceeding three years. Permanent officers in the employ of the Broadcasting Board became officers of the Public Service as from the 1st July, 1936, and the Act contains other provisions relating to the appointment to the Public Service of any other persons who are possessed of any technical or other expert knowledge in relation to broadcasting.

Section 9 of the Act allows for the appointment of an advisory body, called the Broadcasting Advisor body, Council, to consist of not more than five members, to be appointed from time to time by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. Appointment to the Council is for a period of three years, except that members may be reappointed or removed from office by the Governor-General.

No advertisement for the pecuniary benefit of any person may he broadcast from any broadcasting-station, except commercial stations owned by the Crown. For every locality that is served by a commercial station an alternative service from at least one non-commercial station must be provided.

All programmes to be transmitted from private broadcasting-stations are supervised, and the Minister has authority to prohibit the broadcasting of any programme or part of a programme which in his opinion is unsuitable for broadcasting.

STATIONS AND PROGRAMMES.

There are (in October, 1936) eight national broadcasting-stations, a description of which follows—

Station.Aerial Energy.Frequency.wave-length.
 Kilowatts.Kilocycles.Metres.
1YA, Auckland10·00650462
1YX, Auckland0·15880341
2YA, Wellington5·00570526
2YC, Wellington0·20840357
3YA, Christchurch10·00720416
3YL, Christchurch0·501,200250
4YA, Dunedin10·00790380
4YO, Dunedin0·151,140263

The aggregate transmission-time in respect, of the stations mentioned, amounted during the year 1935 to 27,181 hours, thirty-six of which were lost owing to technical faults and power-failures. The main stations transmit almost continuously on week-days from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m., and on Sundays from 9 a.m. to 12.15 p.m., 1 to 4.30 p.m., and 6 to 10 p.m.; while the alternative stations transmit from 5 to 6 p.m. and 7 to 10.30 p.m. on week-days, and 6 to 10 p.m. on Sundays.

Additional services are provided by privatety-owned stations; these, which are known as private broadcasting-stations, at present number twenty-two, situated at Auckland (two), Balclutha, Christchurch, Cromwell, Dunedin (four), Gisborne (two), Greymouth, Hastings, Invercargill, Manurewa, Masterton, Napier, Nelson, New Plymouth, Palmerston North (two), and Wairoa.

In order to secure the best service for listeners throughout the entire Dominion, monetary subsidies were paid to eight of these private broadcasting-stations, and assistance in other ways was also given during 1935. The stations that were helped in this way were situated as follows: Cromwell, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Napier, Masterton, Greymouth, and Invercargill.

In supervising the programmes broadcast by private stations, the programme arrangements have been interfered with as little as possible, and no restrictions which did not apply to the national stations were imposed.

A programme analysis in respect of the national stations for 1935 shows that of the total transmitting-time, 70·7 per cent, was devoted to music; 7·2 per cent. to news, reports, and announcements, &c.: 6·5 per cent, to educative and general talks; 4·8 per cent, to children's sessions; 4·3 per cent, to plays and sketches; 3·6 per cent, to church and devotional services; and 2·9 per cent, to sporting commentaries and sporting talks.

In order to acquaint themselves with the desires of listeners in regard to the type of programme preferred, and the popularity or otherwise of specific types of entertainment, questionnaires are issued at intervals and the results collated.

As occasion has permitted, many notable artists have been engaged, while many distinguished visitors from overseas have given performances, talks, &c. In order to supplement the relay lines available, and also to make it possible to broadcast descriptions of events and happenings at places not served by relay-lines, each of the four main stations is now equipped with a portable short-wave transmitter with a range of approximately ten miles.

Disk-recording equipment is now being used at the Wellington Station (2YA). Many important events occurring at times unsuitable for broadcasting are being recorded and transmitted at an hour suitable to the majority of listeners. A library of special recordings of noteworthy events and talks by prominent people is also being built up, not only with a view to future programmes but also with the object of preserving a permanent record for the Dominion. A number of recorded programmes have been purchased from the British Broadcasting Corporation, and these have given New Zealand listeners the opportunity of hearing some of the best British artists.

A recent innovation has been the broadcasting from the four principal national stations of proceedings in the House of Representatives in order to acquaint the public of the provisions contained in the various Bills, and the views of both. the Government and Opposition parties.

Time signals from the Dominion Observatory are broadcast through the national stations at Wellington (2YA) and Christchurch (3YA) three times each day, with the exception of Sunday, when the afternoon signals are the only ones broadcast. The actual signals consist of a series of dashes of three seconds duration commencing at 10.30 a.m., 3.30 p.m., and 7.30 p.m. Fuller details of this time-service may be obtained from the article on mean time and time-service published in the Miscellaneous Section of this Year-Book.

Weather forecasts issued by the New Zealand Meteorological Office are broadcast from the four principal national stations each evening (see page 16), while-the stations also broadcast details for the benefit of aircraft.

SHORT-WAVE BROADCASTS.

One of the first successful or partially successful re-broadcasts by New Zealand stations of a short-wave programme from England was that of the Armistice Day celebrations in Albert Hall in 1927. The Empire Short-wave Station in Daventry, England, now broadcasts programmes for this part of the southern hemisphere, and a number of events and speeches broadcast from this station have been rebroadcast by the New Zealand national stations. In common with other parts of the British Empire, New Zealand was able through the agency of the Empire Short-wave Station to follow very closely, and share in, the events associated with the death of His late Majesty King George V, and the accession to the throne-of His Majesty King Edward VIII.

ELIMINATION OF INTERFERENCE.

From the inception of radio-broadcasting in New Zealand, the Post and Telegraph Department has been very active in the detection and elimination where possible of all sources of interference. In the earlier years the Department endeavoured to attain this end by not allowing circuits to be used which would in any way cause undue interference with other radio receiving or transmitting apparatus.

The increasing use of electric power and appliances for commercial and domestic purposes also increased the number of potential sources of radio interference, while power leakages and irregularities due to faults on electric lines and apparatus kept the Department busy in applying remedial measures.

With the advent of the higher-powered broadcasting-stations and the increased interest taken by listeners in the careful manipulation of their sets many of the causes of interference have been eliminated.

STATISTICS OF RADIO LICENSES.

An indication of the growth in the number of radio-receiving licenses is apparent from the following table. The movement in the figures over the period shows very clearly the increases following the provision of better broadcasting services. The license fee for a receiving-station is (since April, 1935) £1 5s. per annum.

As at 31st March.Auckland.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago.Dominion.Licenses per Hundred of Population.

* Figures for individual districts not available.

† Not available at date of going to press.

1924****2,8300·21
1925****4,7020·34
1926****3,5880·25
1927****18,1621·26
192813,93115,1137,9312,34039,3152·70
192915,09318,0538,5283,13644,8103·05
193017,20121,9689,3714,86753,4073·59
193119,01626,02310,5437,13162,7134·15
193222,47531,05511,9639,48774,9804·92
193327,24138,49215,72712,02993,4896·08
193435,05446,35421,02815,650118,0S67·62
193546,77657,18027,85021,002152,8089·80
193660,37871,15534,54126,191192,26512·22
(30th September, 1936)70,26480,26340,27130,452221,250

A summary of all radio licenses issued in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1936, follows:—

District.Receiving-Stations.Transmitting Stations.Radio-dealers.Total Licenses.
Auckland60,37828142061,079
Wellington71,15543838271,975
Canterbury34,54119222834,961
Otago26,19112415026,465
Dominion192,2651,0351,180194,480

Licenses are issued free of charge to institutions for the blind and also to any blind person who is the recognized head of a household. The number of free licenses as at the 31st March of the last five years was: 1932, 235; 1933, 272; 1934, 302; 1935, 319; 1936, 411.

In addition to the above, commencing on 1st September, 1936, public hospitals, benevolent and orphan institutions, and other charitable institutions were granted free license privileges, provided that the sets were being used for the benefit of patients or inmates. Free license privileges were also extended to the operation of receiving-sets in schools, where such sets are used for educational broadcast purposes.

Although a penalty is attached to the operating of unlicensed radio apparatus, each year sees a large number of persons convicted of this offence. Convictions during the last five years numbered: 1931, 584; 1932, 782; 1933, 1,110; 1934, 1,047; and 1935, 932.

FINANCIAL STATISTICS.

The distribution of the total revenue derived from the issue of radio licenses-during the last four financial years was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.New Zealand Broadcasting Board.Post and Telegraph Department.Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia), Ltd. (Royalty).Total.
 ££££
1933105,26317,34412,339134,946
1934132,94820,15415,817168,919
1935175,93940,2014,624220,764
1936202,84027,374..230,214

On the 1st April, 1935, the amount of the radio-receiving-station license fee was reduced from £1 10s. to £1 5s. The reduction was made possible by the termination of the agreement under which 3s. out of every license fee was paid to Messrs. Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia), Ltd., in respect of patent rights controlled by that company, and by the acceptance by the Broadcasting Board of £1 3s. instead of £1 5s. in respect of each license.

During the four calendar years 1932 to 1935 the income of the (now abolished) Broadcasting Board amounted to £98,129, £125,029, £100,535, and £197,135 respectively. An analysis of expenditure during each of these years is given in the following table:—

1932.1933.1934.1935.
 ££££
Programmes33,60539,45046,10861,597
Maintenance of plant, power, &c.6,8947,79711,79814,025
General expenses12,84510,87012,74914,580
Administration salaries and expenses5,3156,0376,0177,463
Subsidies to private “B” stations1,0982,6202,5182,622
Depreciation of assets20,71417,88923,34819,345
Appropriation to reserves, &c.14,00038,00060,00075,000
Other expenses1,301507....
Total expenditure95,772123,236162,598194,032
Excess of income over expenditure2,3572,3933,9372,503

Chapter 26. SECTION XVII.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

SURVEYS.

THE surveys of Crown lands, Native lands, and land purchased under the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, or the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands, and are carried out by stall and contract surveyors registered by the Survey Board constituted under the Surveyors Registration Act, 1928.

In respect of surveys for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act, an additional and special license under the hand of the Surveyor-General is required, in terms of section 177 of the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

Any surveyor or other person, in pursuance of the written authority of the Surveyor-General or of the Chief Surveyor of the district, may enter upon Native land for survey purposes (vide section 501 of the Native Land Act, 1931).

Authority for a surveyor and his assistant to enter on any land for the purpose of making a survey under the Public Works Act must be obtained from the Minister of Public Works, the Minister of Lands, the Surveyor-General or his Deputy, or the local body, as the case may be.

Regulations for conducting the survey of the Dominion lands are made by the Survey Board in terms of the Surveyors' Registration Act, 1928. Power is conferred on the Surveyor-General to make necessary rules.

The Surveyor-General is the custodian of the legal standards of length for survey purposes. All measurements of land affecting titles are to be expressed in terms of the chain of 100 links, and all areas in acres, roods, perches, and decimals of a perch.

Full information as to the New Zealand system of survey will be found in the 1929 number of the Year-Book (pp. 438–44).

OCCUPATION OF LAND.

The total area of the Dominion, excluding the Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901, but inclusive of the Kermadec Islands and the “outlying islands,” since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,196 acres. Of this total, 43,282,093 acres were returned in 1936 as being in occupation, including reserves and Native lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Native land held on the communal system.

According to information published by the Lands Department, the following is the condition of the land in the Dominion as at the 31st March, 1936:—

 Acres.
* Includes interests acquired by the Crown but not proclaimed.
Total area sold or granted and held on freehold21,591,072
Total area reserved for public purposes15,630,418
Total area of Crown lands leased under all tenures (exclusive of reserves leased by the Crown)17,665,416
Total area of Crown land available for future disposal1,728,844
Total area of Native land4,547,302*
Land unfit for settlement, including rivers, lakes, roads, &c.5,227,144
Total66,390,196

The numbers of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation in groups of sizes, as returned at the last five collections available, are given below—

Area, in Acres.Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
     1 and under 1011,13310,98410,94511,01410,90013·4213·1112·9712·9812·89
    10 and under 5014,19314,45914,64914,73914,56317·1117·2617·3617·3717·22
    50 and under 10011,47511,74312,00812,15712,17913·8314·0214·2314·3314·41
   100 and under 20015,27715,65515,89816,06916,04918·4118·6818·8418·9318·98
   200 and under 3209,3939,4819,5009,5339,54211·3211·3211·2611·2311·29
   320 and under 64010,25310,23910,20010,20910,16712·3612·2212·0912·0312·03
   640 and under 1,0004,1684,1844,1754,1514,1625·024·994·954·894·92
 1,000 and under 5,0006,0315,9865,9445,9515,9357·277·147·057·007·02
 5,000 and under 10,0005455515515555510·660·660·650·650·65
10,000 and under 20,0002942952952942950·350·350·350·350·35
20,000 and under 50,0001521481491481460·180·180·180·170·17
50,000 and over54555457580·070·070·070·070·07
Totals82,96883,78084,36884,86784,547100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

Seventy-five per cent. of the holdings are seen to be not more than one-half a square mile in area. These, however, represent only 14 per cent. of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion. Sixty-eight per cent. of the occupied land is held in areas of over 1,000 acres, and 41 per cent. in areas of over 5,000 acres.

Sizes of Holdings, in Acres.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
     l and under 1050,71450,63950,71051,16250,666
    10 and under 50358,070363,884369,525372,315370,449
    50 and under 100830,099847,592866,412878,596880,972
   100 and under 2002,142,5792,190,9912,224,6722,247,6602,245,962
   200 and under 3202,352,5832,369,4322,378,2612,387,0452,388,697
   320 and under 6404,637,0134,621,7604,616,4504,620,6744,612,434
   640 and under 1,0003,324,0483,322,4743,322,3973,300,4993,300,086
 1,000 and under 5,00011,728,92911,629,70411,519,98311,592,07711,533,349
 5,000 and under 10,0003,693,3433,754,1233,771,2743,805,6693,779,128
10,000 and under 20,0004,113,1604,146,1064,115,5524,110,3624,211,434
20,000 and under 50,0004,735,7604,555,1864,568,1094,549,7254,559,723
50,000 and over4,762,4514,821,5034,839,6635,188,7755,343,193
Totals42,728,74942,673,39442,643,00843,104,55943,282,093

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS.

The following table gives for the last five years the number of holdings in the Dominion classified according to purpose for which used. Figures exclude borough holdings and holdings under 1 acre in extent.

Class of Holding.Area, 1929–30. (Latest available.)Number Of Holdings.
1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
 Acres.Per Cent. 
Dairy-farming3,484,6468·0438,39538,54542,57941,89840,067
Sheep-farming29,673,22668·4215,86114,73114,49816,57215,589
Mixed agricultural and sheep-farming1,992,0234·594,4115,2404,9504,2965,479
Mixed dairying and sheep-farming2,801,1626·467,4207,3416,8365,9387,017
General mixed farming421,4310·974,0273,9883,3362,9634,274
Fruitgrowing37,2790·081,3311,4401,4411,4111,375
Market-gardening10,8590·031,0791,020970906957
Poultry-farming2,8940·01217269250276287
Nurseries and seed-gardens1,364..7278587180
Timber-growing322,3160·741239598121131
Flax-growing45,9760·114136322825
Idle and unused1,898,7154·383,0092,7593,0592,9372,950
Other and unspecified2,676,7626·176,9828,2386,2617,4506,316
Totals43,368,653100·0082,96883,78084,36884,86784,547

TENURE OF OCCUPIED LANDS.

Land in occupation as at 31st January in each of the last two years, tabulated according to tenure, is given in the following table. Freehold land includes land held on deferred payment, if occupied by the owner.

Land District.1935.1930.
Freehold.Leasehold.Total Holdings.Freehold.Leasehold.Total Holdings.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland2,338,192691,1523,029,3442,304,360704,9503,009,310
Auckland3,402,4971,219,2544,621,7513,405,4451,210,5404,615,985
Gisborne985,819981,1531,966,972989,199979,8331,969,032
Hawke's Bay1,707,3901,036,7262,744,1161,727,3501,012,0992,739,449
Taranaki746,995567,4031,314,398822,823578,7411,401,564
Wellington3,575,4551,582,5735,158,0283,593,0231,719,5855,312,608
Nelson631,627605,9601,237,587638,520599,3761,237,896
Marlborough797,8791,632,5052,430,384801,1131,627,5692,428,682
Westland153,0111,083,3261,236,337151,9481,083,0191,234,967
Canterbury3,154,8894,957,7708,112,6593,165,5274,947,0548,112,581
Otago1,653,8066,353,0338,006,8391,744,7256,230,9497,975,674
Southland1,475,4471,770,6973,246,1441,470,7661,773,5793,244,345
Totals20,623,00722,481,55243,104,55920,814,79922,467,29443,282,093

Lands in occupation are not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown. It must also be remembered that not all of the freehold land in the Dominion is in occupation, while (as stated previously) holdings within borough boundaries or under one acre in extent are excluded from the annual statistics.

CONDITION OF OCCUPIED LAND.

The land in occupation in the Dominion at the 31st January, 1936, was classified according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.Per Cent. of Total.
* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.
In grain and pulse crops688,200*1·59
In green and root crops691,265*1·60
In fallow107,1090·25
In sown grasses and clovers—  
   Cut for hay, seed, or ensilage711,2801·64
   Not cut for hay, seed, or ensilage16,543,75038·22
In vineyards and orchards25,5050·06
In passion-fruit vines352..
In hop-vines647..
In market gardens, nurseries, and seed-gardens8,9180·02
In tung trees5,0570·01
In private gardens and pleasure-grounds81,5980·19
In plantations807,8771·87
Total area in cultivation19,671,55845·45
Unimproved land23,610,53554·55
Total area in occupation43,282,093100·00

Further details of land in cultivation and of the various crops grown are given under their respective headings in Subsection B of the next section. Unimproved lands are not again referred to, and accordingly a table is appended showing by land districts more detailed information as to the condition of unimproved occupied land in January, 1936.

Land District.Phormium (New Zealand Flax).Tussock and other Native Grasses.Fern, Scrub, and Second Growth.Standing Virgin Bush.Barren and Unproductive Land.Total Unimproved Occupied Land.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland8,450157,409760,408271,52160,6471,258,435
Auckland22,214136,390953,494482,36237,7491,632,209
Gisborne18944,407129,478170,06410,941355,079
Hawke's Bay296347,857229,230121,55029,888728,821
Taranaki937,927152,597244,6207,124412,361
Wellington8,974621,931411,270344,39993,2761,479,850
Nelson2,853247,985296,126298,76030,541876,265
Marlborough4,6211,215,471276,415179,228354,0592,029,794
Westland4,955138,070140,954674,275126,3661,084,620
Canterbury3,5564,501,309146,036159,753544,2265,354,880
Otago2,2335,402,840413,914239,448389,7386,448,173
Southland10,4991,420,811295,903113,443109,3921,950,048
Totals68,93314,242,4074,205,8253,299,4231,793,94723,610,535

SCENIC RESERVES, PUBLIC DOMAINS, AND NATIONAL PARKS.

The consolidating Scenery Preservation Act, 1908, with its amendments of 1910, 1915, 1926, and 1933, contains the major legislation dealing with the reservation of land, Crown or private, for scenic, thermal, or historic reserves. The Act is administered by a Scenery Preservation Board through the Department of Lands and Survey.

The Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, is also a consolidation of earlier measures. For the purposes of this Act public reserves do not include education reserves (vide next subsection), scenic reserves (supra), State forests (vide Section XIX.—Forestry), land reserved under the Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1908, or reserves under the Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act, 1908. The Act declares the general right of the public to free access to recreational reserves, but gives limited powers—extended by the Local Authorities Empowering (Aviation Encouragement) Act, 1929—to charge for admission.

Any public reserve for health or recreation purposes vested in or acquired by the Crown may be declared a public domain. Public domains are generally administered by Domain Boards, many of which comprise already existing local authorities. Domain Boards may purchase land, and land may also be taken for recreation-grounds under the Public Works Act, 1928. In certain limited instances power is given to charge for admission to public domains.

National parks are administered by National Park Boards, which have power, subject to Ministerial approval, to fix fees for camping or picnicking within the parks.

The following areas are as at 31st March, 1936:—

 Number.Acres.
Reserves under Scenery Preservation Act980705,542
Public domains77575,380
National parks82,986,808

No detailed figures are available for the “public reserves” referred to above, which comprise a highly miscellaneous group, ranging from gravel-pits to climatological reserves. The area of reserves controlled by local authorities also is not available, but the estimated value of reserves, gardens, cemeteries, &c., of local-governing authorities in March, 1935, was approximately £3,000,000. As noted above, certain local authorities control public domains.

The historic site of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, together with 1,000 acres (with an additional 1,400 acres subsequently) of the adjoining estate, was purchased and presented to the nation as a national monument by Viscount and Lady Bledisloe in May, 1932.

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Under the land transfer system introduced in 1870 the title to land is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land Transfer Department assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

The Land Transfer system of title by registration has great advantages over the older system of title by deeds, even when the deeds are duly registered. The state of a Land Transfer title can be ascertained by a search of the register with very much greater facility than can the state of a title under the other system, and the powers vested in Registrars under the Land Transfer Act enable them to keep the register simple, clear, and free from doubts; the simplicity of searching and of the preparation of instruments under the Land Transfer system enables transactions with land under that system to be carried out at less cost than under the other system; and under the Land Transfer system there is the State guarantee of a practically indefeasible title, as mentioned previously.

These considerations led to the passing in 1924 of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, which has for its object the bringing under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, 1915, of all land alienated by the Crown and not already under the provisions of that Act, except lands held by aboriginal Natives of New Zealand under their customs and usages.

The work of bringing all land titles under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act as required by the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924, is still being proceeded with, and has been completed, except in the Districts of Auckland and Otago, and except in the case of a few titles in other districts that it has been considered unwise to deal with at present owing to grave doubts as to ownership, or for some other reason. Steady progress is shown in the Auckland and Otago Districts, but it will be some time yet before the work in these districts is completed.

DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it.

Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production.

The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees.

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the last ten years is given in the following statement:—

Year ended 31st MarchDeeds recorded.Fees. £
192722,58520,104
192816,52315,215
192913,92512,622
193012,83411,601
19318,6607,746
19324,7454,314
19333,6163,081
19342,7972,610
19352,3192,217
19362,3542,290

LAND TRANSFER.

Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last ten years is given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March.Applications.
Number.Area.Value.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
192727117517,983677,364
19282441263,689723,957
1929204868,084575,625
1930133728,238501,898
1931834924,353278,652
19324212755139,566
193326122,02338,280
193428330213,477
19352321,09315,725
1936291220611,161

The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last ten years-Included in the totals are those certificates issued in lieu of Crown grants, 554 being the number for 1935–36. Also included in the numbers are certificates (2,636 in 1935–36) issued compulsorily under the Act of 1924.

CERTIFICATES OF TITLE ISSUED.
Year ended 31st March.Number.
192725,088
192824,383
192922,630
193020,535
193118,189
193214,798
193312,304
193411,354
193510,934
193611,991

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last ten years:—

TRANSFERS REGISTERED.

Year ended 31st March.Number.Area.Consideration-money.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
192734,1068,0952,058,66632,338,860
192831,1418,1881,892,81930,157,665
192930,7607,5992,161,09631,155,226
193032,1127,7501,697,20830,832,305
193125,6266,8631,474,04022,068,814
193216,9434,1131,214,54013,205,708
193315,3814,161990,50711,015,434
193415,7604,1931,017,6129,551,205
193518,6284,6841,186,61712,197,376
193623,0446,1741,393,53215,591,391

Monthly statistics of transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act are given from April, 1935, onwards in the table which follows, a distinction being made between town and suburban transactions on the one hand and country transactions on the other.

Month.Town and Suburban Properties.Country Properties.All Properties.
Number.Consideration.Number.Consideration.Number.Consideration.
1935–36.
  £ £ £
April1,144539,537374614,2811,5181,153,818
May1,261600,627496621,5651,7571,222,192
June1,297626,516479660,1611,7761,286,677
July1,602651,813661843,2852,2631,495,098
August1,593656,424612811,7112,2051,468,135
September1,528591,336502598,9072,0301,190,243
October1,668751,951574768,7282,2421,520,679
November1,485746,895492547,7681,9771,294,663
December1,611696,907436857,9322,0471,554,839
January874365,504322457,8751,196823,379
February1,365630,006448554,0721,8131,184,078
March1,733746,630487650,9602,2201,397,590
 Year 1935–3617,1617,604,1465,8837,987,24523,04415,591,391
1936–37.
April1,196672,983494442,7161,6901,115,699
May1,543710,369733938,0912,2761,648,460
June1,676769,834585789,3212,2611,559,155
July1,839972,8067231,310,3402,5622,283,146
August1,703867,9156731,097,9072,3761,965,822
September1,7501,049,688610786,6302,3601,836,318

Information as to mortgages registered under the Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Acts is contained in the section of this book dealing with mortgages.

Chapter 27. SECTION XVII.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.—continued.

SUBSECTION B.—CROWN LANDS.

ADMINISTRATION.

THE Crown Lands are administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1924, the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, by the Minister of Lands at Wellington, his executive officer being the Under-Secretary of Lands, who is the permanent head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into twelve land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner of Crown Lands and a Land Board.

Commissioners of Crown Lands are executive officers of the land districts, having large discretionary powers under the Act. Each is the Chairman of the Land Board of his district, and transacts all its routine business in the sale, letting, and occupation of Crown lands. A Land Board consists of five members—viz., the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district, three members nominated by the Governor-General, and one member elected by the Crown tenants of the district.

The Boards transact all business connected with the sale, letting, disposal, and occupation of Crown lands, and all matters connected with the management and control of the public lands in their hands. They are the sole judges of the fulfilment of conditions in leases and licenses, and they can declare them forfeit.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.

A selector may purchase for cash, or on deferred payment, or may select on renewable lease. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and may apply for Crown land solely for his own use and benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person. Including the land he applies for, he is not to be the owner, holder, or occupier under any tenure of more than one year's duration, either severally or jointly or in common with any other person or persons, of any land anywhere in New Zealand exceeding in the whole 5,000 acres of land, computed as follows:—

  1. Every acre of first-class land is reckoned as 7½ acres;

  2. Every acre of second-class land is reckoned as 2½ acres;

  3. Every acre of third-class land is reckoned as 1 acre.

Crown land may be selected and occupied under the following tenures and systems:—

  1. Town, suburban, and village lands—

    1. For cash and deferred payment, by public auction;

    2. By lease for terms up to ten years;

    3. By renewable lease for thirty-three years.

  2. Rural land (unimproved), (under optional system)—

    1. For cash, by application;

    2. Purchase by deferred payment;

    3. Renewable lease for sixty-six years.

  3. Village settlements—

    Under the three foregoing tenures of optional system.

  4. Special settlements (rural land)—

    On renewable lease for sixty-six years and under special regulations.

  5. Land-for-settlement estates (improved rural and pastoral land)—

    1. Under renewable lease for thirty-three years, with right to acquire freehold of 400 acres of first-class land, 1,200 acres of second-class land, or 3,000 acres of third-class land;

    2. For cash or on deferred payment, by auction.

  6. Pastoral land—

    1. By small-grazing-run lease for twenty-one years, with right of renewal (maximum area, 20,000 acres);

    2. By pastoral license on terms up to thirty-five years.

  7. Land within mining districts—

    1. On pastoral licenses under special regulations, with right to acquire the freehold or exchange to a renewable lease;

    2. On occupation leases under special regulations, with similar rights as to purchase of freehold and exchange.

  8. Miscellaneous—

    1. Temporary occupation on terms up to five years;

    2. Sale or occupation for special purposes;

    3. Outlying land.

By the passing of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1926, it was provided that after the 9th September, 1926, no more Crown lands were to be disposed of tinder the occupation-with-right-of-purchase tenure, and that any lands which might have been so disposed of could be disposed of by way of sale on deferred payment in addition to the other modes of disposal provided by the Land Act.

Full particulars are given in the Crown Lands Guide, issued periodically and obtainable at any land office, as to the conditions of lease and occupation. Improvements to a certain value are required to be effected on rural land purchased for cash or on deferred payment or held on renewable lease, and residence is compulsory for certain periods on most Crown leaseholds.

DISPOSAL OF ENDOWMENTS AND RESERVES.

National endowments may be disposed of under renewable lease, small-grazing-run lease, or pastoral license. These lands are occupied on the same conditions as-ordinary Crown lands.

Owners of renewable leases and small-grazing-run leases of national-endowment lands now have the right to acquire the fee-simple of their holdings on the conditions provided by the Act pertaining to each class of lease. A pastoral licensee of national-endowment land, if the area is not more than sufficient for the maintenance of the licensee and his family, can acquire the fee-simple.

Education endowments are available for leasing under the Education Reserves Act, 1928, which permits of a lease being granted under the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, as well as under the Land Act. 1924 The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

Public reserves not vested in trustees or a local authority may be leased under the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, for any term not exceeding twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LAND DEVELOPMENT.

The Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929, deals chiefly with the promotion of settlement on undeveloped Crown lands. Power is given for the Crown to develop idle Crown lands, and also for the making of advances to Crown tenants holding undeveloped country for the erection of buildings, purchase of stock (the latter since the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932), and for clearing, grassing, fencing, &c. Settlers taking up unimproved sections may apply for financial assistance up to £1,250 each, the payments to be made as improvements are effected. The rate of interest has been fixed at 6 per cent., subject to the reductions (at first temporary, but made permanent in 1936), imposed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Crown tenants already in occupation of land coming under the designation of undeveloped are also eligible to apply for development advances. Loans approved to 31st March, 1936, numbered 491, totalling £216,169, while in addition £351,236 has been expended by the State in the roading, surveying, and development of various blocks of land to be opened for settlement.

LANDS OPENED FOR SELECTION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1936, an area of 133,588 acres of land was offered for selection under the various tenures provided by the Land Act, Land for Settlements Act, and Education Reserves Act.

Under renewable lease an area of 58,298 acres was offered, 8,758 acres being national endowment, 6,472 acres land for settlements, and 42,710 acres ordinary Crown lands. An area of 36,371 acres was offered under the optional system. The pastoral-run area comprised 11,160 acres.

In addition to the above, a total area of 304 acres of Crown land was set apart for selection by discharged soldiers under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act and the Land for Settlements Act and the special tenures of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. Fuller particulars regarding these lands will be found at the end of this subsection.

The total selections during the year covered an area of 210,026 acres, by 1,037 selectors. These figures include, however, 135 purchases of small town, suburban, and rural lands, aggregating 2,958 acres, offered for sale at auction. The ordinary Crown lands holdings represented 93,293 acres; land for settlements and Cheviot Estate, 17,899 acres; national endowment, 94,748 acres; educational endowments, 2,395 acres; and other endowments, 1,691 acres. Selections by discharged soldiers are included in the foregoing totals.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.

Areas under this heading include all lands sold for cash or selected on the deferred-payment system, small grazing-runs, and leases under the following tenures: Renewable lease, mining districts land occupation leases, educational-endowment leases, and pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations.

Year ended 31st March.Sold for Cash.Deferred-payment Licenses.Leases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small Grazing-runs.Totals.
Number.
19321661584872813
19331141354773729
19341531273122594
193517086266..522
19361351092292475
Area (Acres).
19324,41337,278138,2706,525186,486
19332,0329,583112,98127,431152,027
19342,7268,62069,09621,626102,068
193512,8783,88681,328..98,092
19362,9584,87575,79018,531102,154

CROWN LAND HELD OR MADE FREEHOLD.

National-endowment lands are included in the next table in the figures for the various tenures under which they are held. National-endowment lands of an aggregate area of 6,451,906 acres were held at 31st March, 1936, by 4,398 selectors, the annual rental payable being £141,071. Settlement lands under the Land for Settlements Act, which are dealt with later on in this subsection, are also included.

The following table shows the position at 31st March, 1936:—

Tenure.Total Number of Selectors.Total Area held from the Crown.Total Yearly Rental or Instalment payable.Total Area made Freehold.
Number of Purchasers.Area.
  Acres.£ Acres.
Cash lands........13,294,755
Deferred payments3,820519,72391,58611,8371,359,926
Perpetual leases1586,5029463,111865,049
Occupation with right of purchase2,736763,85766,7625,1591,314,625
Lease in perpetuity7,4121,550,020208,8883,273541,604
Renewable lease9,2372,650,066437,59440568,559
Agricultural lease9282211,408140,896
Mining districts land occupation leases72618,3932,0381624,964
Homestead......6180,453
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations557117,6102,9879920,151
Small grazing-runs7692,514,979102,9477085,427
Pastoral runs6018,809,27088,116823,412
Hanmer Crown leases68279200....
Miscellaneous leases and licenses6,8091,079,95539,90314213,944
Totals32,90218,030,9361,041,98825,73517,813,765
Thermal-springs leases (Rotorua)2961,9401,80832248
Education endowments—     
  Primary3,652777,951116,77456,736
  Secondary47839,32312,292....
Totals4,426819,214130,874376,984
Grand totals37,32818,850,1501,172,86225,77217,820,749
Other endowment lands1,013338,22818,27176,350

CROWN LAND MADE FREEHOLD, YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1936.

Tenure (immediately prior to acquisition of freehold).Area.Amount realized.
* Under section 223 of Land Act, 1924.
 Acres.£
Cash lands sold2,95725,067
Freehold acquired under following tenures:—  
  Deferred payment20,14085,118
  Occupation with right of purchase14,71923,490
  Lease in perpetuity1,3996,793
  Perpetual lease46245
  Mining district land occupation leases20279
  Renewable lease5,27117,214
  Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations7791,388
Small grazing-runs12,04416,943
Miscellaneous*55650
Totals57,931176,587

SUBDIVISION OF LAND.

Much of the land legislation of recent years has been in the direction of preventing large areas of good land from being acquired or retained by a single individual. Part VI of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provides for an agreement being made between the Minister of Lands and the owner in fee-simple of any land for the subdivision of that land, and for the disposal by public tender of the allotments by way of sale or by way of lease with right of purchase.

Section 97 provides for similar agreements between the Minister and the owners of Native freehold land in respect of the disposition by sale or lease of that land.

In Part VII of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provision is made whereby the Minister of Lands may at any time in writing notify an owner of land that such land or a portion thereof is required for purposes of settlement. The owner of the land is required, within six months after such notice has been gazetted, to notify the Minister whether he elects (a) to subdivide and offer the land for sale in subdivisions, or (b) to enter into an agreement with the Minister as above, or (c) that the land shall be taken compulsorily under the Act.

In sections 381 and 382 of the Land Act, 1924, provision exists for compulsorily taking private land (not within a borough or town district) in cases where in the opinion of the Dominion Land Purchase Board such land has been acquired by way of aggregation, and where such aggregation is contrary to the public interest. Compensation is payable for all land so taken.

The Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1932–33, which is administered by the Department of Lands and Survey, authorized the Board constituted under the Act to acquire lands for the Crown by way of purchase, or by lease with right of purchase, or by resumption of suitable areas of Crown lands held under lease or license. Where land suitable for the purposes of the Board is, in the opinion of the Board, not being adequately used powers are given by the Act for its compulsory acquisition. A description of small-farms operations is given in Section XL.

LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS.

The purchase of private lands by the Crown for closer settlement purposes is authorized by the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, a consolidation of former legislation.

The number of estates offered during the year ended 31st March, 1936, was ten, of an area of 23,152 acres, but the majority of these properties were not suitable for subdivisional purposes.

No private land was purchased during the year ended 31st March, 1936. The total number of estates purchased since the inception of the Land-for-settlements scheme is 720, of a total area of 2,127,718 acres, the aggregate amount of purchase-money being £13,922,665. These figures do not include any advances under section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, but include purchases under section 3 of this Act, and under the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1928.

SUMMARY OF ESTATES ACQUIRED TO 31ST MARCH, 1930.

Land District.Number.Area.Purchase-money.
  Acres.£
North Auckland5348,924455,060
Auckland75376,0731,243,775
Gisborne2686,380790,131
Hawke's Bay59264,7831,714,292
Taranaki2630,978375,881
Wellington155160,8282,350,297
Marlborough22224,090755,482
Nelson1448,821150,473
Westland36,03214,062
Canterbury178451,2013,521,523
Otago81335,2122,029,409
Southland3494,396522,280
Totals7262,127,71813,922,665

The transfer of certain areas from Crown to settlement lands, and the adjustment of areas to account for ascertained surpluses or deficiencies, bring the total area to 2,273,759 acres at the 31st March, 1936. Of this, 265,715 acres have been sold for cash or made freehold, the number of purchasers being 2,504 and total purchase-money £1,213,991, and 95,955 acres are occupied by roads or by reserves unlet. At the 31st March, 1936, 6,987 selectors were holding a total of 1,854,500 acres, the annual rental for which amounts to £535,843; and the remaining 57,589 acres were unlet. Rent and other payments received during 1935–30 were £494,714, while total receipts from inception to 31st March, 1936, have been £12,242,644.

PURCHASE OF LANDS FOR GROUPS OF APPLICANTS.

Part II of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1928, gives power whereby two or more persons may purchase land acquired on their behalf by the Crown. No properties, however, were purchased during the last three years.

ASSISTING PURCHASE OF PRIVATE LAND.

Section 3 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932, provides authority for the making of advances to purchasers of part of private freehold properties up to 90 per cent. of the purchase money, all such advances to be secured by way of first mortgage.

LAND-SETTLEMENT FINANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

On the 1st January, 1910, the Land Settlement Finance Act, which is described fully in the 1915 issue of this book, came into force. The associations incorporated now number forty-six. There have been no transactions for several years past.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, and amendments, any person is entitled to the benefits of the Act who was an honourably discharged member of a New Zealand Naval or Expeditionary Force in 1914–18, or was a bona fide resident of New Zealand and served during the war with other British Forces.

There is power to dispose of land under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act,. 1924, and the Land for Settlements Act, 1925—i.e., for cash, on deferred payment or on renewable lease under the former Act, and on renewable lease under the latter Act; also under the “special tenures” of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, which are cash, deferred payment, or a renewable lease with a purchasing clause.

Under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, 304 acres were proclaimed in 1935–30, and a total of 1,452,829 acres has been proclaimed to 31st March, 1936, comprising 613,397 acres of ordinary Crown lands; lands for settlement, 402,544 acres; national-endowment lands, 433,532 acres; and Cheviot Estate, 3,350 acres. Some 702,837 acres of this aggregate fall under section 3 of the Act (ordinary tenures) and 749,992 acres under section 4 (special tenures).

During the year ended 31st March, 1936, twelve applications were made under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, and allotments were made in the case of seven applicants, the total area being 3,638 acres.

The various systems of financial assistance in connection with the settlement of discharged soldiers were dealt with in the 1924 and previous issues of the Year-Book. Operations at the present time are confined mainly to advances on current account for stocking and developing farms.

From the inception of the scheme of discharged-soldiers settlement in 1915 to the end of the financial year 1935–36 loans totalling £23,637,008 had been granted to 22,812 discharged soldiers as follows:—

Class.Number of Soldiers.Amount. £
Advances on current account5,1435,698,678
Advances towards purchase of farms, market gardens, and orchards, and discharge of mortgages5,5609,056,930
Advances towards purchase and erection of dwellings and discharge of mortgages thereon in town and suburban areas12,1098,881,400
               Totals22,812£23,637,008

Repayments of principal to the 31st March, 1936, total £13,777,699, of which £1,034,895 was repaid during the financial year 1935–36. Receipts in respect of interest and sundries brought the total receipts for the year to £1,582,204.

During 1935–36 loans totalling £66,517 were granted. Of this amount, £17,228 was for the purchase or erection of dwellings and £49,289 towards the improvement and stocking of lands. Advances actually made during the year, including loans previously authorized and readvances from current account, totalled £511,351.

By the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1923, a Dominion Revaluation Board was constituted, with power to revalue and reduce where necessary the capital values of lands leased by soldiers from the Crown, and also to reduce mortgages in cases where soldiers had acquired lands by means of Government advances. Reductions to the total of £2,897,023 were made in capital and mortgage values.

The Board was also engaged in investigating current accounts under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1924, and capital reductions totalling £202,515 were made.

TRANSFER OF SECURITIES TO STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION.

The Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35, authorized the transfer to the Mortgage Corporation (now the State Advances Corporation) of all or any of various classes of securities, including—

  1. Mortgages vested in the Crown or in any person on behalf of the Crown in respect of advances made to discharged soldiers or other persons under the authority of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, or any amendment thereof (including mortgages securing advances made pursuant to section 11 of the Finance Act, 1933, in respect of lands subject to any other mortgage to which this paragraph relates):

  2. Mortgages vested in the Crown or in any person on behalf of the Crown in respect of advances made out of the Land for Settlements Account by direction of the Lands Settlement Board established under Part I of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929.

The date of transfer to the Corporation has been fixed by Order in Council, the date of the initial transfer being 30th September, 1936.

Chapter 28. SECTION XVII.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.—continued.

SUBSECTION C—NATIVE LANDS.

DEFINITION AND KINDS OF NATIVE LAND.

NATIVE land is of two kinds—namely, customary land and Native freehold land. Customary land is land which has never been the subject of a Crown grant and is held by Natives under the customs and usages of the Maori people. It is land in respect of which the ancient customary Native title as recognized and guaranteed by the Treaty of Waitangi has not yet been extinguished. Such land, since it has not been Crown-granted remains vested in the Crown, subject, however, to the customary title of the Natives, and to their right to have the customary title transformed into a freehold title by the Native Land Court. There is little of this class of land now left in the Dominion.

Customary land has always been restricted from alienation except in favour of the Crown. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown, and in all statutes since passed the alienation of customary land to private individuals has been prohibited, and this prohibition is now extended to the Crown. Native freehold land is the land held by Natives under an English freehold title, though subject to certain restrictions on alienation and other special incidents which are unknown to the ordinary law.

Whether land is Native or European land depends upon the beneficial ownership of it, and not merely on the legal ownership. If land is held by a European upon trust for a Native, it is Native land; if it is held in trust by a Native for a European, it is European land. There are, however, four exceptions to this:—

  1. When land has once become European land, it never again becomes Native land unless by special enactment.

  2. Land purchased by a Native from the Crown for a pecuniary consideration is not Native land. This does not include an exchange of land, with or without a payment of money by way of equality of exchange.

  3. Land held by a Native in severalty may be declared to be European land by the Native Appellate Court.

  4. Under certain circumstances the Native owner may have been declared a European. (The Native Land Amendment Act, 1912, empowered the Governor-General, by Order in Council upon recommendation of the Native Land Court to declare a Native to be a European for the purpose of the Native Land Act or any other Act. Such a person did not lose his right of succession to Native land or property, nor, if he died intestate, were his heirs affected by the change of status. Any such Order in Council did not affect the status as a Native of the wife, husband, or child of the person. These provisions were repealed, without re-enactment, by section 525 of the Native Land Act, 1931, which maintains and defines the status of all Natives previously declared Europeans, but permits revocation of any such Order in Council.)

Even though one of many Native owners may sell, the land remains Native land until all have disposed of their interests, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. A “Native” means a Maori or half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

The Native Land Act, 1931, and the Native Purposes Act, 1931, are consolidations, with amendments, of existing legislation.

BOARD OF NATIVE AFFAIRS.

The Board of Native Affairs constituted under the Board of Native Affairs Act, 1934–35, consists of the Native Minister, the Under-Secretary of the Native Department, the Under-Secretary for Lands, the Valuer-General, the Financial Adviser to the Government, the Director-General of Agriculture, and such other members (not exceeding three) as the Governor-General may appoint.

The chief functions of the Board of Native Affairs include, inter alia, the following:—

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Native land or land owned or occupied by Natives undertaken pursuant to section 522 of the Native Land Act, 1931.

  2. The control of expenditure on farming operations undertaken by Maori Land Boards and the Native Trustee.

  3. The control of investments by—(a) Maori Land Boards; (b) the Native Trustee; and (c) the East Coast Commissioner.

  4. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Native lands.

THE NATIVE LAND COURT.

The Native Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General thinks fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorizes. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are:—

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Native freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. The sanctioning of exchanges for other Native land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and succession orders to Natives.

  5. Making orders for the adoption of children.

  6. Appointing trustees for Natives who are minors or under other disability.

  7. The incorporation of the owners of Native land.

  8. The determination of various claims as between Natives.

  9. To grant confirmation of alienation of Native land.

Business dealt with in 1935–36 was as follows:—

Number of sittings101
Number of cases notified15,723
Number of cases for which orders were made5,808
Number of cases dismissed950
Number of cases adjourned sine die9,249
Number of partitions made389
   Area affected (acres)133,037
Number of investigations of title..
   Area affected (acres)..
Number of succession orders made5,116
Number of other orders made3,150

The Native Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Native Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Native Land Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.

There an seven Maori Land Boards, each consisting of two members, viz.—the Judge (or, if there be no Judge of the district, a Commissioner of the Court appointed by the Native Minister), and Registrar of the Native Land Court district, the Judge acting as President. The chief functions of a Maori Land Board are—

  1. To administer certain large areas of Native land vested in those Boards in trust for the Native owners, the Boards having extensive powers of sale, lease, and management.

  2. To act as statutory agent of the Native owners in respect of certain areas of Native land set apart for Native settlement.

  3. To control the administration and disposition of Native land, by resolution of the assembled owners.

  4. To assist Natives in farming their lands.

The total area vested in and administered by the various Maori Land Boards as at the 31st March, 1936, was 654,253 acres.

During the year 1935–36, 1,863 acres of vested land were sold or revested in the Native owners.

With regard to Native freehold land, the Boards during the year approved of leases comprising 71,051 acres, and confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 20,480 acres of freehold land.

POWERS OF ALIENATION.

The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Native land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Native cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Native cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Native land by a Native has any effect until it is confirmed by the Native Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Native alienating; that no Native is rendered landless; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase-money is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law.

A lease cannot be for a longer term than fifty years, and a mortgage must have the approval of the Native Minister to its confirmation by the Native Land Court.

PURCHASE OF NATIVE LAND FOR CROWN.

Since 5th April, 1935, the duty of undertaking, controlling, and carrying out all negotiations for the acquisition of Native lands by the Crown, and the performance and completion of all contracts entered into is by subsection (2) of section 7 of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1932, imposed upon the Board of Native Affairs.

Where Native land is being acquired for general settlement, the Board of Native Affairs must act upon the advice or request of the Dominion Land Purchase Board, referred to in the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, but this requirement is not necessary in the case of land being acquired for Native settlement.

The Native Land Purchase Board mentioned in the 1933 and earlier editions of the Year-Book was abolished by subsection (1) of section 7 of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1932, and the Native Land Settlement Board, referred to in the 1935 edition, was abolished by subsection (2) of section 11 of the Board of Native Affairs Act, 1934–35.

Pending any purchase by the Crown the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, prohibit alienation otherwise than to the Crown. Upon the purchase being completed the land is proclaimed Crown land and is subject to administration under the Land Act, 1924. Where the land is subject to lease when purchased the option may be extended to the tenant of purchasing the land from the Crown or having a renewable lease granted to him.

Since 1st April, 1910, a total of 1,548,404 acres of Native land has been purchased by the Crown. The total area of Native land alienated by way of sale to the Crown or to other purchasers since 1910 is 3,310,020 acres.

The area of Native land still held by Natives in the North Island is estimated at 3,808,230 acres, and in the whole Dominion at 4,053,654 acres. In many cases the Natives are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by Maori Land Boards and by the East Coast Commissioner.

NATIVE LAND DEVELOPMENT.

In the year 1929 legislation was enacted giving sanction to a scheme for the development and settlement of lands owned or occupied by Maoris.

Section 522 of the Native Land Act, 1931, and subsequent amendments imposes on the Board of Native Affairs the duty of undertaking and carrying out this work.

To overcome any delays or difficulties arising from the nature of the titles to the lands proposed to be developed, the Board of Native Affairs is authorized to bring such land under the scope of a development scheme. Upon notification of the fact the owners are prevented from interfering with the work of development, and private alienation of any land within the scheme is prohibited. The funds for development are provided by the Minister of Finance through the Public Works Fund. The Board of Native Affairs is armed with the most comprehensive powers, which it can exercise directly through the Native Department or delegate to any Maori Land Board or to the Native Trustee. The Board is also empowered to direct a Maori Land Board or the Native Trustee to use their funds for development. Power is also taken by arrangement between the Minister of Lands and the Board of Native Affairs to develop Crown lands that adjoin or are surrounded by a Native land-development scheme, thus removing a further obstacle in the way of development.

Special legislative provision has also been made enabling one or other of the Maori Land Boards or the Native Trustee to undertake farming of specified blocks on behalf of the beneficial owners.

Since inception to the 31st March, 1936, the total gross expenditure on development schemes under the control of the Native Department amounted to £1,467,158 (inclusive of interest). The total credits were £721,793. and the total net expenditure, £745,365.

NATIVE TRUSTEE.

The administration of Native funds and Native reserves, formerly conducted by the Public Trustee, was by statute transferred to the Native Trustee as from 1st April, 1921. This was part of a comprehensive scheme which seeks to rehabilitate the Maori by inducing him to farm and manage his own lands. As a further means to this end the Native Trustee with the approval of the Board of Native Affairs advances money to Natives on the security of their lands, the expenditure of this money, and the management of Native farming operations generally, being supervised in a helpful and sympathetic manner. The Native Trustee Act, 1930, consolidated existing legislation.

The Native Trustee administers many reserves of Native land on behalf of the beneficiaries, and grants leases thereof. The beneficial owners of these reserves have no power of alienation other than to the Crown.

The Native Trustee also, where necessary, acts as trustee for Natives who are minors or under other disabilities, administers special funds, and acts as executor or administrator of the estates of deceased Natives.

The funds of the Native Trust Office at the 31st March, 1936, were:—

 £
Amounts held under—
   West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 189251,047
   Native Reserves Act, 188260,786
   Native Land Act, 1931 (Part X)96,051
   Native Land Act, 1931 (Miscellaneous)163,647
   Native Trustee Act, 193027,234
Miscellaneous funds65,632
Reserve and Assurance Fund88,068
Investment Fluctuation Fund5,486
Advance under Native Land Act, 1931123,759
Advances under Native Trustee Act, 19307,000
Reserve against unpaid interest2,952
Special reserve against claims216
Total£691,878

Of the total funds £491,403 was invested in the form of mortgages, £5,100 in local bodies' securities, and £152,753 on overdrafts to estates and accounts.

Commissions, fees, charges, and net interest on investments for the year 1935–36 totalled £15,859. The net profit for the year was £2,403, of which £1,817 was placed to the Reserve and Assurance Fund, £202 to the Investment Fluctuation Fund, and £384 was added to the reserve against unpaid interest.

Chapter 29. SECTION XVIII.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION A,—GENERAL.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE Dominion of New Zealand is a country specially favoured for primary production. The soil covering is varied in character, a considerable portion of it being of high fertility; but even the poorer soils are largely capable of profitable utilization by reason of the comparatively mild and equable weather conditions. The best grasses and fodder plants flourish in the congenial environment, and the country has gained a world-wide reputation for the quality of its pastures. Numerous streams intersect the country-side; while cheap hydro-electric power is available, most farming districts having been reticulated in recent years. Electricity is now put to a variety of uses on the farm, but by far the most important is that of providing power for milking-machinery.

A conspicuous feature of New Zealand farming is that the stock do not require to be stalled in the winter, though the pastures are more or less supplemented by fodder crops in the colder months of the year.

New Zealand is primarily a grazing country, and, where more of the land is every year being given up to the cultivation of fodder crops, its future will, no doubt, be inseparably associated with stock-raising, principally of dairy cattle and of sheep. Though less than a century has elapsed since the settlement of Nov? Zealand, over seventeen million acres of land in the Dominion have been sown down in English grasses. A great proportion of the crops grown in the Dominion are for the production of such commodities as meat, wool, and dairy-produce.

Grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are grown chiefly in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island. Barley also is grown, but to a very much smaller extent. Much of the crop of oats produced is chaffed for stock-feeding purposes within the country. Root crops, principally turnips, are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock-fattening purposes, more particularly in the South Island. Owing to the comparative difficulty of growing large areas of turnips free from disease, other stock-foods are coming into prominence. Mangolds are cultivated to an appreciable extent, and farmers have realized the great value of lucerne. Ensilage-making, particularly in the stack and trench forms, is increasing in the dairying districts. Quite a feature of milk-producing operations is the growing of green fodder crops to maintain the milk-supply during the drier months of the year. It will be seen that live-stock in New Zealand is for the most part maintained on food produced on the farm itself.

THE NORTH ISLAND.

The North Island of the Dominion is remarkable for the congenial environment it furnishes for many phases of primary production. In no part is the winter really severe, and the question of stalling stock during the colder months of the year has not to be considered. It is more a grazing than an agricultural country, and practically all the crops raised are used for feeding farm stock. The dominant industries are dairying and sheep-farming. There is probably no finer sheep-country in the world than the limestone downs of Hawke's Bay. It may be said with every confidence that there is more butterfat produced to the acre on many farms in the North Island than on any other area in the world, when it is considered that all the food provided for the stock is produced on the farm itself. The standard of dairy-farming is steadily improving, not only by reason of special fodder being provided for the drier parts of the summer and the colder months of the year, but on account of the fact that the farmer has learned the value of herd testing and culling, and the advantages to be derived from the judicious application of top-dressing fertilizers to pastures.

In various parts of the Island fruitgrowing, principally of apples, pears, and peaches, is being placed on a sound commercial basis. In the northern portion citrus fruits can be successfully produced, and, with the adoption of better storage and marketing methods, lemons in particular are being cultivated on a considerable-scale. Outdoor grapes are freely grown. Both the North and the South Islands have established an export trade in apples, and to a lesser extent in pears.

During recent years the Waikato district and the Auckland Provincial District in general have shown themselves to be admirably adapted to the dairy industry, and dairying has made remarkable development. The Auckland District, in fact, has become easily the largest exporter of butter in the Dominion, while it also leads in the production of milk-powder.

With the adoption of improved methods in the treatment of the land, and the demonstration, of correct manurial treatment, farming in the Auckland Provincial District has been placed on a much more productive basis. Assisted by a favourable climate, of which a short and mild winter is a feature, stock-raising of all descriptions is being carried on with conspicuous success. The country is eminently adapted for the production of root and fodder crops, and stock can be brought to maturity and fattened for the market at a minimum of cost.

THE SOUTH ISLAND.

The South Island is the portion of the Dominion where agriculture proper was first established, the settlement of the land being greatly facilitated by the fact that on the eastern, southern, and northern portions large fertile plains, rolling downs, and hills were available, devoid of the forests which in a very large portion of the North Island had to be cleared before the land could be utilized by the farmer. Agricultural operations in the South have been maintained at a high standard for many years, principally in Otago and Canterbury, many of the pioneers of which districts were British yeomen farmers who brought with them the best methods of the Old Land. So in the breeding of live-stock, many of the original holders of land in the South, and the shepherds and herdsmen they employed, had been well trained in stock-management by live-stock breeders of the Mother-country. The South Island may be fairly said to have been the nursery of the live-stock of the Dominion, and the high, quality of the stock bred in the country is in a large measure due to the capacity of the men who founded and developed the flocks and herds in the eastern and southern districts. The growing of the finer wools, and the raising of fat lambs for the frozen-meat industry, are features of primary production in the South Island, while the dairy industry is also well represented, especially in Otago and Southland. The breeding of draught horses of a very fine stamp is carried on to some extent in certain districts.

While the climate in the southern districts of the South Island is not so genial as that in the northern, there are only a few portions where the winter is at all rigorous. The Nelson Provincial District, in the north-west corner of the Island, is noted for its climate. Nelson has a sunshine-record which is equalled in but few parts of the Temperate Zones. The district is specially suitable for fruitgrowing, which has been developed extensively on commercial lines, and the culture of tobacco-leaf is well established. At the other end of the Island, in Central Otago, a peculiar configuration of the country enables fruitgrowing to be prosecuted with great success. The winter is comparatively severe, but the warm summer sun and the absence of wind make it an ideal environment for fruitgrowing.

In some sections, particularly in Canterbury, Otago, Southland, and Marlborough, grain-growing is prosecuted on a considerable scale. The Canterbury Plains, extending a hundred and fifty miles north and south and running inland for forty miles from the sea, represent an area of over 3,000,000 acres. This region contains the principal grain-growing areas. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated to a large extent. In Otago and Southland oats is the grain principally produced. On some of the richer lands the yield of wheat has reached very high figures, even up to 80 or 90 bushels per acre, while over 100 bushels to the acre have been recorded for crop8 of oats. In root crops up to 70 tons per acre of turnips have been secured, while the yield of mangolds has frequently reached 90 tons.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture the Department of Agriculture is a service which is mainly concerned in advancing the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock, Dairy, Fields, and Horticulture, also a Chemistry Section.

While the service is mainly educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Live-stock Division, all meat exported is inspected by qualified officers. Cattle are inspected for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles; sheep and swine also receive attention; slaughterhouses are licensed and controlled; and all stock exported and imported is examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in poultry-keeping, swine husbandry, and wool growing and handling. The Division is provided with a well-equipped laboratory at Wallaceville, Wellington, mainly devoted to veterinary research, &c.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, &c, is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy-produce is inspected and graded prior to shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture content of butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk-samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers.

The duties of the Fields Division comprise agricultural instruction, the control of experimental areas, advice regarding crops, pastures, and farm-management, co-operative experimental work, hemp-grading, and grain-grading. The Division also has charge of the system of seed certification introduced by the Department.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work and instruction to beekeepers and tobacco-growers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It also inspects orchards and apiaries, inspects fruit for export, and grades export honey.

The Chemistry Section carries out analyses of soils, limestones, fertilizers, water, &c, also the inspection of fertilizers.

The Plant Research Station at Palmerston North conducts research in crop and grassland production, plant-breeding, and control of plant diseases and pests. Seed-testing and farm economics sections are also attached to the station.

The Department's principal farm establishment is the Ruakura Farm of Instruction at Hamilton, in connection with which a farm training-college for youths is also conducted. The Te Kauwhata Horticultural Station, in the lower Waikato district, is mainly devoted to vine-growing and winemaking. There are also several other smaller experimental and demonstration areas.

The agricultural instructional work covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or by letters of advice. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. A monthly Journal, the New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, is published at a low rate of subscription, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer can obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination-capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified; and diseases or either animals or plants described, and remedies suggested—all these services being rendered free of charge. Among other responsibilities of the Department is the registration of live-stock brands, slaughterhouses, dairies, dairy-factories, fertilizers, orchards, nurseries, apiaries, &c.

SOME ASPECTS OF FARM ECONOMY.

GROSS FARMING INCOME.

Farming occupies such an important position in the economic structure of the Dominion that statistical information relating to farm-production is vested with special interest. The agricultural and pastoral statistics, which form the subject-matter of the next two subsections, deal mainly with the quantitative aspects of farm-production; while, from these statistics and from cognate statistics for other industries, estimates are made of the value of commodity production as a whole—including farm-production (vide Section XLV). Various other classes of official statistics—for example, prices index numbers—throw some light on the economic position of the farming industry.

The official estimates of the value of agricultural, pastoral, and dairying production do not indicate, nor do they purport to indicate, the amount received by farmers from farm-production. They* are necessarily partly based on wholesale prices in the main marketing centres—particularly in the case of agricultural produce.

Reliable statistics as to the returns to the farmer from the various classes of produce are not available over the long period of years for which estimates of value of production have been compiled. For some time past, however, a considerable amount of data as to prices of farm-produce at country railway-stations, &c, has been collected systematically. This, in conjunction with previously existing statistical information, has made possible the estimates here published of the farmer's receipts from sales of farm-produce. These figures afford a more accurate indication of gross farming income than has hitherto been available. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining certain essential information for earlier years it has not been practicable to extend the inquiry back beyond the 1928–29 production season. However, since interest in economic statistics is largely centred on the experience of the past few years, it is felt that the results of this inquiry—though at present covering seven production years only—will prove of value.

It must be clearly understood that the figures do not purport to show the aggregate net income from farming after all expenses of farm operations have been met. They are intended to afford an indication of the income available to farmers as a whole to meet current expenses of farm-operation, living-costs, interest payments, and all other costs.

It should be explained also that no attempt has boon made to exclude from the scope of the compilations that portion of marketable farm-produce which may be consumed on the farm. Similarly that portion of farm-produce which is sold to other farmers as material for further farm-production is in general included. For example, the value of production of grass-seeds is included under the heading “Agricultural Produce,” although—except for exports—almost the whole of this crop is used for the sowing or renewal of pasture lands. An exception, however, occurs in the case of stud stock sold for breeding purposes, no data being available on which to base an estimate of the aggregate annual value of such sales. With this exception, the totals shown for all farm-produce thus represent the total receipts from sales (including sales to other farmers), plus allowance for farm-produce used on the farm. On the other hand, products of kitchen-gardens and of other activities more intimately associated with the home than with the farm do not come within the ambit of this inquiry.

Production of green-fodder crops, turnips, mangolds, or ensilage is not included. The view taken is that production of these crops is a normal and essential part of farm routine to be regarded more in the nature of a farm cost than as production of a saleable commodity. Consequently, the unknown—but, it is believed, very small—proportion sold of the total production of this class of farm-produce is omitted from the totals shown. In the case of production of grasses and clovers cut for hay, it is arbitrarily assumed that 20 per cent, of the total crop comes within the scope of this inquiry, the remainder being omitted for reasons similar to those advanced in the case of green fodder, &c.

The division into the three groups—(1) Agricultural, (2) Pastoral, and (3) Dairying. Poultry, and Bees—has been made entirely on the basis of the nature of the produce.

The principal items included in the Agricultural group are wheat, oats, and other grain crops, potatoes, onions, tobacco, orchard-produce, and produce of market-gardens, nurseries, hop-gardens, &c. The prices at which the various commodities are valued are, in general, the prices f.o.r. country stations in the early months of the years, when the crops are harvested. In cases where only wholesale or export prices are available—as, for example, for fruit-production—appropriate deductions have been made to ensure that the valuations included in the estimate represent, as nearly as the available data permit, gross returns to the growers.

The estimated cost of sacks, cases, and other containers has been deducted from the totals shown: while transport charges from farm to market or commission on sales of agricultural produce are not included under the basis of valuation adopted. The fact that the cost of containers is deducted might be regarded as a departure from the general practice adopted in this investigation of omitting to take account of costs incurred on the farm. It should be noted, however, that price quotations for some important classes of agricultural produce—e.g., wheat—are in ordinary commercial practice on a “sacks extra” basis, so that the exclusion of the value of containers in the case of other crops has the merit of consistency.

The principal items included in the group “Pastoral” are live-stock and wool-production. Slaughterings of live-stock at freezing-works are assessed at the value (alive) at the works; while, in the case of live-stock slaughtered at abattoirs or ordinary slaughterhouses valuations are made on the basis of saleyard prices. In each instance deductions are made to cover the cost of transport from farm to works or salt-yards, and of commission on sales of live-stock. The value (on a conservative basis) of live-stock slaughtered for consumption on farms is included. The value of store stock or young lambs sold by one farmer to another is counted only once—that is, when sold for slaughtering as fat stock.

Wool-production is valued at the average prices realized at sales held during each season, the aggregate arrived at representing the value of production in each season at average sale prices ruling during that season. No adjustments are made to cover the unknown increase or decrease in the total ultimate return from the season's production due to higher—or possibly lower—prices realized for wool carried over and sold in a subsequent season. Deductions are made to cover the cost of transport of wool to selling centres, of commission, and of woolpacks.

Since these estimates are designed with a view to measuring farm receipts in each year, no allowance is made for the value of the annual increase or decrease m the Dominion's herds, although this item is included in assessing the estimates of value of production included in Section XLV of this Year-Book.

The largest individual item included in the Dairying, Poultry, and Bees group is the pay-out to suppliers by butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories during each of the dairy seasons shown. An estimate of the value of human consumption of raw milk (at farm-gate prices) is also included, together with the value of butter produced on farms for home use or for sale. The available data permit of only a rough estimate of the value of bee-products and of poultry-products, which are included in this group mainly for purposes of convenience.

The following table shows the values (in millions of £N.Z.) arrived at for each of seven production years:—

GROSS FARMING INCOME.

Production Year.Agricultural Produce.Pastoral Produce.Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.
1928–297·233·825·766·7
1929–307·025·724·657·3
1930–316·619·318·144·0
1931–326·015·817·539·3
1932–336·715·817·039·5
1933–346·726·018·150·8
1934–356·023·218·747·9

The extent of the fall in the value of all classes of farm-produce between the years 1928–29 and 1931·32 was £27,400,000. The value of agricultural produce did not fall to anything like the extent observed in the case of the other two groups. A slight recovery is observed in 1932·33; due entirely to the rise of £700,000 in the valuation of agricultural produce—caused mainly by an exceptionally bountiful wheat crop. An all-round recovery is evident in the figures for the 1933–34 season. The 1934–35 season was unsatisfactory in respect of crop production, an exceptionally dry summer being experienced. Wool prices also suffered a set-back, with a consequently lowered value of pastoral production: while in the case of dairy production a somewhat lowered output resulted from cheeks to the growth of pastures during part of the season. In the latter instance, however, there was some recovery in prices, the value of dairy-produce being slightly higher than in 1933–34.

A clearer idea of changes in the values since 1928–29 is afforded by the following table of index numbers, in which the 1928–29 values are equated to 100.

Production Year.Agricultural Produce.Pastoral Produce.Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.
1928–29100100100100
1929–3097769686
1930–3192577066
1931–3283476859
1932–3393476659
1933–3493777076
1934–3583697372

Although there was a partial recovery in 1933–34, a further setback took place-in 1934–35.

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION, AND PRODUCERS' PRICES.

In order to convey an indication of the extent to which the values shown for more recent seasons have been influenced by movements in the volume of production, and by fluctuations in prices received by producers of farm-produce, index numbers have been compiled showing the movements in volume of production and in prices.

For the compilation of these index numbers, a computation was first made for each of the seasons 1929–30 to 1933–34 showing what the aggregate value would have been assuming that prices had remained unchanged at the 1928–29 levels. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers were compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production; for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The prices index numbers were compiled simply by dividing the value indices by the volume indices, thus eliminating the influence of changing volume on total values.

Following are the index numbers on the base: 1928–29=100.

Production Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, &c.All Farm Produce.
Volume.Prices.Volume.Prices.Volume.Prices.Volume.Prices.
1928–29100100100100100100100100
1929–3010097100761088910383
1930–3111282105541116310861
1931–3210678111421146011253
1932–3313768117401335012647
1933–3412177117661424912660
1934–359488115601385312159

The volume of agricultural production, though showing an upward tendency, fluctuates considerably; the exceptional crops of the 1932–33 season being reflected in an index number 37 per cent, higher than the 1928–29 figure, and 29 per cent, higher than the index for the previous season (1931–32). The 1934–35 season was the poorest during the period under review in respect of the volume of crop-production. The volume of pastoral produce has shown a definite upward trend throughout the period. The index number of the volume of dairy, &c, production moved in close sympathy with that for pastoral produce until 1932–33, when a sharp increase was shown in the production of dairy-produce. This upward movement continued in 1933–34, with the result that this group showed in that season an increase of 42 per cent, over the volume of production in 1928–29. The recession in dairy production indicated by the index-number for 1934–35 is directly due to the exceptionally dry season, which checked the growth of pastures.

The prices indices show, in all cases, considerable falls as compared with those realized during the 1928–29 season. In 1932–33—the low point in respect of prices of farm-produce—prices of pastoral produce were 60 per cent, below the 1928–29 level, while dairy-produce prices were 50 per cent, below, and agricultural-produce prices 32 per cent, below, prices realized for these classes of farm-produce in 1928–29. Despite an aggregate increase of 20 per cent, in the volume of production of farm-produce as compared with production in the 1928–29 season, the aggregate return was 41 per cent, below the 1928–29 total, prices having fallen by 53 per cent. Both the 1933–34 and 1934–35 seasons show a considerable improvement on the 1932–33 figures. The price-level in 1933–34 showed a sharp increase, due to a substantial recovery in wool-prices, dairy-produce prices remaining depressed. In 1934–35 wool-prices suffered a setback, while dairy-produce prices recovered somewhat.

From the aggregate values compiled for the purpose of measuring movements in the volume of farm-production, the following estimates (shown in the form of percentages of total farm-production) of the relative volume of agricultural, pastoral, and dairying, &c, production in each of the years covered by this inquiry have been computed. The percentages of the aggregate values are also shown.

PERCENTAGES OF TOTAL VOLUME AND VALUE OF FARM-PRODUCE.

Production Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.
Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.
1928–29141150513638100100
1929–30141248453843100100
1930–31151548443741100100
1931–32131550403745100100
1932–33151747403843100100
1933–34141346514036100100
1934–3591249484240100100

It will be noted that the proportion of agricultural produce to the total volume of farm-production varied, during the period under review, between 9 per cent, in 1934–35 (when harvests were poor) and 15 per cent, in 1930–31 and 1932–33. The proportion of dairy-produce has risen relatively to that of pastoral produce during the period shown.

THE SPREAD IN PRICE-LEVELS.

The statistics quoted under the previous headings illustrate the growth in farm-production since the 1928–29 season, the fall in gross farming income, and the movement in producers' prices of farm-products. While the fall in gross farming income—despite a considerably enhanced volume of farm-production—suggests in itself a period of increasing difficulty for the farming community, the growing divergence between price-levels of farm-products and internal price-levels generally is the real crux of the agrarian problem in times of depression.

Prices of farm-products are particularly sensitive, since the demand for most products of the soil does not readily respond to price-changes; and, moreover, supply cannot be readily adjusted to changing demand. On the other hand, the cost of debt charges does not fluctuate so readily, while prices of services and of manufactured goods are also less sensitive than prices of farm-products. An indication of the spread between indexes reflecting farming returns and internal price-levels is shown by the figures in the following table:—

Production Year.Index Numbers indicative of—
Farming Returns.Internal Price-levels.
Gross Farming Income.Farm Producers' Prices.Farm Expenditure Index (Calendar Year).Retail Prices (Year ending on 31st May).
1928–29100100100100
1929–30868310099
1930–3166619194
1931–3259537687
1932–3359477080
1933–3476607080
1934–3572597082

While the farm expenditure index (briefly described in Section XXXVI) only partly reflects any increases in costs at the farm caused by a higher volume of farm-production, the considerable proportion of total farm costs made up of fixed charges which do not increase in direct ratio with increases in the volume of farm-production is included in this index. Comparison between the farm expenditure index and the gross farming income index will thus afford a rough comparison of movements in farm costs and returns. It should be noted that these index numbers indicate the position generally, and do not necessarily apply to individual branches of farm-production.

The retail prices all-groups index is the best available indicator of movements in internal prices generally, and, consequently, this index, when compared with the farm-producers' prices index, affords a useful comparison between movements in prices received by the farmer and in internal prices. As will be apparent from the figures shown under the next heading, returns in respect of sales of farm-produce have been governed largely by price-movements overseas, whereas farming-costs are affected more intimately by internal-price movements.

FARM-PRODUCTION: EXPORTS AND DOMINION CONSUMPTION.

The following statistics illustrating the relative importance of exports and of consumption within New Zealand in the disposal of farm-produce have been compiled by utilizing the statistics of gross farming income, in conjunction with statistics of trade in farm-products.

In the discussion covering the statistics of gross farming income it is explained that these estimates were framed on the basis of “on the farm” values in order that they might indicate the gross receipts by the farmer, after making provision for transport charges and other expenses incurred in the marketing of produce.

In compiling the statistics of the relative importance of the New Zealand market and of export markets for farm-products, the value of exports has been assessed at the “farm” value of the commodities concerned, and not at the f.o.b. declared value for export. This adjustment has been made in order to ensure that both sets of statistics from which the comparison is made are on the same value basis. It will be realized, then, that the statistics of value given in this statement indicate the gross returns to the farmer from farm-products exported and from consumption of such products within the Dominion.

The statistics of the return to the farmer in respect of New Zealand consumption of farm-produce have been obtained by deducting exports from total production. In these compilations exports of milk-products have been converted to a butterfat equivalent, the return to the farmer being computed on the basis of butterfat pay-out; while, again, the slaughterings represented by exports of meats products have been taken as the basis on which to estimate the farmers' receipts from exports of meat. Where statistics of stocks held over from one season to another are available, adjustment has been made for this factor. Since the estimates of Dominion consumption are thus the residual element in the process of compilation, any lack of correspondence between the statistics of production and of trade will affect the accuracy of these estimates. Statistics of production relate to the production-year for each commodity, or group of commodities, coming within the scope of this investigation. In many instances the production-years do not cover identical twelve-monthly periods, so that the aggregate of production of farm-produce includes statistics for a number of yearly periods ending in different months.

Exports during any one year do not consist entirely of commodities produced within the same twelve-monthly period to which the export statistics relate, and in some instances stocks held over may amount to an appreciable portion of total production. It will be seen, then, that estimates of Dominion consumption of New Zealand farm-produce, based on differences between production and export statistics, cannot be made with any close approach to accuracy for a single year. This is particularly apparent in the case of commodities of which consumption within the Dominion is but a small proportion of total production—e.g., cheese. Consequently the estimates published in this statement are based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons, in order to minimize the effects of any such lack of comparability between the two sets of statistics.

The following table based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons shows the division of gross farming income into returns from exports of farm-produce, and from consumption of such produce within the Dominion.

Three Production Years.Annual Average Gross Farming Income fromPercentages of Gross Farming Income from
Total Production.Exports.New Zealand Consumption.Exports.New Zealand Consumption.
 £m.£m.£m.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Agricultural Produce.
1929–316·90·76·21090
1930·326·50·75·81189
1931–l336·40·85·61387
1932·346·50·85·71288
1933·356·50·85·71288
Pastoral Produce.
1929–3126·320·36·07723
1930·3220·315·35·07525
1931·3317·013·04·07624
1932·3419·215·53·78119
1933·3521·717·04·18119
Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.
1929·3122·815·27·66733
1930·3220·113·66·56832
1931·3317·511·85·76733
1932·3417·512·35·27030
1933·3517·912·65·37030
All Farm Produce.
1929·3156·036·219·86535
1930·3246·929·617·36337
1931·3340·925·615·36337
1932·3443·228·614·66634
1933·3546·131·015·16733

Of the total gross farming income during the seven production years 1929 to 1935, 65 per cent, came from exports of farm-produce, while 35 per cent, was accounted for by consumption of such produce within the Dominion.

An indication of movements in the quantity of New Zealand farm-produce exported and consumed in the Dominion is afforded by the following table of index numbers of values at 1928–29 prices, based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons. In instances where statistics of stocks are available adjustment has been made for the carry-over from one season to another. It has been assumed that stocks of butter and cheese carried over are held for export, and that stocks of wheat and oats are subsequently consumed within New Zealand.

Three Production Years.Index Numbers of Volume of Farm-production.Consumed in New Zealand.
Total.Exported.Total.Per Head.
Agricultural Produce.
1929–31100100100100
1930–32102104103101
1931–33114122110107
1932–34117139111107
1933–3510513510395
Pastoral Produce.
1929–31100100100100
1930–32104104102101
1931–33109110106103
1932–34113115104101
1933–3511411810197
Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.
1929–31100100100100
1930–32105105103101
1931–33112112112110
1932–34122127113109
1933–35129136115111
All Farm-produce.
1929–31100100300100
1930–32104105102101
1931–33111111110107
1932–34117120110106
1933–35119125107101

The quantity of New Zealand produced farm commodities consumed in the Dominion was 7 per cent, higher during the three production years ending in June, 1934, than in the three years ending in June, 1931. The falling-oil in local consumption—notably of agricultural produce—indicated by the 1933–35 figures is accounted for largely by the exceptionally poor harvest of 1935.

The difficulties which have beset the farming industry in recent years and the dependence of the farm economy of the Dominion on export markets will be realized from data discussed under the preceding headings. An account of the readjustments in agricultural policy made in order to combat these difficulties follows under the next heading.

USE OF FARM MACHINERY.

The following summary of farm machinery employed on holdings outside borough boundaries during the last five years is of interest as showing the increasing use being made of electricity and of mechanical equipment:—

Class of Machinery, &c.1932.1933.1034.1935.1936.
Milking-plants23,22224,35025,17825,63026,181
Cream-separators51,33454,20055,62555,92056,199
Shearing-machines—
Plants7,8537,9367,8948,1748,468
Stands22,32622,56222,48222,98223,526
Agricultural tractors4,8564,9725,0625,3495,710
Electric motors24,16426,75729,16431,63135,426
Internal-combustion engines20,97421,66721,75822,11722,159

The 26,181 milking-plants in use in 1936 had a capacity for milking 91,350 cows simultaneously. The total number of cows milked on holdings employing milking-plants was 1,377,533, The aggregate horse-powers of the agricultural tractors, electric motors, and internal-combustion engines shown above were 94,905, 43,600, and 69,297 respectively.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN AGRICULTURAL POLICY.

INTRODUCTORY.

The prosperity of New Zealand is to such a large extent dependent on the well-being of the farming industries that measures designed towards the furthering of farm-production have always occupied a prominent place in the policies of successive Governments. In the early stages of rural development in this country land-settlement schemes to encourage the expansion of the area under cultivation, and State assistance in the form of cheap long-term financing of the purchase and development of lands suitable for fanning purposes, were focal points in agricultural policy. Closer settlement of rural areas, with a view to the establishment of a numerous class of independent farmers and the full utilization of farm lands to the maximum stage of efficiency, has always been a major aim in agricultural planning.

Active intervention by the State in the marketing of primary products was made necessary by the exigencies of the war; but such measures as were designed to this end were naturally of a temporary nature. From 1921 onwards, however, the orderly marketing of the products of the soil has been a definite and important part of the State long-term policy in relation to agriculture. The Meat-export Control Act was passed in the 1921–22 session, while the Dairy-produce Export Control Act followed in 1923. Other statutes of a like nature apply to various other farm-products. A most important measure, the Primary Products Marketing Act, was placed on the statute-book in May, 1936. The Act was designed to make better provision for the marketing in New Zealand, as well as overseas, of dairy-produce and other primary products, and to ensure for producers an adequate remuneration for the services rendered by them to the community. A résumé of the main provisions of the Act appears later in this section. State assistance towards rationalizing marketing has been an important part of the legislative programme designed to cope with agrarian problems arising out of the depression.

Although Governmental assistance in long-term finance to farmers and others was provided for as early as 1894, when the State Advances Act was passed, it was not until 1927 that the State intervened in the short-term rural-credit market; the Rural Intermediate Credit Act passed in that year being designed to add to the then existing facilities for this type of finance. The future administration of this Act is one of the functions of the State Advances Corporation.

For many years the continuous expansion of the area under cultivation was the major cause of a growing volume of farm-production; but as the more favoured localities became fully settled the impetus to a still growing farm output came largely from the application of modern scientific methods to farming operations. Agricultural research and its practical application have been fostered by the Department of Agriculture since its inception, with a consequent improvement in the technique of farm-production generally throughout the Dominion.

Live-stock production has been the predominating type of farming in New Zealand for many years past, although crop-production was very important in the early days of the colony before refrigeration rendered possible the development of export markets for perishable farm-products. The farm-lands of this country are, except in restricted areas, more suited to the growing of pasture grasses than to crop-cultivation; and while the yields of the various crops have shown improvement with advances in farm practice and the improvement in seed types resulting from research activities, the main concentration of effort until recently was towards the raising of the productivity of grass lands and the expansion of areas under pasture.

Crops are normally produced in sufficient quantities to supply home requirements, with the exception that small importations of wheat and flour are sometimes necessary. In the case of the more perishable crops, such as potatoes and onions, there is considerable elasticity in price between one season and another, depending on the scantiness or fruitfulness of the harvest. Exports are normally small, except for apples and, to a lesser extent, pears and grass and clover seeds, in which commodities a considerable export trade has been built up. The export marketing of fruits is controlled by a Board set up after the passing of the Fruit Control Act in 1924. Dominion imports of agricultural produce are limited mainly to tropical foodstuffs, although in years of poor wheat harvests there is a considerable import of wheat—principally from Australia. Again, during the off-season, imports of certain commodities, notably onions, are sometimes necessary. Broadly speaking, however, the Dominion may be regarded as practically self-contained in respect of crop production and consumption. State intervention in the local marketing of agricultural produce was one of the necessary temporary measures taken during the war years. During the post-war period no measures of importance were taken in that direction until comparatively recently, when a considerable surplus of wheat in the 1932–33 season led to the establishment of a Wheat Purchase Board to regulate wheat prices, and to control the purchase and disposal of wheat. The wheat-growers have been protected for some years past from the full impact of outside competition by a sliding scale of duties on imports of wheat and flour, designed to maintain a payable price in the Dominion. The sliding scale of duties was introduced in 1927, replacing the pre-existing tariff. An Order in Council, which came into force in March, 1936, prohibits the importation of wheat or wheat flour except where a written permit has been issued by the Department of Industries and Commerce. The import duties on the other principal crops are—Potatoes: General Tariff, £1 per ton; Australian Trade Agreement rate, £2 10s. per ton. Onions: General, £4 per ton; Australian Trade Agreement rate, £1 per ton. Oats: General, 2s. per cental; Australian Trade Agreement rate, Is. 6d. per cental. Apples: General, 1½d. per pound; British Preferential Tariff, Id. per pound. Except in years of poor crops, imports of these commodities are inconsiderable.

From the statements contained in the preceding paragraph, it will be realized that marketing and other problems arising from crop-production are largely of a purely domestic nature, for there is comparatively little direct competition with or from overseas sources. Attention should, however, be drawn to the fact that the alternations of prosperity and depression in the live-stock industries catering mainly for the export markets affect the acreages under crops—such as wheat, potatoes, and onions, all of which are grown for the Dominion market—so that crop-production for home consumption may be influenced very considerably by conditions in world markets for live-stock products. It follows, then, that marketing and other schemes initiated primarily for the support of the export industries may, if effective, have, indirectly, a considerable beneficial effect on the returns in respect of crop-production. Furthermore, if a policy of restriction of exports of live-stock products became necessary, crop-production would be seriously affected directly, since a substantial portion of the yields of existing areas devoted to the growing of crops is utilized for stock-feeding purposes.

While the home market dominates in the disposal of crops, almost 90 per cent, of gross receipts from sales of produce coming from consumption within the Dominion, live-stock production (which accounted during 1929–35 for approximately 87 per cent, of the aggregate gross money returns from farm-production) is particularly dependent upon the export markets—over two-thirds of the total return from live-stock products emanating from sales abroad. The expansion of the volume of live-stock production was, until recently, a dominating force in Government policy measures designed to further farming interests; but the agrarian problems of New Zealand have changed very materially during the past few years, rendering necessary a re-orientation of policy, with a shift of emphasis towards the marketing side of farm economy.

Since the war, world markets have been increasingly affected by the development of national policies aimed at economic self-sufficiency. Specialization demands an increasing interchange of commodities over national borders, while the furtherance of nationalistic ideals of a “balanced economy” must be accompanied in the long-run by a diminishing quantum of world trade. The full consequences of this growth of economic nationalism were partially disguised during the period of comparative prosperity and rapid industrial development; but the advent of the world depression greatly accelerated the process of diminution of world trade.

New Zealand has devoted much attention to the development of the industry to which, by climatic circumstances, she is most peculiarly suited—the production of pastoral products—and is consequently particularly dependent on external trade—the disposal of the large surplus of pastoral produce at remunerative prices being essential to meet the cost of commodity imports and a heavy adverse balance in respect of freight charges, interest on overseas indebtedness, and other invisible items. The collapse in prices in 1930—symptomatic of the development of a world-wide economic crisis—was felt with special severity in primary-producing countries, since the level of prices of farm-products and other relatively unfinished goods fell at a much more rapid rate than prices of finished goods and services. Consequently, a widening disparity between farm costs and farm returns rapidly precipitated an agricultural crisis not only in New Zealand but also in all other countries materially dependent on world markets for farm-produce.

State assistance towards the re-establishment of farming rapidly became a world-wide feature of economic policy, consuming countries endeavouring to check imports of farm-products, as part of a policy to restore trade balances, and at the same time endeavouring to increase the flow of home-produced agricultural products by subsidies and other devices. In exporting countries a variety of measures to cope with a situation of extreme urgency was adopted; direct subsidies on a large scale, Currency depreciation, guaranteed returns to producers, and plans for the reduction of farm costs being the main avenues of approach.

The crisis in the agricultural situation in New Zealand passed with the marked improvement in wool-prices in the 1933–34 selling season, while, in 1934–35, dairy-produce prices recovered somewhat; so that, despite a somewhat adverse season in point of volume of farm-production and a setback in wool-prices, the outlook for New Zealand's farming industry had changed materially for the better. With the further improvement that has taken place in the 1935–30 season, the emphasis in the planning of the farm economy of the Dominion has shifted from problems of immediate urgency to long-range plans.

In the following pages an outline of recent legislation and other governmental action having a direct bearing on the fanning situation is given. In some instances the statutes have application to other sections of the community as well as the farm population. Reference should be made to a similar article in the 1930 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 321–336) for an account of measures taken between 1921) and 1935 to alleviate the effects of the depression period on the farming community. Only a brief résumé of the contents of the above article is given in this issue, since changed circumstances—including the advent of a Labour Government in November, 1935—have rendered much of the material of historical rather than of current practical interest.

Recent legislation designed to cope with agrarian problems has three main objectives—(1) The stabilization of future returns from farming operations; (2) the final clearing-up of the burden of excessive indebtedness; and (3) the provision of cheap finance for farming and other purposes. It is of service to note also at this stage that legislation has been placed on the statute-book regulating the wages and conditions of employment of farm workers. (See Section XXXVIII.)

MARKETING.

The progressive imposition of import duties on farm-products has reached the stage of amounting to a virtual prohibition of imports in many countries which were previously important avenues for the disposal of exports of such commodities. In addition, the quantitative regulation of farm-produced imports has become a major feature of the economic policies of consuming countries, thus further reducing the potential markets of exporting countries. These developments have created a marketing problem of considerable urgency, and efforts to preserve existing markets and to establish new markets have occupied a prominent place in governmental plans for the re-establishment of the farming industry in the Dominion.

New Zealand's major exports of farm-products are at present practically limited to wool, butter, cheese, and meats. Of these commodities, wool alone has an international market, the problem of disposal of the wool-clip being affected rather by the state of world activity in the woollen-manufacturing industries than by import restrictions and quotas.

New Zealand's export market for butter, cheese, and meats is now practically confined to the United Kingdom. With the decline in consumption of these commodities in continental countries, partly as a result of the decline in purchasing-power caused by the depression and partly as a consequence of the artificial raising of agricultural prices by duties and import restrictions, much produce which previously found an outlet in those countries has been diverted to the United Kingdom: while a further factor affecting that market has been the increase in production in the major exporting countries. British plans for the rehabilitation of agriculture have been seriously hampered by the increased influx of farm-produce from abroad, with the consequent lowering of prices on a market which became oversupplied, despite increased consumption of certain farm-produced commodities—notably butter. Import duties and restrictions on imports of such products have in consequence become an integral part of British policy in relation to agriculture.

The necessity for developing new markets as an outlet for part of the Dominion's exports of dairy products and meats has become a major problem, but plans directed towards this end must inevitably take considerable time before reaching fruition. The immediate problem of retaining New Zealand's share in the British market has been the subject of prolonged negotiations over a considerable period. A resume of the agreements arrived at to that end was included in the 193G issue of this publication, pp. 329–332. With the increased prosperity in the United Kingdom and the successful launching of plans to protect British agriculture —e.g., the Milk-marketing Scheme—the immediate danger of drastic reduction in our exports of farm products to that country passed. In practice there have been no actual restrictions of New Zealand imports into the United Kingdom apart from relatively minor restrictions on beef shipments and the regulation of marketing of certain other products.

The most significant recent development in the marketing of New Zealand farm-produce is the Primary Products Marketing Act (described under the subheading immediately following), by virtue of which the marketing of dairy-produce for export becomes the sole concern of the Government. The expressed intention of the Government is to centralize the marketing of primary products, guaranteeing a stated price for such products, so that the farmer's energies may be fully directed to farming operations, freed from the anxieties attendant on the varying overseas price of his products and the difficulties of marketing. At the same time-it is considered by the Government that centralized control of marketing presents many other advantages. The Budget forecasts energetic prosecution of a policy of reciprocal trade agreements, particularly with the United Kingdom. A section in the Primary Products Marketing Act of particular interest in this connection is quoted in full:—

  • “(1) With a view to facilitating the making by the Government of New Zealand of agreements with the Governments of other countries for the promotion of reciprocal trade, it shall be one of the functions of the Minister, on behalf of the Government of New Zealand, to enter into negotiations, as and when he thinks it opportune so to do, with the accredited representative or with accredited representatives of the Government of the United Kingdom or of any other part of His Majesty's Dominions, or the Government of any other country.”

  • “(2) The basis of any such agreement shall be that, in consideration of the purchase by the Government of any such county of any primary products of New-Zealand, or in consideration of the establishment or maintenance in any such country of favourable marketing conditions for any primary products of New Zealand, the Government of New Zealand will undertake to arrange, through the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, that the whole or a substantial part of the financial credits thereby established in such country will be utilized for the purchase of approved goods or classes of goods being the produce or manufacture of that country.”

The Minister of Marketing has recently (October, 1936) sailed for the United Kingdom to make arrangements, inter alia, for the marketing of New Zealand produce. The early months of 1937 may well prove a vital period in the history of New-Zealand's trading relations with the United Kingdom. The Ottawa Agreements can be terminated by notice of denunciation from February, 1937, onwards; while the close of 1936 and the early months of 1937 will witness the expiry of trade agreements between the United Kingdom and several important foreign countries, notably Argentina and Denmark.

PRIMARY PRODUCTS MARKETING ACT, 1936.

The purpose of this Act is, in the words of the title, “to make better provision for the marketing of dairy-produce and other primary products so as to ensure for producers an adequate remuneration for the services rendered by them to the community.” As a means to that end it is considered by the Government that it is essential in the public interest that producers of primary products should, as far as possible, be protected from the effect of fluctuations in the market-prices of such produce.

The preamble to the Act states, inter alia, that “it is thought that the most effective and appropriate way of affording such protection, so far as relates to primary products intended for export, is to provide that the Government, on behalf of the Crown, shall acquire the ownership of such products at prices to be fixed and promulgated from time to time; and, so far as relates to primary products intended for consumption in New Zealand, is to empower the Government in its discretion either to acquire the ownership thereof at fixed prices or to control the sale and distribution thereof.”

To achieve the objects of the Act, administrative machinery is set up under the control of a Minister of Marketing, a new Department of State being created, called the Primary Products Marketing Department. The principal functions of this Department are “to make all necessary arrangements” with respect to—

  • (a) The acquisition, on behalf of the Crown, of any primary products in accordance with the Act, or in accordance with any other lawful authority that may be conferred:

  • (b) The marketing in New Zealand or overseas of primary products, whether or not such products have been acquired on behalf of the Crown.

Provision for the appointment of a Director of Marketing and one or more Assistant Directors is made in the Act, the Director to be the administrative head of the Department. It is further stated that all the functions of the Department may be exercised by the Minister, who may delegate to the Director such of his powers as he thinks fit.

The functions of the Executive Commission of Agriculture, set up under the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934, are transferred to the new Department.

The administrative machinery created by this Act is framed in such a manner that any or all primary products may be brought within the purview of the activities of the Department; but its immediate purpose is to put into action definite plans in respect of dairy-produce, and to assist the Government in formulating plans in respect of other primary products.

MARKETING OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The Act contains definite proposals for the marketing of dairy-produce. The most important provisions in this portion of the Act apply to all butter and cheese manufactured from milk or cream delivered to a dairy factory on or at any time after 1st August. 1936. The Minister is empowered to make such arrangements as he thinks proper for the following matters:—

  • (a) The handling, pooling, transport, and storage of any dairy-produce to which the Act applies:

  • (b) The shipment of any such dairy-produce that is intended for export on such terms and in such quantities as he thinks fit:

  • (c) The insurance against loss of any such dairy-produce:

  • (d) Generally all such matters as are necessary^ for the exercise of any of the powers expressly conferred in the Act.

All dairy-produce—to which this part of the Act applies—intended for export is to become the property of the Crown as soon as it is placed on board ship. The Act provides that the prices fixed for dairy-produce that is exported on or before the 31st July, 1937, shall be fixed after taking into account the “prices received in New Zealand in respect of dairy-produce of the same or approximately the same kind, grade, and quality exported from New Zealand during a period of from eight to ten years immediately prior to the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and thirty-five.”

The actual prices declared under this subsection of the Act were announced in the Budget presented by the Minister of Finance on 4th August, 1936. They are given under the next subheading.

In fixing prices of dairy-produce to be exported after 31st July, 1937, regard will be taken of the prices fixed for the 1936–37 season, while the following additional considerations are set out in the Act:—

  • (a) The necessity in the public interest of maintaining the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry:

  • (b) The costs involved in the efficient production of dairy-produce:

  • (c) The general standard of living of persons engaged in the dairy industry in comparison with the general standard of living throughout New Zealand:

  • (d) The estimated cost to the Department of marketing the dairy-produce concerned, and also the cost of the general administration of the Act:

  • (e) Any other matters deemed to be relevant.

The procedure in respect of dairy-produce intended for consumption in New Zealand is somewhat different from that specified in respect of exported produce. The Minister may acquire such produce on behalf of the Crown, but is not obliged to do so. The prices in respect of dairy-produce intended for consumption in New Zealand may be fixed by the Governor-General in Council whether it has been or is intended to be acquired by the Crown, or is sold or intended for sale otherwise than to the Crown. The general purpose in fixing such prices shall be to ensure a return to the producer equivalent to that received in respect of produce for export. The Minister of Marketing announced early in October that it was not intended at present to fix prices in respect of local consumption.

Provision is made in the Act for the opening of a Dairy Industry Account with the Reserve Bank, as an essential prerequisite to the working of the Act, All receipts and all disbursements in connection with the Act are to pass through this account. In another Act, the Reserve Bank Amendment Act, 1936, the bank is empowered, inter alia, to grant to the Government accommodation by way of overdraft in aid of the Dairy Industry Account.

Part III of the Act contains provisions reconstituting the Dairy Board. The number of members is reduced from seven to five, one of whom is appointed by the Governor-General in Council—under pre-existing legislation there were three Government nominees. After the 1st August, 1930, the Board is not to exercise any of its powers, functions, or discretions except with the approval of the Minister of Marketing.

GUARANTEED PRICES.

Following the coining into operation of the Primary Products Marketing Act, guaranteed prices in respect of butter and cheese for export were announced on 4th August, 1936.

The basic f.o.b. guaranteed prices for butter and cheese made between 31st July, 1936, and 1st August, 1937, have been fixed as follows:—

Per Cwt.Per Lb.
 s.d.d.
(a)Finest grade creamery butter scoring 93 or 93½ points117312 9/16
(b)First-grade whey butter scoring 88 points and over10711l1 9/16
(c)First-grade cheese scoring 92 or 92½ points63 76 9/16

These prices will remain constant throughout the season. If the proceeds of the sale of produce acquired by the Crown at these prices do not cover the guaranteed price paid out (payment is made when the produce is delivered to the overseas steamer), the deficit is the responsibility not of the farmer but of the Government. If, on the other hand, “the proceeds of sale in the first year are greater than the amount guaranteed, this surplus will be used for the benefit of the dairy-farmer and the industry after consultation with its representatives” (Financial Statement, 1936).

The basic guaranteed price for cheese has been fixed at a level which it is estimated will return to the farmer who supplies a cheese-factory 1 (1 half fraction) d.. per pound more for his butterfat than the return in respect of milk or cream delivered at a factory for buttermaking. This differential margin will, it is expected, compensate cheese-factory suppliers for the slightly higher factory cost of cheesemaking; and for the fact that dairy-factory suppliers may retain skim-milk for pig-raising, &c., whereas whole milk is used in cheesemaking.

Provision has been made for differential price-margins to apply to butter and cheese graded above or below the standards specified in the basic scale. Under the guaranteed-price plan there is a special premium of Is. 2d. per cwt. for butter grading 94 points or over, and for cheese there are two premiums—one of 1s. 2d. per cwt. for cheese grading 93 to 93½ points, and an additional 3½d. per cwt. for cheese grading 94 points or over.

The guaranteed prices of butter grading below the standard grading of 93 to 93½ points will be subject to the following reductions below the basic prices:—

Grading.A Reduction of
First grade butter—Grading 92 to 92½ points0s. 7d. per cwt.
First grade butter—Grading 90 to 91½ points2s. 4d. per cwt.
Second-grade butter7s. 0d. per cwt.

The reductions in respect of cheese grading below the standard grading of 92 to 92½ points are as follows:—

Grading.A Reduction of
First-grade cheese—Grading 91 to 91½ points0s. 7d. per cwt.
Second-grade cheese2s. 4d. per cwt.

It will be noted that the guaranteed-prices plan places great emphasis on quality.

ADJUSTMENT OF FARM LIABILITIES.

The Primary Products Marketing Act, a summary of which has been given above, indicates the present Government's plans towards ensuring to the farmer some security in respect of farm returns in the future. Although only dairy-produce has been brought within the scope of the guaranteed-prices plan, it is quite clear that the Government envisages the possibility of extending the scheme to other branches of farm production. The priority in making provision for dairy-produce is directly attributable to the fact that dairy-farming is considered to be in more urgent need of immediate protection than the other major branches of the Dominion's farm economy. The provision of farm finance does not come directly within the scope of the above legislation, and it is now proposed to describe briefly the principal governmental measures dealing with this aspect of agricultural organization. The subject falls naturally into two headings—(1) The adjustment of liabilities; and (2) the provision of farm finance.

The burden of farm indebtedness remaining as a legacy from the long period of acute agrarian depression is still one of the major problems of agriculture in New Zealand. The principal measures adopted by the past Government to lighten this burden were the various Mortgagors Relief Acts and the Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35. The Mortgagors Relief Acts were designed to protect the mortgagor (farmer or other) from foreclosure, and also contained provision for the voluntary adjustment of mortgages through the agency of Commissions set up by authority of the legislation. The Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35, represented a definite effort to effect a permanent settlement of excessive farm indebtedness arising from the depression. The Act provided, inter alia, for the final clearing-up of excessive mortgage liability after a period of five years, during which period, however, the farmer mortgagor seeking relief under the Act was required to conduct his farming operations under a system of budgetary control. The legislation of the present Government towards the clearing-up of excessive rural (and other) indebtedness is contained in the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936. The Act, which applies to all mortgages, is described in some detail in Section XXXII. Certain special provisions in the Act which are intended to apply to farm mortgages only are summarized below:—

The following quotation of section 2 (1) of the Act indicates the intent of the legislation in regard to farmer applicants for relief under its provisions:—

“ The general purpose of this Act in relation to fanner applicants is to retain them in the use and occupation of their farms as efficient producers, and to make such adjustments of their liabilities as will ensure that the liabilities secured on any property do not exceed the value of that property, that the rent of any leasehold property does not exceed the rental value of that property, and that the total amount and terms of payment of all their liabilities (whether secured or unsecured) are such that, after allowing for all normal current expenditure and providing for the maintenance of themselves and their families in a reasonable standard of comfort, the applicants may reasonably be expected to meet their liabilities as they become due, either out of their own moneys or by borrowing on reasonable terms.”

Adjustment Commissions are set up under the Act under the general direction of a Court of Review. These Commissions are empowered, inter alia, to fix basic values of farm lands held by applicants for relief under the legislation. The basic value is defined as the productive value of such lands “increased or reduced by such amount as the Adjustment Commission deems necessary in order to make it a fair value to serve as a basis for the adjustment of the liabilities of the applicant in accordance with this Part of this Act.”

The productive value is defined as the net annual income that can be derived from the lands by the average efficient fanner, capitalized at a rate of interest to be fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council. In determining the net annual income, all expenses, including reasonable remuneration for the work performed by the applicant or other person in the production of that income, and interest in stock and chattels used for farm operations, are to be deducted from the gross income. Capital expenditure is not to be deducted.

The amount of gross income is to be determined on the basis of “such prices for farm-products as may be fixed for the purposes of this section by the Governor-General by Order in Council; or, in default of any such Order in Council, or in so far as any such Order in Council does not extend, by the Court. The said prices shall be fixed after taking into consideration the prices received in respect of products of the same or approximately the same kind, grade, and quality produced in New Zealand during a period of from eight to ten years immediately prior to the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and thirty-five. The Governor-General may from time to time, by Order in Council, fix prices for the purposes of this section as hereinbefore provided." If the basic value of the applicant's interest in any farm lands is less than the total amount of the principal and other moneys secured on his interest in those lands the amount so secured is to be reduced to the basic value. The remainder is to be regarded as an adjustable debt: while, in the case of farm mortgagors only, all other unsecured debts are also classed as adjustable debts.

With certain specified exceptions, all adjustable debts to which any applicant is subject on the date of the application for adjustment of his liabilities under the Act, “and such of the adjustable debts to which he subsequently becomes subject as the Adjustment Commission determines for the purposes of this section,” shall be deemed to be discharged on a date to be fixed in that behalf by an order of the Adjustment Commission. The provisions for the relief of lessees are similar in import to those outlined in respect of mortgage indebtedness. The Adjustment Commission dealing with any particular application has power to determine whether the farmer is to be permitted to remain in the use and occupation of his farm lands. In determining this, the Commission is enjoined to take into consideration the following factors:—

  • (a) The conduct of the applicant in relation to the care and management of the lands and the disbursement of his income:

  • (b) The extent (if any) to which the area of the farm lands exceeds or is less than the area required to enable the applicant to obtain a reasonable standard of comfort for himself and his family:

  • (c) Whether any relief granted pursuant to the Act would be reasonably likely to enable the applicant to meet his future liabilities in respect of the farm lands:

  • (d) Any other matters that it deems relevant.

In cases where the Adjustment Commission dispossesses the mortgagor of a property, the Commission has power to sell such property with or without the right of purchase by the mortgagee.

The legislation in its application to farm mortgagors resembles in many respects the Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35, which is consequentially repealed. A major difference is that final adjustment is made without any “stay” for five years under budgetary control as is provided for in the previous Act.

Under the present law all mortgagors or mortgagees (who are also entitled to apply for relief under its provisions), must lodge application on or before 31st January, 1937. Extension to not later than 2Sth February, 1937, may be allowed in special circumstances. If such action is not taken, full rights of foreclosure, &c., may be exercised, since the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act is repealed from the date of passage of the present legislation. A saving provision protects mortgagors who have filed applications until such time as the applications have been disposed of by the Adjustment Commissions.

As indicated in the foregoing paragraphs, wide powers are given to the Adjustment Commissions (against whose decisions there is a right of appeal to the Court of Review) towards a final clearing-up of excessive indebtedness. Among the miscellaneous provisions of the Act of particular relevance to the question of farm indebtedness the following may be cited:—

An Adjustment Commission has power to give priority to moneys advanced in respect of farming operations on any farm coming within the scope of the Act—e.g., purchase of seeds, stock, &c. Similar arrangements may be made, where the Commission thinks fit, for securing new loans raised to increase the productive capacity of such lands. The compulsory reduction of interest on mortgages by 20 per cent, (but not to a rate below 5 per cent.) provided for in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act is made permanent; under previous legislation it was due to expire on 31st March, 1937. A further section confers on a mortgagor the right to negotiate with the mortgagee for a reduction of interest on a mortgage still unexpired. If no agreement can be arrived at, the mortgagor has the right to discharge the debt by payment of the principal in cash and interest up till the date such payment is made.

PROVISION OF FARM FINANCE.

State policy in respect of the provision of fanning (and other) finance was materially altered from its traditional role by the Mortgage Corporation Act, which received assent on 5th April, 1935. The direct provision by the State of long-term finance for farming and other purposes, which had for so long been a feature of New Zealand financial structure, ceased. The present Government, which had opposed the Mortgage Corporation Bill when on the Opposition benches, passed the State Advances Corporation Act in June, 1930. The Act is described in Section XXIVD (State Advances). It is sufficient here to quote the following passage from the 1936 Budget, in which the Minister of Finance defines the objective of the present legislation:—

In a developing agricultural economy the question of farming finance is all important, and New Zealand is no exception. Over forty years ago the State initiated a policy whereby settlers were provided with finance at particularly low interest-rates and for long periods. This system has been the greatest single factor in developing New Zealand's farm lands.

Last year the Government then in office established a Mortgage Corporation, changed the old procedure, limited the scope of the legislation for social service, and introduced private shareholders and share capital and bonds not guaranteed by the State. As with the Reserve Bank, the Government has bought out the shareholders of the Mortgage Corporation, and the institution has again come under direct Government control and responsibility as the State Advances Corporation. Bonds will be State guaranteed, so that money may be raised at the lowest possible rates. Where it is necessary to assist a farmer in financial difficulties, or for purposes of providing homes for wage-earners, a high percentage of the security will be lent. There are safeguards so that loans cannot be used for speculation. The intention is to provide homes and farms for the people at low cost.

GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES.

The amounts of money expended from the vote of the Department of Agriculture by way of advances, grants, subsidies, &c, towards the assistance (direct and indirect) of the farming industries of the Dominion totalled £310,588 in the financial year 1935–36, the corresponding total for 1934–35 being £298,295. The estimate for this item for the financial year 1936–37 is £311,619. The principal items of expenditure under this heading are shown below:—

Item.1934–35.1935–30.1936–37 (Estimates).
 £££
Carriage of lime73,82770,32490,000
Carriage of fertilizers112,784110,976128,120
Carriage of farm-produce44,34044,32145,000
Subsidy on superphosphate deliveries57,71133,06214,300
Guarantee on exports of fruit34412,5008,380
Other9,28939,40525,819
Totals298,295310,588311,619

The above items cover certain miscellaneous expenditure of the Department of Agriculture. The whole of the expenditure of the Department (£591,802 in 1935–36) is devoted directly or indirectly to the furtherance of farming and associated interests.

The amounts shown in respect of carriage of lime, fertilizers, and farm-products represent amounts paid out of the vote of the Agriculture Department to the Railway Department for the free carriage of lime by rail (which is a long-standing concession granted to farmers) and the cost of special concessions in freight rates on fertilizers and certain farm-products initiated during the depression period.

The falling-away in the use of artificial fertilizers in the autumn and winter of 1931 became so serious as to necessitate national action in an endeavour to restore the practice to an adequate level. The Government, therefore, in October, 1931, commenced a scheme of subsidizing the manufacture of superphosphates in order to reduce considerably the cost-price of this fertilizer to the farmers. This subsidy has been discontinued as from 1st July, 1930, the amount shown in the table in respect of 1936–37 being provided to meet claims up to 30th June, 1930.

As a measure of relief to rural producers, provision was made in the Finance Act (No. 4), 1931, for the payment to County Councils of a subsidy from the Main Highways Fund, the money to be applied to a reduction of 121 per cent, in county rates levied during the financial year 1931–32. The total amount of subsidies paid to County Councils for this purpose was £250,814. In the 1934 session of Parliament a section was included in the Finance Act (No. 3) making provision for a refund of 121 per cent, on certain rates levied during the financial year 1934–35. As was the case in 1921, the subsidy was paid to local authorities from the Main Highways Fund, the amounts so paid totalling £178,240. A similar subsidy was paid in 1935–30, the total amount paid in that year being £186,388. In the two latter instances the refund of rates applies both to lands used exclusively or principally for agricultural, horticultural, and pastoral purposes in counties or road districts, and to urban farm lands included in farm-land rolls; whereas the 1931 provision related to all lands used for farming or other purposes situated in counties.

The Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934, contains, inter alia, provisions authorizing the expenditure of public moneys for the rehabilitation of the dairy industry. The specified purposes for which public moneys may be so applied include the reconstruction of dairy factories, the eradication of disease from dairy herds, and the general improvement of conditions in and about dairy farms.

DIVERSIFICATION OF FARM PRODUCTION.

While the recent progress of production in the major fields of farming enterprise in the Dominion suggests that the ultimate limit of production of dairy-products, mutton, lamb, and wool is not yet within sight, the growth of difficulties in finding export markets for these products has focussed attention on the possibilities of developing alternative avenues of farm production. Following is a brief outline of recent developments in that direction:—

Pig Products.—New Zealand has a surprisingly small pig population in relation to the number of dairy cattle. In recent years there has been a marked expansion in pig-raising, exports of frozen pork having quadrupled since the 1931–32 export season. The Dairy Commission, in its report, pointed out that pig-production has been stimulated by the low prices ruling for butterfat rather than by recognition by dairy-farmers that pig-raising forms an integral part of the scientific management of dairy farms. While the Commission urged that greater attention should be paid by farmers to this branch of dairy production, and made specific recommendations towards that end, it drew attention to the difficulties of developing an export market for pig products.

A Dominion Advisory Pig Industry Committee was established in 1932 to place the industry on a sound footing. The Committee has drafted provisions (gazetted in 1933) for the adoption of a uniform system of grading for the local and export markets; while investigations have been conducted into pig-management methods generally, including the establishment of a pig-recording scheme on a national basis.

The Co-operative Pig-marketing Companies Act, passed in 1933, was designed to encourage the pig industry. By the Co-operative Dairy Companies Act, 1907, provision was first made for the registration of co-operative companies having for their principal object the manufacture of dairy-produce from milk supplied by shareholders. One of the special features of these co-operative companies is the statutory right to require the surrender of shares, and the power to reissue surrendered shares. The present Act is an adaptation, to meet the requirements of the newer industry, of the special provisions of the earlier Act relating to co-operative dairy companies.

Pig-recording clubs have been founded in some rural centres with a view to the selection of suitable breeding types. The movement has the encouragement of and financial assistance from the Meat Producers' Board.

Chilled Beef.—Until recently New Zealand was hindered in the extension of its export trade in beef by the loss of “bloom” and other disadvantages of frozen beef as compared with the chilled product. The discovery of a satisfactory process by which beef may be kept in the chilled state for a much longer period of time than was previously possible has now permitted New Zealand's entry into world markets for chilled beef. An experimental shipment in February, 1033, opened up satisfactorily on arrival at the London market, and since then the chilled-beef industry has become definitely established; during 1935, 110,247 cwt. were exported. While the eventual prospects for the industry are clouded by the uncertainty as to markets, the probable immediate expansion in production has been taken into account in discussions with United Kingdom representatives on import restorations.

Poultry Industry.—Measures for the furthering of poultry-production have received a considerable amount of attention in recent years. The Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in 1933 as a complementary measure to the Poultry Act, 1924. That Act was concerned with the avoidance of disease and the marketing of produce, while the later Act provides for the registration of all commercial poultry-runs where more than twenty-five head of poultry are kept, and for the constitution of an elective Board whose general function is to organize and develop the poultry industry.

Egg-export committees have been set up in each of the four main centres to control the supply to the local market during the flush production-period by the export of a greater quantity of eggs during that period.

Tobacco Industry.—Considerable progress has been made in the growing of tobacco in the Dominion, the area under this crop having increased from 1,000 acres in 1928–29 to 2,126 acres in 1932–33, dropping during the next two seasons to 1,358 acres in 1934–35, but recovering to 1,518 acres in 1935–36.

An important measure affecting this industry was passed in the 1935 session of Parliament. The Act provides for the establishment of a Board to control the industry. Among the functions of the Hoard will be the granting of licenses to grow tobacco. Without such a license a grower is not permitted to grow tobacco. Paw tobacco is not to be sold, purchased, or manufactured except pursuant to a warrant issued by the Board. Recently it was announced by the Minister of Industries and Commerce that a sub-committee of the Board is to be set up with a view to formulating a long-range plan for the tobacco-growing industry, while at the same time the Board is endeavouring to establish and maintain exports.

Passion-fruit Industry.—This is a recently established primary industry which has made considerable progress, particularly in North Auckland. While the market for the fruit is limited to local requirements, endeavours are being made, with reasonable prospects of success, to build up an export market for passion-fruit juice.

Citrus Industry.—By Order in Council dated 15th December, 1932, the importations of all fruit and vegetables (other than dried, canned, pickled, pulped, or bottled fruit and vegetables) grown or produced in the Commonwealth of Australia was prohibited, save with the consent of the Minister of Customs.

This prohibition was varied in August, 1933, to allow South Australian oranges to enter the Dominion, the first shipment arriving on the 26th August in that year, while further importations have since been allowed. Since the coming into force of these regulations a much improved local market has been obtained for New Zealand lemons, which has encouraged the growers to improve the curing and get-up of this fruit for the market.

By the instructions of the Minister of Industries and Commerce a survey of the grape-fruit industry was carried out during 1933. The local fruit is little known to the public, and is very low in price compared with the imported article. It is hoped that by improving the grading and packing of the fruit, and organizing the marketing on better lines, a much improved demand will be obtained, and that in time the local fruit will entirely replace the imported grape-fruit. This tree seems to be the hardiest of all the citrus family in New Zealand, and it has been successfully established over a considerable part of the North Island, more especially in the Auckland Province, and on a great variety of soils where aspect and shelter were favourable and a reasonable amount of manure and cultural attention given. With the development of the industry, New Zealand grape-fruit should fill a much more important place in the dietary of the people.

Tung Oil Industry.—In recent years considerable attention has been given to the growing of tung-trees in suitable localities in the Dominion. In 1931–32 there were 1,018 acres of these trees in New Zealand, the acreage in 1935–36 being 6,057.

MISCELLANEOUS DEVELOPMENTS.

In the following paragraphs a brief statement is given of miscellaneous legislative enactments and other governmental action taken with the object of assisting the farming industry. In some instances the subjects are treated in a more condensed form than in the 1936 issue of the Year-Book, to which reference should be made for greater detail.

Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934.—This Act was passed with a view to co-ordinating the activities of the various Boards marketing farm-produce; while, in addition, wide powers were granted the Executive Commission of Agriculture set up under the Act to take action towards the betterment of the farming industry generally. The administration of the Act is now in the hands of the Primary Products Marketing Department, to which the powers formerly vested in the Executive Commission of Agriculture have been transferred.

Land-tax Policy.—The previous Government abolished the system of graduated land-tax, with a view to lowering farm costs, during the depression period. The present Government's policy in relation to land-tax is described in Section XXIVB (Taxation). It involves a reversion to the graduated land-tax.

Mortgage Relief Legislation.—The pre-existing legislation has been replaced by the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, described under a previous heading.

National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.—The provisions of this Act reducing interest-rates have been largely rendered obsolete by the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act. In respect of unexpired mortgages, the reduction of interest by 20 per cent.—but not below 5 per cent.—provided for in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act has now been made permanent in cases to which it may still apply.

The Land Laws Amendment Act, 1931.—This Act, designed to afford relief to Crown tenants, is still in force; as is the Urban Farm Rating Act, 1932, the purpose of which is to reduce the burden of rates on land situated within a borough and used for farming purposes.

Small Farms Relief of Unemployment Act, 1932.—This Act is designed to facilitate the settlement of unemployed on small holdings.

Valuation of Lard Amendment Act, 1933.—The main purpose of this Act is to adjust inequalities in rating.

The Dairy Industry Amendment Act, 1933.—This Act prohibited the changeover of a factory supplier from one factory to another during the currency of a single season. Such changes were in practice often made between butter and cheese factories, the suppliers concerned endeavouring to take advantage of price-changes as between the pay-out for butter and cheese. The motive for such changes has largely disappeared with the fixation of a set-price difference between butter and cheese in the guaranteed-prices plan, now in operation.

Raising of the Exchange Bate.—The primary object of the raising of the rate from £110(N.Z.) = £100 sterling to £125(N.Z.) = £100 sterling on 20th January, 1933, was the alleviation of the difficulties of the farming industry. This factor is no longer of import to the dairy-farmer, 3ince guaranteed prices are in operation, but the maintenance of the high rate (£124 10s. since the 1st August, 1934) still continues to benefit other farm producers.

Fruit-export Guarantee Fund.—A section in the Finance Act, 1934–35, authorizes the New Zealand Fruit-export Control Board to establish a special reserve fund for the purpose of minimizing fluctuations in returns from exports of fruit. The Board is authorized to make advances from the fund on account of exports of fruit on the basis of a guaranteed price; and if the net amount realized from sales of such fruit does not cover the amount of the advance, the deficiency is treated as a loan to the producer. The Board is empowered to set of! any such deficiency against surpluses accruing to the producer's account in subsequent years. In 1935–36 the Government contributed to the Fruit Board's fund on a pound-for-pound basis up to £12,500, and guaranteed up to 9s. per case (New Zealand currency) on fruit sold in new markets. Representatives of this industry have made a request to the Government to guarantee a price of 10s. a case for fruit exported in the 1936 season.

Prices of Fertilizers.—Fertilizers form a very important element in farming-costs: and, since 1931, measures have been taken to keep prices of superphosphates as low as possible. Between October, 1931, and June, 1936, the Government subsidized the manufacture of superphosphates (see Government Subsidies ante); hut, as from 1st July, 1936, payment of this subsidy has been discontinued. An alternative scheme has been introduced by regulations dated 14th July, 1936. In these regulations the price is fixed at £3 16s. per ton ex works in the North Island, with a rebate of 4s. 01. per ton to merchants purchasing for re-sale and of 2s. per ton to dairy companies. For the South Island the prices are £4 2s. ex works in that Island, with rebates of 6s. 6d. to merchants and 4s. to dairy companies.

In the case of imported phosphatic fertilizers the selling-price is fixed at the landed cost plus 0 per cent, in the North Island and plus 8 per cent, in the South Island, additional allowance being made for carriage from the wharf to the place of delivery to the purchaser.

It is estimated by the Minister of Agriculture that the present arrangement represents a saving of £50,000 per annum to farmers in the Dominion as compared with the pre-existing position. This estimate is based on the quantity used last season.

Research Activities.—An account of recent developments in agricultural policy would not be complete without reference to the increasing attention being given to research work and its practical application towards the improvement of the quality of New Zealand's farm-produce. For example, seed certification has made great advances in recent years under the direction of the Agriculture Department. The certification of seed types is regarded as a very important step towards the elimination of undesirable strains and the wider use of varieties best suited to individual localities. Problems relating to the farming industry occupy a very important place in the research activities of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research—soil surveys, research into the mineral-content of pastures, openness in cheese, wheat research, treatment of fruit-juices, and wool research being samples of the activities of various committees operating under the direction of this Department. An interesting innovation is the recent decision to conduct aerial surveys of various portions of the Dominion. The results of these surveys will provide valuable data for a number of purposes—e.g., defence, forestry; while they will form a valuable adjunct to the soil surveys which it is proposed to conduct in selected rural areas.

In addition to the activities of the Departments of Agriculture and of Scientific and Industrial Research, cognate or related research is conducted by the Cawthron Institute at Nelson, the agricultural colleges at Palmerston North and Lincoln, and the Wheat Research Institute, Christchurch.

Chapter 30. SECTION XVIII.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION B.—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

NEW ZEALAND is a country very favourably situated for grazing purposes, and consequently the shopping of the soil is not carried out on a very extensive scale, the greater proportion area in occupation either being under permanent artificially-sown pastures or well remaining in tussock or other native grasses. Certain districts in the Dominion, however, have been found to be particularly suited for the growing of wheat, oats, and other cereal crops, and the production of grain is now almost exclusively limited to those areas which are especially so suited. On the other hand, the desirability of supplementing the supply of fodder during the winter months of the year, for the largo number of sheep and cattle in the Dominion, has necessitated the cultivation of considerable areas of turnips, mangolds, and green fodder crops, besides the maintenance of large acreages of grasses and clovers and of lucerne for the production of hay and ensilage. Fairly largo areas are also sown down annually in the bettor-class grasses and clovers for the production of grass-seed.

In general, agricultural farming in the Dominion may be said to be now limited to the growing of those crops necessary for the augmentation of existing pastures in order to maintain a high standard of production, and to the growing of grain for local consumption. Grass-seed and peas are the only two field crops that regularly have a sufficient margin for export. A substantial export trade in apples—the major orchard crop—has been built up in the last decade.

AREA UNDER CROP.

In the following table the area under crop according to the different classes of crop is given for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Grain and Pulse Crops.Grasses, Clovers, and Lucerne.
For Threshing.For Chaff, Hay, Ensilage, &c.Green Fodder, Root, and other Crops.Cut for Seed.Cut for Hay, Ensilage, &c.Total Area under Crop.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1926–27398,868272,300722,54087,699288,4551,769,862
1927–28411,822218,507713,11865,681280,2411,689,369
1928–29378,571213,228735,27768,017351,1071,746,200
1929–30348,331218,900716,71666,855412,5881,763,390
1930–31390,609295,621718,28189,184443,0881,936,783
1931–32378,781321,791720,82373,582464,1601,959,137
1932–33467,249325,911700,567135,962562,3362,192,025
1933–34427,098312,709725,07893,344506,3182,064,547
1934–35333,725307,480683,418133,933523,8381,982,394
1935–36381,895306,305691,912134,405576,8752,091,392

The principal feature of the above table is the rapid rise in the areas of grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for hay or ensilage. These areas have doubled themselves in the last ten years, showing that farmers are becoming increasingly impressed with the need for conserving stocks of supplementary fodder.

Of the total area under grain and pulse crops, which formed 33 per cent, of the total crop area in 1935–30, 55 per cent, was threshed and 45 per cent, harvested for chaff, hay, or ensilage. Canterbury Land District predominated in the cultivation of grain and pulse crops with 72 per cent, of the area threshed and 51 per cent, of the area chaffed, &c, in 1935–30. Next in importance were the land districts of Otago and Southland, which between them gave corresponding percentages of IS and 31 respectively.

Canterbury Land District contained 37 per cent, of the total area devoted to green fodder and root crops in 1935–30, followed by Southland with 20 per cent, and Otago with 19 per cent. These three land districts accounted for 76 per cent, of the total area in green fodder and root crops.

Canterbury, Otago, and Southland likewise predominated in the area of grasses cut for seed with 86 per cent, of the Dominion total. On the other hand, grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for hay and ensilage were largely confined to the North Island, which provided 81 per cent, of the total area. The land districts principally contributing were Auckland (36 per cent.), Taranaki (15 per cent.). North Auckland (13 per cent.), and Wellington (11 per cent.). These are the principal dairying districts, containing between them 79 per cent, of the dairy cows in the Dominion.

PRINCIPAL CROPS.

The areas under each of the principal crops for the last five years have been as follows:—

Crop.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
* Including turnips and rape mixed. † Excluding wheat, oats, barley, and maize fed off.
Wheat280,602305,924294,992230,523252,423
Oats364,345424,587364,729336,418363,296
Barley27,04023,47629,60728,73127,777
Maize11,46015,15017,27516,10017,126
Peas14,70122,37030,36225,36624,428
Beans16893263127177
Linseed1,7653331,4412,9301,806
Hops466355510590647
Potatoes23,78624,60525,02823,00122,958
Turnips*482,229472,995478,652449,513441,854
Mangolds9,82411,96113,74511,21113,210
Onions8741,1341,112923928
Tobacco1,7262,1261,8031,3581,518
Green fodder†199,624184,992201,508193,942207,212
Grasses and clovers for seed73,582135,96293,344133,933134,405
Grasses and clovers for hay, ensilage, &c.431,592526,469470,412484,751536,018
Lucerne32,56835,86735,90639,08740,857
Other crops2,7853,6263,8583,8904,752
Totals1,959,1372,192,0252,064,5471,982,3942,091,392

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS.

Details of areas, total yields, and yields per acre of the principal grain and pulse crops during the past ten years are set out in the following tables:—

Year.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas.*Linseed.
* Including beans prior to 1928–20.
AREAS FOR THRESHING.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1926–27220,083117,32629,88610,24915,4954,933
1927–28260,98788,22321,09110,29125,1285,213
1928–29255,31273,10119,5008,98617,8932,800
1929–30235,94267,72218,2297,9579,8557,757
1930–31249,01487,15223,9527,16810,55812,200
1931–32268,75668,69018,2455,96514,7011,765
1932–33302,531116,20616,3368,15322,370333
1933–34286,27178,34321,0248,25630,3621,441
1934–35225,38952,51618,4417,94625,3662,930
1935–36248,63977,50220,6597,51724,4281,806
TOTAL YIELDS.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1926–277,952,4424,997,5351,243,333491,468454,72238,580
1927–289,541,4443,852,687861,985482,928802,41031,265
1928–298,832,8643,065,113781,102456,296527,50423,227
1929–307,239,5563,002,288755,007377,955294,24270,377
1930–317,579,1533,376,609837,696316,845241,40287,344
1931–326,582,6982,818,152537,3981258,612309,38312,757
1932–3311,054,9725,132,183561,017389,432585,4182,705
1933–349,036,0173,242,500730,963373,212698,29312,564
1934–355,933,2451,890,145484,689373,219436,53417,208
1935–368,859,2233,302,642745,380321,222562,73311,535
YIELDS PER ACRE.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1926·2736·1342·5841·6047·9529·357·82
1927·2836·5643·6640·8746·9331·936·00
1928·2934·6041·9340·0650·7829·488·30
1929·3030·6844·3341·4247·5029·869·07
1930·3130·4438·7434·9744·2022·867·16
1931·3224·4941·0329·4543·3521·057·23
1932·3336·5444·1634·3447·7726·178·12
1933·3431·5641·3934·7745·2023·008·72
1934·3526·3235·9926·2846·9717·215·87
1935·3635·6342·6136·0842·7323·046·39

Minor crops for threshing in 1935–36 included 532 acres of lupins, 336 acres of rye-corn, 177 acres of beans, and 108 acres of vetches and tares, the respective yields in bushels being 12,819, 6,294, 4,152, and 2,158.

The total area of grain crops for threshing hi 1935–36 has already been given as 381,895 acres. Wheat, with 248,639 acres, represents 65 per cent, of the total area, followed by oats (20 per cent.), peas (6½ per cent.), and barley (5½ per cent.). The small balance of 3 per cent, is distributed over all other crops for threshing.

Further particulars for wheat and oats follow under their respective headings. Regarding barley, two-thirds of the total crop is grown in Canterbury and Otago, Marlborough accounting for most of the remainder. Maize, on the other hand, is almost exclusively confined to the northern part of the North Island, Auckland and Gisborne supplying 85 per cent, of the total area threshed. Peas are grown to a considerable extent only in Canterbury and Marlborough, while linseed is evidently not looked upon as a suitable crop outside of Canterbury. The latter crop has diminished to relatively inconsequential proportions hi recent years.

WHEAT.

Wheat is the most important grain crop grown in New Zealand. The industry enjoys a sliding scale of Customs duties levied on imports of wheat and flour (vide Section IXD: Customs Tariff and Revenue). Even so, wheat production has usually failed to reach Dominion requirements. The resulting imports of wheat have fluctuated considerably from year to year, as shown in the table appearing under the heading “ Consumption of Wheat.” During the five-year period covered by the table net imports of wheat averaged 250,000 bushels annually.

As an inducement to growers to increase production, an Order in Council which came into force in March, 1936, prohibits the importation of wheat or wheatenflour, except under permit granted by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. With a view to reducing imports of hard wheat for mixing purposes, the Minister and the Committee of the Wheat Research Institute are endeavouring to encourage the growing of Jumbuck—a hard variety of wheat—by paying a premium for such wheat harvested in 1937. A new variety of wheat, “Cross 7,” was evolved by the Wheat Research Institute in 1934. Great success is predicted for this variety, which has very desirable qualities for baking, a good yield, and valuable wind-resisting qualities. 1,308 acres were threshed in 1935–36, yielding 61,744 bushels, an average of 45·13 bushels per acre. The yield in 1935–36 cannot be regarded as typical, since the small available supplies of seed were distributed to selected growers.

The wheat harvest of 1935–30 was one of the best in recent years. Early in the threshing season (between 18th and 20th February) a severe storm was experienced, and reports at the time suggested that crops in Canterbury had suffered considerably. However, the damage was found subsequently to be less serious than was originally anticipated, and the ultimate yield of grain (8,859,223 bushels) was 1,000,000 bushels greater than the average of the ten preceding harvests. Canterbury is the centre of the wheat-growing industry. In the 1935–36 season, 85 per cent, of all wheat threshed in the Dominion emanated from there. Otago is the only other district of any importance as regards wheal, its quota of production in 1935–3G amounting to 9 per cent, of the Dominion total.

Pre-harvest estimates of areas in wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes are published annually in October, followed in February by a forecast of probable production. In the case of wheat, the 1935–30 area was estimated in October, 1935, at 246,000 acres, and the yield in February at 8,400,000 bushels. The actual figures of 252,423 acres and 8,859,223 bushels show that the position was prejudged with a fair degree of accuracy.

CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT.

1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* Excess of exports over imports.
Wheat.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
Wheat-production at preceding harvest7,579,1536,582,69811,054,9729,036,0175,933,245
Excess of imports over exports188,2471,361,250—639,019*111,725224,475
 7,767,4007,943,94810,415,9539,147,7426,157,720
Change in carry-over—438,026—495,735+2,531,654+136,956—2,181,926
Estimated total consumption8,205,4268,439,6837,884,2999,010,7868,339,646
Converted to flour6,245,7706,140,2296,413,9526,307,8726,341,855
Used for sowing (estimated)420,903458,886442,488345,785378,635
Apparent farm and other consumption1,538,7531,840,5681,027,8592,357,1291,619,156
Flour.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Production129,602130,721133,624131,414134,067
Excess of imports over exports11,68912,83510,98910,79112,229
Change in carry-over—181+ 2,445+ 359+466+ 1,054
Apparent consumption141,472141,111144,254141,739145,242

Based upon the figures in the preceding table, the average annual consumption of wheat is 8,37(5,000 bushels. Of this total, 6,290,000 bushels are converted into flour, 410,000 bushels are utilized for the next season's sowings, and 1.676,000 bushels are used as poultry-food, pig-food, or for other purposes.

OATS.

Although, as stated above, wheat is the most important grain crop of New Zealand, the area under oats exceeds that under wheat. Of the total area under oats in 1935–36, 87 per cent, was grown in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, 5 per cent, in the remainder of the South Island, and S per cent, in the North Island. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chalf without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends partly on the condition of the crop and partly on market conditions. In 1931–32, 18–86 per cent, of the area harvested was threshed; in 1932–33, 27–37 per cent.; in 1933–34, 21–48 per cent; in 1934–35, 15–61 per cent.; and in 1935–36, 21–33 per cent. Canterbury yielded 49 per cent, of the total grain produced in 1935–36, followed by Southland with 28 per cent, and Otago with 19 per cent., these combined districts accounting for 96 per cent, of the total oat-grain yield.

The total and average yields of oaten grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the last ten seasons were as follows:—

Season.Grain.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.
Total Yield.Average per Acre.Total Yield.Average per Acre.
 Bushels.Bushels.Tons.Tone.
1926–274,997,53542·58434,9671·70
1927–283,852,68743·66344,3221·71
1928–293,065,11341·93333,2201·71
1929–303,002,28844·33314,7341·65
1930–313,376,60938·74367,1981·64
1931–322,818,15241·03309,3011·35
1932–335,132,18344·16453,5031·75
1933–343,242,50041·39357,8621·64
1934–351,890,14535·99315,5891·42
1935–363,302,64242·61390,1681·72

POTATOES.

Potatoes are grown extensively in the Dominion. In 1935–36, 54 per cent, of the total potato area was in Canterbury Land District. The figures for the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Tons.Tons.
1926–2724,616116,7714·73
1927–2821,693121,4025·59
1928–2921,304123,6075·77
1929–3023,214130,1075·60
1930–3128,459151,5255·32
1931–3223,786116,7434·91
1932–3324,605129,0795·25
1933–3425,028131,0455·24
1934–3523,001109,1234·74
1935–3622,958121,0045·27

The total yield of 121,004 tons in 1935–36 was made up of 83,623 tons of table potatoes, 25,005 tons of seed potatoes, and 12,376 tons of pig, &c, potatoes. The corresponding quantities in 1934–35 were 70,275 tons, 25,426 tons, and 13,422 tons respectively.

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS.

Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, it has been found that at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order that the grassland may not become unduly exhausted, and also in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In midwinter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses a great amount of its nutritive value. During these periods, therefore, it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or ensilage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops available during each of the last ten years:—

Year.rChaff, Hay, or Ensilage.Green Fodder.Root Crops for feeding to Stock.Total Area of Fodder Crops.
Cereal Crops.Grasses and Clovers including Lucerne.Wheat and Oats not Harvested.Other Crops.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1926–27257,558288,45514,742219,031477,4921,257,278
1927–28203,838280,24114,669216,702472,1011,187,551
1928–29196,545351,10716,683219, O88491,8421,275,265
1929–30192,660412,58826,240203,438486,9691,321,895
1930–31228,215443,08856,735190,979506,1431,425,160
1931–32232,925464,16075,826212,664493,7891,479,364
1932–33262,970562,33650,300197,633486,8001,560,089
1933–34221,644506,31874,688217,885494,6431,515,178
1934–35225,521523,83864,706211,195462,9951,488,255
1935–36231,036576,87560,023222,458458,2651,548,657

In 1935–36, grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage totalled 536,018 acres, and lucerne 40,857 acres; oats was the only cereal crop utilized in any quantity for the purpose, the area in 1935–36 being 227,480 acres. Of the cereal crops fed off to stock during the past year, oats comprised 58,314 acres of the total area. Turnips are the principal root crop grown in the Dominion, the total acreage in 1935–36 being 441,854 acres (including 59,905 acres of turnips and rape mixed). Other root crops comprised 13,210 acres of mangolds and 1,643 acres of carrots and parsnips. Pumpkins and marrows were grown for fodder to the extent of 1,558 acres.

The total and per-acre yields obtained from the various crops cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage are as follows for the last two seasons:—

Crop.1934–35.1935–36.
Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
Wheat3,9971·793,8621·86
Oats315,5891·423901681·72
Barley1,5472·0518952·05
Maize2,9806·804,1497·44
Grasses and clovers for hay744,2721·83851,2631·83
Glasses and clovers for ensilage323,8544·02334,7594·05
Lucerne115,0052·94118,4792·90

GRASS-SEED.

The total area of grasses and clovers cut for seed during the year 1935–36 was 134,405 acres, yielding 1,727,233 bushels of 201b., as against 1,465,403 bushels from 133,933 acres in 1934–35. Canterbury, Otago, and Southland land districts between them provided 86 per cent, of the area cut.

A considerable export of grass-seed has been built up during recent years, especially with the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America, the quantity exported to these countries in 1935 amounting to 68,648 cwt., valued at £203,469. The total quantity of locally-produced grass and clover seed exported to all countries amounted to 71,649 cwt., with a recorded value of £215,738.

The areas and yields of the principal grass and clover crops harvested for seed during each of the ten years 1926–27 to 1935–36 are given in the following table. Second or catch crops are taken account of in the yield figures, the total yield including crops obtained from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. The areas, however, do not include second crops, and average yields cannot therefore be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area shown.

AREAS.

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White CloverBrown Top.*
* Not available prior to 1930–31.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1926–2742,0829,8209,6349,3078,5404,029..
1927–2823,54511,49310,0218,9487,8872,294..
1928–2926,34311,2559,5065,7029,7503,338..
1929–3030,05511,7299,8083,4044,7033,710..
1930–3147,94214,00110,5933,3123,3233,3395,158
1931–3230,1419,43713,0102,6963,8672,42310,758
1932–3386,92411,2939,4262,93510,6334,3608,465
1933–3445,9309,4967,8342,69911,5656,6987,936
1934–3566,44812,30911,2943,47513,49610,29215,140
1935–3666,62513,51613,7686,54610,6546,58414,936

YIELDS

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover Cow-grass.White Clover.Brown Top.*
† Of 20 Ib
 Bushels.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
1926–27904,1561,858,0822,177,1251,482,2141,935,328671,828..
1927–28523,4121,992,3772,684,6012,116,4882,041,413399,298..
1928–29564,5112,048,8322,723,1241,276,7851,936,088566,395..
1929–30641,3162,009,9702,416,381828,8941,040,022604,874..
1930–31987,4662,666,2802,337,070575,664647,949574,224412,273
1931–32466,873919,9112,383,941491,348786,782284,333311,358
1932–331,796,9742,335,4972,295,763;708,6091,738,218568,888188,531
1933–34758,180724,6841,403,151458,2201,838,736834,552;268,877
1934–351,095,8821,876,386|1,214,230459,5881,894,9651,335,414390,318
1935–361,281,7102,374,9092,365,9511,015,9561,807,076786,280 

PASTURE GRASSES.

Grass is by far the most important crop to the farmer, the soils, the climate, and other natural conditions obtaining in the Dominion being very favourable for the growth of grass. Wherever there is light and moisture English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off, and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are very few places where there is not some growth even in the coldest months of the year, enabling cattle to be kept all the year round in the open.

At the beginning of the year 1930 there were 17,496,102 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 711,280 acres cut for seed, hay, or ensilage during the preceding season), and in addition 14,242,407 acres of occupied land still remained in tussock or other native grasses, making a total of 31,738,509 acres of grassland in occupation. The following table shows the respective areas occupied by artificially sown grasses and tussock and self-sown native grasses during the last ten years.

Year.Artificially Sown Pasture Grasses.Tussock and other Native Grasses.Total Area under Grass.
Cut for Seed Hay, or EnsilageNot Cut for Seed, Ensilage. Hay, or Ensilage.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1926–27376,15416,680,34814,197,85331,254,355
1927–28345,92216,871,53014,091,71731,309,169
1928–29419,12416,855,51214,131,63031,406,266
1929–30479,44316,872,94814,182.14231,534,533
1930–31532,27216,722,21314,124,03031,378,515
1931–32537,74216,494,91714,294,46331,327,122
1932–33698,29816,422,16314,137,37531,257,836
1933–34599,66216,736,82814,014,17731,350,667
1934–35657,77116,730,40314,184,04431,572,218
1935–36711,28016,784,82214,242.40731.738,509

During the year 1935–36 76,672 acres of land which had not previously been cultivated were sown down in new pasture, as against 80,503 acres in 1934–35.

PHORMIUM.

Large areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium, or New Zealand flax, the fibre of which is largely used for rope-making, &c. Of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion, 68,933 acres were returned as in phormium 1935–36.The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Area. Acres.
1926–2769,420
1927–2866,492
1928–2962,704
1929–3068,260
1930–3171,219
1931–3277,437
1932–3364,206
1933–3472,853
1934–3572,823
1935–3668,933

Three-fifths of the area in phormium in 1935–36 v. as in the North Island (vide p. 304).

Flax-milling in recent years has recorded a very heavy decline. Statistics of the operations of flax-mills are included in the Factory Production section, to which reference should be made for details of output, &c.

Since the year 1934 a large wool-pack and sacking factory has operated at Foxton, thus providing a fresh avenue for fibre consumption. Arrangements have been made by the Government whereby the whole of the output of the factory will be absorbed in the 1936–37 season.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.

In 1935–36 there were 7,905 acres in market gardens. There were 5,057 acres in tung trees, 647 acres in hop-vines, 433 acres of grape-vines, and 352 acres of passion-fruit vines. Nurseries and seed-gardens occupied 1,013 acres, while 81,598 acres were in private gardens, grounds, &c. The area in plantations (not virgin bush) was. 807, S77 acres, made up of 789,345 acres of conifers and 18,532 acres of eucalyptus and other broadleaved trees. State plantations are covered by these figures.

It should be noted that these statistics relate to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside boroughs, as do all other figures in this section.

The figures for market gardens, plantations, &c, for the last ten years are as follows:—

YearMarket Gardens.Nurseries, &c.Private Gardens, &c.Plantations.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1926–275,10246464,783160,188
1927–285,65548968,566232,083
1928–295,85558273,263293,911
1929–305,87165774,434289,020
1930–316,6841,00470,208341,591
1931–327,61498476,247399,307
1932–336,8521,00377,886409,860
1933–346,63488879,160427,471
1934–357,2841,27681,694781,684
1935–367,9051,01381,598807,877

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.

A great impetus to the planting of fruit-trees was given by the discovery some years ago that tracts of land, principally in the Nelson Land District, which formerly were looked on as being practically useless, were eminently suited for growing fruit, particularly apples. For a time, considerable areas of this and other land were annually added to the Dominion's orchards, but the acreage then declined until it became stabilized in the neighbourhood of the present figure.

In recent years there has been a considerable increase in the area devoted to citrus-culture. The total area under lemons and oranges is estimated to be in the vicinity of 1,884 acres (inclusive of areas situated within borough boundaries), comprising 1,300 acres of lemons and 584 acres of oranges. At the 1st October, 1935, registered orchards contained 91,000 lemon-trees and 40,900 orange-trees, compared with respective totals of 86,000 and 37,400 a year earlier.

The following table shows the area outside borough boundaries which has been returned as under fruit-trees at each of the last ten annual enumerations:—

 Acres.
1926–2725,377
1927–2824,987
1928–2924,538
1929xyn3024,861
1930–3128,134
1931–3225,755
1932–33.. 25,317
1933–3425,069
1934–3525,087
1935–3625,072

A classification of 1935–36 orchard areas by sizes (the classification being made to the nearest quarter acre) resulted as follows:—

Size of Orchard.Number of Orchards.Area of Orchards.
 Acres.
Under 1 acre6,3032,479
1 to 2 acres3,1843,922
2¼ to 3 acres325915
3¼ to 4 acres220850
4¼ to 5 acres2051,003
5¼ to 10 acres6304,925
10¼ to 15 acres2083,359
15¼ to 20 acres1382,506
20¼ to 25 acres521,202
25¼ to 30 acres25697
30¼ to 40 acres321,126
40¼ to 50 acres11492
50 acres and over211,596
Totals11,41425,072

It is apparent that the majority of orchards are comparatively small, the Dominion average being but 2–2 acres. Those up to 5 acres represent 90 per cent, of the total number and account for 37 per cent, of the total area.

The total orchard area is shared fairly evenly by both North and South Islands, with three land districts in each Island aggregating 89 per cent, of the Dominion acreage. Details of distribution by land districts and average orchard sizes are given in the following table, which is arranged in order of aggregate district areas:—

Land District (excluding Boroughs).Number of Orchards.Area of Orchards.Average Size.
  Acres.Acres.
North Auckland2,5225,3682·13
Nelson6615,2747·98
Otago8963,601402
Hawke's Bay8323,2913·96
Canterbury1,7122,6321·54
Auckland2,0402,0731·02
Remainder of land districts (six)2,7512,8331·03
Totals11,41425,0722·20

The following table shows for each variety of fruit, the estimated total number of trees bearing and not bearing, together with estimated quantities of fruit produced, sold, and held for sale respectively, on holdings of 1 acre or over outside boroughs, for the season 1935–36:—

Variety of Fruit.Number of Trees bearing.Quantity of Fruit produced.Quantity of Fruit sold.Quantity of Fruit held for Sale.Number of Trees not bearing.
 BushelsBushelsBushels 
Apples1,619,9003,301,5002,605,100372,200259,900
Pears144,400384,300321,50027,40018,400
Peaches25,20089,70029,900..52,600
Nectarines25,20089,70029,900..6,200
Apricots67,60066,10058,600..12,600
Plums69,50094,00077,300..49,100
Cherries20,50014,50012,600....
Quinces9,90011,2009,500..6,000
Sweet oranges10,1006,9004,6009009,400
Poorman oranges11,90030,00024,7003,0008,900
Lemons57,600148,200108,60011,70033,700
Other citrus fruits1,000200100..2,100
Other tree fruits2,6002,9002,300200700
Totals, all fruit-trees2,224,1004,434,2003,514,000415,400470,100

A good market exists locally for fruit of all descriptions. However, growers of apples and pears are mainly concerned with exports, which are controlled by the New Zealand Fruit-export Control Board. This Board came into being as a result of the Fruit Control Act, 1924, and commenced functioning in 1926.

Since 1911 the Government has assisted the export trade in apples and pears by the provision of guaranteed returns to growers exporting these fruits. Originally at the rate of Id. net per pound, the basis of the guarantee was changed in 1927 to a per-case rate calculated to cover packing and transportation costs. Since then the guarantee rate has been annually reviewed by the Government.

Commencing with 1935, the Government guarantee ceases, except in respect of apples and pears exported to new markets. As an inducement to explore and develop new territory, the Government now guarantees an average c.i.f. return of 9s. per case (New Zealand currency) on approved varieties, grades, and sizes of apples and pears exported to approved new markets through the Fruit-export Control Board. The guarantee also provides for transportation-costs in excess of those entailed in shipping fruit to the United Kingdom.

Regarding established markets, the market guarantee for 1935 and subsequent seasons will be given by the Fruit-export Control Board, and the liability of such guarantee-will be met out of an Export Guarantee Fund which is being built up by the Board. Growers exporting to new or established markets will contribute to this fund a fixed sum per case so as to yield an aggregate contribution of not more than £12,500 in each of the seasons 1935 to 1937 inclusive. The Government has undertaken to subsidize the fund £1 for £1 up to an equal amount.

The Export Guarantee Fund will enable the Fruit-export Control Board to finance the. packing and transportation of fruit, and will also be used to grant loans to those growers whose market-returns do not average a price-level to be annually determined by the Board. Such loans are repayable from export proceeds of subsequent years.

All fruit intended for export is subjected to a rigid inspection by Government officials. The success of the export trade is to a very large extent due to the good will gained through this inspection, which, in addition to protecting the guarantee interests, assures overseas buyers of high-quality fruit of uniform standard. In 1935 the value of apples exported aggregated £467,422, of which exports to the United Kingdom represented £384,837. Pears exported aggregated £57,071 in value, the United Kingdom likewise receiving the bulk of the fruit. The rapid progress of the export trade can be gauged by comparing the foregoing figures with those for 1927, in which year exports of apples and pears amounted to £264,440 and £8,456 respectively.

The Department of Agriculture assists orchardists by supplying information on fruitgrowing generally, and as to the most up-to-date methods to adopt for the control of diseases and insect pests, pruning, &c. Practical demonstrations of pruning, spraying, and the grading and packing of fruit are given regularly by the Orchard Instructors attached to the Department. A comprehensive scheme of experiments is being conducted by the Department, the operations covering a wide field. These embrace the testing of spraying specifics and other materials for the better and more economic control of diseases and pests, orchard manurial experiments, &c.

The total area in vineyards outside of borough boundaries is 433 acres. The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay. The greater portion of the crop is used for winemaking, but considerable quantities of outdoor-grown grapes are sold for table use.

Passion-fruit is grown to the extent of 352 acres, mainly in the North Auckland Land District, where climatic conditions arc favourable to production.

Since 1913 the State has had authority to borrow money for the purpose of making advances for the establishment of cold stores for fruit and of fruit-canning works, and otherwise for the assistance of the fruit-growing industry. (Vide Section XXIVD.)

The Orchard-tax Act, 1927 (amended in 1933 and 1934), continuing legislation dating from 1916, provides for the levying in each year of a tax of 2s. per acre on commercial orchards, with a minimum tax of 5s. Of the proceeds, £850 is be paid over to the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, and the balance credited to the vote of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research for use as required in assisting the industry. Authority also exists for the imposition of an additional tax in the case of apple, pear, and quince orchards in commercial fruitgrowing districts for the purpose of combating fireblight. No tax is payable in respect of any orchard with fewer than 120 fruit-trees.

Commercial orchards registered as at March, 1936, numbered 6,548, 2,804 being taxable and 3,744 non-taxable. The total orchard-tax payable in respect of the year 1935–36 was £2,303.

TOBACCO.

Although the cultivation of tobacco-leaf was initiated only a few years ago, the industry has made marked progress. Certain districts appear to be well suited to the growth of good-quality leaf, and growers are becoming increasingly familiar with the methods and plant required for the production of cured leaf acceptable to manufacturers. Much of the production is in accordance with contracts arranged between local manufacturers and growers. The market for leaf has at present definite limits.

Figures collected from occupiers throughout the Dominion of holdings of 1 acre or more situated outside boroughs show the following areas planted in tobacco in the years specified:—

 Acres.
1928–291,000
1929–301,073
1930–31932
1931–321,726
1932–332,120
1933–341,803
1934–351,358
1935–301,518

Practically the whole of the tobacco crop is produced in Waimea County. From the total Dominion area of 1,518 acres shown above for 1935–30 the yield of leaf was returned as 1,065,093 lb.

The Tobacco-growing Industry Act, 1935, which provides for the regulation of the industry, is briefly referred to in the preceding subsection.

TOP-DRESSING.

As shown in the following table, a total area of 2,882,224 acres was top-dressed during the twelve months ended 31st January, 1930. An increase of almost 200,000 acres is recorded as compared with the area returned as top-dressed during the preceding twelve months:—

Nature of Top-dressing.North Island.South Island.Dominion.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Artificial fertilizers only1,608,225190,4891,798,714
Lime only..80,35070,575150,925
Both artificial fertilizers and lime749,317183,208932,585
Totals2,437,892444,3322,882,224

Chapter 31. SECTION XVIII.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION—continued.

SUBSECTION C—PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK.

THE numbers of live-stock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations are as shown in the following table. Detailed statistics of live-stock by counties and land districts are contained in the Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production issued annually by the Census and Statistics Office.

——1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
Horses280,994276,897273,906272,986276,170
Dairy cows1,702,0701,845,9721,932,5111,952,0941,951,507
Cattle (including dairy cows)4,072,3834,192,0234,301,1284,293,4994,254,078
Sheep shorn during season26,205,01925,069,40925,017,65625,639,65426,278,477
Lambs shorn during season2,542,4702,629,8373,508,0083,529,2023,618,648
Lambs tailed during season14,974,99115,015,62815,278,79715,689,49215,696,617
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April28,691,78827,755,96628,649,03829,076,75430,113,704
Pigs513,416591,582660,393762,755808,463

The live-stock census formerly covered asses, mules, and goats also, but these classes have been dropped since 1930. Numbers in 1930 were: Asses and mules, 218; Angora goats, 9,514; other goats, 29,613.

In the next table the figures of live-stock are given for each land district. Horses, dairy cows, total cattle, and pigs are as at 31st January. Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season 1935–36. Sheep are as at 30th April.

Land District.Horses.Dairy Cows.Total Cattle.Sheep shorn.Lambs shorn.Lambs tailed.Sheep.Pigs.
North Auckland30,329381,465680,896973,669193,482528,8951,071,827151,223
Auckland45,421620,5751,059,1381,659,005381,2971,083,6531,876,692279,144
Gisborne13,01756,009343,9962,166,620713,0001,024,7782,354,41925,248
Hawke'e Bay16,67075,614341,6283,528,322639,8782,043,0074,080,21127,779
Taranaki17,436264,487435,775891,036238,420530,764643,31691,970
Wellington35,109261,895751,4895,569,2021,371,3913,288,9786,434,718110,404
Nelson5,50735,08271,021382,81614,293175,381438,74218,283
Marlborough5,76516,29240,7691,029,12819,236475,1801,133,7107,494
Westland2,14316,42746,67068,116;6,76655,22477,8997,213
Canterbury51,25882,137176,8584,531,17730,7592,976,7385,555,52950,972
Otago29,72060,984138,1293,342,3335,5351,904,0073,885,90422,011
Southland23,79580,540167,7092,137,0534,5911,610,0122,560,73716,722
Totals276,1701,951,5074,254,07826,278,4773,618,64815,696,61730,113,704808.463

SHEEP

The Dominion is eminently suited for sheep-breeding, practically every description of sheep finding a favourable local habitat. In the hilly and down country of the South Island the Merino has been bred for very many years, and was the original sheep depastured. In fact, the Merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock which has made Canterbury mutton famous on British meat-markets. In the early days of the Canterbury meat trade the English Leicester of the original type was the favourite ram for putting to the Merino ewe. Of later years the Lincoln has been largely employed to cross with the Merino, and black-faced rams have been further employed to put to the crossbred ewes. Systematic inbreeding of Merino-longwool half-bred sheep produced the now world-known Corriedale breed, which is the most numerous breed next to Romney Marsh. In the North Island the Romney Marsh sheep, which suits the conditions obtaining in this portion of the Dominion, has become the most popular sheep; it is also increasing in numbers in the South Island. Border Leicester, English Leicester, and Lincoln sheep, in that order, are other breeds of numerical importance.

The number of sheep at the 30th April reached its maximum (30,841,2S7) in 1930. An annual decline of about 1,000,000 then set in and continued until 1933; since then, however, successive increases have raised the total to the present figure of 30,113,704

In the following ten-year table showing sheep distribution by Islands, the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District.

Year.North Island.South island.Total Sheep at 30th April.
192713,957,82011,691,19625,649,016
192814,482,10512,651,70527,133,810
192915,588,44413,462,93829,051,382
193016,535,91314,305,37430,841,287
193115,886,87613,905,64029,792,516
193214,946,98713,744,80128,691,788
193314,954,02912,801,93727,755,966
193415,264,58813,384,45028,649,038
193515,749,01613,327,73829,076,754
193616,371,84413,741,86030,113,704

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding-ewes, dry ewes, and lambs in the Dominion for the last five years:—

Year.Rams.Wethers.Breeding-ewes.Dry Ewes.Lambs.Totals.
Stud Sheep (entered in Flock-book).
193217,169..232,0067,855164,750421,780
193313,353..226,3306,625160,265406,573
193412,034..228,7697,083162,631410,517
193511,249..231,6057,292169,041419,187
193612,398..249,0167,105174,869443,388
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but not entered in Flock-book.
1932451,8821,172,9734,783,296383,0932,012,4668,803,710
1933450,2661,092,5334,780,723334,0391,941,1318,598,692
1934455,1771,019,5734,159,764260,3611,782,2877,677,162
1935459,821996,3073,905,470248,3431,712,1597,322,100
1936480,0051,158,0975,078,834279,1152,067,7089,063,759
Crossbred and other Sheep not otherwise enumerated.
1932..1,557,85312,047,758877,2304,983,45719,466,298
1933..1,322,65012,202,644657,2224,568,18518,750,701
1934..1,418,04513,182,893665,7125,294,70920,561,359
1935..1,485,04713,675,342732,4305,442,64821,335,467
1936..1,450,54813,341,111578,8715,236,02720,606,557
Totals.
1932469,0512,730,82617,063,0601,268,1787,160,67328,691,788
1933463,6192,415,18317,209,697997,8866,669,58127,755,966
1934467,2112,437,61817,571,426933,1567,239,62728,649,038
1935471,0702,481,35417,812,417988,0657,323,84829,076,754
1936492,4032,608,64518,668,961865,0917,478,60430,113,704

The average size of the flocks was 942 in 1932, 923 in 1933, 961 in 1934. 962 in 1935, and 984 in 1936. A classification according to size shows the following position:—

Size of Flocks.1932.1033.1934.1935.1936.
1 to 2008,6248,9038,1317,9797,668
201 to 5006,9377,1066,9647,3427,338
501 to 1,0006,6526,2526,4756,5036,801
1,001 to 2,5005,8375,4745,8485,9946,296
2,501 to 5,0001,6691,6071,6701,6951,750
5,001 to 10,000563554544551578
10,001 to 20,000143141142149134
20,001 and over2426262525
Total flocks30,44930,06329,80030,23830,590

The following diagram shows the movement in numbers of breeding-ewes and total sheep respectively recorded annually on 30th April since 1916:—

NUMBERS OF TOTAL SHEEP AND BREEDING-EWES, 1916–36.

(Semi-logarithmic scale.)

The numbers of the different classes composing the flocks in April, 1936, were as follows:—

Breed of Sheep.Stud Sheep entered In Flock-book.Sheep of a Distinctive Breed, not entered In Flock-book.Total.
Merino27,0901,021,6531,048,743
Lincoln2,16225,68827,850
Romney187,6473,863,6234,051,270
Border Leicester17,36341,81959,182
English Leicester21,08643,19164,277
Shropshire1,8858,61910,504
Southdown121,761229,434351,195
Corriedale53,7771,324,3601,378,137
Ryeland5,4653,6279,092
Half-bred5,0052,498,6122,503,617
Other breeds1473,1333,280
Totals443,3889,063,7599,507,147
Flock sheep—   
Crossbreds and [others not otherwise enumerated]  20,606,557
Grand total  30,113,704

The period of decline in total sheep population between 1918 and 1922 was characterized by unusually heavy exports of mutton and lamb. However, reversion to a period of normal activity in the export trade, combined with increasing numbers of breeding-ewes, resulted in flocks rising steadily to the peak number of nearly 31,000,000 in 1930. This year marked the beginning of a further spate in the export of frozen lamb in particular, and flocks fell away until 1933, when a recovery (since continued) manifested itself.

The diagram clearly shows the postponed effect on total sheep population produced by a decline in the number of breeding-ewes. Each of the four years marked by a decrease in breeding-ewes has been followed by a reduction in total sheep twelve months later. Breeding-ewes have been rising steadily in number since 1932, and the figure for 1936 constitutes a record. In view of these favourable circumstances, it is reasonably safe to predict that the total sheep population will increase still further.

SHEEP FLOCKS OF THE WORLD.

The latest figures obtainable showing the number of sheep in the principal sheep countries for which information is available are given hereunder:—

Country.Number of Sheep.(Thousands.)
* Including goats.
Australia113,048
United States52,210
Russia (U.S.S.R.)*51,925
India (whole)43,565
Argentina39,330
South African Union35,011
New Zealand30,114
United Kingdom24,944
Spain19,093
Uruguay15,406
China14,926
Persia14,582
Rumania12,294
Peru11,209
Turkey10,739
Brazil10,702
Italy10,268
France9,571
Yugoslavia8,868
Bulgaria8,740
French West Africa8,648
French Morocco8,086
Greece7,910
Chile6,263
Algeria5,845
Bolivia5,232
Irak4,005
Portugal3,721
Mexico3,674
Germany3,483
Canada3,421
Tunis3,375
Kenya3,236
Irish Free State2,931
Poland2,554
British Somaliland2,500
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan2,250
Manchuria2,208
Italian Somaliland2,000

WOOL PRODUCTION AND EXPORT.

Although appearing seventh in order in the preceding table of flocks, in point of actual production of wool New Zealand is the fourth largest in the world and ranks third in the list of principal exporting countries, according to figures collected by the Imperial Economic Committee. With the exception of some 6,000,000 lb. or 7,000,000 lb. annually, the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported.

From figures of exports, consumption by local mills, and stocks at the end of the season it is possible to estimate the total annual production of wool with a fair degree of accuracy. In the following computation scoured, washed, and slipe wool has been converted to a greasy basis on the assumption of an average loss of 33⅓ per cent, in weight, while wool on skins has been taken at an average of 4 lb. per skin.

——Year ended 30th June
1029.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
Million Pounds Weight.
Exports of wool252·2207·2244·3248·1310·0308·9222·3344·1
Exports of wool on skins4·74·86·46·811·114·49·08·2
Used by New Zealand mills6·66·16·27·06·66·07·17·8
 263·5218·1256·9261·9327·7329·3238·4360·1
Variation in stocks+8·5+54·8+14·2+20·9−39·3−28·8+37·5−43·6
Estimated production272·0272·9271·1282·8288·4300·5275·9316·5

The high production of wool last season may be attributed to the very favourable conditions experienced during the period of growth, further assisted by late and interrupted shearing-operations due to a wet summer. It is evident that, on the average, the relatively high yield of over 9 lb. of wool per sheep was obtained at shearing.

PRODUCTION OF WOOL IN PRINCIPAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES.

The following table, compiled from official sources, shows the wool-production of the principal producing countries in the years specified. Production in these countries accounts for approximately 75 per cent, of the world's total, of which New Zealand's share is about 8 per cent.

Country.Wool-production (on a greasy basis).
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1034–35.1935–36.
Million Pounds Weight.
Principal Exporting Countries
Australia9689389131,0071,0629851,007963
Argentina347353361378388385376360
New Zealand272273271283288301276317
South Africa285309290314330284222250
Uruguay12218116610411295117105
Total of above countries1,9942,0542,0012,0862,1802,0501,9981,995
Other Important Countries
United States384401435464441460450451
Soviet Russia392394302218143136141167
United Kingdom114112111113119120114110

STOCKS OF WOOL.

Statistics relating to stocks of wool held in the Dominion on 30th June are compiled from returns obtained from woolbrokers, woollen-mills, freezing-works, wool-scouring works, shipping companies. Harbour Board stores, farmers, and the New Zealand Railways Department. All wool whether sold or unsold, is required to be accounted for. A little wool held by farmers is probably omitted, but the statistics are complete enough for practical purposes.

Comparative figures since the first complete official collection in 1927 are—

At 30th JuneGreasy.Scoured and Washed.Sliped.Crutchings, &c.Wool on Skins.Unspecified Wool.Total, converted to Greasy Basis.
Thousand. Pounds Weight.
19276,3622,4373,9512,76894734920,000
19285,3141,5844,6753,31855092619,500
19298,2712,5106,6944,18473398928,000
193052,3964,27910,4116,2896971,32482,800
193159,8116,61610,9167,0671,6212,11597,000
193274,5606,16815,1337,1521,7962,320117,900
193355,5813,9865,3526,4592,09053978,600
193427,4444,1585,9333,8701,5101,79749,800
193559,9104,9727,5046,8261,45244287,300
193621,6092,8907,7014,65476382743,700

Stocks of wool at the end of the 1935–36 season show a heavy decline of over 43,000,0001b. compared with holdings at the beginning of the season. The movement is a corollary of the sharp seasonal advance in wool-prices at which wool-owners were apparently satisfied to realise largely on held-over wool in addition to the current season's clip. The average price per lb. realized at New Zealand sales in 1935–36 was 9·13d., compared with 6·54d. in 1934–35. In previous seasons similar average prices were 11·07d. (1933–34), 5·15d. (1932–33), 5·26d. (1931–32), 5·67d. (1930–31), 8·55d. (1929–30), 14·88d. (1928–29), 16·67d. (1927–28), and 12·48d. (1926–27).

Of the total stocks at 30th June, 1936, woolbrokers held 13,600,000 lb. and farmers 3,800,000 lb; both these figures are on a greasy basis. The balance was divided between woollen-mills, freezing-works, wool-scouring works, shipping companies, and railway and Harbour Board stores. The classification is made on the basis of possession and not of beneficial ownership.

Details of wool stocks at 30th June, 1936 (without conversion to a greasy basis) are as follows:—

——Greasy.Scoured.Washed.Sliped.Crutchings,&c.Wool on Skins.Unspecified.
Thousand Pounds Weight.
Merino1,135150..1114221..
Half-bred4,252619561,049778109..
Corriedale44948..38816..
Other (including crossbred)—
Sheep13,3539661842,4733,220377..
Lambs1,7562534803,586426144..
Unspecified664134..574..96827
Totals21,6092,1707207,7014,654763827

WOOL SHIPMENTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES.

Shipments of wool from the principal exporting countries during the twelve months ended 30th June, 1936, are shown below according to the country to which shipped. The figures represent actual weights shipped to the countries shown, irrespective of the condition of the wool (scoured, greasy, &c), and without making allowance for subsequent re-exports to other countries. The absence of figures in some cases does not necessarily indicate that no wool was shipped; shipments may he included in the figures for “Other Countries.”

Country to which shipped.Shipments from 1st July 1935, to 30th June, 1936, from
Australia.New Zealand.South Africa.Argentina.Uruguay.

* Includes 33·9 million pound, option Continent. In addition, a further portion of this wool is sold in the United Kingdom, and eventually shipped to continental countries—e.g., France, Germany, and Italy. See remarks on page 175.

f Includes 7·2 million pounds shipped to Australia mainly for transhipment to Japan.

Millions of Pounds.
United Kingdom276·5195·0*56·981·325·8
Japan235·831·9..2·12·6
Belgium113·212·622·719·07·2
Netherlands16·0....2·01·7
France75·536·766·658·66·9
Germany31·0..43·540·324·1
Austria4·5........
Italy4·7..3·012·35·3
United States25·2..3·549·421·0
Canada2·9........
Other countries34·827·419·916·43·5
Totals820·1303·6216·1281·498·1

CATTLE.

The total number of cattle in the Dominion at the enumeration of 1936 was 4,254,078, as against 4,293,499 in 1935. The figures for the two years, according to the classification in use, are as follows:—

——1935.1936.
Number.Per Cent. of Total.Number.Per Cent. of Total.
Bulls two years old and over, for breeding purposes—
For dairy purposes63,1651·559,6471·4
For beef purposes15,6670·416,9730·4
Cows and heifers two years and over, for dairying—
In milk1,827,96242·61,823,35842·9
Dry124,1322·9128,1493·0
Cows and heifers two years old and over, other than for dairying565,64713·1610,85514·4
Heifers one and under two years old—
Intended for dairying364,0818·5322,7577·6
Other154,8533·6155,8623·7
Steers two years old and over327,6947·6329,8127·7
Steers and bulls one and under two years old165,7193·8171,4374·0
Calves under one year old—
Heifers Intended for dairying330,5327·7287,6626·8
Heifers Other153,7223·6150,2353·5
Bulls and steers200,3254·7197,3314·6
Totals4,293,499100·04,254,078100·0

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in the Dominion by herds bred on sound lines, though the development of the beef breeds in later years has received a check partly owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations and partly through the difficulties of competing with other countries in the British market. There are still very many fine Shorthorn herds of the beef type, while Hereford and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are also largely bred. There are herd-books for each of these breeds.

The breeding of dairy cattle has made great progress in recent years. Herd-book societies are established for the Jersey, Friesian, Ayrshire, Milking Shorthorn, and Red Poll breeds. The various societies have heartily co-operand in a scheme for establishing registers of merit in connection with the certificate-of-record testing of purebred dairy cattle, thus giving a great fillip to the breeding of purebred dairy stock. The dairy-farmer is encouraged to use purebred bulls and thereby to assist materially in raising the standard of the dairy stock of the country. He is now familiar with the value of herd-testing work, and is utilizing this knowledge to improve the quality of his herd.

The foregoing table is noteworthy for the decreases apparent in all specified classes of dairy stock. The reductions are very pronounced in replacement-stock under two years old. On the other hand, animals in the meat-production classes have increased very appreciably.

the distribution of total cattle, also dairy cows, is included in the table of live-stock given at the beginning of this subsection. the figures show that the dairying and beef-production industries are both monopolized by the North Island. This island accounts for 85 per cent, of the total cattle and a similar proportion of dairy cows. Localizing the dairying industry still further, it is found that over half of the dairy cows in the Dominion are in the combined land districts of North Auckland and Auckland. Taranaki and Wellington are relatively and practically equally important as regards the number of dairy cows; between the m the y account for over one-quarter of the Dominion's dairy cows. In point of density Taranaki takes first position with 173 dairy cows to every 1,000 acres occupied, Auckland coming next with 134, and North Auckland third with 126.

Taking the number of cows other than dairy cows as a guide in regard to beef-production, Wellington Land District easily leads the remainder with over one-quarter of the Dominion total. Gisborne is second, followed by Hawke's Bay, Auckland, and North Auckland in that order. the se five together depasture S4 per cent, of all cows reserved for beef-production.

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

In connection with the enumeration of live-stock, additional information as to breeds of cattle, horses, and pigs was collected thrice in each decade until 1928, since when the inquiry has been discontinued as an economy measure. A summary of the results of the 1928 enumeration as regards cattle (exclusive of a few within borough boundaries) is given in the table following.

Breed.Total Cattle.
Purebred—
Jersey39,379
Guernsey70
Friesian10,670
Ayrshire4,905
Red Poll831
Shorthorn (including Milking Shorthorn)6,829
Hereford4,210
Polled Angus4,269
Devon116
Crossbred with predominating strain of—
Jersey and other Channel1,236,289
Island breeds 
Friesian231,022
Ayrshire48,192
Milking Shorthorn440,585
Red Poll6,909
Other dairy breeds (including unspecified)1,286
Shorthorn417,493
Hereford426,241
Polled Angus351,118
Devon2,121
Other beef breeds (including unspecified)6,164
Total, purebred71,279
Total, crossbred3,167,420
Dominion totals3,238,699

the WORLD'S CATTLE.

the latest available information showing the number of cattle in the main cattle countries of the world is as follows:—

Country.Number of Cattle.(Thousands.)
India (whole)160,094
United States68,529
Brazil42,539
Russia (U.S.S.R.)42,422
Argentina30,868
China21,638
Germany19,198
France15,704
Australia14,049
South African Union10,751
Mexico10,083
Poland9,258
Canada8,952
United Kingdom8,742
Colombia7,972
Uruguay7,372;
Italy7,089
Madagascar5,693
Kenya5,225
Siam5,222
Turkey5,207
Tanganyika4,853
Dutch East Indies4,701
Cuba4,515
Czechoslovakia4,305
New Zealand4,254
Rumania4,189
Irish Free State4,086
Yugoslavia3,990
French West Africa3,823
Spain3,569
Denmark3,062
Paraguay2,973
Sweden2,893
Netherlands2,830
Southern Rhodesia2,689
Nigeria2,088
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan2,500
Chile2,388
Austria2,349
Venezuela2,278
Uganda Protectorate2,223
Bolivia2,064

DAIRY-PRODUCE.

the Dairy Industry Act, 1908 (a consolidation of previous legislation), with its amendments may in general terms be described as an Act to regulate the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture under proper sanitary conditions of dairy-produce—i.e., milk, cream, butter, or cheese, and any other product of milk or cream—intended for sale for human consumption or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy-produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises or the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection there with may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the Inspector, and until so remedied their use for the purposes of dairy-produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorized to condemn any dairy-produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited.

Milk or cream purchased for the manufacture of dairy-produce and paid for according to the percentage of butterfat contained the rein must have this percentage determined by the Babcock or Gerber test. Owners of dairy factories are required by regulations under the Act to pay different prices for different grades of milk or cream supplied for the manufacture of dairy-produce. Owners are also required to furnish to suppliers a certified annual statement cf overrun, and provision is made for an independent investigation by the Audit Department where a supplier is dissatisfied with the statement received.

Dairy-produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking. the export of butter containing more than 16 per cent. of water or less than 80 per cent, of butterfat is prohibited. the export of cheese of which the water-free substance consists of less than 50 per cent, of fats wholly derived from milk is also illegal.

Wide powers are conferred to make regulations prescribing matters of detail with regard to the production, manufacture, sale, and export of dairy-produce. In particular, regulations may be made for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture of dairy-produce, the registration of brands to be used on dairy-produce, and for the inspection, grading, packing, marking, stamping, and labelling of dairy-produce. Regulations relating to the manufacture and export of dairy-produce are now contained in the Dairy-produce General Regulations, 1933, gazetted on the 18th May, 1933, and consolidating all previous regulations on the subject. Further regulations have since been gazetted.

Since 1926 provision has been made for a national brand comprising a design of a fern-leaf bearing the words “New Zealand” to be placed on packages of butter or cheese exported and grading 90 points or over, but since the enactment of the consolidating regulations in May, 1933, the grading points in respect of cheese have been raised to 91 points or over.

the Act provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies. Companies so registered are authorized to accept or to compel the surrender of shares issued in certain cases, subject to the rights of shareholders being safeguarded. A dairy company must not include in its registered name the word “co-operative” unless it is entitled to be registered as a co-operative dairy company under the Act.

Under the extension of powers provided by the Dairy Industry Amendment Act, 1933, an important amendment to existing regulations was gazetted on the 22nd February, 1934. the new regulations made it illegal for a supplier of milk or cream to a factory to transfer (without the antecedent consent in writing of the owner or manager of the factory) his supply to another factory during the same season. New regulations were gazetted at the same date, effective from the 1st April, 1934, in respect of managers of dairy factories, by which no uncertificated person may act as manager after the expiration of three months from the 1st April, 1934. the qualifications necessary for applicants for registration are prescribed, and a Registration Board constituted with a Registrar as executive officer. Provision is made for appeals against the decision of the Board.

the following table shows the number of factories registered under the Dairy Industry Act as at 31st March, 1936, together with the amount of butter and cheese forwarded for export during the preceding twelve months, and the number of suppliers to such factories:—

District.Number of Factories.Forwarded for Export, 1935–30.Number of Suppliers.
Butter.Cheese.Dual Plant.Butter.Cheese.Butter.Cheese and Dual Plant.
 Tons.Tons. 
Auckland6631499,95014,50226,9451,443
Hawke's Bay121717,5123,790;4,869664
Taranaki53873015,72439,4913,2853,960
Wellington2749516,50512,3696,8711,697
Nelson6....2,097..1,774..
Marlborough55..587753803139
Westland81..923507228
Canterbury91412,0121.4886,807531
Otago and Southland117711,54112,5286,4653,275
Totals, 1935–3619726142146,85184,97158,54111,717
Totals, 1934–3520527542131,61292,82158,35812,372

the butter-factories shown in the above table include both creameries and whey-butter factories.

From a survey in 1934, covering some 550 farms in the North Island, the average per-acre production of butterfat was ascertained as 117·73 lb.

the estimated* yield per cow measured in terms of butterfat-production has been—

 lb.

* Department of Agriculture.

† Provisional estimate.

1906–07124·79
1907–08127·66
1908–09139·25
1909–10148·45
1910–11139·46
1911–12140·10
1912–13150·78
1913–14156·52
1914–15154·07
1915–16160·52
1916–17163·96
1917–18152·23
1918–19150·64
1919–20152·04
1920–21154·25
1921–22174·97
1922–23180·62
1923–24174·10
1924–25182·09
1925–26179·40
1926–27198·50
1927–28195·38
1928–29210·84
1929–30218·05
1930·31201–05
1931–32199·65
1932–33215·10
1933–34220·80
1934–35210·00
1935–36217·83

As notified in the 1936 Year-Book, statistics which were formerly compiled monthly showing by district of production the quantities of butter and cheese loaded out from grading-store for export have been discontinued.

Returns of factory production show that during the 1934–35 factory year 3,105,974 cwt. of butter was produced by butter-factories in the Dominion. In addition to this, 51,081 cwt. of whey butter was manufactured. For the twelve months ended 31st January, 1930 (since when the collection of data has been discontinued), 52,158 cwt. of butter was produced on holdings of 1 acre and over.

Returns from cheese-factories give the quantity of cheese manufactured during; 1934–35 as 1,914,458 cwt.

the total export of butter and cheese in the last ten years, and the total quantity of each commodity sent to the United Kingdom, are given in the next table. the butter-export figures for 1935 exceed the previously existing record established in 1933, while the figures for cheese have fallen below the average in recent years.

Calendar Year.Total Export of Butter.Butter exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
19261,168,0401,062,2781,461,5481,450,637
19271,455,5391,188,6641,492,7921,478,870
19281,449,5701,158,2341,567,2721,551,523
19291,653,8071,276,8411,779,0931,770,150
19301,884,2371,553,7251,812,9811,809,348
19311,988,5661,962,3201,636,3471,635,233
19322,185,5452,156,1271,790,4311,788,989
19332,635,2472,597,0081,982,9421,980,872
19342,614,5192,568,0561,984,4961,983,058
19352,789,2982,696,8321,727,5521,723,197

On a value basis, butter exports greatly exceed those of cheese, the figures for 1935 being £13,616,740 for butter and £4,376,512 for cheese.

MARKETING OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.

Prior to legislation enacted in 1936, the dairy industry was controlled by the New Zealand Dairy Board, which consisted of three Government nominees, three representatives of owners of dairy factories, and one appointee of the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Co., Ltd. Under the Primary Products Marketing Act, 1936, control became vested in the Minister of Marketing. the Primary Products Marketing Department was established, which, under the control of the Minister, became charged with the administration of the Act. the Department has taken over the main functions of the New Zealand Dairy Board, and also the greater part of the Board's staff in New Zealand and London.

the Primary Products Marketing Department will continue the inspection of conditions of loading butter and cheese for export, and proposes to extend the scope of advertising in the United Kingdom on the same lines as hitherto conducted by the New Zealand Dairy Board. In carrying out its marketing work in the United Kingdom, the Department is utilizing the services of efficient London merchants.

Freight rates on butter and cheese, operating from 1st September, 1936, have been fixed as follows::—

Butter2s. ll¼d. per box net.
Cheese1/1 1/7 d. per pound net.

the above rates are payable in sterling, and represent an increase of 2J per cent, over the previous contract rates.

the functions of the New Zealand Dairy Board are now confined to the internal side of the dairy industry and to herd-testing. Its levy has been reduced to 1/50 d. per pound, on butter and 1/100 d. per pound on cheese manufactured. the proceeds are used to subsidize dairy-research work and the distribution of milk to schools.

A summary of the principal provisions of the Primary Products Marketing Act, together with a statement of the guaranteed prices operative in respect of dairy-produce for export, is contained in Subsection A (pp. 334–6).

the following table of monthly arrivals in Great Britain will give an indication of the trend during recent years, the aim being to keep New Zealand butter and cheese on the British market all the year round:—

Month.1029–30.1030–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Butter (Boxes) of 56lb.
August95,082232,895193,849271,034357,126296,204306,616
September74,385147,357212,458276,392315,250217,495450,679
October58,014133,129160,593154,101314,609388,696350,794
November209,103299,486253,486425,791489,757427,208361,264
December274,928345,128600,660612,010568,348481,507655,698
January343,935477,783413,316553,599617,719534,215492,732
February292,603340,868426,653386,513575,906550,785576,879
March267,425382,839404,309451,256584,206519,114519,228
April429,405412,303360,939460,201462,952427,257513,329
May255,699313,285397,399504,963591,420413,107473,191
June131,005212,270232,791356,137366,626324,899442,585
July157,324304,493233,382331,731357,533279,040320,155
Totals2,588,9083,601,8363,889,8354,783,7285,601,4524,859,5275,463,150
Cheese (Crates) of 160lb.
August76,526102,54437,39064,29294,78999,58867,957
September39,97770,19244,26773,22479,18174,89975,715
October21,70616,67447,65233,76854,59768,36264,615
November46,29464,90830,29653,30663,38873,94049,452
December99,184133,283135,898138,064112,403111,648105,971
January159,562178,977136,516164,893160,480150,553119,174
February126,406105,693148,800141,205156,086144,763140,220
March134,635156,865130,813156,242154,889125,398117,897
April147,286174,355107,280150,699139,372132,445118,048
May113,679136,780156,859155,024166,291115,936112,428
June88,97864,31595,316121,395112,081101,775130,575
July90,42087,80983,699110,478117,79681,98059,874
Totals1,144,6531,292,3951,154,7861,362,5901,411,3531,281,2871,161,926

WORLD PRODUCTION OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.

the following table shows the production of butter and cheese in the principal dairying countries:—

CountryButter.Cheese.
YearQuantity.Place on List.Quantity.Place on List.
 (000,000) lb. (000,000) lb. 
ArgentinaT.193465134912
AustraliaT.193445133813
CanadaF.19342358997
ChileF.1930820618
CzechoslovakiaF.193426175111
DenmarkF.19344034619
GermanyF.193462122613
FinlandF.193352151516
FranceT.193138654192
United KingdomF.1930113125210
Irish Free StateT.193217110....
JapanF.1933521....
LatviaF.19343616....
NetherlandsT.193419992564
New ZealandT.1934–3535962145
NorwayF.193419183315
Russia U.S.S.R.F.193428473714
SwedenF.193312111628
SwitzerlandF.193464141076
Union of South Africa.F.19341919717
United StatesF.19341,65415601

NOTE.— the letter “T” denotes total production, while the letter “F” denotes production of creameries and factories only.

the following table, taken mainly from the International Review of Agriculture, shows the quantities of butter and cheese exported from the principal countries engaged in the export trade during the last six calendar years. the New Zealand figures relate to the twelve months ended 30th June following the year shown.

Country.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Butter (Million Pounds Weight.)
New Zealand203220272317288312
Denmark373378348333330305
Australia126209229212247230
Netherlands9273456381103
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania989291767888
Russia U.S.S.R.266868828465
Irish Free State594237455759
Sweden594330385145
Finland383832262423
Argentina495156311815
Poland2727341013
Cheese (Million Pounds Weight).
New Zealand200182215223208181
Netherlands207190170141135135
Canada678587746156
Switzerland665444453940
France393429252625
Denmark13915221415
Australia........1215

the position of New Zealand in comparison with her competitors in the butter and cheese markets of the United Kingdom is featured in the following table:—

IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Country of Origin.Calender Year.
1931.1932.1933.1931.1935.
Quantity.Per Cent. of Total.
Butter (Thousand Hundredweight.)
New Zealand1,9262,1402,5122,6772,63827·5
Denmark2,4662,5842,5192,4862,18622·8
Australia1,5581,7951,6922,1032,11422·0
Russia U.S.S.R.4043235634915035·2
Irish Free State3813153794684885·1
Netherlands96471463014654·8
Other countries1,2291,1601,0211,1691,21512·6
Totals8,0608,3648,8329,6959,609100·0
Cheese (Thousand Hundredweight).
New Zealand1,7331,8492,0592,0921,76365·0
Canada70774762952046917·3
Netherlands1681701221281997·3
Australia6874921141344·9
Other countries2101631371351485·5
      Totals2,8863,0033,0392,9892,713100·0

It will be seen that, while New Zealand is closely rivalled in the butter trade by both Denmark and Australia, her supremacy in the cheese trade is unchallenged.

A point of particular interest in the above table is the evidence it affords of a substantial expansion in the consumption of imported butter in the United Kingdom. the relatively low prices ruling during the past few years have stimulated the consumption of butter in that country to a marked extent, while the re has been a correspondingly large decrease in the consumption of margarine. Consumption of the latter product is particularly sensitive to price changes in the butter market, and to changes in the average income among the lower-income groups of the population. While the trend of butter prices in the season just past suggests a measure of permanence in the recovery from the exceedingly low levels of the immediately preceding seasons, the swing-over from butter consumption to margarine consumption which normally follows a rise in butter prices is likely to be tempered by two factors. In the first place, the long period of low prices has habituated large sections of the community to the regular consumption of butter in preference to margarine; while, secondly, the re has been a very substantial recovery in the general prosperity of the people of the United Kingdom.

the long-term trend of the export markets for dairy products is particularly difficult to prophesy at the present time. As far as the United Kingdom is concerned, the operation of the milk-marketing scheme has resulted in a substantial increase in the home production of milk (partly at the expense of cattle raising). By far the greater proportion of the production of milk in that Country (about 80 per cent.) is sold as liquid milk or cream, while production of butter and cheese from the residual quantity, though increasing, forms only a very small percentage of the present requirements of the population. It seems evident that the United Kingdom will still have to rely on imported dairy-products for the great bulk of its supplies. the future of the market for imported butter in that country is, however, affected by the approach of a declining population. Of particular import in this connection is the prospective relative decline in the proportion of young persons in the total population. A factor of particular significance, however, which may for some time to come at least outweigh the effects of the considerations outlined above is the increasing prominence given to the subject of nutrition. An arresting report by Sir John Boyd Orr, entitled “Food, Health, and Income” (issued February, 1936), which draws pointed attention to the inadequacy of diet among the lower-income groups in the United Kingdom, has received wide attention.

the need for expansion of consumption of dairy produce—liquid milk, in particular—is in the forefront of discussions on nutrition; and recognition of this need has found practical expression in the provision recently made in Great Britain, through the agency of the milk-marketing scheme, for the supply of free milk to large numbers of children in poor circumstances. It is of service to note at this stage that provision has been made in New Zealand for free distribution of milk to schools.

the active interest in nutrition may well prove to be a solution of the difficulties in marketing of dairy products. It is apposite to note in this connection that New Zealand butter is esteemed very highly from a nutritional point of view—the fact that dairy cows are grazed on open pastures the whole year through, and the careful treatment of the product through all stages of production and transport, being important factors contributing to its peculiarly desirable qualities.

the world aspect of nutrition problems is receiving considerable attention by the League of Nations, which has issued valuable reports on the subject. the re is ample evidence that the present consumption of dairy products in many countries has been reduced far below the safety limits in respect of nutrition as a result of the operation of import restriction policies.

References to the consumption of dairy produce in New Zealand and in certain other countries will be found in a later section (Section XLIII, Consumption of Commodities).

LIVE-STOCK SLAUGHTERINGS AND MEAT EXPORT.

Statistics of live-stock slaughterings and meat exports follow. References to consumption within New Zealand of meats and other commodities are contained in a later section (Section XLIII).

SHEEP AND LAMBS.

Figures showing sheep and lambs slaughtered for food purposes, together with the exports of frozen mutton and lamb, are given in the tables following.

Year ended 31st March.Slaughterings.Exports (Including Pieces).
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.
* Year ended 31st January.
Sheep.
 Number.Number.Number.Carcasses.
19324,464,894768,8255,233,7192,343,148
19333,560,598786,8144,356,4122,354,184
19342,867,245688,8893,556,1342,010,084
19353,335,943606,8803,942,8232,088,881
19362,674,554586,3363,260,8901,810,052
    Totals for five years16,912,2343,437,74420,349,97810,606,349
Lambs.
19328,689,196138,4428,827,6387,574,147
19339,718,585135,3459,853,9309,056,071
19348,726,39099,0328,825,4228,719,301
19359,690,05475,5729,765,6269,383,081
19368,685,53669,4698,755,0058,365,543
    Totals for five years45,509,761517,86046,027,62143,098,143

As the United Kingdom provides practically the only market for the mutton and lamb exported from New Zealand, it is interesting to note the extent to which the Dominion contributes to this market in comparison with importations from other countries. the position during the five calendar years up to 1935 is given in the following statements respecting the commodities specified:—

IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Country of Origin.Calendar Year.
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Quantity.Per Cent, of Total.
Frozen Mutton (Thousand Hundredweight).
New Zealand1,1051,3369998991,04160·7
Australia50219134746142424·7
Argentina4853542171381518·8
Chile12615114082895·2
Uruguay5432331460·4
Other Countries224330·2
     Totals2,2742,0661,7401,5971,714100·0
Frozen Lamb (Thousand Hundredweight).
New Zealand2,3642,5712,7362,6552,59252·0
Australia1,0279619571,1661,36127·3
Argentina1,0681,01892978475515·1
Uruguay2311311391251302·6
Chile1141451241241182·4
Other countries29362728290·6
     Totals4,8334,8624,9124,8824,985100·0

the above figures strikingly illustrate the monopoly held by New Zealand mutton and lamb on the Home market.

Although total importations of mutton exhibit a declining tendency, the quantities supplied by New Zealand and Australia have remained fairly constant from year to year. the falling-away is accounted for by comparatively heavy reductions in supplies emanating from South American countries. Regarding lamb, the import figures show no outstanding features other than a rise in Australian imports and a decline in produce from the Argentine.

CATTLE

New Zealand mutton and lamb form a substantial proportion of the meats sold on the London market, but the Dominion's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that exports of frozen beef from the Dominion have declined in recent years. However prospects for expansion are now brighter, as during 1933 several trial shipments of New Zealand chilled beef were despatched to England. the experiments proved very successful, and were followed by larger shipments. Up to the 30th June, 1934, 16,112 quarters had been forwarded to the United Kingdom. During the following twelve months a further 53,755 quarters were shipped, followed by 127,326 quarters during the June year, 1936. This quantity represents 36½ per cent, of the total quantity of both chilled and frozen beef sent forward during the latter period.

New Zealand chilled beef is rapidly establishing itself as a quality article with United Kingdom retailers, and a steady improvement is being maintained in the quality and condition of arrivals.

the following table, which is exclusive of veal, shows the number and approximate weight of cattle slaughtered for food purposes in each of the last five years, together with the weight of beef exported. In the figures of slaughterings an average weight of 600 lb. per carcass is taken, and the export figures include potted and preserved meats, the greater portion of which is beef.

Year ended 31st March.Slaughterings of Cattle.Exports of Beef.
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.Approximate Weight.
* Year ended 31st January.
 Number.Number.Number.Cwt.Cwt.
1932322,9427,537330,4791,770,423317,834
1933393,60811,373404,9812,169,541600,258
1934475,14913,255488,4042,616,450853,488
1935488,98213,581502,5632,692,302901,282
1936563,48813,270576,7583,089,775890,702
   Totals for five years2,244,16959,0162,303,18512,338,4913,563,564

In 1935 the United Kingdom imported 10,800,000 cwt. of chilled and frozen beef in the proportions of SO per cent, and 20 per cent, respectively. While New Zealand's contribution of chilled beef was negligible, her proportion of frozen beef amounted to 27 per cent, of the total; of the remaining 73 per cent., Australia supplied 64 per cent.

PIGS.

In recent years a quickening of interest in pig production as an adjunct to dairy-farming has raised their numbers considerably above those noted previously. the latest total of 808,463 represents an increase of no less than 70 per cent, on the figure recorded five years ago, as the following table shows:—

As at 31st JanuaryPigs under Six Months Old.Pigs Six Months and under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Total Pigs.
1931291,737106,59212,88464,981476,194
1932319,467104,15614,38475,409513,416
1933372,856114,29216,74887,686591,582
1934422,185121,69518,21498,299660,393
1935499,499131,04820,415111,793762,755
1936528,442142,76421,199116,058808,463

the following table shows the classification by breeds as at the special collection conducted in 1928. the figures are exclusive of pigs within borough boundaries.

Breed.Pigs under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Totals.
Pure Berkshire66,4415,77216,54578,758
Pure Yorkshire5,5996422,3148,555
Other r purebred9,5201,4914,54515,556
Crossbred410,3737,46259,000476,835
      Totals481,93315,36782,404579,704

During the five years ended the 31st March, 1936, 3,627,424 pigs were slaughtered at abattoirs, bacon-factories, and registered slaughterhouses, and during the quinquennium to the 31st January, 1936, 260,955 were slaughtered by farmers on holdings of 1 acre or over, the total slaughterings during the five years representing approximately 3,475,910 cwt. of pork, bacon, and ham, of which total 49 per cent, was exported. the figures for each year are:—

Year ended 31st March.Pigs slaughtered.Export of Frozen Pork, and Bacon and Ham.
At Abattoirs, &c.On Farms.*Total.Approximate Weight.
* Year ended 31st January.
 Number.Number.Number.Cwt.Cwt.
1932430,91451,536482,450465,110104,889
1933532,12358,484590,607549,190186,646
1934744,56955,498800,067719,670378,760
1935924,97948,546973,525840,080451,825
1936994,83946,8911,041,730901,860569,008
   Total for five years3,627,424260,9553,888,3793,475,9101,691,128

As in the case of other frozen meats, New Zealand pork is shipped almost exclusively to the United Kingdom, whose market for this commodity has expanded rapidly. the following figures are of interest in showing the important position occupied by the Dominion in the import trade:—

FROZEN AND CHILLED PORK—IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Country of Origin.Calendar Year.
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Quantity.Per Cent. of Total.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt. 
New Zealand121,803131,142278,047414,275490,32753·6
Argentina81,220108,854166,017277,5261S6,84120·4
Australia85,95045,48065,56782,425146,73216·0
United States62,27332,97883,559290,36577,0798·4
Canada9,83819,80518,82527,134....
Other countries4,5212,76210,76113,69514,2401·6
      Totals365,605341,021622,7761,105,420915,219100·0

It will be seen that New Zealand's shipments of 121,803 cwt. in 1931 were quadrupled in 1935. Quantities received from other countries fluctuated somewhat from year to year in individual cases, although their aggregate contributions rose steadily.

In international trade, exports of bacon far exceed those of other pig products, with the United Kingdom absorbing most of the exports of other countries. Although New Zealand supplies a substantial proportion of the imports of frozen and chilled pork into the United Kingdom, her contributions of bacon are negligible at present. Bacon formed 80 per cent, of all pig products imported into the United Kingdom in 1935. Of aggregate supplies of bacon, amounting to 346,000 tons, Denmark was responsible for 191,000 tons, or 55 per cent. Canada, Netherlands, Irish Free State, Poland, and Sweden supplied the great bulk of the remainder.

the following diagram affords evidence of the movement in numbers of total cattle, dairy cows, and pigs since 1916. the enumeration date in each case is 31st January.

NUMBERS OF TOTAL CATTLE, DAIRY COWS, AND PIGS, 1916–36.

(Semi-logarithmic scale.)

the relationship between the movements in dairy cows and total cattle is fairly uniform. the re has been, however, a tendency for dairy cows to constitute an increasing proportion of total cattle. In 1916 the proportion was 31 per cent., as against 46 per cent, in 1936. At the midway point (1926) dairy cows accounted for 38 per cent, of all cattle.

Regarding pigs, the diagram shows two periods of declining numbers—namely, 1916 to 1919 and 1928 to 1931. the lowest figure was 235,000, recorded in 1919. Progress since the n, despite the check between 1928 and 1931, has been considerable, culminating in a total of over 800,000 in 1936. the re is every indication that pig-production will forge further ahead, as this adjunct to dairying is receiving more attention than hitherto. the diagram clearly indicates the rapid rise in the number of pigs since the half-million mark was passed in 1932.

Although developments to the present stage give cause for satisfaction, New Zealand requires to make up tremendous leeway to reach the stage of development in the pig industry achieved by other dairying countries. This is immediately evident on reference to the following table showing, for the most important countries, the relationship existing between pigs and dairy cows. the latest available figures are quoted in each case.

Country.Date of Enumeration.Number of
Pigs.Dairy Cows.Pigs per 100 Dairy Cows.
* Not specifically designated as dairy cow's.
 (Thousands.)(Thousands.) 
GermanyMar., 193622,8249,936230
DenmarkJuly, 19343,0611,718*178
United StatesJan., 193642,54125,622166
YugoslaviaJan., 19342,7921,847151
England and WalesJune, 19363,8012,630145
ItalyMar., 19303,3182,389139
CzechoslovakiaJan., 19353,0322,500*121
NetherlandsNov., 19351,6291,435114
Estonia, Latvia, and LithuaniaDec., 19352,2842,033112
ArgentinaJune, 19303,7693,738101
CanadaDec., 19353,9503,932100
Russia (U.S.S.R.)July, 193520,14722,550*89
FranceDec., 19357,0438,602*81
SwedenJuly, 19341,4521,931*75
New ZealandJan., 19368081,95241
AustraliaDec, 19341,1583,39034

the table appearing above emphasizes the need for development of the pig industry in Now Zealand to a standard approaching that of other countries in relation to their dairy herds. Such development must eventually proceed along lines calculated to enable the Dominion to participate in the large market offering for bacon-supplies.

VEAL.

In recent years the veal industry has developed rapidly, mainly as a result of the organization of the “bobby” calf trade. An appreciable increase in exports resulted. As a consequence of British Government meat restrictions, an embargo was placed on the export of “bobby” calf meat as from the 12th July, 1934, but has since been lifted. Special regulations make it an offence to sell or offer for sale any calf which has not been properly and sufficiently fed daily from birth, and require that all calves be fed not earlier than four hours before the time of their removal from the owner's premises.

the following table gives particulars of slaughterings and exports for the past five years:—

Year ended 31st March.Slaughterings.Exports of Veal.
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.
* Year ended 31st January.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
1932593,02914,558607,587117,420
1933599,33514,538613,87391,341
1934941,70512,705954,410134,092
1935746,77115,986762,75771,356
19361,074,65611,5751,086,231110,124
    Totals for five years3,955,49669,3624,024,858524,333

MEAT-EXPORT CONTROL.

the New Zealand Meat-producers' Board was constituted under the provisions of the Meat-export Control Act, 1921–22. It consists of eight members—five representing the producers of meat for export, two representing the Government, and one representing the stock and station agents. Briefly, its objects are to control the export of meat in the interests of the producers.

Since it was constituted in 1922 freight charges have been considerably reduced. Rates now current, a three-year contract commencing 1st September, 1936, are (per pound): Mutton (or lamb over 42 lb.), 0·793d.; lamb. 0·929d.; veal, 0·645d.; pork, 0·645d.; beef, 645d.; other items at various rates. the rates quoted are in sterling, and are payable in sterling in London. For chilled beef the charge is based on space of chamber, calculated at the frozen-beef rate, plus 10 per cent.

Probably one of the most important functions of the Board is to regulate shipments so as to keep a steady flow of meat going on to the British markets over the twelve months of the year, having due regard to the months showing the highest consumption of each class of meat. the Board is enabled to carry out this work as it has the freight arrangements for the shipment of New Zealand meat in its hands under its statutory powers.

the Board has been very closely associated with the New Zealand Government in connection with the Ottawa Agreement and the subsequent meat-imports policy of the British Government, the regulation of meat shipments, so far as New Zealand is concerned being in its hands.

Another very important section of the Board's work comes under the heading of advertising. Along with the Dominion's increasing lamb-production, every effort is being made to expand our trade by advertising, and large sums of money have been spent in the United Kingdom for this purpose.

Other important functions of the Board include supervision of grading, inspection of loading and unloading of vessels, trial shipments to new markets, scientific survey work, and grants to the Royal Agricultural Society and other bodies to encourage production of suitable export types of lambs, pigs, &c.

the Board has taken an active part in the development of the chilled-beef industry and has also encouraged the expansion of the pig industry by grants to recording clubs and in other directions.

the following table shows shipments during each month of the seasons 1933·34 and 1934–35 and the first ten months of the season 1935–36:—

Mouth of Shipment.Shipping Season 1933–34.Shipping Season 1934–35.Shipping Season 1935–36.
Beef.Mutton.Lamb.Beef.Mutton.Lamb.BeefMutton.Lamb.
 Qrs.Care's.Care's.Qrs.Care's.Care's.Qrs.Care's.Care's.
November7,6637,614279,84535,49734,928227,75821,15291,807221,519
December89,02374,997758,8938,910100,057770,24919,94447,008580,421
January48,118124,472737,34818,280147,342679,02113,22670,091669,179
February18,171177,8051,002,78842,743244,0781,180,07818,467102,205839,743
March33,491221,9521,063,97830,088279,7981,301,15341,104249,5501,291,334
April47,008195,883871,37016,727236,808908, SOS33,470252,011864,376
May94,840100,2881,124,47273,583219,0271,289,30343,588199,8441,122,006
June42,395141,286929,33262,035158,339985,63929,352120,799809,277
July24,089174,443777,70133,930111,805470,71738,597191,8051,121,031
August8,742288,143752,45035,301236,741739,04826,719187,870739,027
September26,927164,542372,77019,604143,906143,904......
October43,73490,20292,31840,128186,06171,037......

HORSES.

Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,284 was recorded, horses have tended to decline numerically. the foregoing figure includes horses in boroughs; and totals on a similar basis in 1916, 1921, and 1926 were 371,331, 337,259, and 314,867 respectively. the census of 1926 showed that 13,014 horses were in boroughs, but no similar census has since been undertaken.

the following table gives numbers of horses by classes recorded during the past five years, and excludes horses in boroughs, as figures for the se are not available:—

——1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
Draught and three-quarter draught121,594120,136119,454120,239122,749
Spring-cart (including half-draught)47,73047,84847,06346,43447,491
Hacks and light working horses84,88082,37480,99679,69478,276
Thoroughbred and other horses13,77613,52513,37913,60514,640
     Total horses267,980263,883260,892259,972263,150

the slight, decline apparent between 1932 and 1934 in the classes of draught, three-quarter draught, and half-draught horses has been more than made up in the ensuring two years, during which period draught and three-quarter-draught animals have increased by 3,295. As the se classes are used for tractive purposes on farms, the fairly substantial increase in their numbers is not without significance.

Usually the number of “thoroughbred and other horses” shows little variation from year to year; however, the relatively high increase of over a thousand occurred between 1935 and 1936.

Hacks and light Working-horses are diminishing at an appreciable and fairly uniform rate from year to year.

POULTRY.

Particulars regarding poultry were asked for in the census forms of 1936, but the figures are not yet available. At the previous census taken in 1926 the number of poultry in New Zealand was ascertained to be 3,781,145, a decrease of 209,864 as compared with the number for the year 1921 (3,991,009). the number of poultry per brad of population per head of population was 2·8, which is the lowest figure since 1864.

the figures of poultry for each of the five census years specified below are as follows:—

Census Year.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.Total.
19062,784,269281,99944,30077,1013,187,669
19113,215,031329,23045,38997,9333,687,583
19163,141,354220,80846,95556,5213,465,638
19213,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009
19263,308,384352,03043,87976,8523,781,145

In connection with the census of 1926, statistics were compiled as to the sizes of flocks of fowls, and the results are instructive as showing that, though poultry-farming as a definite branch of farming existed to some small extent, poultry-keeping was generally carried on merely as a side-line.

the average number of fowls per flock was only twenty-one. the total number of households keeping poultry of any kind was 158,856, of which no fewer than 68,133 were in cities and boroughs.

the Poultry Act, 1924, provides for the regulating of poultry-keeping and of the sale and export of poultry and eggs. Provision is made for the appointment of inspectors, on whom certain powers of entry for purposes of inspection of poultry or eggs intended for export are conferred. Poultry are required to be kept under sanitary conditions, and cruelty to poultry is made an offence. Every owner of poultry is required to notify an inspector of any outbreak of disease among his poultry and to comply with the inspector's directions. It is an offence to sell diseased poultry. the Governor-General in Council is empowered to declare diseases, to appoint ports of export, and to appoint grading-stores.

In order to provide moneys for the organization and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in December, 1933. the Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry-run which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than twenty-five head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. the fee payable annually for registration is 2s. 6d. if the flock is in excess of twenty-four, but does not exceed one hundred head. For each additional hundred (or part there of) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable. A Board is constituted for the administration of the Act. Further clauses provide for a poll to be taken as to the expiry of the Act if a petition signed by not less than 20 per cent. of registered producers is presented to the Minister during February, 1937. If such a poll is carried the Act is to be deemed to be repealed as from the 31st May, 1937.

BEES.

the dairying-lauds of the Dominion are eminently suited for the rearing of bees and a very high-grade product is put on the market from local apiaries. the export trade is, of course, small when compared with the main primary industries, but is capable of considerable development. Honey from the apiaries of the Dominion is much appreciated wherever it is known.

In New Zealand the Department of Agriculture devotes proportionately the same attention to detail in the case of honey for export as is given to butter and cheese forwarded for consumption beyond the Dominion. Honey must be forwarded to grading-stores at Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Lyttelton, Greymouth, Timaru, Dunedin, and Bluff for grading prior to export, and may be exported only through those ports. the Apiaries Act, 1927, which came into operation on 1st January, 1928, was passed to consolidate and amend the law relating to the bee industry. Stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee-moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register their apiaries, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that as at 31st March, 1930, S,920 beekeepers and 140,000 colonies were registered.

Exports of honey for the last five years were—

Year.Quantity.Value.
 lb.£
1931584,73919,401
1932226,2437,054
1933757,10621,823
1934669,68319,731
19351,155,24733,788

A system of control on much the same lines as in the case of meat and dairy-produce was introduced by the Honey-export Control Act, 1924. the function of the Board set up (after a poll of producers, who decided by a large majority in favour of the scheme) is to control all honey intended for export.

Chapter 32. SECTION XIX.—FORESTRY.

STATE FORESTS.

AT the 31st March, 1936, the area of State forest was 4,043,693 acres, and of provisional State forest 3,866,479 acres, these totals including 733,967 acres and 1,172,504 acres respectively of national-endowment lands. The aggregate area (7,910,172 acres) represents 11·91 per cent, of the superficial area of the Dominion.

The administration of the State forests and of the afforestation activities of New Zealand is controlled by the State Forest Service.

The legislation governing the State forests is contained in the Forests Act, 1921–22, and its amendments of 1925 and 1926, and in section 17 of the Finance Act, 1924. Section 5 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1930, authorized the borrowing of a maximum of £1,000,000 for the purposes of the Forests Act, 1921–22. Regulations have been issued under the State Forests Act, 1908, and the Forests Act, 1921–22. Section 23 of the Mining Amendment Act, 1934, provides for payment to the Crown of compensation for damage to any laud vested in the Crown, resulting from mining operations. Such compensation in respect of State forests may from time to time, as damage is caused, he claimed by the Commissioner of State Forests.

Section 3 of the Mining Act, 1935, restricts the operation of section 66 (f) of the Mining Act, 1926, by providing that nobody corporate shall be entitled to exercise the authority to cut timber conferred on the holder of a miner's right except with the consent of the Minister of Mines and the Commissioner of State Forests, and subject to such terms and conditions as may be imposed.

It has always been recognized that a miner's right gives the holder thereof the right to cut and remove timber free of charge from unalienated Crown land (including State forest) for mining and for his own domestic use—i.e.., for firewood, fencing, and the building of a house for occupation by him. In addition to the individual miner, however, this right was hitherto enjoyed by commercial organizations.

The individual miner is not affected by this legislation.

FOREST AREAS.

The areas of indigenous forests estimated at intervals since the settlement in the Dominion are—

 Acres.
184727,600,000
186923,500,000
188621,200,000
189320,500,000
190917,000,000
1923–3212,600,000

FOREST POLICY.

The national forest policy has a twofold purpose—the maintenance of climatic, soil, and water equilibria, and the supply of timber and other forest-produce. Owing to its influence upon agriculture, the former objective—viz., the conservation of the protection forests—is of the greater national significance. Conservation may be defined as the preservation of the forests by wise use, and the intensive management of these forests will assist to solve the problem of timber-Supplied. It iswith this latter consideration that the establishment of exotic forests is most intimately associated.

Important features of the national timber-supply situation are—

  1. Eighty per cent, of the remaining virgin forests are overmature, and there is no net growth, new growth being offset by decay, &c.:

  2. The conversion of overmature forests into healthy growing stands of indigenous species producing timber to the maximum capacity of the forest soil will necessitate silvicultural management extending over a long period, probably one hundred and fifty years:

  3. Current timber demands are depleting the virgin indigenous forests at such a rate that, without other provision being made, an adequate supply of timber would not be available during the whole of the intervening period:

  4. The establishment of exotic forests to supplement the indigenous forest resources is therefore of great importance, and large forests of exotic trees have accordingly been established during recent years:

  5. The part which exotic forests will ultimately play in the forest economy of the Dominion is difficult to predict. Experience in foreign countries where forestry has been practised over a period of several centuries indicates, however, that exotic species have definite limitations, and for this reason the national policy must envisage the management of the indigenous forests to secure their maximum possible production of timber.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

The idea is prevalent that to preserve the existing indigenous forests to posterity it is sufficient to fence them against stock and to protect them from fire: this is entirely erroneous. The composition of the forest gradually changes, one type of forest growth succeeding another. Generally the valuable timber-producing species are replaced by weed species such as kamahi, taraire, rewarewa, &c. The outstanding example is the remaining kauri forests. Of all the indigenous softwoods amenable to silvicultural treatment kauri is outstanding, and the results of investigations have been most promising. Plans for perpetuating the kauri forests and for rationing the supply of kauri timber are now in operation. Both the remaining virgin stands and the cut-over areas carrying regeneration are being brought under forest working-plans which govern both the extraction of logs and the silvicultural treatment required to maintain the forest in a state of maximum productivity. The first forest to be so treated is the Omahuta State Forest, near Russell, in which permanent extraction routes are now being constructed. Dead and over-mature trees will be extracted along with such large healthy trees as can be removed without endangering subsequent regeneration, and logs will be disposed of on the extraction routes. A minimum diameter cutting-limit of 27 in. breast high has been imposed for virgin stands; and provisions have been made for the preservation of exceptionally large trees and other special trees in advantageous situations for seeding purposes to assist regeneration. The more recent examinations and inspections of the kauri forests indicate beyond all possible doubt the feasibility, not merely of preserving to posterity those few magnificent monarchs which the State Forest Service guards in its forests as national monuments, but also of maintaining the kauri forests in full vigour of growth to yield an everlasting supply of this world-famous wood.

Reconnaissances in the rimu pole-type forests of Westland are also being made to locate suitable demonstration forest units which may be placed under working-plans as in the case of the kauri forests, and so managed as to maintain mills in permanent production. A similar search for demonstration units is being conducted in the silver-beech forests of Southland, and it is anticipated that working-plans for both rimu and silver-beech forests will be in active operation in the near future.

In the exotic forests the saw log has always been visualized as the major product, and no State exotic forests have been established for the production of any other particular product. As the population of the Dominion increases and likewise the consumption of pulp and paper products, it is possible that economically sized pulp-production units may become feasible. Should this prove to be the case, a supply of raw material for the cheaper classes of pulp and paper products, which form the bulk of the trade, may become available from the exotic forests, in the form both of low-grade or unmillable logs and of sawmill waste, but for the utilization of high-grade logs down to 4 in. diameter inside bark (which is the smallest timber usually accepted by pulp-mills) the Scandinavian type of sawmill is as well adapted as the pulping unit, possessing the additional advantages of smaller size and lower outlay.

For the year ended 31st March, 1919, exotic-pine timbers, as judged by quantities sawn, ranked only sixth amongst the timbers of the Dominion. For the year ended 31st March, 1936, they rank as third. During that period the annual cut of rough-sawn exotic-pine timber has increased over eightfold. From 4,000,000 ft. b.m. in 1918–36 it has increased to an estimated peak record of 35,000,000 ft. b.m. in 1935–36; while it is fully anticipated that during the next five years it will further increase at the rate of at least 5,000,000 ft. b.m. per annum, which will rank exotic-pine timbers ahead of white-pine and as second only to rimu. It is not improbable that these timbers will ultimately gain premier ranking. Only major forest catastrophes, such as nation-wide epidemics of destructive fungous and insect pests, can prevent this development. The low density and easy-working properties of these woods will enable them to replace rimu to a very large extent, and to dominate the markets for practically all classes of framing and light construction timber, just as already the same properties have given them dominance in the boxing and crating markets. Even for finishing-work the exotic softwoods, with their low density and satisfactory glueing properties, will find extensive use as core timber for laminated and other built-up construction, thus assisting to effect economies in the use of the more valuable indigenous timbers as veneers, &c, rather than in solid.

SILVICULTURE AND UTILIZATION.

The management of both indigenous and exotic forests necessitates scientific investigation as a routine operation in connection with both silviculture and utilization. Silvicultural investigations cover the entire field of natural sciences. Soil and botanical investigations have been found fundamental to the establishment of exotic forests, and mycological and entomological investigations have become of considerable importance in combating fungous and insect attack in both indigenous and exotic forests. Likewise, both the intensity of forest management and the efficiency of forest-land use are directly dependent upon the utilization of forest products. Only by ensuring maximum efficiency in harvesting forest crops and their adaptation to modern requirements is it possible to safeguard the economic future of forestry.

With a view to broadening and stabilizing markets for various classes of forest produce, extensive investigations have been undertaken by the State Forest Service during practically the whole of its seventeen years' existence. Technical investigations have been made into production methods and wood-using practices, the elimination of waste, and the use of non-commercial species, and many practical improvements have been effected in the every-day utilization of all important locally-grown timbers. Outstanding developments of this period have been the establishment of kiln-drying and modern grading as practicable everyday realities, enabling the locally-grown timbers to replace imported woods hitherto required on account of the lack of kiln-drying facilities, &c. These developments, supported by information gained by the State Forest Service as a result of its investigations into the mechanical and physical properties of the locally-grown woods, have enabled them to be used much more efficiently than hitherto, and to replace to a considerable extent some of the imported timbers. Demonstrations of the effectiveness of wood-preservation have likewise stimulated interest in this important branch of utilization, while laboratory and commercial tests have defined within close limits the values of various indigenous timbers for pulp and paper-making purposes.

FOREST-FIRE PREVENTION.

One of the greatest problems of forest-conservation is that of fire-prevention, and fire-fighting methods have been improved by the establishment of fire lookout stations, access tracks, tool caches, improved telephone communication, and the provision of mobile fire-fighting equipment. The general public now realize the value of fire districts as a means of preventing indiscriminate fire-lighting and. “burning off” except under expert supervision. Fire districts constituted in the interests of local bodies and private companies now number sixteen, while the fire districts constituted to protect State indigenous and exotic forests total thirty-six. The total area covered by all fire districts is 2,883,000 acres.

The system continues to work smoothly, and has undoubtedly contributed in no small measure to the comparative freedom from serious forest fires in State forests which has been the fortunate lot of the Dominion for almost the past decade.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIGENOUS FORESTS.

The forests of New Zealand, as a whole, belong to that great division of the earth's vegetation entitled rain-forest—a community with its most extreme development in the tropics (vide article on “The Plants of New Zealand” in Section I). New Zealand rain-forest may be naturally divided into the two classes, subtropical rainforest and subantarctic rain-forest, the former, in regard to its trees, being a mixed community of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of beech (Nothofagus). For practical purposes the names rain-forest proper and beech-forest suffice. Between these two classes there are many intermediates, the one graduating into the other.

Rain-forest proper consists of many kinds of tall, medium-sized, and small trees, together with a dense undergrowth of numerous species of shrubs and ferns. Woody lianes and huge epiphytes are characteristic, and bryophytes abound. This class of forest is generally confined to the coastal, lowland, 2nd montane belts—the upper altitudinal line of the last-named becoming gradually lower in proceeding from north to south

In regard to appraisal of timber, rain-forest proper is divided into the following groups, to each of which is appended its distribution: The kauri (extending northwards from a line joining Port Waikato to Tauranga); the rimu (throughout all three principal Islands, its heaviest stands in the central part of the North Island and on the west coast of the South Island); the kahikatea (throughout the North and South Islands, occupying low-lying swampy ground); and the totara (throughout, but mainly in the central part of the North Island).

Beech-forest must be divided into milling-forest and protection forest. The former consists of (1) forest where the hard beech (Nothofagus truncata) and the black beech (Nothofagus Solandri) are present in quantity, or where there is only the latter (this extends from the south of lat. 38° southwards to northern Nelson, Marlborough, and eastern Canterbury); (2) forest where the silver beech (Nothofagus Menziesii) and the red beech (Nothofagus fusca) are either the sole or the principal species; they extend from the Thames mountains through the montane and lower subalpine belts southwards to north-western Nelson, Westland (but absent from the Taramakau River southwards for one hundred miles), and the fiord country of Otago; and (3) forest whore the silver beech is pure or nearly so, such principally in southern and western Southland, and extending over the western slopes of the Dividing Range. Protection-forest, where beeches dominate, particularly the mountain-beech (Notlwfagus clifforlioides), is essentially high-mountain forest, but on Mount Egmont and on the western side of the Southern Alps, from somewhat north of the Taramakau River for rather more than one hundred miles southwards, the forest is modified rain-forest proper with thin-bark totara (Podocarpus Hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus Bidwillii) as important trees. In Stewart Island Nothofagus is absent, and the trees of the upper forest are mainly kamahi (Weinmannia raccmosa) and southern-rata (Mctrosideros lucida).

In addition to the high forests there are scrub forests, of which those made up of manuka (in a wide sense)—Leplospermum scoparivm and L. ericoides—are commercially important on account of the value of their wood for fuel, and because, in many instances, they are an early stage of rain-forest.

The foregoing gives merely a general classification of the forests, but, from the aspect of forestry, a division into smaller groups is essential, such to be based on the composition, structure, and life-history of each group. In this regard, altitude, climate, latitudinal change, and the nature of the soil have to be taken into consideration, as well as the combination and forms of the species composing the forest and their arrangement within the forest. In all forests, changes, progressive or retrogressive, are taking place, and, so far as rain-forest proper is concerned (apart from swamp-forest), that of the North Island and the northern part of the South Island is tending towards the dominance of the tawa (Bcilschmicdia tawa) and, for the remainder of the South Island and Stewart Island, to that of the kamahi. On the other hand, beech-forest regenerates into similar forest.

Though the forest-trees of New Zealand number about 112, only a few are of value as timber-trees; in fact, at present only six are being used to any extent by sawmillers, and, of these, five are coniferous (softwood) timbers. There are several—e.g., puriri, kohekohe, pukatea—which possess very high qualities, but which are now to be obtained only in such small quantities that they are of little commercial importance.

CHIEF FOREST TREES.

A brief description of the principal forest-trees, with their distribution and the uses of their timber, is now given. The weights shown for the timber are per cubic foot, air-dry. For a description of additional forest-trees the reader is referred to the 1934 issue of the Year-Book or its immediate predecessors.

SOFTWOODS.

KAHIKATEA; WHITE PINE (Podocarpus dacrydioides).—This tree occurs to some extent in all forests except the beech-forests from north to south of the North and South Islands; formerly it was found in almost pure stands in swampy areas, but most of these stands have now been exploited. The average height of the tree is about 120 ft., and the average diameter about 32 in. The sapwood, which comprises the greater part of the log, is white, and the heartwood yellow. The timber (29 lb.) is straight in the grain, easily worked, and long, clean lengths and wide widths can be obtained. The yellow heartwood is durable, but the sapwood is very susceptible to the attacks of the larvae of the white-pine borer. The timber is inodorous, and is at the present time used mainly for butter-boxes, cheese-crates, and other packages.

KAIKAWAKA; MOUNTAIN CEDAR (;Libocedrus Bidwillii).—Though the distribution of this tree is often local, its range extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the forests of South Otago. It is most plentiful on the west coast of the South Island, The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., with an average diameter of about 18 in. The timber (27 lb.) is dark red in colour, easy to work, light, and rather weak; it has considerable resemblance to totara, but is not so strong, and generally not so durable. The timber has been used for telegraph-poles, shingles, and palings. It has also been proved suitable for the manufacture of second-grade lead pencils, and at the present time is used for the manufacture of window-frames in the districts where it is obtainable. Being difficult to burn, it is specified for the construction of fireproof doors. Unfortunately, though occurring over a wide area, it is limited in quantity, and, if used freely, the supply would soon be exhausted.

KAURI(Agathis auslralis).—This, the largest tree of the New Zealand forest and the most celebrated, is rather restricted in its distribution, extending as it does only from a little to the north of lat. 38° S. to the extreme north of the North Island. Its average height is about 100 ft. The maximum diameter which has been measured is 22 ft., and a few trees still exist with diameters of 14 ft. The average diameter is, however, about 40 in. The timber (36 1b.) is light yellowish-brown in colour; it is straight in the grain, strong, easily worked, and remarkably free from knots and defects probably there is no more generally useful softwood in the world. Though formerly much used for house-building, its present high price confines its use to railway-carriage building, and cabinet and general joinery purposes. Mottled and figured kauri is much priced for cabinet-work. The kauri yields a very valuable resin called kauri-gum. It is regrettable that the remaining stands of this valuable timber-tree are now limited.

MATAI; BLACK PINE (Podocarpus spicatus).—This tree occurs more or less plentifully in forests throughout the North, South, and Stewart Islands. Its average height is about 60 ft., and average diameter about 24 in. The timber (38 lb.) is light yellowish-brown in colour, straight in the grain, and easily worked. In the ground it is of second-rate durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is used chiefly for weather-boarding, exterior joinery, and flooring, and for the last mentioned purpose is one of the best timbers in the world.

MIRO (Podocarpus ferrugineus).—This tree occurs in lowland and montane forests from the north of the North Island to the south of Stewart Island, but is most abundant in Southland. The average height is about 65 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber (36 lb.) is used in house-building, and is often sold as rimu, to which it bears considerable resemblance. The heartwood is brownish in colour, very fine in the grain, easily worked, and of exceptional strength, though not durable in the ground.

RIMU; BED PINE (Dacrydium cupressinum).—This, the principal timber-tree of the New Zealand forest, is to be found more or less in all forests except the pure beech-forests. The average height is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber (37 lb.) when first cut is reddish-brown, but it changes when seasoned to a light brown with darker and lighter streaks. It is fairly straight in the grain, easily worked, and it is the chief timber used in house-building. It is often beautifully figured, and when so is used for furniture, doors, and panelling. A high grade of kraft pulp may be produced from rimu.

SILVER PINE; YELLOW SILVER PINE; PINK PINE (Dacrydium Colensoi, D. intermedium, D. biformc, and D. Kirldi).—The group of small podocarps, here taken together, is far from well known, while as commercial timbers there is no uniformity in the timber supplied, that of D. Colensoi and D. intermedium being both sold as “silver pine.” In the case of the so-called “yellow silver pine” the timber is white and not yellow. As at present defined, D. Colensoi occurs from near Kaitaia (but only occasionally) to the volcanic plateau, where, it is fairly common, and in the South Island it forms (or originally formed) considerable stands in north-western Nelson and Westland. D. intermedium has much the same range in the North Island, but rather wider (Thames mountains, Ruahine-Tararua Mountains), and in the South Island it occurs in north-western Nelson, south-west Otago, and Stewart Island. D. biforme, except in the southern part of its range, belongs essentially to the mountains, and extends from the volcanic plateau to Stewart Island, but only where the rainfall is high. D. Kirkii is confined for the North Auckland Peninsula from the Manukau Harbour northwards. Considering here only the extremely valuable timber (39 lb.) of the silver-pine, it is whitish when first cut, but darkening to a light yellowish-brown; it is straight in the grain and easy to work. Owing to its extreme durability it has been used mainly for railway-sleepers, telegraph-poles, and posts; it is occasionally beautifully mottled, and is then used for cabinet-work. The remaining supplies are now limited.

TANEKAHA(Phyllocladus Irichomanoides).—This tree occurs, but not in great numbers, throughout the North Island and in the South Island in northern Marlborough and Nelson, extending southwards to near Westport. In height it is from 50 ft. to 70 ft., with a diameter of 1 ft. to 2 ft. The timber (42 lb.) is yellowish-white, free from knots, close-grained, dense, heavy, and very strong, and shrinks very little in seasoning, and for this reason is favoured for the manufacture of astragals in greenhouses, which have to remain straight in varying conditions of heat and moisture. Tanekaha is the strongest New Zealand softwood. It is of uncertain durability in the ground, but is very durable out of the ground. In the past it was used for bridge-building, sleepers, and mine-props. It is now used in railway-carriage construction. The bark is very valuable, for it contains as muck as 28 per cent, of tannin.

TOTARA (Podocarpus totara and P.Hallii).—These trees, which are very closely related and hybridize freely, extend throughout all three Islands (P. Hallii only in Stewart Island and subalpine forests), though in many localities the totara is rare. It is most plentiful in the forests of the central portion of the North Island. The average height is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber (301b.) is reddish when first cut, seasoning to a reddish-brown. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle. Its great durability (that of P. totara being the most durable) has caused it to be much used for railway-sleepers, wharf-piles, telegraph-poles, and posts. Its high price and its freedom from warping and shrinking are now, however, causing it to be used for such special purposes as window and door frames; it is also much used for veranda-posts, flooring, and steps.

HARDWOODS.

BLACK BEECH(Nothofagvs Solandri).—This tree occurs in abundance—but not everywhere—in the lowland and montane belts of the North Island southwards from about lat. 38° S. (but absent in south-western Auckland and western Taranaki), and, in the South Island, in northern Marlborough and Nelson, extending southwards through eastern Marlborough and Canterbury to Banks Peninsula and Alford Forest. The timber (49 lb.) is pale-reddish, or greyish, and frequently streaked with black. Probably it is fairly durable when in the ground, and it is suitable—to say the least—for rough buildings, fencing-posts, and structural purposes. At present it is used only for fencing-posts and firewood.

HARD BEECH(N. truncata)—This tree occurs in a few localities in the North Island from Kaitaia southwards to the Thames mountains, whence its distribution is the same as that of N. Solandri. In the South Island it is abundant in northern Marlborough, and extends through Nelson with its southern limit just north of the Taramakau River. Its height ranges from 60 ft. to 100 ft. or more, and its diameter from 2 ft. to 5 ft. Until recently its timber (weight 48 lb.) was confused with that of the red-beech, but it is harder and probably more durable. When first cut it is pinkish in colour. Its uses are the same as those of its near relative, the red-beech. With the black-beech it forms many hybrids.

RED BEECH (N.fusca).)—This tree extends from about lat. 37° S. on. the Thames mountains southwards throughout the North Island in the montane belt (Mount Egmont excepted), and throughout the South Island where the rainfall is high (except southwards from the Taramakau River for one hundred miles), and in the south of Southland. It is a tall and massive tree, ranging from 60 ft. to rather more than 100 ft. in height, and 3 ft. to 6 ft. in diameter. The timber (44 lb.) when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split, durable, and of about the same weight as English ash. It is difficult to season, being particularly prone to honeycombing in drying, and for this reason has not been much used for house-building, except at one time on the Otago goldfields, where it has proved very durable; its chief use at present is for posts and mine-props, and it is used to a small extent for sleepers and bridge-work. It is valuable for furniture and bentwood work. With the increasing scarcity of Australian hardwoods it is certain to have a much more extended use in the future.

SILVER BEECH(N. Menziesii).—This tree has much the same distribution as the red-beech, but it ascends higher, and is plentiful in the west of Southland, east of the Divide, extending to the Longwood Range. It also occurs at several places near Dunedin, and in the vicinity of Mount. Cook and on the Blue Mountains. The average height of the tree is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about. 2 ft. The timber (34 lb.) is of a pinkish colour when first cut, but it changes to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, and strong; it is, however, not durable in contact with the ground. It is now being used for flooring, interior finish, furniture, bentwood work, agricultural implements, bodies of motor-cars, billiard-tables, tool-handles, dowels, rifle-stocks, shoe-heels, casks, barrels, cheese-crates, and packing-cases, and its use for these and in other directions is sure to extend.

BLACK MAIRE (Olea Cunningliamil).—This tree occurs in all forests (except the beech-forests) throughout the North Island, but it is only in the central portion that it is fairly plentiful. In the South Island it is found only in Marlborough, and is very rare. It occasionally reaches a height of 70 ft. and a diameter of 4 ft., but the average height and diameter are 40 ft. and 18 in. respectively. The wood (62 lb.) is light brown, often with dark streaks, and bears considerable resemblance to that of its relative, the European olive. It is extremely dense, heavy, hard, strong, and durable. It has been used to a small extent for framing for machinery and for bridge-building, but owing to its exceptional heat-giving property its chief use has been for firewood.

NORTHERN RATA and SOUTHERN RATA (Melrosideros robusla and M. lucida).—The first-mentioned of these trees is found in most forests below 2,000 ft. in the North Island; it is rather rare in the South Island, being found only occasionally in the lowland forests of Marlborough and Nelson. This tree generally commences life as a “perching-plant” in the forks of other large trees, and therefrom sends down huge roots, which generally envelope and strangle the supporting tree. These roots usually (but not always) coalesce, and so form a huge bole with an average diameter of about 54 in., which is generally hollow. The southern-rata, though found only rarely in the North Island, is plentiful in the South Island and Stewart Island. It has usually the same habit of growth as an ordinary tree; its average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter is about 20 in. The timber of both trees is reddish-brown in colour, extremely hard, heavy, strong, and (out of the ground) very durable; it is highly valued as firewood. On account of the difficulty of seasoning southern rata (71 lb.) without excessive twisting and warping it has not the same value as the northern species (55 lb.), which is used to a small extent for cross-arms for telegraph-poles and for wheel wrights' work.

TAWA (Beilschmiedia tawa).—This tree is to be found in most forests of the North Island up to an altitude of about 1,700 ft. In the South Island it occurs in the coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is light brownish-white in colour, rather hard, straight in the grain, but somewhat brittle. It is difficult to season satisfactorily, and requires special treatment to ensure fungi-free timber. At present it is used for clothes-pegs and to a small extent only for inside lining and packing-eases, but, if kiln-dried, should find more extensive employment for flooring and interior finish. It has been proved suitable for the manufacture of many classes of pulp and paper.

OUTPUT AND CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER.

The principal timbers milled in New Zealand at present are rimu and kahikatea. Pinus radiata takes third position, and it is interesting to observe that the production of this species has more than doubled during the last five years. The subjoined table gives particulars regarding the output of timber by species for the last five years. Quantities are quoted in board measure feet (superficial feet)—i.e., units of 12 in. × 12 in. × 1 in.

Species of Timber.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.
Kauri8,943,4806,891,3525,410,3904,945,8435,552,580
Rimu124,998,82571,082,07476,192,51396,125,000125,488,187
Kahikatea49,009,10943,161,29947,997,70047,949,39652,294,065
Matai13,917,1877,474,8678,160,87310,759,55613,879,629
Totara9,467,6975,344,1006,346,9427,197,3898,867,383
Beech7,680,9135,756,8685,781,4416,972,7177,725,198
Pinus radiata (insignis)12,739,92513,404,70014,676,01021,494,38227,311,373
Other and unspecified2,710,8861,077,2501,703,5412,210,6172,663,260
Totals229,468,022154,192,510166,269,410197,654,900243,781,675
 Per Cent. of Total.Per Cent. of Total.Per Cent. of Total.Per Cent. of Total.Per Cent. of Total.
Kauri3·904·473·252·502·28
Rimu54·4746·1045·8248·6351·48
Kahikatea21·3627·9928·8724·2621·45
Matai.6·064·854·915·445·69
Totara4·133·473·823·643·64
Beech3·353·733·483·533·17
Pinna radiata (insignis)5·558·698·8310·8811·20
Other and unspecified1·180·701·021·121·09
Totals100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

The total of 2,663,260 ft. b.m. shown for “Other and unspecified” species for 1934–35 is made up as follows:—

Species.Ft. B.M.
Miro915,380
Tawa745,559
Tanekaha264,266
Poplar142,600
Pukatea98,899
Rata91,975
Puriri78,397
Blue-gum36,250
Mangeao30,700
Rewarewa22,720
Hinau19,449
Yellow pine17,689
Kawaka5,110
Taraire4,046
Unspecified190,220
Total2,663,260

Exports of New Zealand timber during the calendar year 1935 amounted to 39,585,198 ft. b.m., valued at £364,359, the principal species being kahikatea (22,708,732 ft.), rimu (9,009,572 ft.), beech (2,766,023 ft.), Pinus radiata (1,606,846 ft.), and kauri (626,521 ft.). Imports during the year comprised 14,779,856 ft. b.m. of sawn timber (including 3,472,187 ft. of Oregon pine (Douglas fir), 8,087,318 ft. of Australian hardwoods, 1,254,918 ft. of redwood, and 1,550,398 ft. of oak), valued at £228,802; 3,375,291ft. b.m. of logs and poles, valued at £46,759; 756,127 ft. b.m. of butter-boxes and cheese-crates, valued at £13,164; 452,746 ft. b.m. of cases, valued at £4,196; a laths, sleepers, and other items of a value of £145,589. The figures of exports and imports of timber during the last five years are:—

Year.Exports of New Zealand Timber.Imports of Timber.
Measured In Feet.Other Items.Total Value.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Ft. B.M.£(N.Z.)Ft. B.M.£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
193117,532,304172,63315,888,663180,11033,707213,817
193227,286,884253,8856,982,70383,8892,38886,277
193325,829,404237,52810,275,980139,04820,784159,832
193434,530,279320,52713,196,999183,90848,130232,038
193539,585,198364,35919,360,717252,656145,854398,510

SALES OF STATE TIMBER.

Under the timber-sales policy in operation for the disposal of the mature timber in State forests the standing timber is appraised and disposed of by public tender as a block sale, the quantity of each species being shown in cubic feet, with the equivalent board-foot measurement.

Year.Timber sold.Sale Price.
 Ft. B.M.£
1931–3212,240,00016,435
1932–3332,314,95435,693
1933–3449,026,30252,118
1934–3565,302,70071,243
1935–36102,219,800131,447

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES

UP to and including year 1915–16 the expenditure on afforestation was provided out of rents and royalties received from State Forest reserves and by an annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund. In 1916–17 provision was made for the borrowing of money for forestry purposes, and since that date all receipts and payments are shown in a State Forests Account. Commencing with the year 1933–34, interest on loans is carried forward as a liability to the Consolidated Fund until realization of the plantations.

 1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
£££££
Receipts.
Timber-sales (native forest)36,32027,12931,01747,17974,828
Timber royalties and trespass3,7513,6673,1645,4495,006
National-endowment allocation6,3916,2216,61210,99015,712
Leases—Grazing1,7041,6371,8161,6461,757
Sawmill-sites, &c.1,8651,4121,3481,417957
Nurseries and plantations3,2783,5426,5464,0945,874
Miscellaneous2,2491,5872,2062,1252,844
Total55,55845,19552,70972,900106,978
Payments.
Interest and loan expenses90,22397,256269172525
National-endowment and local-body allocations12,7537,0997,4019,33916,360
Staff salaries40,97434,23232,90134,15541,374
Management, &c., native forests14,47110,5809,75712,98515,438
Nurseries and plantations107,79549,34854,29259,13660,642
Research, &c.1,1991,0171,022528836
Land-purchase6,87412,64610,542..70
Miscellaneous888205202343500
Total275,177212,383116,386116,658135,745

The revenue from indigenous forests is heavily reduced by statutory payments in favour of local bodies and the National Endowment Account, and during recent years the residue has been little more than sufficient to meet the expenses of supervision and management; consequently the establishment of plantations has been financed almost exclusively from loan-moneys.

STATE AFFORESTATION.

State afforestation on an organized basis dates from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed, and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island, and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, when a total of 54 acres was established.

Figures of the areas planted each year in the last decade are shown below. Figures in parentheses are areas of direct formation and have been included in the totals with which they are associated.

Year.Acres.
1926–2722,305(1,257)
1927–2836,792(2,576)
1928–2960,635(3,215)
1929–3056,630 (30)
1030–3153,847(95)
1931–3240,979
1932–3316,997(1,163)
1933–3430,532
1934–3512,211
1935–3612,090

STATE EXOTIC FORESTS.

The gross area of State exotic forests at the 31st March, 1936, was 598,592 acres, of which the areas actually established was 419,553 acres, exclusive of fire-breaks, waste lands, reserves, &c. The new area planted during the year was 12,090 acres. Particulars of State exotic forests are given below.

Exotic Forest.Year of Commencement.New Area planted, 1935.Total Net Area planted.Gross Area of Exotic Forest.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Waipoua192591,07012,600
Puhipuhi1904..8711,558
Riverhead1926. .11,02911,956
Maramarua1928412,30314,087
Tairua193017310,60454,400
Waiotapu1901. .7,0517,974
Whakarewarewa1898. .8,03310,076
Kaingaroa191311,152253,752327,931
Erua19301852,7035,392
Karioi1927. .17,19633,689
Golden Downs19276419,24522,527
Westland1922..3,0058,006
Hanmer1901..7,73710,309
Balmoral191610520,75724,000
Eyrewell1928l5518,30619,266
Dusky1898..4,3646,829
Conical Hills1903..3,6193,765
Naseby1900..3,0084,032
Pukerau1915..565628
Blue Mountains1925238,7759,661
Pebbly Hills1930144,3535,330
Minor areas1875–19352061,2074,576
Totals 12,090419,553598,592

While many species were experimented with in the initial stages of the work, the chief species used in the North Island were European larch (Larix decidua), Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca) Corsican pine (P. Laricio), Western yellow pine (P. ponderosa), and a number of eucalypts. Of more recent years the species used for planting have been Douglas fir (Psendctsuga iaxifolia), Western yellow pine, insignis pine (P. radita), Corsican pine, lodge-pole pine (P. Murrayana), and Western red cedar (Thuya plicata).

In the South Island practically all the best-known commercial trees of the Northern Hemisphere have been tried, but many have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, until at the present time operations are being conducted with a comparatively small range of conifers which experience has shown will most readily adapt themselves to local conditions. The principal species planted now being used are Western yellow pine, Corsican pine, Douglas fir, insignis pine, lodge-pole pine, and Western red cedar.

Planting operations have practically ceased in all regions except Rotorua, and ore being continued there only on a minor scale. The Government exotic forest activities are now being concentrated upon the consolidation and management of those areas already planted. The large-scale planting of previous years has disclosed the limitations and weaknesses of various species, and experimental planting of new species is fundamental to the provision of possible alternatives should any further weaknesses develop at a later stage in the establishment of the exotic forests. For similar reasons experimental planting of exotics in out-over forests is also carried out.

COMMERCIAL AFFORESTATION.

INTRODUCTORY.

In 1923 the planting of forests was undertaken by commercial concerns. Two classes of companies have been formed to carry out the various ventures. The first is the ordinary joint-stock company, where the property is vested in the company and the shareholders receive a pro rata share of the profits according to the amount of capital contributed; the second is a company which is registered with a comparatively small capital, but of which the investing public do not become shareholders. The company contracts with each investor that in consideration of his paying the prescribed amount of cash it will convey to him at the end of a given term a certain area of land duly planted according to a prescribed agreement. The interests of bondholders are watched over by trustees until the time for conveyance to the bondholders arrives. Provision is now contained in the Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 1934–35, whereby bondholders may receive shares in exchange for their bonds and become entitled to the same proportionate interest in the same property and rights as they would be entitled to under their bonds. Of the thirty-five returns received from companies engaged in afforestation operations during the year ended 31st March, 1935, twelve were from companies organized on the latter (bond-holding) basis.

The figures for the year ended 31st March, 1935, show that total assets and liabilities increased from £3,247,458 in 1933–34 to £4,622,797 in 1934–35, or by 42 per cent. This increase is due chiefly to one company, formerly bond-issuing, being reconstructed as provided by the previously mentioned Act. Any reconstructions under this Act are characterized by increases in share capital and land held for afforestation, with decreases in liabilities to bondholders and other transactions relating to bond-issues.

The following comparative statements show the classifications of the liabilities and assets of all afforestation companies as at 31st March in each of the last five years:—

 1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
£££££
Liabilities.
Paid-up share capital814,106833,782962,194960,3832,555,378
Loan-money6,8014,33318,54211,89349,607
Forfeited Shares Account10,7058,43313,32515,24118,060
Mortgages128,454140,022127,176132,724131,280
Sundry creditors158,816137,388129,87978,812152,648
Bondholders1,435,3481,405,1511,655,9381,733,9581,606,967
Other193,709232,941249,734314,447108,857
Totals2,747,9392,762,0503,156,7883,247,4584,622,797
Assets.
Land for afforestation purposes545,596510,671518,606470,2431,073,392
Land for other purposes........3,122
Development Account936,247957,863979,885745,674990,738
Investments786,700976,4061,167,4551,414,8081,847,194
Goodwill and preliminary expenses68,80039,34964,72142,19629,148
Other410,596287,761426,121574,537679,203
Totals2,747,9392,762,0503,156,7883,247,4584,622,797

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The following statement shows a classification of the receipts recorded by afforestation companies during each of the last five (March) years. Attention is drawn to the fact that the figures in the following receipts table represent receipts from the cash point of view and should not be confused with revenue.

 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
£££££
Receipts.
Share capital78,95292,73031,33840,91023,764
Instalments on bonds624,568454,971501,269425,566288,549
Loan-money........33,027
Investments realized.1..3,103399,177376,731
Other receipts137,96879,75976,631104,788101,703
Totals841,488627,460612,341970,441824,374
Payments.
Tree-raising23,05714,8849,9296,4945,680
Establishment charges85,16838,90335,81116,94622,909
Maintenance28,76725,69418,66518,83220,115
Management, &c.277,469146,509123,820113,888119,401
Land purchase70,51534,53018,10836,99531,442
Investments72,340154,413276,480705,423467,386
Dividends21,17217,97516,77216,77824,680
Other206,735207,68591,575101,86463,116
Totals785,223640,593591,1601,017,220754,729

SALES OF FOREST AREAS.

The ten companies engaged in the sale of forest areas effected sales involving 10,985 acres of land during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1935, making a total of 276,209 acres sold up to that date. The instalments paid during the year in accordance with the contracts of sale amounted to £288,549, while the total instalments paid up to 31st March, 1935, on all bonds amounted to £4,552,001. The total commitments of the investing public on account of contracts entered into during the year amounted to £372,174, bringing the total for this item to £7,893,235 at 31st March, 1935. The foregoing totals are less than those recorded in 1933–34, the reason being that already explained—viz., one bond-issuing concern in 1933–34 reconstructing and transferring its bondholders' interests into paid-up share capital during 1934–35.

Against the foregoing must be set contracts involving 112,440 acres, of a total selling-price of £3,168,795, which have been cancelled by the purchasers. Instalments amounting to £233,778 were paid up on these cancelled contracts.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The average number of employees engaged during 1934–35 was 418, of whom 54 were engaged in tree-raising, 134 in planting, 77 in maintenance, 116 in fire-prevention, and 37 in management. This number represents a decline of 473 from the peak year (1930). The total wages and salaries paid during 1934–35 was £65,481.

PLANTING OPERATIONS.

The following table shows particulars regarding the species and number of trees planted during the year ended 31st March, 1935, together with particulars also the areas planted:—

Species.Number of Trees.New Area planted during the yearTotal Area Planted to 31st March, 1935
To replace Blanks.On New Areas.
 Acres.Acres.
Finns radiata (insignis pine)346,4569.698,59611,909245,387
Pinus ponderosu2,119,8501,149,7751,20129,039
Pinus pinaster39,500. . 3,950
Pinus Laricio   162
Redwood   2,873
Douglas 5r   961
Cupresvus Lawsoniana   7
Gupressus macrocarpa1,0051,021197
Eucalypls1,2482,5891975
Unspecified......124
Totals, 1934–352,508,05910,851,98113,112283,575

LAND HELD FOR AFFORESTATION PURPOSES.

At 31st March, 1935, the total area of land held by companies for afforestation purposes was 409,118 acres, the book-value of which was £1,073,392 (see statement of assets), and which amounts to £2 12?. 6d. per acre.

STATE ASSISTANCE TO AFFORESTATION.

The method first adopted in New Zealand for encouraging the planting of trees for the production of timber was by means of “land grants”—a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. Several large plantations were established in Canterbury by this method, which, however, was abandoned in the “eighties.” The Selwyn and Ashburton County Councils are the outstanding examples of local authorities which took advantage of this scheme, and are now receiving substantial revenues from their tree plantations.

The State assists also by reduction of rent to Crown tenants planting trees on their land.

Under the system of taxation in operation in New Zealand, encouragement is given to the conservation of indigenous forests and plantations and to the establishment of new plantations, by exempting the trees from land-tax and local rates.

The taxes to which indigenous forests and exotic forests are subject are—(a) Land-tax; (b) income-tax; (c) local rates; (d) stamp duties; (e) death duties; (f) levy on sawn timber (indigenous forests only).

Land supporting indigenous forests and plantations is subject to land-tax. The tax, however, is assessed on the unimproved value, which for taxation purposes does not include the value of any trees or the value of the labour or capital expended in planting them.

Local rates on land supporting indigenous forests and plantations are levied on the value of the land only. A County Council is empowered to make an annual levy of £d. per hundred feet board measure (superficial feet) on timber in the county converted from the log into sawn timber: but this levy is not applicable to timber cut from plantations.

Appraisements of timber are not liable to stamp duty if made for the Crown,. for a local authority, or for the information of one party only.

Licenses granted by the Crown to cut timber are exempt from stamp duty; other licenses are not exempt.

Land on which trees of any kind are growing is subject to death duties (estate duty, succession duty, and gift duty), which are assessed on the capital value of the land, which includes the value of the trees.

Chapter 33. SECTION XX.—FISHERIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE following article is by Mr. A. E. Hefford, M.Sc, Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Marine Department:—

With its great extent of coast-line, splendid natural harbours, and numerous sheltered bays, New Zealand has from the earliest times been famed for the productivity of its coastal fisheries. Off its more northerly coasts, which come within the influence of the south equatorial current, a rich variety of subtropical fish-life is found, as exemplified by such species as the flying-fish, the sunfish, the swordfish, and several shark species. On the other hand, its southern coasts, washed by the antarctic drift, are the natural haunt of the fur-bearing seal, and yield varieties of fish which are characteristic of cold-water conditions.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the flounders of different species (Rhombosolea), which occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters, the snapper (Pagrosomus auratus), which is particularly abundant in the north, the blue cod (Parapercis colias), which provides the staple product of the southern line fisheries, the groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios), which is caught on lines in the deeper water from the North Cape to Stewart Island, and the tarakihi (Dactylopagrus macropterus), taken mainly by trawlers in the more off-shore waters of Hauraki Gulf, Bay of Plenty, Hawke's Bay, and in the vicinity of Cook Strait.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow water, and, except for groper and ling fishing by means of long lines, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 40 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at comparatively small distance from the coast, and up to the present it is not known to what extent these deeper waters may be productive of marketable fishes. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, “hake” or “kingfish,” and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet, and seines are also employed principally for the capture of flat-fish and snapper. Though sardines or pilchards (Sardinia neopilchardus) and other species of the herring family are known to occur in large shoals off some parts of the coast, there is as yet no regular fishery for these kinds.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.

A statement is compiled annually by the Chief Inspector of Fisheries as to the weight and value of fish caught. The figures for principal fishing-ports are as follows for the year ended 31st March, 1936. Both quantities and values are approximations.

Port.Principal Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.
 £
RussellSnapper, mullet, hapuku, flounder, kingfish, garfish, tarakihi, gurnard, maumau, crayfish2,621 cwt.1,223
WhangareiSnapper, mullet, flounder, hapuku, blue cod1,254 cwt.1,827
KaiparaSnapper, flounder, mullet4,334 cwt.5,910
Auckland DistrictSnapper, tarakihi, trevally, flounder, gurnard, hapuku, dory, kingfish, blue cod, barracouta, mullet, garfish129,209 cwt.92,622
 Crayfish2,091 cwt.1,984
 Mussels10,092 sacks2,643
ThamesSnapper, gurnard, dory, mullet, flounder, dab, pioke19,134 cwt.14,593
Mercury BaySnapper, tarakihi, hapuku, gurnard, blue cod, flounder, kingfish, crayfish2,532 cwt.1,498
TaurangaSnapper, hapuku, trevally, blue cod, tarakihi, mullet, kingfish4,252 cwt.2,850
OpotikiFlounder, hapuku, gurnard, snapper, tarakihi185 cwt.410
GisborneTarakihi, gurnard, snapper, flounder, sole, kahawai, hapuku2,190 cwt.1,920
NapierTarakihi, snapper, moki, kahawai, gurnard, trevally, hapuku, kingfish, barracouta, john-dory, flounder, sole, brill, warehou16,421 cwt.13,782
New PlymouthSnapper, hapuku, kingfish, tarakihi, kahawai, cod, crayfish, gurnard1,750 cwt.1,890
WanganuiBlue cod, hapuku, flounder, snapper134 cwt.192
WellingtonTarakihi, gurnard, flounder, sole, snapper, ling, warehou, hapuku, moki, butterfish, blue cod, southern kingfish, crayfish, hake, trevally46,619 cwt.47,394
PictonHapuku, moki, butterfish, garfish, crayfish, blue cod, flounder4,720 cwt.4,605
BlenheimRed cod, sole, flounder, snapper, moki, hapuku, gurnard, tarakihi, butterfish, crayfish3,000 cwt.2,720
Nelson and French PassSnapper, flounder, gurnard, bream, hapuku, cod, crayfish5,085 cwt.6,136
WestportSole, hapuku, turbot, flounder, ling, crayfish, snapper394 cwt.450
GreymouthWhitebait, flounder, sole, cod, hapuku, snapper, gurnard, hake, tarakihi, turbot3,434 cwt.3,190
KaikouraHapuku, ling, trumpeter, southern kingfish, cod, hake, tarakihi, crayfish4,364 cwt.5,019
AkaroaHapuku, conger eel, flounder, sole, brill, blue and red cod, crayfish, barracouta, kingfish, moki, butterfish4,703 cwt.7,575
LytteltonHapuku, barracouta, flounder, sole, gurnard, brill, tarakihi, ling12,440 cwt.11,534
TimaruFlounder, sole, brill, hapuku, ling, red cod, gurnard, barracouta14,046 cwt.14,820
Oamaru and MoerakiHapuku, red cod, blue cod, moki, barracouta, ling, crayfish4,505 cwt.5,150
Dunedin and Otago DistrictHapuku, ling, red cod, barracouta, kingfish, blue cod, moki, trumpeter, tarakihi, trevally, mullet, garfish, kahawai, kelpfish, sole, flounder, brill, skate43,391 cwt.44,114
Bluff and InvercargillHapuku, blue cod, flounder6,082 cwt.5,633
 Oysters49,712 sacks31,070
Stewart IslandBlue cod, hapuku9,370 cwt.8,822
Chatham IslandsBlue cod, hapuku17,279 cwt.7,227

The total for Wellington includes 7,951 cwt. caught at the Chatham Islands and shipped direct to Wellington.

The quantity of fish recorded as having been brought in from the fishing-grounds for the year ended the 31st March, 1936, was 363,448 cwt., which, with 3,251 cwt. of whitebait, 10,092 sacks of mussels, and 6,580 cwt. of crayfish, represented a wholesale value of approximately £345,258. The wholesale value of the oysters landed from the various beds was £34,832, and in addition the produce of the mainland whale-fisheries was 258 tons of oil.

The following table shows the quantities and values of New Zealand fish and shell-fish exported for each of the last five years (1st April to 31st March).

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Fish (frozen)cwt.14,09819,85434,73846,71454,267
£30,39539,66264,66997.469123,198
Fish (smoked, dried, pickled, or salted)Cwt.6385211,2431,9682,519
£1,8511,2162,3774,0646,816
Oysters (fresh)Doz.45,68128,101105,941206,660201,782
£5433491,0451,8952,170
Oysters (canned)Lb.69,49751,620128,02895,270172,855
£2,4902,4284,5713,8186,444
Toheroa (canned)Lb.9,72413,34019,26624,68824,836
£9921,2091,6191,8671,683
Whitebait (canned)Lb.66,38641,72384,788105,89985,701
£7,4593,9547,4979,5618,662
Other kinds (canned)Lb.36,02848,123280,22854,56163,901
£2,2432,85216,6393,2294,349
Value of total exports of New Zealand fish and shell-fish£45,973£51,670£98,417£121,903£153,322

VESSELS AND PERSONS EMPLOYED IN FISHING INDUSTRY.

A table showing the various classes of vessels engaged in the fishing industry, together with the number of persons employed, is given below for the year ended 31st March, 1936:—

Whole Time.Part Time.Total.
Vessels engaged in fishing for wet fish—   
 Steam trawlers17522
 Motor trawlers383876
 Steamers—Danish seining1..1
 Motor-vessels—Danish seining472168
 Motor-vessels—Sot-net and line fishing541264805
 Row-boats64184248
Vessels engaged in shell-fishing—   
 Oyster-dredging vessels718
 Mussel-dredging vessels3..3
 Crayfishing-vessels5110115
Number of persons employed—   
 Fishermen1,6628502,512
 Others (excluding retailers)336122458

OYSTER-BEDS.

The principal oyster-beds round the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland Peninsula. The Foveaux Strait beds are very extensive.

During the 1935 season 49,712 sacks of oysters, valued at £31,070, were dredged from the Foveaux Strait beds, as compared with 52,254 sacks, valued at £27,486, in 1934.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but owing to stripping of the beds close seasons bad frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock-oysters from the North Island beds has been undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. Oysters picked and sold by the State in 1935 realized £3,765 (1934, £5,925); the cost of picking and selling, including interest and depreciation on the cost of the oil-launches used by the Inspectors and all overhead expenses, was in 1935 £4,542 (1934, £5,401). A profit accrues to the State in most years, and the scheme has, moreover, resulted in the conservation and extension of the beds.

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine-Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

CRAYFISH.

Marine crayfish occur in abundance off many parts of the New Zealand coast, and are caught in baited traps and nets for supplying the local markets. A small but increasing canning industry is also carried on. An export trade in frozen crayfish-tails, which had begun to develop in 1933 and 1934, has received a setback owing to the restrictions on imports into European markets.

WHALING.

With the enormous development of pelagic whaling that has taken place in recent years, the whaling industry in New Zealand has greatly declined from the important position which it occupied in the early days of the colony. Since 1923 only two stations have remained—one at Whangamumu, near the Bay of Islands, and the other in Tory Channel, Marlborough Sounds—but no commercial operations have been carried on at the former station since 1931. In 1935 fifty-seven hump-back whales, which produced 258 tons of oil, were caught in the Marlborough Sounds area.

References to whaling operations carried out in the Ross Sea and international whaling statistics appear in the section on “Dependencies.”

The Whaling Industry Act, 1935, was passed in order to give effect to an International Convention for the regulation of whaling and matters incidental thereto.

SEALS.

For many years past the taking of seals has been prohibited, the close season. originally declared having been extended from time to time for periods of three years. The latest extension carries the close season to 30th November, 1937.

WHITEBAIT.

A fishery that is peculiar to New Zealand both with regard to the product-and to the methods of operation, carried on from July to November in the tidal reaches of many rivers, is the whitebait fishery. New Zealand “whitebait” are the young of Galaxias attenuatus, a species that fives for the greater part of its adult life in fresh water, descending to tidal water to spawn in late summer and autumn. The spawn is deposited among grass and similar herbage on the margin of the river above the ordinary high-water mark in a zone that is submerged only at the highest spring tides. Here it remains under cover of the herbage and secure from aquatic enemies until it is once more reached by a spring tide about a fortnight or, it may be, a month later. The young then hatch out, and are carried by the ebb tide to the sea. Here they remain until at the age of about five months the young fish, then about 2 in. long and still possessing the almost glassy transparency of the larval stage, migrate up the rivers in dense shoals. This is the time of the whitebait fishery, when they are caught in nets made of wire gauze or mosquito-netting. The cultivation and drainage of riparian lands have considerably diminished the extent of spawning and feeding areas that were available in earlier times. From these causes, as well as from the intensity of the fishing operations, there are now few rivers where the runs of whitebait show anything like the abundance of former years. The most productive whitebait fisheries are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. During the 1935 season the whitebait fishery gave employment to over three hundred regular fishermen, mostly Maoris, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and produced not less than 3,000 cwt. of whitebait. The canned whitebait packed in the West Coast and Waikato factories is a much-esteemed delicacy.

MARINE FISH-HATCHERY AND BIOLOGICAL STATION.

The erection of the marine fish-hatchery at Portobello, Otago Harbour, was carried out by a Board set up to superintend the work of the hatchery, funds being provided by the State, and grants being made by the Otago Institute, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and a number of acclimatization societies. Up to 1935 the State made an annual grant towards the maintenance of the hatchery, the buildings and equipment of which have also been added to from time to time.

Experiments have been carried out with a view to introducing certain English food fishes to New Zealand waters—viz., lobsters, edible crabs, and turbot. Valuable work has also been done in the direction of hatching the spawn of various indigenous fishes and in making a study of their fife-habits.

The acclimatization projects not having shown any material results, and experience elsewhere having demonstrated the impracticability of artificial propagation of marine fishes, the principal usefulness of the station has been the educational value of the well-stocked aquarium to the visiting public, and the limited facilities it has afforded for marine research and the collection of material for museums and biological laboratories. As a station for research its usefulness has been nullified by the reduction in the grants from Government funds since the financial depression, and since from its situation and for other reasons it is not the most suitable centre for the prosecution of fishery research it is possible that this station may be abandoned in the near future.

BIG-GAME FISHING.

Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Province, and attract both resident and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), and Whitianga (Mercury Bay), where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The world's record black marlin swordfish (976 lb.) was caught off the Bay of Islands in February, 1926.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES.

NATIVE FISHES.

Of fresh-water fishes indigenous to New Zealand the species of most commercial importance at the present time is Galaxias attenuatus, which provides the whitebait fishery already mentioned. Other species of Galaxias are known in the streams and lakes of the Dominion. A remarkable mud-fish (Neochanna apoda) belonging to the same family is capable of surviving for long periods without being in water. A small fish belonging to the smelt family, Retropinna retropinna, occurs in abundance in salt, brackish, and fresh water, and there are inland lakes where a purely fresh-water variety of smelt is found. The New Zealand grayling (Prototroctes oxyrhynchus) was found in abundance in many rivers in the earlier years of settlement, but for some unknown reason has become exceedingly rare during recent years. A small fish belonging to the goby family, and very abundant in most rivers and lakes, is the bully. With the exception of the eels, which may attain an extraordinarily large size compared with those of the Northern Hemisphere, all the native fresh-water fishes are small, and are therefore not considered to possess any sporting value except to the most juvenile of anglers. There are two species of eels—Anguilla australis, predominant in the northern rivers and lakes, and Anguilla aucklandi, which is found more abundantly in the South. Both species are found in the southern portion of the North Island and in the northern parts of the South Island. Eels constituted an important food-supply to the Maoris, who devised very efficient traps for their capture as the adult eels migrated to the sea. This fishery is still carried on by the Natives of some districts, and the commercial exploitation of fresh-water eels by Europeans has recently begun.

The following is a complete list of the definitely known indigenous freshwater species:—

Scientific Name.European Name.Maori Name.Usual Maximum Size
 Inches.
Galaxias attenuatus“Minnow”Inanga7
Galaxias fasciatusNative trout or mountain troutKokopu10
Galaxias brevipinnis“Gudgeon”Taiwharu or kokopuG
Galaxias huttoni..Koaro6
Galaxias burrowsiiCanterbury mudfish..5 to 6
Neochanna apodaMudfishHauhau or waikaka8
Retropinna retropinnaSmeltParaki6
Prototrotes oxyrhynchusGraylingUpokororo12
Cheimarrichthys fosteriTorrent-fish or shark-bullyPapanoko7
Gobiomorphus gobioidesBullyToitoi6
 Feet.
Anguilla australisShort-finned eelTuna3 to 4
Anguilla aucklandiLong-finned eelTuna4 to 5
Geotria australisLampreyKoro-koro or kuna-kuna2

The “minnow,” smelt, grayling, and, of course, the eels and lamprey are migratory fish which spend parts of their lives in the sea or in estuarine tidal waters.

ACCLIMATIZED FISHES.

Although most of the above-mentioned indigenous fishes—especially the eels, kokopu, and upokororo—provided an appreciable portion of the food-supplies of the Maoris, and have been a welcome addition to the camp provision of surveyors, bushmen, and prospectors since the pioneering days, there were many among the early settlers to whom the New Zealand rivers and lakes appeared uninteresting and unproductive in comparison with their native salmon and trout streams. By means of private agency in some cases and by more organized efforts on the part of Government and local acclimatization societies, attempts to introduce British salmon and trout were commenced in the early “sixties.” The first brown trout to be established in New Zealand waters were reared in 1867 from ova obtained from Tasmania, where the species had been successfully acclimatized from South of England stock a few years earlier. Further shipments of ova from Tasmania and also from Britain followed, from which the fry were hatched out and liberated by various acclimatization societies, with the result that in the “eighties” and “nineties” most of the rivers and many of the lakes in both North and South Islands carried stocks of brown trout of such phenomenal size and in such abundance that New Zealand's claim to the title of “the Angler's Paradise” was already established. The remarkably rapid growth of trout in New Zealand waters is doubtless due to the abundance of suitable food afforded by the native aquatic fauna and by especially favourable climatic conditions in comparison with the original habitat of the species in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, where the long and rigorous winters bring about a more or less complete cessation of feeding and of growth during the coldest months of the year. Sea trout were introduced in the “seventies” and “eighties” and the progeny distributed throughout New Zealand. Our present stocks of European trout have thus been derived from English and Scottish brown trout, sea trout, and the Loch Leven variety, which have doubtless interbred. Some migrate to sea and acquire salmon like characteristics, others are permanent inhabitants of fresh water.

Rainbow-trout ova were imported from California in 1883 and 18S4 by the Auckland Acclimatization Society, and there is now scarcely a district to which this species has not been introduced. It has flourished exceedingly in the larger lakes of both Islands. Lake Taupo, with its tributary rivers, principal among which is the Tongariro, is regarded as providing the finest rainbow-trout fishing in the world. The earlier-established brown-trout stocks of Taupo and of many other lakes have declined in the face of the competition of this species. In rivers its establishment has been more uncertain, and some streams have failed to maintain a stock in spite of repeated plantings. In a few the rainbow has succeeded where the brown trout was a comparative failure, those being generally the warmer rivers of the North; while in some, such as the Wanganui, the two species are found, together.

The American brook trout or speckled trout was first imported from the United States in 1877, and the latest shipment came from the Solway Fisheries (Scotland) in 1887. From these stocks ova and fry were widely distributed throughout tins country. Generally speaking, they have been a failure, partly through being put into unfavourable environments, but probably more through inability to compete in the same waters with the more dominant brown and rainbow species. They still persist, however, in a few streams in well-bushed districts in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and have been caught up to 3 lb. in weight in the Pareora River. In 1933 fish of this species, some exceeding 3 lb. in weight, were found spawning in the month of April in a stream flowing from Lake Emily in the Ashburton district.

The Mackinaw trout or great American lake trout was introduced in 1906, and fry were planted in two Canterbury lakes (Pearson and Grasmere). Fish up to 10 lb. weight have been recently taken by anglers in Lake Pearson.

Contemporaneously with the steps taken for the introduction of trout many attempts were made to acclimatize salmon in New Zealand. These failed because the relatively small numbers of ova imported were rendered still less effective by being subdivided and apportioned among several different districts, no recognition apparently being given to the considerable degree of mortality occurring during the marine phase in the life of these migratory species. In 1901 the acclimatization of quinnat salmon was undertaken by the Marine Department. Between that year and 1907 five shipments of ova, each consisting of half a million eggs, were made and the fry liberated in the Hakataramea, a tributary of the Waitaki River. Early success was achieved, some quinnat salmon being caught in the Waitaki in 1905. From 1910 onwards mature fish returning to the Hakataramea and other tributaries of the Waitaki have been trapped for hatchery purposes, and the ova used for the introduction of the species to other rivers. The Hokitika River was the first to be stocked, more than three and a half million ova being sent there between 1910 and 1928. No stock of sea-running quinnat salmon has resulted from these undertakings, though in Lake Kanieri, from which a tributary stream runs into the Hokitika River, a stock of small lake-dwelling quinnat salmon was produced. There have been reports, however, of quinnat salmon being taken in some of the remote and inaccessible rivers in South Westland, which may be the result of migration from the Hokitika River, or may be the progeny from the stocking of the Seaforth River with 6,000 quinnat fry in the years 1910 and 1911. Material evidence has recently been obtained that has proved the existence of quinnat salmon in the Okarito River system, South Westland. The Wairau River, Marlborough, has also received fry from over five million eggs, but only a few-odd quinnat salmon have ever been seen in this river. By natural migration, however, the species has spread from the Waitaki to all the large rivers of Canterbury, and to some of the small ones, such as the Opihi and Orari. It has also found its way into some of the rivers of the North Island—namely, the Rangitikei and Wanganui on the west coast and the Tukituki and Tarawera Rivers on the east coast, and specimens have been taken in Wellington Harbour and the lower Wairarapa Lake. The principal runs take place between January and May into the large so-called snow-fed rivers of Canterbury—the Waitaki (dividing South Canterbury from North Otago), the Rangitata, Rakaia, and Waimakariri. The Clutha, stocked with fry from Hakataramea ova between 1917 and 1922, also has an annual quinnat run, though apparently few fish are caught until they reach Lake Wariaka, from which the Upper Clutha flows. In this lake and in Lake Wakatipu at the head of a large tributary there are stocks of small quinnat which remain throughout life in the fresh water.

Ova of the sockeye or red salmon were imported from Western America in 1902, and fry were planted in the tributaries of Lake Ohau at the headwaters of the Waitaki River system. The species appears to have taken exclusively to a lake-dwelling habit, resulting in the stock of dwarf salmon of this species found at the present time in Lake Ohau.

In 1908 the Marine Department undertook the task of the introduction of Atlantic salmon on more intensive lines than had been the case in the many previous attempts, and concentrated on the Waiau River, which has two large lakes (Manapouri and Te Anau) at its headwaters. A hatchery was established at Te Anau, near the Upokororo River, into which tributary the earliest fry were liberated. In 1908 1/50,000 ova were obtained from the Mirimichi River in Eastern Canada. In 1910 just over a million eggs were landed from England, which had been collected from the following sources: 375,000 from the River Tay (Scotland); 125,000 from the Blackwater (Ireland); 55,000 from the Test (England); 110,000 from the Dee (England); and 350,000 from the Rhine (Germany). In 1911 a further million ova, consisting of 400,000 from the River Wye (England) and 600,000 from the Rhine, were landed. The fry were liberated in the Upokororo and tributary streams. Within about ten years evidence of the establishment of the species was obtained, and in 1923 mature Atlantic salmon were trapped in the Upokororo River, and artificially hatched fry were planted in the Wanganui River in the North Island. After an average of more than 450,000 ova each year had been transferred for seven successive years without appreciable result, it was concluded that this river, flowing to the west coast of the North Island, did not afford a suitable habitat for the species. The Upokororo-bred salmon have aroused considerable interest in biological circles in that the majority of them have refrained from migrating to the sea as is their habit in the Northern Hemisphere. For the most part they have moved from the Upokororo River to Lake Te Anau, and have remained there feeding in fresh water for the rest of their lives, although there is no obstacle to their exit down the Waiau River to the sea. They have, in fact, assumed the habits of lake trout. A certain proportion of them have, however, found their way to the sea, and some have been caught in the breakers entering the mouth of the Waiau. No general migration of smolts has ever been observed, and half-grown and maturing salmon are frequently caught feeding not only in the lake but also in the River Waiau between the upper lake (Te Anau) and the lower lake (Manapouri), as well as between Manapouri and the sea. Atlantic salmon in New Zealand attain maturity at an earlier age than is the rule in the Northern Hemisphere. All of them apparently spawn as grilse, and thereafter, owing doubtless to their fresh-water habitat, do not increase very much in weight. The majority of Waiau salmon taken by anglers are between 3 lb. and 5 lb. The highest weight recorded is 17 lb. A 13 lb. fish was taken in 1935.

Resides the above-mentioned members of the salmon and trout family, other species of fish from the Northern Hemisphere which have been acclimatized in New Zealand are the European perch, tench, and carp, and the North American catfish (Ameiurus catus).

ANGLING.

The local administration and management of fresh-water fisheries are in the hands of the acclimatization societies, of which there are twenty-eight in the Dominion. Licenses to angle for acclimatized fish are issued by these societies in conformity with the Fishery Acts. A license for the season costs £1, and is available for any part of the Dominion except the Taupo and Rotorua Acclimatization Districts in the thermal-lakes region. For the Taupo district there is a higher scale of license fees as follows: Local residents. £1 10s.; persons domiciled in New Zealand, £2; other persons (from overseas), £6. These are for the whole season. Weekly and day licenses are also available. For Rotorua district the license for the season costs £1, and there are lower fees for half-season, monthly, weekly, and daily licenses. These two acclimatization districts are under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs. The funds from fishing licenses are used by acclimatization societies for the stocking and protection of fishing waters, and in the case of the Taupo district also for payments to the Natives from whom rights of fishing and access have been purchased.

The ordinary fishing license is available for either trout or salmon fishing. The brown-trout fishing-season opens on the 1st October and closes on the 30th April. In certain rainbow-trout fishing districts—e.g., Taupo and Rotorua—the season opens and closes one month later.

Brown trout may be caught in practically every river and stream in New Zealand, with the exception of those in the extreme north of Auckland. A considerable proportion of riparian land on good fishing waters is public, but, generally speaking, access to private land is freely given to anglers. The selling or letting of the right to fish is forbidden by law. In a country so favoured with numerous trout streams suitable for either wet or dry fly angling or for minnow-fishing, it is difficult to enumerate a list of rivers or even districts that may be labelled as the best. Nowadays the big bags are more easily obtained from the more remote waters in the back-country districts. In most districts certain rivers are limited to artificial-fly fishing only. Several of the Auckland rivers carry rainbow trout only, while in others both rainbow and brown trout fishing may be obtained. The lakes in the thermal region of the North Island, especially Taupo, Rotorua, and Rotoiti, together with Waikaremoana, are notable rainbow-trout waters, but this species in more recent years has made great headway in several South Island lakes. In Lake Coleridge, sixty miles from Christchurch, Canterbury, rainbow trout, brown trout, lake-dwelling quinnat, and Atlantic salmon have all been caught on a single angling trip. This lake was stocked with 40,000 Atlantic-salmon fry in 1928 in order to ascertain the growth of this species under indubitably “land-locked” conditions. The first specimens captured (in 1930) had attained a weight of rather more than 3 lb. when under two and a quarter years of age. With the exception of this lake, the only water where fishing for Atlantic salmon can be obtained is in the Waiau River system, Southland. Both fly and minnow-fishing methods are used, and large brown or rainbow trout may be taken in the same pools as the salmon. Angling for quinnat salmon is carried on principally in the lower reaches of the large Canterbury rivers—the Waimakariri, Rakaia, Rangitata, and, to a less extent, the Waitaki, Opihi, Hurunui, and others. A spoon bait well sunk is the most successful. Anglers are permitted to sell quinnat salmon on taking out a license, the fee for which is £1 for the season. A limited amount of commercial salmon-seining is carried on in the estuary of the Waimakariri River. The number of licensed nets is restricted to four, and three days—Friday to Sunday inclusive—are prescribed as a weekly close season. The total salmon netted for each of the last five years was 1,118, 928, 1,157, 732, and 246 respectively; the average weights of the fish were respectively 121 lb., 13·3 lb., 13·3 lb., 12·9 lb., and 11·1 lb. The run of fish from the sea begins in January and ends in May, with the maximum in March. Several fish exceeding 40 lb. in weight, and one fish weighing 52 lb., have been taken with rod and line.

Chapter 34. SECTION XXI.—MINING.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN no other country of equal size to New Zealand are indications of a greater number of economic minerals to be found, yet, with the exception of iron-ore, the known mineral reserves are not great in comparison with those in many other countries. The coal reserves of the Dominion are considerable, however, and their duration will be extended by the utilization of the enormous water-power resources of the country.

The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, has again come into prominence, mainly on account of the enhanced price of gold. The depression caused a large number of unemployed men to turn their attention to gold prospecting; while dredging activity has increased considerably.

In chronological comparisons of values of production or export, particularly in the case of gold, it is important not to overlook the fact that all monetary expressions of value in this section are in terms of New Zealand currency, which since 1929 has been at varying levels below gold-standard and sterling parities.

The law relating to mining and quarrying is contained for the most part in the Mining Act, 1920, with its amendments of 1927, 1931, 1934, and 1935; the Coal-mines Act, 1925, as amended in 1927, 1933, and 1935; and the Stone-quarries Act, 1910, as amended in 1911, 1920, and 1922.

The following statement shows the production of metalliferous mines, of stone-quarries under the Stone-quarries Act, and of coal-mines:—

Mineral.1934.1935.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 £ £
Gold and silver.542,863 oz.1,195,840603,244 oz.1,300,046
Platinum. .. .14 oz.79
Pig-iron1,337 tons6,4844,902 tons23,775
Stone. .261,637. .289,274
Pumice2,491 tons6,7963,300 tons8,769
Coal2,060,315 tons2,060,3152,115,184 tons2,115,184
Tungsten-ore39 tons4,67839 7/204,719
Quicksilver3,852 lb.516563 lb.132
Totals.. .3,536,266. .3,741,978

The production of gold and silver is of necessity taken together, as separate figures are not available; an estimate of gold-production is, however, given on the next page. Kauri-gum, the (chiefly) fossilized resin of former kauri forests, is counted as a mineral, but is not included in the above table.

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals and allied substances exported:—

Mineral.1933.1934.1935.Total from 1st January, 1853, to 31st December, 1935.
 ££££
Gold1,281,6121,320,6901,441,790100,175,924
Silver36,66639,37261,3173,402,202
Tungsten-ore7664,4627,083324,550
Antimony-ore......55,081
Quicksilver1,230510. .19,024
Other minerals8,5576,7968,769549,640
Kauri-gum77,97386,91779,11323,266,002
Coal (including bunker)53,69051,48962,9107,379,535
Totals.1,460,4941,510,2361,660,982135,171,958

GOLD-MINING.

The actual figures of gold-production are not available owing to no distinction being made between gold and silver in the case of certain mines which produce both. The following statement shows bullion-production during 1935:—

Production of Bullion.*Number of Persons ordinarily employed at Productive and Unproductive Mines and Dredges.Number of Productive Mines and Dredges.
Quantity.Value.
*Including a proportion of silver.
 Oz.£ 
Quartz-mining534,048778,5171,57272
Alluvial mining37,134269,1064,9024,411
Dredge mining32,062252,42324117
Totals, 1935603,2441,300,0466,7154,500

The number of persons employed in gold-mining has increased to 6,715 from 6,520 in 1934, 6,212 in 1933, and 3,636 in 1932 j while the number of mines has increased from 1,960 in 1932 and 2,468 in 1933 to 4,442 in 1934 and to 4,500 in 1935. This improvement has been caused partly by the enhanced price of gold and partly by the system of assistance to miners by Government subsidies (vide Section XL).

The following table shows the production of bullion and the estimated gold content for the last five years. The substantial increases in the aggregate value of production in the face of only relatively moderate increases in the quantity produced illustrate what the advance in the price of gold has meant to the industry. The price of gold reached a record level of £(N.Z.)9 5s. lid. per fine ounce on the 6th March, 1935. The present (31st October, 1936) price of gold is £(N.Z.)8 17s. Id.

Year.Production of Gold and Silver Bullion.Estimated Gold Content.Approximate Average London Price of Gold per Ounce.†
Quantity.ValueQuantity.Value.

* Ounces of fineness of 20 carats or upwards.

† Fine ounces—i.e., 24 carats. Prices are given in New Zealand currency.

 Oz.*£Oz.*££s.
1931564,871657,189129,861627,451517
1932729,1461,019,814166,354974,73469
1933592,2471,099,579161,7551,063,543716
1934542,8631,195,840160,2481,158,607812
1935603,2441,300,046165,2771,243,552817

It is to be noted that export duties on gold have been raised considerably in. recent years (vide Section IXD—Customs Tariff and Revenue).

The export of gold (New Zealand produce only) according to districts of production during the last two years, together with the total since April, 1857, when the first parcel was exported, is as shown in the next table. Quantities are in ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards (actually they approach closely to a 24-carat standard; investigation in a fairly recent year gave an actual average of 23*5 carats). The figures comprise gold in the form of bar, dust, ingot, sheet, concentrates, ores, jewellers sweepings, &c, or contained in or recovered from old jewellery.

District.1934.1935.Total, 1857–1935.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Oz.£Oz.£Oz.£
Auckland73,332614,53370,263602,6728,020,58132,355,267
Wellington. .. .. .. .188706
Marlborough2,64220,6487596,210117,319477,757
Nelson7,21956,8256,45254,0381,765,0377,075,944
West Coast50,809410,02268,400570,4366,900,88728,168,317
Canterbury21618165689
Otago23,328181,69022,783188,8917,897,69531,742,757
Unknown5,15836,9562,62519,53566,814354,553
Totals162,4901,320,690171,2831,441,79024,768,686100,175,924

With the departure of Britain from the gold standard in September, 1931, and the consequent depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of gold, the resultant high prices ruling for gold induced a considerable export of old jewellery or metal obtained therefrom. The gold content of this export in 1934 and 1935-amounted to 9,356 oz. and 3,553 oz. respectively, valued at £66,377 and £26,155. Of the 1935 total, some 2,057 oz. (1934, 4,686 oz.), valued at £15,005 (1934, £33,352), was classed as New Zealand produce, and is therefore included in the preceding table and also in the second table in this section.

The most important gold-mining operations in New Zealand consist in the working of quartz lodes and the extraction of the precious metals therefrom. Quartz-mining in the North Island is conducted mainly in Wailii Borough,. whence was derived a great part (£515,112) of the gold exported during 1935. In the South Island quartz-mining operations are carried on principally in the Reefton and Blackwater districts and in Otago. The average value per ton of ore treated during 1935 amounted to £2 18s. 8d., as compared with £2 15s. 2d. during 1934.

Alluvial gold, the production of which in 1935 was 37,134 oz., valued at £269,106, is found chiefly on the west coast of the South Island and in Otago, where mining operations have been conducted over a total area of 17,000 square miles. Although the production in 1935 was 6,407 oz. lower than in 1934, it was considerably higher than for many years prior to 1932, and is second only to 1934 in recent years. Activity in prospecting the auriferous effluvium of the West Coast and Otago is being maintained at a greatly enhanced level.

Gold-dredging possibilities present an entirely new aspect not only on account of the price of gold, but also on account of the great depths to which modern machines can work and their low cost of operation per cubic yard. The peak of gold-production from dredging occurred in 1902, when there were about two-hundred plants in actual operation, and production probably totalled about 160,000 oz. per annum. Provided the price of gold remains as at present, it is not beyond the realms of possibility again to reach this figure.

During 1934 a Mining Amendment Act was passed. Several sections of this Act are designed to assist development by increasing the maximum size of dredging claims, and so encouraging the introduction of the large amount of capital necessary to provide modern dredges.

The number of productive dredges increased from seven during 1933 to twelve during 1934, and to seventeen by the end of 1935. In March, 1936, there were eighteen dredges operating, three idle, and four under construction. Of the total dredge production of £252,423 in 1935, £231,996 was won by seven dredges on the West Coast, the largest producer of which was the Rimu dredge with £114,274 Six dredges in Otago and Southland won gold to the value of £20,427.

The year witnessed greatly increased activity in dredging operations.

WORLD’S GOLD-PRODUCTION.

The following figures showing the world’s gold-production for the last ten years have been compiled from official sources by the American Bureau of Metal Statistics:—

Year.Fine Ounces.
192619,369,364
192719,445,612
192819,583,153
192919,673,022
193020,721,981
193122,370,718
193224,305,683
193325,502,764
193427,629,857
193530,660,357

SILVER.

Nearly the whole of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand, amounting in value up to the end of 1935 to £3,402,202, has been obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz-mines, principally those of the Hauraki Goldfield, where gold and silver are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in this country. Estimated production during the last five years has been (fine ounces): 1931, 435,010; 1932, 562,792; 1933, 430,492; 1934, 382,615; and 1935, 437,967.

IRON-ORES.

The most extensive iron-ore deposits occur near Parapara and Onakaka, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Provincial District. The limonite deposit of this locality is of great extent, and it is estimated in “Iron-ore Resources of the World,” published by the International Geological Congress, to contain 64,000,000 metric tons, of which about 30,000,000 tons occur in the Onakaka Block.

In 1921 an iron and steel company constructed a blast-furnace installation. on its lease at Onakaka, and, subsequently, a pipe-making plant. A considerable output of excellent quality was maintained for some years, but production ceased in 1931. The plant was re-opened for several months in 1933 and again in November, 1934. During 1934, 1,337 tons of pig iron were produced, and during the first five month of 1935, 4,902 tons. The works have been idle since the end of May, 1935. At present it is understood that there is a possibility of a large-scale rehabilitation at Onakaka in the near future.

A trial of the Onakaka pig iron carried out during 1931 yielded the exceptionally good test of 35,000 lb., British standard specification showing a test of 28,000 lb.

Several attempts have been made to smelt Taranaki ironsand, but the results have not been quite satisfactory, as the cost was too high.

During 1914 the Government, with a view to stimulating interest in this industry,. passed an Act having for its object the payment of fairly large bonuses for the production-in New Zealand of pig iron, puddled bar iron, and steel.

TUNGSTEN-ORE.

Scheelite, one of the principal ores of tungsten, was for a number of years mined on a fairly extensive scale in conjunction with gold, the principal gold-scheelite mines being those at or near Glenorchy, Paradise, Macrae's, Stoneburn, Hyde, and Barewood, Otago; and at Wakamarina Valley, Marlborough.

Exports which in 1910–19 averaged £26,000 annually fell to a low figure from 1920 onwards. There was no production for several years on account of the continued low values. Early in 1934, as the result of a substantial rise in the price of tungsten, production was resumed at both Glenorchy and Macrae's, and from a total of 513 tons of ore 39 tons of concentrates, valued at £4,678, were recovered in 1934; while in 1935, 496 tons of ore were mined, yielding 39 tons of concentrates, valued at £4,719.

The total quantity of locally produced ore exported to 31st December, 1935, was 2,567 tons, valued at £324,550.

COPPER.

Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities, but the total recorded copper export to the end of 1935 amounted in value to only £19,390. There has been no production for a considerable number of years. Prior to the inauguration of systematic records there was a considerable production from mines on Great Barrier and Kawau Islands.

MANGANESE-ORE.

Manganese-ore has been found at Otau, Wairoa, Bay of Islands, Purua Bay, Mangapai, Otonga, Waiheke Island, and Taieri Mouth, and has been mined at Tikiora, near the Bay of Islands, and at Waiheke Island. Fluctuating prices have prevented expansion of this industry. The total quantity of locally produced manganese-ore exported to the end of 1935 amounted to 19,387 tons, of a value of £62,011.

CINNABAR.

Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand. The most important accumulations are in North Auckland, where for some years efforts were made to place the production on a commercial basis. The deposits are large enough to make this a reasonable expectation. Since mercury-ore bodies are notoriously irregular in form, no reliable estimate of the amount available can be made on the present data.

At Ngawha Springs, North Auckland, production ceased in 1931 owing to difficulties in recovering the mercury and the substantial fall in price.

A small treatment plant was erected near the New Zealand Quicksilver Mine at Puhipuhi during 1934. Twenty-seven tons of cinnabar ore were treated in 1935, yielding 5 cwt. of mercury, valued at £132.

The total quantity of quicksilver of New Zealand origin exported up to the 31st December, 1935, was 87,993 lb., valued at £19,024.

TIN.

Cassiterite in the form of “stream-tin” occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, where it has been worked to some extent. “Lode-tin” has been found in the same locality. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Reefton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.

In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand platinum is stated to occur in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been exported.

The Customs Department has not kept any separate record of the quantity and value of platinum entered for exportation, the value of this metal exported being included in a general total of exports by parcel-post, by which means platinum has generally been despatched from the Dominion.

From Round Hill and Orepuki 14½ oz. of platinum, valued at £79, was recovered during 1935.

SULPHUR.

Native sulphur in sufficient quantity to be worked profitably occurs in the thermal districts of the North Island, near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island.

Sulphur is mostly disposed of locally as fertilizer, but exports of New Zealand origin to the end of 1934 have aggregated £13,241. No work of any importance was done at any of the sulphur deposits during 1934 or 1935.

COAL.

Coal, varying in grade from anthracite to lignite, occurs in many parts of New Zealand. An estimate of the proved coal resources of New Zealand prepared in 1927 is as follows (millions of tons): Anthracite, very little; bituminous, 206; semi-bituminous, 60; brown, 247; lignite, 150: total, 863. The probable resources are estimated at 1,631,000,000 tons.

The following table summarizes coal-mining operations:—

Year.Output. (Tons.)Persons employed above and below Ground.Tons raised per Person employed Underground.Lives lost.
Number.Per Million Tons raised.Per Thousand Persons employed.
Prior to 192661,719,343. .. .3876·27. .
19262,239,9995,159586156·692·90
19272,366,7·105,374593104·231·86
19282,436,7535,37660893·631·67
19292,535,8645,497614124·73218
19302,542,0925,867574145·502·38
19312,157,7565,74549841·850·69
19321,842,0224,636545126·512·59
19331,821,2584,38657073·841·59
19342,060,3154,47869483·881·78
19352,115,1844,23168120·940·47
Totals to date83,837,326. .. .4805·73. .

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1935 is summarized as follows:—

Class of Coal.Northern (North Island).West Coast (South Island).Southern (South Island).Totals.Total Output to the End of 1935.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous and subbituminous72,866752,361. .825,22748,977,729
Brown764,75450,210355,8411,170,80529,842,388
Lignite. .1,082118,070119,1525,017,209
Totals, 1935837,620803,653473,9112,115,18483,837,326
Totals, 1934807,413783,439469,4632,060,315 

For the second year in succession a recovery in output is recorded, the 1935 total representing an increase of 2·6 per cent, above that for 1934, and 1(5·1 per cent, above the 1933 figure. The 1935 output was produced from 202 mines, 96 of which were working on freehold lands and produced 888,089 tons, or 42 per cent.; the remaining 10(5 mines producing 1,2^,7,095 tons, or 58 per cent., from Crown lands.

In recent years the better use of lower-grade coal in many plants has resulted in the displacement, to a certain extent, of the high-calorific-value coals. This tendency appears to be reflected in the increased production of brown coal and lignite and the declining output from bituminous mines. Co-operative mining continues to be successfully carried out in the Northern and West Coast districts.

To rehabilitate the industry new fields for coal-utilization must be found to offset the replacement of coal by hydro-electricity and fuel-oil, and a search for new avenues is in progress. The most promising avenue in prospect at the moment is the production of oil from coal by the hydrogenation process, and the Government is keeping thoroughly apprised of all latest developments. In the meantime a qualitative and quantitative survey of the coal-resources of the Dominion is being undertaken.

The experiments undertaken by the Dominion Laboratory with a view to determining the effect of exposure to the weather on the swelling properties of various coals were completed, but the results were disappointing, as very little, if any, alteration was detected.

During the year the carbonizing and briquetting plants at Sockburn and Rotowaro and the briquetting plant at Onehunga were in operation. At Rotowaro the plant operated for eight months during 1935, and production during that period was: Raw coal treated, 20,805 tons; coke produced, 10,058 tons; carbonettes produced, 10,500 tons; tar treated, 210,777 gallons; pitch made, 39,748 tons; oil produced (light oil, 20,000 gallons; heavy oil, 80,000 gallons), 100,000 gallons. Results of briquetting experiments have been published in Bulletin No. 39, New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

In order to reduce the economic waste caused by unmarketable slack coal produced at mines, a Coal-mines Amendment Act was passed in October, 1935. The Minister of Mines is given authority to purchase and store slack, to acquire the necessary plant, &c., for its treatment, and to manufacture and sell any fuel our other products. The coal-owners in one district have installed screens of a smaller mesh than formerly in use, with the result that the waste of slack coal is considerably reduced.

STATE COLLIERIES.

The Coal-mines Act of 1901 provided for the acquisition and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines. At the present time two State collieries are in operation.

During 1935–36 the Liverpool Colliery produced 115,260 tons of marketable coal, an increase of 18,380 tons on the previous year's production. The James Colliery produced 33,170 tons of marketable coal during the year, an increase of 7,205 tons on the production for 1934–35.

The disposal, inclusive of stocks on hand at the beginning of the year, was as follows:—

Supplied toTons.
Depots37,487
Railways31,412
Other Government Departments4,751
Shipping companies5,896
Gas companies62,027
Other consumers6,405
Total147,978

The total sales of State coal from the Liverpool Mine for the year amounted to 116,215 tons, value £127,839, as compared with 99,328 tons, value £110,744, for 1934–35, an increase of 16,887 tons, value £17,095. The average price realized by the mine on the total sales for the year was £1 2s. 6d. per ton. a decrease of 3·6d. on the previous year's average.

The total sales of State coal from the James Mine for the year amounted to 31,763 tons, value £38,766, giving an average of £1 4s. 4·9d. per ton, an increase of 308d. on the previous year's average. As compared with 1934–35, there is an increase in quantity of 2,798 tons, with an increase in value of £3,881. The values for both mines include sales made c.i.f. and f.o.b. as well as f.o.r.

The sales of coal, &c, through the medium of the depots totalled 105,601 tons (value, £158,648), as against 93,074 tons (value, £140,586) for 1934–35. A net loss of £403 was incurred at the mines, but a net profit at the depots, royalties, &c, of £10,585, made a total net profit of £10,182. The sum of £8,819 was transferred to Sinking Fund Account, leaving a balance of £1,363 in the Profit and Loss Account.

The average number of miners, &c, employed in and about the State collieries during the year ended 31st March, 1936, was 394.

The existence of two seams of excellent coal having been located by boring on the State Coal Reserve, near Greymouth, a commencement has been made to open up the new area to maintain the supply of household coal when the James Mine becomes exhausted.

PETROLEUM.

Drilling for petroleum has in recent years been carried out in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Southland, and Westland. A considerable number of deep boreholes in search of petroleum have been drilled, the deepest being at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which attained a depth of approximately 6,000 ft. Petroleum of good quality but in limited quantity has been proved, but up to the present time boring for petroleum in the Dominion has achieved only a small flow.

No boring for petroleum was carried out in 1935. During the year a production of 1S5.784 gallons of oil was obtained from Moturoa Nos. 1, 2, and 4 wells at New Plymouth, while at Kotuku a total of 312 gallons was collected from seepages. The total production of crude petroleum to the 31st December, 1935, is estimated at 2,409,258 gallons.

Oil-prospecting operations throughout the Dominion have received very liberal financial assistance from the Government in the form of bonuses, subsidies, and loans.

Legislation dealing with the prospecting for and winning of petroleum is under review.

KAURI-GUM

Production of kauri-gum has decreased very substantially during the past decade. The industry suffered a severe setback through the restriction of European markets during the Great War; and, while some recovery was made in the five years immediately following the war. trade hi this commodity has since fallen away.

A system of control of the trade in and export of kauri-gum was provided by the Kauri-gum Control Act, 1925. The Finance Act (No. 2), 1933, provided for the repeal of the Control Act, 1925. The property of the Kauri-gum Control Board was vested in the Crown, the Minister of Lands taking over the powers and obligations of the Board.

During 1935. 2,872 tons of kauri-gum, valued at £79,113, was exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1935 being 431,418 tons, valued afc £23,266,002.

Production of kauri-gum can be gauged approximately by export figures or by the following figures showing kauri-gum received at Auckland from the gumfields: 1931–32,3,004 tons; 1932–33, 2,229 tons; 1933–34. 2,804 tons: 1934–35, 2,858 tons; and 1935–36, 2.392 tons. The assets of the Kauri-gum Industry Account have been realized, and the account abolished by statute.

PHOSPHATE ROCK.

At Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, considerable deposits of phosphate rock were discovered in 1902 and actively worked for a number of years. There has been no output, however, since 1924. A thin bed of phosphatic rock has been identified at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, in Marlborough. A similar bed occurs near Port Robinson. Phosphatic nodules are found in the Kaikorai Valley (near Dunedin), at Weka Pass (North Canterbury), and elsewhere. A limestone containing 10·6 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate occurs in the neighbourhood of Onewhero, Waikato district. Other districts where phosphatic material of good quality, though, so far as is known, not in commercial quantity, is found are Amberley, Dipton, Oamaru, Waimate, Wangapeka, Clarence Valley, Tutira Block (Mangaharuru Survey District, Hawke's Bay), and Whangarei.

The development of the New Zealand deposits has no doubt been retarded by the import of phosphate from Nauru Island, reference to which is made in Section XLVI of this volume.

GREENSTONE.

The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” whenever observed in situ occurs as rounded segregations in talc or talc-serpentine rocks. These segregations vary up to 2 ft. or even more in lateral dimensions. As a rule they average less than 1 ft. in width. So far as is known, the mineral has been found in its original locus only in the Griffin Range, Turiwhate Survey District, North Westland.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.

New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, andesite, porphyrite and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. In addition there are the Whangarei limestone and the Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there are the granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. The Parliamentary Buildings at Wellington are constructed of this marble. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, North Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there are the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

The following table relates to quarries under the Stone-quarries Act for the year 1935:—

Output of stone
Provincial DistrictNumber of Working Quarries employed.Number of Persons Ordinarily employed.Stone or Gravel for Macadamizing of Ballast.Stone of Harbour WorkersBuilding of Monumental Stone.Limestone for Agriculture.Limestone for cement or Mortar.Miscellaneous.Value at quarry.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.£
Auckland2191,131673,5831,0001,76680,892126,35632,000148,149
Hawke's Bay.199332,877. .. .26,080. .. .8,417
Taranaki120913,733. .. .. .. .. .1,174
Wellington4319388,9976,976. .8,022. .6,12018,758
Nelson2012439,37411,513. .6,82022,31417,80016,211
Westland
Marlborough
Canterbury45392136,88250,86824,400166,74534,274. .96,565
Otago
Southland
Totals, 19353582,002985,44670,35726,166288,559182,94455,920289,274
Totals, 19343271,818741,42867,24131,500261,940168,66215,014261,637

The Stone-quarries Act, 1910, with amendments, applies to every place, not being a mine, in which persons work in quarrying stone and any part of which has a face more than 15 ft. deep, and also to any tunnel in the construction of which explosives are used. The Act, however, does not apply to any Government operations, or any road or railway cutting, or excavations for buildings.

PERSONS ENGAGED IN MINING AND QUARRYING.

The following table shows the number of persons employed in or about mines and stone-quarries during each of the last five years:—

1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Metalliferous mines2,0103,6526,2216,5526,750
Coal-mines5,7454,6364,3864,4784,231
Stone-quarries1,9951,8881,7111,8182,002
Totals9,75010,17612,31812,84812,983

STATE AID TO MINING.

State aid to mining in this Dominion is given in several forms—viz., (1) Geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) Government prospecting drills; (4) schools of mines; (5) subsidized roads to mining-fields.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Since the first discovery of coal and of precious metals in New Zealand the Government has employed skilled geologists, who have reported, after examination, on all the known mineral deposits.

During the 1935–36 field season detailed goelogical examinations were carried out in the Dannevirke, Waikaka, and Reel ton districts. The work in the Dannevirke area was undertaken to enable an idea to be formed of the petroleum possibilities of the region. Unfortunately, in spite of many oil indications, the chances of obtaining oil in commercial amount in the district seem to lie poor. The investigations in the Waikaka-Waikaia district are being continued in order that the structure of the gravels may be better understood and the miner thereby assisted. The examination of part of the lode-bearing belt in the Reefton district carried out this year is much more detailed than the examination made many years ago, and clearly shows that intensive geological studies will help to restrict prospecting to smaller areas than had been found possible in the past. In such areas geophysical investigations may be used to locate hidden lodes, of which the size and value may then be ascertained by the usual methods of prospecting. An amount of £3,405 was expended from the Employment Promotion Fund in 1935–36 to assist geophysical surveys.

FINANCIAL AID TO PROSPECTING.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid minor's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Native land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licenses for coal.

During the year ended 31st March, 1936, a total of £1,928 was expended by the Mines Department in subsidies for prospecting (exclusive of £81 in connection with the prospecting schemes of the Employment Division of the Labour Department), and 46 persons were given employment thereby.

During the year the Labour Department (Employment Division) continued to assist men to prospect for gold, the net expenditure by the Department for subsidies, supervisors, purchase of equipment, &c, being £178,892, including £7,794 paid to mining companies and syndicates by way of subsidy on the wages of the men employed.

Applications for subsidies made by companies and syndicates are thoroughly investigated by the Mines Department, and special reports furnished to the Labour Department to assist it in coming to decisions. In such cases the amount of the subsidies received is refundable before dividends can be paid. During the year an average of 3,300 men, including subsidized men employed by companies and syndicates, have received assistance.

From the inception of the Labour Department's prospecting schemes to the 31st March, 1935, 18,353 oz. of gold, excluding gold obtained by subsidized companies and syndicates, was won by subsidized miners. For the twelve months ended 31st March, 1936, 9,364 oz. was obtained, representing an increase of 994 oz. over the previous year, and making a total production of 27,717 oz.

Five advisory mining engineers and seventy-seven supervisors are employed, and their expert assistance and guidance are always available to the men.

GOVERNMENT PROSPECTING-DRILLS.

Prospecting-drills of various types suitable for the conditions existing in the Dominion are lent to bona fide prospectors. A monthly rental is charged for the plant, and the hirer is required to maintain it in good order and condition. Working-expenses are also paid by the hirer, including renewals, &c, and the loss on carbons.

The hirer is required to furnish to the Mines Department weekly reports of boring results.

Considerable use was made of the Government prospecting-drills during 1935, an aggregate of 20,827 ft. being drilled in 440 holes for nineteen parties.

SCHOOLS OF MINES.

For the education of prospectors and mining students six schools of mines i subsidized by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Min The schools of mines are situated at Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Westport, Reefton and Runanga. Six scholarships, tenable for four years, are offered annually by 1 Mines Department.

The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended t 31st March, 1936, was £3,536, as against £3,470 during the previous year.

SUBSIDIZED ROADS.

The expenditure in the form of subsidies and direct grants upon roads on go] fields during the year ended the 31st March, 1936, amounted to £1,052, as compare with £767 during the previous year.

LEAFLETS.

Another form of Government assistance to mining consists of the publication several leaflets as a guide to the prospector. These leaflets may be obtained on application to the Mines Department, and deal with: (a) Description of £el which may be considered to warrant further examination for gold; (b) description of best ways of seeking for and saving gold; (c) brief summary of statutory procedure to be followed to obtain a right to prospect or mine for metals minerals under the Mining Act; (d) notes on the taking of samples of mineral deposits and the valuation of mining prospects; (e) notes for drilling and a method of calculating gold value of alluvial deposits.

BOARD OF EXAMINERS.

The Board of Examiners annually conducts examinations of candidates f certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, at dredgemasters under the Mining Act, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers and mine-surveyors under the Coal-mines Act. Examinations of can dates for certificates as underviewers and firemen and deputies under the Coal-mines A are held periodically when necessary. No candidate is permitted to present himself f examination unless how holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners Forty-one certificates were issued in 1935.

SICK AND ACCIDENT AND COAL-MINERS’ RELIEF FUNDS.

As required by the Coal-mines Act, 1925, the owner of every coal-mine contributed. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of coal-miners who may be injured while working, and for the relief of families of coal-miners who may be killed or injured.

Under that Act the Miners’ Sick and Accident Funds were as from the 1st Apr 1926, abolished and incorporated in the Coal-miners Relief Fund. All accident relief payments are now made from the Coal-miners’ Relief Fund, which is administered by the Public Trustee with the assistance of local committees.

The income from the id. per ton contribution was £4,151 during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1936, as compared with £4,094 during 1934–35, ai interest earnings brought the total receipts to £5,023 and £4,932 for the respective years. The total expenditure for the year ended 31st March, 1936, amounted £3,881 as against £4,199 for the previous year. The amount standing to the credit of the fund as at. the 31st March, 1936, was £25,625, as against £24,41 twelve months earlier.

MINER'S PHTHISIS PENSIONS.

Information concerning pensions for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis (extended by the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, to include other occupation diseases or heart disease) appears in the section of this book dealing with pension superannuation. &c.

Chapter 35. SECTION XXII—FACTORY PRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN the early days of colonization the development of the potential farming resources of the colony was the major aim of economic enterprise, while the elusive rewards of alluvial-gold mining provided the dominant motive of immigration between the “sixties” and “eighties” of last century. Nevertheless, the very remoteness of the colony rendered necessary the growth of manufacturing enterprises to cope with the needs of a rapidly increasing population, and the earliest statistical records contain evidence of the growing importance of such industries as clothing and boot factories, grain-mills, and printing establishments. Again, the extractive industries, such as sawmilling and flax-milling, were of considerable importance even in the earliest days of settlement. In addition to providing for local needs, the sawmilling industry rapidly grew into a major export industry, a lively timber trade with Australia developing. Flax-milling also became an export industry of some importance, while it is also of interest to record that untreated flax, spars, and whale-oil were the earliest exports—many years before permanent settlement by whites took place.

With the growth of sheep-raising the fellmongery and wool-scouring industry became a major manufacture, and by the “eighties” this industry was exceeded only by sawmilling in respect of the value of factory output, while another milestone in the history of the Dominion's factory production was the shipment, in 1882, of the first cargo of frozen meat to the United Kingdom. The advent of refrigeration at once widened the scope of farming enterprise, and, at the same time, occasioned a rapid development of factory production, in that industries devoted to processing farm products became of prime importance. The output of meat-freezing works increased from £543,878 in 1885 to £4,928,545 in 1905, being first in order of importance among factory industries in the latter year. Butter and cheese factories (almost exclusively of co-operative ownership) became widely established in the dairying districts, the aggregate value of output of these factories increasing from £43,094 in 1885 to £2,581,639 in 1905. At this point it is of service to note that the value of processed farm products still accounts for a large proportion of the total factory output of the Dominion. In respect of “added value”—i.e., value created by factory processes—the “true” manufacturing industries are, of course, of considerably greater importance in the aggregate than the industries processing farm products.

The growth of industrial enterprise in the Dominion has been dominated to a large extent by the preponderant position of the farming industries. This is but natural, for industrial expansion is limited by the size of the available market. Whereas the Dominion's live-stock products can successfully compete in overseas markets, the purely factory industries find it difficult to compete with the products of large-scale enterprises established in the more densely populated countries, and are, consequently, dependent on a share in the local market in competition with imports. A factor of importance in this connection has been the progressive speeding-up of sea transport, which has favoured the export industries, and, at the same time, intensified overseas competition with industries manufacturing products for Dominion consumption.

Historical records contain ample evidence that the Legislature has been at all times cognizant of the importance of encouraging manufacturing enterprise. During the early days of colonization bounties were offered in many instances to aid the establishment of new industries, while, in the development of the tariff policy, due regard has been given to the protection of local manufactures. The immigration of experienced factory workers was an important phase of immigration policy during the long period when a lack of skilled labour hampered industrial development. Governmental interest in the furtherance of manufacturing has been also manifest in the appointment of Commissions to inquire into the possibilities of industrial expansion in general and in specific industries. Again, the activities of the Department of Industries and Commerce are intimately connected with the development of manufactures, while research into manufacturing processes and potentialities forms an important part of the functions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. With the growth of economic nationalism abroad the necessity of planning industrial activity in such a manner as to achieve a more balanced economy has become increasingly apparent, and, to further this end, a Bureau of Industry was established early in 1936 under the ægis of the Minister of Industries and Commerce. The Industrial Efficiency Act, passed in October, 1936, legally constitutes this bureau and defines its functions, &c. The Act, which applies to all industries (not only manufacturing) contains provision for the registration and licensing of industries; while the bureau may prepare plans for the reorganization of industries, such plans to be submitted to the industries concerned for approval. Power is taken to issue regulations for the reorganization of any industry; but it is explicitly stated in the Act that such regulations will not be gazetted in respect of any industry, unless the Governor-General in Council is satisfied that the material proposals contained in the plan for reorganization or the regulations have been submitted to and approved by the majority of the firms, &c., concerned. Exceptions to this qualification may be made in respect of amending or revoking regulations if the Governor-General is of the opinion that such amendment or revocation is in the public interest. Under the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the Corporation is empowered inter alia to advance moneys from its funds for the promotion of industry; the Bureau of Industry is enjoined to co-operate with the State Advances Corporation in considering applications for loans for that purpose.

A study of the statistics of factory production, which form the subject-matter of this section, will reveal that the establishment of new industries and the growth of relatively new industries has been an arresting characteristic of the pattern of factory-production activity in recent years. The growth of the motor-assembling and allied industries has been an outstanding example, while, more recently, notable advances have been made in a number of industries—e.g., hosiery-manufacture, radio-assembling, confectionery-making, tobacco-manufacturing, and cigarette-making. These developments have increased the occupational range of factory employment, while assisting materially in the substantial recovery of the factory industries from the effects of the depression period. It has become quite evident that the expansion of our industries is no longer limited to these lines where ready access to raw materials is the deciding factor, and that local manufactures are now catering for the Dominion's needs in many products which were formerly almost exclusively imported.

Evidence is also provided by recent statistics that the vast supplies of hydroelectric power now available are being used in industry to an increasing extent, the reticulation of the Dominion (now almost completed) offering a ready solution of one of the major problems of industrial expansion—the provision of ample supplies of cheap power.

Statistics of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census; and, commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one. An analysis of the statistics for recent years, with a brief summary covering the period 1910–11 to 1934–35, is given in the following pages. More complete statistics will be found in the annual Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production. An account of legislation affecting wages and working conditions of factory employees is included in the section of this Year-Book entitled “Labour Laws and Allied Legislation,” while a further section deals with the subject of accidents in factories. In addition to the data contained in the following pages on the subject of employment in factories, an analysis of monthly data as to factory employment is included in the special section on “Employment and Unemployment.”

It should be noted that in New Zealand the production year floes not coincide with the calendar year. In the case of many factory industries a March year is used as the basis of accounting, &c., while in other instances the production year fits more closely to a June year.

INDUSTRIES COVERED BY STATISTICS.

Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of factory production a “factory” is defined as an establishment engaged in the manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export, which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies, waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even although employing less than two hands and not using motive power: Tanneries; bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories; brickyards; and limeworks.

The definition is fairly comprehensive, and includes such industries as, for instance, jewellery and watch repairing and boot, shoe, and saddlery repairing. Small establishments thus engaged were at one time included in the statistics, but they are now excluded unless they are also engaged in actual manufacture and have at least two persons engaged or use motive power.

Other classes of establishments formerly covered by the statistics but excluded from 1921–22 onwards are these engaged in dressmaking and millinery (unless manufacturing wholesale for sale in retail shops), bespoke tailoring, and establishments engaged in tea blending and packing, bottling liquor, stone quarrying and crushing, asphalting, or monumental masonry. The latter industries were excluded to bring the statistics into line with these of other British countries. In addition, returns are not required from plumbers or from builders who make joinery for their own building contracts. Builders are, however, required to furnish annual returns of building and construction, which are dealt with in the next section.

It should be noted that factory-production statistics do not cover, and do not purport to cover, all establishments registered as factories in the Dominion. “One man” businesses are excluded with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap, or candle factories, brickyards, or lime-works; some small repair shops (as explained previously) are excluded even although they may employ two or more hands. The effect of these limitations in the scope of the statistical inquiry is seen from the fact that while for the year 1934–35 15,900 factories, employing 93,592 hands, were registered under the Factories Act, only 5,270 factories (with, however, 79,358 persons engaged) were covered by the statistics of factory production.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

The statistics in the table following illustrate the growth of New Zealand's factory production to its present standing. The peak-level up to the present time was reached in 1929–30, when 82,861 persons were engaged in factory industries, the salaries and wages paid amounting to almost £17,000,000, while the value created by factory processes was just below £32,500,000. Severe decreases were recorded in factory production in the Dominion during 1930–31 to 1932–33—a reflection of the world-wide depression in industry and trade. The number of persons engaged in factories in the latter year was 68,921, approximately fourteen thousand less than in 1929–30, while salaries and wages had declined by £4,800,000, and added value by £8,700,000. A partial recovery is indicated by the 1933–34 figures, while evidence of a definite emergence from the depressed conditions that obtained in 1931–32 and 1932–33 is contained in the 1934–35 statistics.

In the calculation of “value of products,” the rule is that values at the factory are taken, although prior to 1933–34 an exception existed in the case of dairy-produce exported, in which case gross receipts were included. In all figures shown in this issue of the Year-Book, and in the 1936 issue, values of products are on a “factory-door” basis, adjustments having been made to the figures shown for back years.

Year.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.“Other Expenses” (i.e., Expenses of Operation other than Salaries and Wages and Cost of Materials).Value of Output.Added Value.
* Productive employees only.† Not available.
 £££££
1910–113,48345,924*4,786,698*18,782,92929,317,02310,534,094
1915–163,75548,744*5,791,704*30,197,78443,034,03312,836,249
1920–214,02269,68113,172,99652,933,49477,828,01324,894,519
1924–254,53877,18314,945,97551,337,11582,479,37831,142,263
1925–264,79478,70816,153,82251,668,1008,395,92l82,358,85130,690,751
1926–275,07878,61316,255,17749,344,4428,646,77980,334,00130,990,159
1927–285,15678,62016,053,21054,558,1078,792,72185,059,79930.501,632
1928–295,12680,61816,291,21259,136,5529,330,05190,478,23231,341,680
1929–305,16882,86116,846,28658,484,2459,954,86190,757,98132,273,736
1930–315,19477,91415,617,05248,458,3569,388,62677,745,24929,286,893
1931–324,96968,69712,642,93542,343,0788,392,58766,588,74424,245,666
1932–334,99368,92112,048,14842,600,4908,222,59566,109,45523,508,965
1933–5,02872,65112,106,50046,919,1938,257,26171,770,87224,851,679
1934–355,27079,35813,244,37352,084,7419,002,45679,324,47327,239,732

In making use of the following summary for the year 1934–35 it is necessary to keep in mind the differences in size and population of the respective provincial districts (vide section on “Population”).

Provincial District.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of MaterialsOther Expenses of Operation.Value of Output.Added Value.
 £££££
Auckland1,69226,9544,409,07419,586,7693,317,02828,764,3359,177,566
Hawke's Bay2542,869506,8742,531,665405,1343,912,0881,380,423
Taranaki3002,581489,2423,791,302348,6584,731,454940,152
Wellington1,10717,7162,988,56510,893,9731,793,56817,080,8846,180,911
Marlborough7146174,071282,25850,276425,971143,713
Nelson1821,397234,698586,746186,3221,080,174499,428
Westland1011,359253,861208,692208,557716,725508,033
Canterbury78112,8622,129,1437,407,9641,289,12011,572,6704,164,706
Otago50910,1401,607,6394,256,6101,003,3237,344,6933,088,083
Southland2733,019551,2062,538,762400,4703,689,4791,150,717
Totals5,27079,35813,244,37352,084,7419,002,45679,324,47327,239,732

It will be observed that the Auckland Provincial District is far hi advance of any other province in respect of factory production. This province dominates both in population—with a consequent relatively high development of manufacturing industries—and in dairy production, the output of dairy factories in the province being valued at £9,900,000 in 1934–35 (Dominion total, £18,200,000).

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES.

The number of establishments reporting operations in 1934–35 was 5,270 (the highest yet recorded), representing an increase of 242 over that for the previous year (5,028). The industries contributing chiefly to this increase were—Coach-building and motor engineering, 53; clothing, 41; sawmilling, 16; joinery, 16; general engineering, 15; brick and tile, 11. Decreases of 3 each were recorded for fish-curing, grain-crushing, iron and brass, and chemical manufacturing.

The following table shows the average (monthly) number of wage-earners and of total persons engaged in each class of industry and the number of establishments operating for the year 1934–35:—

Class of Industry.Number of Establishments.Wage-earning Employees.Total Persons engaged.
M.F.M.F.
Animal food5789,44223011,281587
Vegetable food1441,9881,6322,4471,777
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants2611,3596141,937756
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)65687119873160
Working in wood5946,393237,354107
Vegetable produce for fodder1435..525
Paper manufactures22240296310331
Heat, light, and power1443,199214,281356
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2321,71132,13464
Metals other than gold or silver4514,5062125,429415
Precious metals36128416716
Books and publications3735,0401,1536,5031,576
Ornaments and minor art products401042013227
Designs, medals, type, and dies19114214811
Machines, tools, and implements998871021,137161
Carriages and vehicles1,0774,058105,199274
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware1451,0261861,291217
Ships, boats, and their equipment61628240750272
House-furnishings3111,5032321,894303
Chemicals and by-products859132881,219376
Textile fabrics189631,4931,0821,517
Apparel4372,5889,3713,4949,890
Fibrous materials33491139556148
Miscellaneous31161113204138
Totals5,27048,16416,50359,87419,484

The distribution of the sexes among the employees shows a considerable preponderance of males. The number of females per hundred males in each of the five years ending 1934–35 has been: 28, 30, 31, 31, and 33.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent; but the male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in greater demand. In Otago the excess of males is less than in any other district, due to the comparative importance of its woollen-milling industry.

The following figures show that in 1934–35 for every nine wage-earners there is one proprietor (actively engaged), manager, or overseer.

Group.1933–34.1934–35.
Number of Persons.Per Cent of Total.Number of Persons.Per Cent of Total.
Proprietors actively engaged2,3122,3893·0
Managers, overseers, &c.4,5014,5645·0
Accountants, clerks, &c.7,54510·47,7389·7
Wage-earning employees58,29380·264,66781·5
Totals72,651100·079,358100·0

An interesting classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, for the years 1924–25, 1929–30, and 1932–33 to 1934–35 is—

Year.10 or under.11–20.21–50.51–100.Over 100.Totals.
Number of Factories.
1924–252,9727205701551214,538
1929–303,4768005911641375,168
1932–333,6825994611331184,993
1933–343,6376794611261255,028
1934–353,7257644961431425,270
Number of Employees.
1924–2512,65810,69018,06711,09424,67477,183
1929–3015,47411,78517,97711,65825,96782,861
1932–3314,6658,77713,7869,06422,62968,921
1933–3414,4239,97113,8928,75725,60872,651
1934–3514,90111,32115,3099,71628,11179,358

The very small establishments have more than held their own during the period, while there is definite evidence of a swing-over from the moderately-sized group of establishments to the largest-sized group. Taken as a whole, the figures do not afford evidence of any marked change in the average size of the industrial unit. The advance in the smallest-sized group may be attributed largely to the growth of the motor industry and the consequent establishment of small repairing concerns throughout the Dominion.

SALARIES AND WAGES.

The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and overtime. Figures illustrative of the rise in the aggregate amount paid in salaries and wages will be found in the first table of this section.

The amounts received by male and female employees, and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below:—

Year.MalesFemales.Both Sexes.
Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 ££££££
1930–3113,974,5312291,642,5219815,617,052200
1931–3211,194,6082121,448,3279212,642,935184
1932–3310,588,7452021,459,4038912,048,148175
1933–3410,611,1611921,495,3398612,106,500167
1934–3511,602,9831941,641,3908413,244,373167

Owing to the fact that employees who were engaged for part of the year only could not be excluded from the figures in computing the averages given above, and, further, as it was not practicable to take into consideration other factors which would disturb their accuracy, the averages shown cannot be regarded in other than a general way.

The table following shows the total salaries and wages paid in each class of industry during the year 1934–35.

Class of Industry.Males.Females.
 ££
Animal food2,338,90254,666
Vegetable food468,557121,745
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants442,07473,634
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)175,73313,219
Working in wood1,267,6799,742
Vegetable produce for fodder9,397632
Paper manufactures66,94326,325
Heat, light, and power1,015,40143,483
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.399,1436,418
Metals other than gold or silver954,10332,325
Precious metals33,4121,448
Books and publications1,356,152157,326
Ornaments and minor art products17,4922,082
Designs, medals, type, and dies29,766766
Machines, tools, and implements196,09013,865
Carriages and vehicles866,80922,630
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware234,67418,111
Ships, boats, and their equipment145,12921,864
House-furnishings304,53524,941
Chemicals and by-products272,10635,112
Textile fabrics222,577132,616
Apparel661,033808,917
Fibrous materials84,3119,535
Miscellaneous40,9659,988
Totals11,602,9831,641,390

Special returns as to employees and wages in a selected week are collected each year. The period covered is the nearest normal week to 31st March, and the data collected include the number of employees engaged at each wage-rate, as well as the total employees and the total earnings during the specified week. Working proprietors, managers, overseers, accountants, and clerks do not come within the scope of the inquiry, which covers wage-earning employees only, and out-workers, if any. All productive employees are covered, irrespective of age or sex, and the figures are therefore inclusive of many young male and female workers receiving low wages. The inclusion of these workers has the effect of making the average earnings lower than would otherwise be the case, and this fact must not be overlooked when the figures are made use of.

Year.Total Wage-earning Employees.Earnings during Specified Week.
Total.Average.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
 £££ s. d.£ s. d.
192653,90012,287239,16923,3454 8 91 18 0
192753,41212,807236,44524,4394 8 71 18 2
192854,09513,224237,99825,5294 8 01 18 7
192954,65113,696244,54327,0514 9 61 19 6
193057,31714,823262,20027,8804 11 61 17 7
193148,41612,776208,63322,9444 6 21 15 11
193242,29113,143162,69522,8123 17 01 14 9
193343,62113,659160,65522,7053 13 81 13 3
193446,30515,184163,30324,2653 10 61 12 0
193551,80417,204183,770 126,9583 10 111 11 4

Due attention should also be paid to the fact that, although every endeavour is made to choose comparable weeks each year, certain factors may disturb the comparability of the figures from year to year. An unduly late or early season, abnormally wet weather, &c., would conceivably operate to affect the usefulness of either the number of employees or their earnings as indexes of the volume of employment. In using the average earnings it should be borne in mind that these have been computed from the amount earned during the specified week, and are, of course, affected by overtime and short time.

In the table following a summary showing the number of employees within the various wage-groups is given for the specified weeks covered by the returns in 1925 and 1935.

Weekly Rate of Wages.Males.Females.
1925.1935.1925.1935.
Under 20s.1,4133,4761,1574,399
20s. and under 25s.1,6811,8681,3031,691
25s. and under 30s.1,3041,3651,3701,536
30s. and under 35s.1,4591,5371,2621,637
35s. and under 40s.9111,3119031,382
40s. and under 45s.8821,1362,2993,675
45s. and under 50s.8291,2051,4271,597
50s. and under 55s.663930885637
55s. and under 60s.409808628283
60s. and under 65s.9171,609417186
65s. and under 70s.6122,57713043
70s. and under 75s.9483,97311232
75s. and under 80s.2,3054,8362817
80s. and under 85s.4,5246,9004931
85s. and under 90s.5,7134,9161110
90s. and under 95s.4,4284,164219
95s. and under 100s.5,8392,66571
100s. and under 105s.4,9842,0882214
105a. and under 110s.3,5671,17114
110s. and under 115s.3,03096153
115s. and under 120s.1,111419....
120s. and under 130s.3,188890211
130s. and under 140s.1,314331..2
140s. and under 160s.1,17639483
160s. and over93321411
Totals54,14051,80412,04817,204

Some noteworthy changes in the distribution of wages have occurred during the last decade. The average weekly wage-rate paid to males has fallen from £4 8s. lOd. in 1925. to £3 10s. 11d. in 1935, while that for females has declined from £1 15s. 6d. to £1 11s. 4d. Another aspect is the large number of wage-earners employed at under £1 per week in 1935 as compared with the number in 1925. Male wage-earners receiving under £1 in 1935 comprised 6·7 per cent. of the total, while the number in 1925 was 2·6 per cent. The corresponding figures for females were 25·6 per cent. and 9·6 per cent. In 1925 74 per cent. of the total male wage-earners received a weekly wage-rate of £4 and over, but in 1935 only 48 per cent. came within this class.

MOTIVE POWER.

A supply of cheap motive power is essential for industrial development. New Zealand industries have in the past been somewhat handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea-carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The difficulties in the way of obtaining a plentiful supply of cheap motive power are now met by the development of hydro-electric schemes for which New Zealand is topographically well suited. The State has in recent years developed this phase of the Dominion's resources, and in doing so has provided a margin of power for attracting special industries depending on a supply of cheap motive power, as well as meeting present demands.

The following table shows the numbers and aggregate horse-power of each class of engine used in factories for the years 1921–22, 1926–27, and the last three years:—

Class of Engine.1921–22.1926–27.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Steam No.2,2662,0241,5621,6031,632
      H.P.101,083134,285134,065132,788144,931
Coal-gas No.51929711610495
         H.P.10,2956,8583,1583,0793,215
Suction gas No.237159888078
            H.P.14,1819,4555,6855,1734,937
Oil No.389321445411491
    H.P.5,4669,89430,31530,16531,185
Electric No.5,23511,32416,94217,83819,296
         H.P.49,571102,816139,173144,584150,437
Water No.222269305241245
      H.P.39,104145,431329,720329,758386,518
Totals No.8,86814,39419,45820,27721,837
       H.P.219,700408,739642,116645,547721,223

It should be borne in mind that the figures relating to the horse-power represent the indicated horse-power of the engine installed. This may be, and probably is, in many cases quite a different thing from the actual horse-power used. Attention is also directed to the fact that the statistics include the horsepower of turbines, pelton wheels, and other engines used in the generation of electric current. A rapid advance in the electric-supply industry since 1921–22 is indicated by the figures given above for the horse-power of water-engines. Concomitantly with this development of the electric-supply industry, the number and aggregate horse-power of electric motors in factories showed substantial upward movements during the years under review.

Class of Industry.1929–30.1934–35.
Number of Engines.Horsepower.Number of Engines.Horsepower.
Animal food3,84667,2574,47467,686
Vegetable food84011,4881,04113,274
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants9196,1671,1216,960
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1992,2782732,634
Working in wood2,07036,7302,49339,239
Vegetable produce for fodder1936232538
Paper manufactures793,1441574,024
Heat, light, and power203375,244200496,317
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.84328,45999729,412
Metals other than gold or silver1,34811,4171,79013,091
Precious metals43735367
Books and publications2,0409,2902,3979,984
Ornaments and minor art products33592956
Designs, medals, type, and dies5910871137
Machines, tools, and implements2431,3634491,878
Carriages and vehicles1,6384,8711,9774,928
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware3623,0804373,370
Ships, boats, and their equipment1401,687155876
House-furnishings8244,1181,0114,710
Chemicals and by-products5405,9087987,920
Textile fabrics2456,0233016,090
Apparel8702,7841,2993,346
Fibrous materials2035,4741302,865
Miscellaneous947881521,821
Totals17,700587,55221,837721,223

A drawback to the statistics arises through the lack of information relating to the actual or estimated period during which the engines or motors were in use. This is an important aspect of considerations affecting the quantitative measurement of the motive power in use.

CONSUMPTION OF COAL.

During the year 1934–35 649,208 tons of coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production, an increase of 12,893 tons, or 2 per cent., as compared with the previous year. Of this amount, 576,312 tons represented New Zealand coal, and the remainder (72,896 tons) imported coal.

Four industries utilized 75 per cent. of the total coal used for the year—namely, gas-making, 205,065 tons; butter, cheese, and condensed milk making, 124,499 tons; meat freezing and preserving, 103,963 tons; lime-crushing and cement-making, 51,104 tons.

MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.

The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. For instance, materials used or operated upon in the tanning, fell-mongering, and wool-scouring industry were in 1934–35 valued at £998,184, while these used in printing, publishing, and bookbinding were valued at £963,628. If, however, value of output is considered, it is found that the figure for printing and publishing (£3,758,937) is over £2,400,000 greater than that for tanning, &c. (£1,347,815).

Another point which should be noted is that wide variations exist in the extent of transformation undergone by materials in the factory process. As examples, it is pertinent to observe that the factory constituent in the value of animal foods is but small, whereas the aggregate cost of finished woollen materials is far in excess of the value of untreated wool.

The cost of materials used in the various classes of industries during the last five years is given in the table hereunder:—

Class of Industry.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
Animal food26,415,23223,912,26823,920,19127,201,43530,516,777
Vegetable food4,255,2573,802,9773,481,2673,550,5543,562,570
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,438,8971,175,6091,142,5651,108,2471,372,782
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)682,621384,748382,684395,504500,334
Working in wood1,410,4311,053,5351,023,1591,138,5871,247,701
Vegetable produce for fodder80,64474,13040,13032,55249,620
Paper manufactures187,848174,514174,864196,158187,806
Heat, light, and power4,230,3724,149,3644,316,6914,079,1044,170,349
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.419,953258,538199,595255,015313,641
Metals other than gold or silver1,263,259894,570831,064950,5711,247,397
Precious metals37,49127,38029,25235,42141,482
Books and publications1,170,299980,520933,163930,659963,628
Ornaments and minor art products41,98324,92020,85719,73226,289
Designs, medals, type, and dies12,0809,3707,58510,64812,651
Machines, tools, and Implements344,623209,768257,643298,269430,988
Carriages and vehicles863,767717,813793,292846,2621,117,714
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware828,737608,901728,7911,212,8591,124,375
Ships, boats, and their equipment146,786106,036119,602129,381204,199
House-furnishings642,987408,292325,548328,378445,665
Chemicals and by-products1,079,4091,060,0041,283,2201,228,1261,295,689
Textile fabrics359,165285,217352,572407,707499,159
Apparel2,245,5971,825,6881,995,9082,224,8702,484,568
Fibrous materials173,137136,129169,879171,079160,921
Miscellaneous127,78162,78770,96878,07599,436
Totals48,458,35642,343,07842,600,49046,918,19352,084,741

In considerations affecting the cost of materials used it should be remembered that the semi-primary industries e.g., meat-freezing and butter and cheese making) account for a very large proportion of the total. In 1934—35, for example, the two industries mentioned accounted for approximately £29,910,000 out of a total of £52,084,741 for cost of materials used. Constituting as they do over 50 per cent. of the total cost of materials used in all industries, the figures for the semi-primary industries influence the total figures for any year. Indeed, a study of the total cost of materials over a number of years shows that frequent and wide oscillations in primary-produce prices are clearly reflected therein. Again, difficulty has been experienced in determining what actually constitutes materials in connection with the electric-supply industry. For the purpose of factory-production statistics the figure for materials in respect of this industry is deemed to be the total expenditure for the year, less salaries and wages met out of revenue from the sale of energy.

PRODUCTS.

The value of products is calculated upon the current selling-price at the factory, and where goods are actually sold no difficulty is experienced. The stock on hand at the end of the year, however, presents some difficulties; but in such cases it is the practice to estimate the value, basing the estimation on the current selling-price at the factory.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which constitutes more than half of the total value; in fact, the cost of materials used has represented no less than 62, 64, 64, 65, and 66 per cent. respectively of the value of the products in the last five years. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture-making, joinery, &c., it must be obvious that part of the value of timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of joinery and furniture made. Duplication of this kind is apparent in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of products by classes of industries as recorded in the last five collections:—

Class of Industry.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
Animal food31,329,02529,085,63629,259,05932,757,52435,894,094
Vegetable food6,287,1745,641,4825,167,8955,317,5055,307,760
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants3,291,6863,006,8702,788,1753,036,8093,533,230
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1,194,128836,962827,093868,6571,060,040
Working in wood4,334,9662,715,7152,689,9813,034,5683,695,762
Vegetable produce for fodder115,139101,42862,80648,39369,823
Paper manufactures389,073375,371384,906414,515436,098
Heat, light, and power6,024,2775,837,7445,950,2475,862,5646,004,384
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2,106,1031,208,530959,1271,145,8711,319,579
Metals other than gold or silver3,402,7732,316,8772,143,2152,313,6202,948,880
Precious metals100,56475,78177,41285,74097,082
Books and publications4,509,7863,772,3233,473,9873,525,1883,758,937
Ornaments and minor art products105,29162,10851,98447,84656,704
Designs, medals, type, and dies71,48254,63947,36853,53863,134
Machines, tools, and implements746,067454,557523,417607,393816,760
Carriages and vehicles2,652,6082,016,6831,895,2531,963,4972,570,963
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware1,220,015962,0691,143,4831,694,0891,594,333
Ships, boats, and their equipment446,087307,181326,908334,051439,678
House-furnishings1,426,441918,847737,560743,505946,377
Chemicals and by-products2,063,3021,887,6582,235,5752,130,9022,338,137
Textile fabrics954,229843,269931,0181,028,7051,107,870
Apparel4,410,7223,729,3623,975,5764,279,0144,721,077
Fibrous materials317,234249,460304,930319,558328,881
Miscellaneous247,077128,192151,880157,220214,290
Totals77,745,24966,588,74466,109,45571,770,87279,324,473

ADDED VALUE.

As indicated under the heading of “Products,” the value of products is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. In many cases by far the larger portion of the value of products represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, therefore, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the products, and is referred to as the “added value.” As the basis of the added value is the value of products, it is clear that it must be affected by fluctuations in values, and this fact should not be lost sight of when use is made of these figures.

The table given hereunder shows the added value by classes of industries for each of the last five years:—

Class of Industry.1930–31.1931–32.1932–83.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
Animal food4,913,7935,173,3685,339,4685,556,0895,377,317
Vegetable food2,031,9171,838,5051,686,6281,766,9511,745,190
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,852,7891,831,2611,645,6101,838,5622,160,448
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)511,507452,214444,409473,153550,706
Working in wood2,924,5351,662,1801,666,8221,895,9812,448,061
Vegetable produce for fodder34,49527,29322,67615,84120,203
Paper manufactures201,225200,857210,042218,357248,292
Heat, light, and power1,793,9051,688,3801,633,5561,783,4601,834,035
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,686,150949,992759,532890,8561,005,938
Metals other than gold or silver2,139,5141,422,3071,312,1511,363,0491,701,483
Precious metals63,07348,40148,16050,31955,600
Books and publications3,339,4872,791,8032,540,8242,594,5292,795,309
Ornaments and minor art products63,30337,18831,12728,11430,415
Designs, medals, type, and dies59,40245,26939,78342,89050,483
Machines, tools, and implements401,444244,789265,774309,124385,772
Carriages and vehicles1,788,8411,298,8701,101,9611,117,2351,453,249
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware391,278353,168414,692481,230469,958
Ships, boats, and their equipment299,301201,145207,306204,670235,479
House-furnishings783,454510,555412,012415,127500,712
Chemicals and by-products983,893827,654952,355902,7761,042,448
Textile fabrics595,064558,052578,446620,998608,711
Apparel2,165,1251,903,6741,979,6682,054,7442,237,109
Fibrous materials144,097113,331135,051148,479167,960
Miscellaneous119,29665,40580,91279,145114,854
Totals29,286,89324,245,66623,508,96524,851,67927,239,732

In 1919–20 the added value per person engaged was £329, while in 1934–35 it was recorded as £343, an increase of approximately 4 per cent. The index numbers of prices computed in regard to New Zealand manufactures decreased considerably—from 1592 in 1919–20 to 1176 in 1934–35, or by 26 per cent. During the same period the aggregate mechanical power available increased by 272 per cent., which is quite out of proportion to the increase of 24 per cent., in the total persons engaged. In view of the above, it seems reasonable to conclude that the increased productivity of labour indicated by the increase in the added value per employee since 1919–20 has been largely due to increased use of machinery.

The following table shows various percentages and rates that have been computed in connection with the added value for the last five years:—

1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
Added value per head of mean population19·5515·9815·3716·1217·54
Added value per person engaged375·89352·94341·10342·07343·25
Added value per £100 expended on salaries and wages187·53191·77195·13205·28205·67
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Percentage of salaries and wages to added value53·3252·1551·2548·7248·62
Percentage of added value to cost of materials used60·4457·2655·1852·9752·30

The next table is of interest as indicating the variations between the percentages which wages bear to added value in a selection of major industrial classes.

Class of Industry.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Animal food53·8148·1146·5644·2044·51
Vegetable food35·1934·3537·0935·3633·82
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants31·3927·6230·2226·0023·87
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)48·8943·0741·4438·6434·31
Working in wood55·6160·4358·3253·9252·18
Heat, light, and power62·9363·1761·6457·5457·74
Books and publications54·0756·3756·9855·6654·14
Machines, tools, and implements60·9962·4758·8954·5054·42
Apparel67·3366·4364·8564·2265·71
Fibrous materials52·6752·0554·2454·3355·87

Some notable variations in the percentages which wages bear to total added value are observed during the period covered. In some instances the percentage has remained remarkably constant, while in others considerable changes—mostly in a downward direction—have taken place. The fall in the group “animal food” is at first sight surprising in view of the heavy fall in prices of farm products. A greatly increased volume of output has, however, occurred, plants being utilized nearer to full capacity, with a consequent decrease in labour-costs per unit of output. The adoption of the “chain” system of slaughtering by certain meat-freezing establishments is another relevant factor in this connection.

OTHER EXPENSES OF OPERATION.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operations other than salaries and wages and cost of materials for the last five years:—

Item.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
Cost of coal699,481544,346471,661486,074509,362
Cost of other fuel and power553,610484,915520,980536,760597,846
Insurance271,443249,608238,276210,865244,497
Depreciation1,405,3541,296,5261,331,0151,345,2381,433,709
All other expenses6,458,7385,817,1925,660,6635,678,3246,217,042
Totals9,388,6268,392,5878,222,5958,257,2619,002,456

It is necessary when attempting to gauge the success or otherwise of an industry to take into consideration the figure for “other” expenses. The operating costs of an industry are determined by adding together the salaries and wages, cost of materials used, and other expenses. This result, when contrasted with the value of the output of the industry, indicates either a surplus or a deficit. Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1934–35 amounted to £74,331,570 (salaries and wages, £13,244,373; cost of materials, £52,084,741; other expenses, £9,002,456), while value of output totalled £79,324,473, showing therefore a surplus of £4,992,903. Thi3 surplus represents 7·4 per cent. of the amount of capital invested in land, buildings, plant, and machinery.

FIXED ASSETS.

The values of the fixed assets give some idea as to the permanency and stability of the manufacturing industries in New Zealand, and afford the means of judging to some extent the amount of capital that has been invested therein.

In connection with the statistics of fixed assets, it should be understood that the figures given are of necessity only approximate, the principal reason for this being that where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, an apportionment has to be made between the industries, and this cannot be done with accuracy. Furthermore, in many instances fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an understatement owing to appreciated site value, or an overstatement owing to insufficient allowance being made for depreciation, obsolescence, &c. Where premises occupied are rented or leased it is the practice to ascertain the annual rental value and to estimate the equivalent capital value.

The value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery may be taken as representing approximately the fixed capital, and a classification by classes of industries is therefore interesting, as indicating the amount of this capital invested in the various classes of industry. It is recognized that electric-supply undertakings and gasworks require heavy expenditure on plant and machinery, &c., and it is not surprising that the value of fixed assets employed in the industries coming under the “Heat, light, and power” class is much greater than that for any other class, notwithstanding that the added value in tins case is relatively small. It is particularly interesting to note that while the added value in the “Animal food” class amounts to £5,377,317, as against £1,834,035 for heat, light, and power, the fixed capital in the latter case is £34,214,699, while in the former it is £8,616,511—over £25,500,000 less. The following table shows the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery by classes of industries for the latest five years available:—

Class of Industry.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
Animal food8,833,5888,740,8668,844,9818,629,0938,616,511
Vegetable food2,392,2802,384,9112,308,1652,267,6092,435,745
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,877,6821,823,8171,862,8641,860,8701,850,646
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)526,894535,967517,248528,283484,194
Working in wood2,846,8352,457,9752,396,0232,243,0432,255,792
Vegetable produce for fodder75,11876,19574,73369,06070,578
Paper manufactures268,689288,715270,184283,907298,028
Heat, light, and power31,405,21732,203,00732,197,63531,745,61634,214,699
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2,101,9292,007,1311,951,8441,802,6191,800,319
Metals other than gold or silver2,608,0342,433,9382,507,2292,410,3052,429,455
Precious metals113,40899,28097,02690,90392,908
Books and publications4,093,4633,867,0083,842,4793,792,5913,611,252
Ornaments and minor art products106,48090,71866,90658,02961,475
Designs, medals, type, and dies73,59173,20165,68667,46767,295
Machines, tools, and implements409,128396,256397,016398,455429,615
Carriages and vehicles2,677,9122,320,1442,241,9062,108,6892,232,850
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware468,346441,679437,748442,810473,721
Ships, boats, and their equipment280,663262,641269,519263,158274,982
House-fumishings884,123816,070712,532657,832659,814
Chemicals and by-products1,675,9291,604,7661,723,7901,682,7421,619,049
Textile fabrics856,222827,420813,301856,095827,976
Apparel1,890,4821,863,2611,863,3821,795,900l,911,844
Fibrous materials191,217156,219177,150171,410242,494
Miscellaneous154,914135,833156,100163,918307,208
Totals66,818,15065,907,01865,855,44764,390,40467,268,450

Successive substantial increases in the total value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery were a feature of the factory-production statistics until 1930–31. The following three years, 1931–32 to 1933–34, registered decreases, but a definite upward swing was recorded in 1934–35, when the value rose to £67,268,450, the highest figure yet recorded, due chiefly to the expansion of the electric-supply industry by the opening of the Waitaki power scheme.

The relation between the value of (a) land and buildings, and (b) plant and machinery illustrates the tendency for the latter to increase at a proportionately faster rate than the former. In 1905–6 the proportions per cent. of land and buildings and of plant and machinery to the total fixed assets were 57 and 43 respectively, but these positions are now more than reversed, the percentages in 1934–35 being 34 and 66. Each collection since 1906 has shown a gradual and consistent decrease in the percentage of the value of land and buildings to the total fixed assets. The table given hereunder shows the movement during the last five years:—

Year.Land and Buildings.Plant and Machinery.Total Amount.
Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.
 £ £ £
1930–3123,563,84235·2743,254,30864·7366,818,150
1931–3222,988,57734·8842,918,44165·1265,907,018
1932–3322,909,67734·7942,945,77065·2165,855,447
1933–3422,159,07334·4142,231,33165·5964,390,404
1934–3523,159,57334·4344,108,87765·5767,268,450

CAPITAL.

Although information as to the amount of capital invested in every factory has been collected for some years, the figures in this respect have been found to be unsatisfactory and have not been made use of. The chief factors militating against the collection of satisfactory information in this connection are the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning the capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing. In the case of joint-stock companies the capital figures have been found to be reasonably accurate, and are shown in the following table. The figures in the second column relate to the number of companies, not the number of works.

Year.Number of Companies.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Percentage of Paid-up Capital to Total Capital.Loan and Reserve Capital (excluding Bank Overdraft).Percentage of Loan Capital to Total Capital.Total Capital.Paid-up Shares issued Vendors as Part of Purchase Consideration, included under heading “Paid-up Capital.”
Private Companies.
  ££ £ ££
1930–311,44713,953,26512,843,08082·172,787,23117·8315,630,3111,930,318
1931–321,45213,676,98112,669,24482·082,765,61617·9215,434,8602,029,841
1932–331,47513,618,30212,783,43980·703,046,41719·2415,829,8562,010,279
1933–341,50413,330,43712,481,89781·232,883,66618·7715,365,5631,638,559
1931–351,58414,135,00813,238,87880·953,116,48019·0516,355,3581,679,667
Public and Co-operative Companies.
1930–3172825,873,18023,074,21480·175,706,58719·8328,780,8014,228,743
1931–3271525,227,36922,699,82480·585,471,22319·4228,171,0474,185,640
1932–3371726,107,74823,660,33980·835,611,45619·1729,271,7954,145,908
1933–3471826,017,97923,519,47280·715,619,78019·2929,139,2523,864,089
1934–3571024,928,93122,170,22979·565,694,91320·4427,865,1424,128,644
Total (All Companies).
1930–312,17539,826,44535,917,29480·878,493,81819·1344,411,1126,159,061
1931–322,16738,904,35035,369 06881·118,236,83918·8943,605,9076,215,481
1932–332,19239,726,05036,443,77880·808,657,87319·2045,101,6516,156,187
1933–342,22239,357,41636,001,36980·898,503,44619·1144,504,8155,502,648
1934–352,29439,063,93935,409,10780·078,811,39319·9344,220,5005,808,311

In considering the figures given in regard to capital it must be borne in mind that the registered capital is taken in each case, except where the company may not be fully engaged in manufacture (in which case an apportionment is made), and that the capital necessarily includes capital invested in securities outside the company. This excess capital, as it may be called, is more likely to be found in public companies than in private companies, and has the effect of swelling a capital figure for public companies to some considerable extent, beyond the amount actually invested in the various factories.

AGES OF INDUSTRIES.

Out of the 5,270 manufacturing establishments furnishing returns for the year 1934–35, 2,270 were shown to have been in operation prior to 1916, so that, excluding these cases where the date of establishment is unknown, 2,740 of the present establishments came into existence during the last nineteen years, at an average rate over this period of 144 per annum. Some 1,362 date from the decade 1916–25; 813 from the quinquennium 1926–30; 454 from 1931–33; and 111 from 1934; while in 260 cases the date of establishment was not given.

ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY.

New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organized on a relatively small scale.

The law in the Dominion restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 20 persons, a private company to not fewer than 2 or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than 7 persons. Co-operation in industry is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the preparation of primary produce for the market. The principal of these is the butter and cheese malting industry. Municipal enterprises are confined mainly to public-utility industries—e.g., gasworks and the generation and distribution of electricity—while the State operates the chief central hydro-electric generating stations and the Government Printing Office.

Information as to the character of organization of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1934–35 is given in the following table.

Character of Organization.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Horsepower available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Manufactures or Products.Added Value.
Total.Per Establishment.
 H.p.££££
Individual1,8118,40713,8051,405,8473,361,4751,895,6281,047
Private firm or partnership6704,1788,682701,1021,706,8881,005,7861,501
Public registered company46323,918103,61916,325,22226,377,80110,052,57921,712
Private registered company1,73035,30881,99114,606,21025,647,45811,041,2486,382
Municipal and General Government1373,803489,2803,970,0585,198,8391,228,7518,969
Co-operative and miscellaneous4593,74423,84615,016,27217,032,0122,015,7404,392
Totals5,27079,358721,22352,084,74179,324,47327,239,7325,169

As would be expected, the average size of establishments operated by public registered companies is larger than is the case for any other non-Governmental type of industrial organization, the added value per unit being more than three times as high as that for the next highest type (private registered companies). Private companies, however, hold a very high place, both numerically and in the share they contribute to the total added value created, in New Zealand factories (40·53 per cent. in 1934–35, as compared with 36·9) per cent. in the case of public companies). Municipal and general governmental enterprises accounted for 4·51 per cent. of the total added value in 1934—35.

Examination of the statistics of added value over a series of years indicates that private companies have increased appreciably in relative importance, while that of the individual and partnership types of organization has declined, very little change being shown in the percentage of total added value attributable to the operations of public companies, or municipal and general government undertakings.

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES.

In the following tables a classification of industries according to the nature of the work carried on is presented. The principal objects of the classification are the segregation of these industries in close association with and dependence on the great primary industries of the Dominion, and the separation from other industries of these representing the provision of public utilities under monopoly conditions. The main basis of the classification is the relationship between the value of the material worked upon and the value of the finished product, as expressed in what is known for statistical purposes as the “added value.” In these industries which may for some purposes be regarded as extensions of the primary industries the raw material undergoes only slight changes in the factory or workshop, with the result that the “added value” created is relatively small. In the genuine manufacturing industries (e.g., boot and shoe manufacturing) the raw material is subjected to much more detailed and elaborate processes. The “added value” in these industries is therefore relatively high.

Group I comprises these industries engaged in the preparation of farm products for the market, with the resulting by-products. In this group the “added value” is relatively small in proportion to the value of the output. The specific industries falling under this category are: Meat freezing and preserving, ham and bacon curing, butter and cheese making, sausage-casing, fellmongering and wool-scouring, boiling-down and manure making.

Group II covers these industries which provide public utility services under monopoly conditions in so far as competition within the industry is concerned. It comprises gasworks and electricity generation and supply.

Group III consists of another portion of what are generally referred to as semi-primary industries. It covers industries arising from the utilization of natural resources. The added value in these industries is large in proportion to the value of output, and represents principally wages. The following industries come within this group: Fish-curing, sawmilling, lime-crushing, brick, tile, and pottery making, concrete-block and fibrous-plaster making, pumice-insulation making, and flax, milling.

Group IV comprises all industries for which statistics are available and which do not come under the previous groups. It includes several industries, such as grain-milling, iron-smelting, &c., which may be considered to be on the border-line between it and Group I or Group III, and also several industries, such as motor and cycle engineering and repairing, &c., where repair work rather than manufacture in the narrow sense of the term predominates. In general, the industries included in this group may be regarded as “genuine” manufacturing industries.

The following table shows the principal statistics for the various groups enumerated above for the years 1933–34 and 1934—35:—

Group.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Materials used.Other Expenses of Operation.Products.Added Value.Land, Buildings, Plant, and Machinery.
££££££
1933–34.
I13,2852,603,54728,179,1952,242,67034,127,2145,948,0198,908,253
II4,5611,026,1614,079,104397,6115,862,5641,783,46031,745,616
III7,1481,187,510998,9071,046,3503,445,3242,446,4173,651,266
IV47,6577,289,28213,661,9874,570,63028,335,77014,673,78320,085,269
Totals72,65112,106,50046,919,1938,257,26171,770,87224,851,67964,390,404
1934–35.
I12,7302,557,90631,459,8362,373,17737,213,2535,753,4178,921,964
II4,6371,058,8844,170,349409,4266,004,3841,834,03534,214,699
III8,5231,477,7681,147,4201,269,0304,225,5573,078,1373,649,326
IV53,4688,149,81515,307,1364,950,82331,881,27916,574,14320,482,461
Totals79,35813,244,37352,084,7419,002,45679,324,47327,239,73267,268,450

In the next, table the principal statistics of factories coming within Group IV—i.e., the “true” manufacturing industries—are shown, classified according to the value of output.

Factories with Value of Output as under.aNumber of Persons engaged.Value of Products.Output per Person engaged.
1933–34.1934–35.1933–34.1934–35.1933–34.1934–35.
Number.Per Cent. of Total.Number.Per Cent. of Total.£Per Cent. of Total.££
£          
Under 5009512·009241·73195,6330·69191,5120·60206207
500– 9991,7263·621,6633·11488,7271·72492,2271·54283296
1,000– 2,4994,4589·354,7378·861,554,6345·491,647,0045·17349348
2,500– 4,9994,4869·415,2829·881,770,5256·252,127,1826·67395403
5,000– 9,9995,83112·246,21111·022,632,8789·292,753,5588·04452443
10,000–14,9993,0090·313,8307·101,678,8965·931,980,3646·22558517
15,000–19,9992,6935·653,0595·721,325,5854·681,625,1545·10492531
20,000–49,9999,36119·649,93018·505,537,73119·545,835,70418·30592587
50,000–99,9996,51413·077,28713·634,095,86314·451,668,21614·64629641
100,000 and over8,62818·1110,53619·709,055,29831·9610,560,35833·121,0501,002
Total47,657100·0053,468100·0028,335,770100·0031,881,279100·00595596

The position of the larger scale establishments in this group of industries is striking; in respect of both value of products and output per person engaged.

OVERTIME AND SHORT TIME.

The amount of overtime worked or short time recorded by industries gives a fairly good though not an infallible indication as to whether an industry has been busy or slack. Statistics in connection with these two phases of factory production have been collected for a number of years, and the tables presented hereunder throw some interesting light on one phase of industrial production during the last ten years.

Overtime needs no explanation, and as particulars of overtime are readily ascertainable from the records kept in the wages-books, the information may be accepted as of a reliable character. For statistical purposes short time is deemed to be time lost through machinery, tools, &c., being out of order, lack of materials, adverse market conditions, and other cognate causes. Time lost through holidays (annual, ordinary, or public holidays) and sickness is not counted as short time. Information as to how much short time is attributable to each cause is not available.

The following table summarizes overtime worked and short time recorded in factories in respect of wage-earning employees.

Year.Overtime.Short Time.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
 Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.
1925–261,492,467154,0911,646,558705,274141,279846,553
1926–271,388,503178,7801,567,283954,922163,7411,118,663
1927–281,472,869187,4291,660,2981,456,049154,9421,610,991
1928–291,532,711213,1391,745,8501,055,337154,2331,209,570
1929–301,621,910243,4091,865,319909,063192,8971,101,960
1930–311,211,078117,6291,328,7072,723,274722,8233,446,097
1931–32933,700176,5581,110,2583,789,0561,209,9274,998,983
1932–331,072,759331,7091,404,4683,028,668953,7223,982,390
1933–341,135,648364,0761,499,7242,597,954747,7963,345,750
1934–351,652,065469,2142,121,2791,684,712426,9382,111,650

Prior to the year 1930–31, the number of hours’ overtime worked each year exceeded the number of hours short time recorded. The years 1930–31 to 1933–34 show the reverse, however, to be the case. The substantial fall in overtime registered for the years 1930–31 and 1931–32 was arrested in 1932–33 and 1933–34, and it is symptomatic of a substantial recovery that in 1934—35 overtime worked exceeded short time recorded. It is interesting to note that 45 per cent, of the total overtime worked was contributed by three industries—the meat-freezing and preserving industry (446,479 hours), clothing (289,655 hours), and coachbuilding and motor engineering (208,758 hours). The meat-freezing and preserving industry also recorded the highest amount of short time (538,161 hours), followed by the sawmilling industry (389,390 hours). Marked seasonal fluctuations occur in the meat-freezing &c., industry, while the sawmilling industry is affected by adverse weather conditions.

The following table gives for overtime and short time the average number of hours per employee affected per week, and the average number of hours during the year for all employees whether or not working overtime or short time.

Year.Overtime.Short Time.
Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Overtime during Year for all Employees, whether working Overtime or not.Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Fours Short Time during Year for all Employees, whether working Short Time or not.
 M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
1925–266·15·427·712·512·817·613·111·5
1926–275·85·026·014·012·519·917·912·8
1927–286·56·227·214·211·716·726·911·7
1928–295·95·328·115·611·916·619·311·3
1929–305·55·728·316·412·515·115·913·0
1930–315·45·225·09·213·615·256·256·5
1931–325·87·122·113·416·014·889·692·1
1932–335·66·924·624·313·914·269·469·5
1933–345·96·324·524·013·713·156·149·2
1934–356·05·931·926·111·511·532·624·8

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS.

The following table, showing an analysis of production costs in 1934–35, together with the value of products for each class of industry, is of interest. The figures are shown in units of £1,000.

Class of Industry.Production CostsValue of Products.Surplus.*
Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of All Materials used.Other Expenses of Operation.Total.
* I.e., Excess of value of products over production costs.
 £ (000)£(000)£ (000)£ (000)  
Animal food2,39330,5172,27335,18335,894711
Vegetable food5903,5636384,7915,308517
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants5161,3736382,5273,5331,006
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1895091398371,060223
Working in wood1,2781,2479693,4943,696202
Vegetable produce for fodder1050868702
Paper manufactures931889437543661
Heat, light, and power1,0594,1704105,6396,004365
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.4053144121,1311,320189
Metals other than gold or silver9871,2474942,7282,949221
Precious metals35411288979
Books and publications1,5139649553,4323,759327
Ornaments and minor art products2026753574
Designs, medals, type, and dies30131558635
Machines, tools, and implements2104319173281785
Carriages and vehicles8891,1183542,3612,571210
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware2531,1241251,5021,59492
Ships, boats, and their equipment1672044641744023
House-furnishings33044611489094656
Chemicals and by-products3071,2963861,9892,338349
Textile fabrics3554991861,0401,10868
Apparel1,4702,4855464,5014,722221
Fibrous materials941615230732922
Miscellaneous51993918921425
Totals13,24452,0859,00374,33279,3254,993

IMPORTANT INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES.

The salient features of a selection of the more important individual industries are discussed in the following paragraphs.

MEAT FREEZING AND PRESERVING.

The close relationship which exists between this industry and the primary industries is reflected in the fluctuations which are recorded in meat-freezing statistics from year to year. Fluctuating prices realized on overseas markets, combined with varying climatic conditions in the Dominion, are the main factors responsible for the frequent changing conditions of this industry. The value of production was £16,640,527 in 1928–29, the highest figure recorded up to that year, falling to £10,974,952 in 1931–32, while, in the three subsequent years, it has gradually expanded, until in 1934–35 a new record level was established—£216,050 higher than the 1928–29 total.

An interesting feature disclosed by the 1934–35 returns for this industry is the establishment of three additional works designed principally for the handling of pigs. This branch of the industry has been making rapid progress, frozen pork contributing over £1,200,000 to the output of freezing-works in 1934–35, a greater value than that of frozen beef.

Greatly improved conditions prevailed in the industry in 1934–35 as compared with the results for the previous year, the total value of products showing an increase of 24 per cent. over the 1933–34 total. The average prices realized were higher, while the number of carcasses treated also rose appreciably, the output of frozen mutton being higher by 11 per cent., and that of frozen lamb 4 per cent.

That farmers’ receipts in respect of stock slaughtered for export were substantially higher in 1934—35 than in 1933–34 is indicated by the fact that the value (alive at the works) of stock treated by freezing-works was £13,407,875, as compared with £10,369,595 in 1933–34, an increase of 29 per cent.

BUTTER, CHEESE, AND CONDENSED MILK, ETC., MAKING.

The exceptionally dry season experienced in 1934–35 was responsible for a considerable reduction in output in the dairying industry. Butterfat-production was more than 15,000,000 lb. less than in 1933–34—a record year—while the factory output of butter and cheese showed decreases of 3 per cent. and 10 per cent. respectively. An improvement in butter and cheese prices, however, was responsible for the total value of production for the industry being more than maintained. This enabled factories to increase the average payment to suppliers per pound of butterfat from 9·08d. in 1933–4 to 9·55d. for the season under review, while the average annual amount paid to suppliers also advanced from £205 to £211.

It is interesting to note that of the total butterfat supplied for butter and cheese making 77 per cent. is used for making butter, leaving 23 per cent. as the proportion contained in milk used for cheesemaking. In 1924–25 these proportions stood at 71 per cent. and 29 per cent. respectively.

GRAINMILLING.

The apparent consumption of flour in the Dominion in 1934–35 was 141,739 tons. During that period the fifty-six grain-mills in operation produced 131,414 tons, or 93 per cent. of the amount consumed. The quantity of wheat used by mills was 6,271,062 bushels, 46·92 bushels on the average being required to make a ton of flour. In addition to making flour, mills manufactured 4,139 tons of oatmeal, 3,242 tons of other oaten products for human consumption, 18,083 tons of bran, 34,893 tons of pollard, and other products to the value of £65,257. This industry, which in 1934–35 accounted for an aggregate value of £2,320,611 in the products mentioned, added £544,381 to the value of materials used, the work being done by 756 persons, the salaries and wages of whom amounted to £169,641. Other expenses amounting to £292,296 were also incurred, leaving a balance of £82,444. The amount of capital invested in the industry's fixed assets was £818,354.

Recently steps have been taken by the Government towards the betterment of the industry. The Board of Trade (Flour) Regulations gazetted on 1st April, 1936, aim at the rationalization of the industry. These regulations provide, inter alia, for the establishment of a monthly quota of output to be allotted to each mill, while the Wheat Purchase Committee (see page 331) is required from time to time to fix the sale price of flour. The prices at which milling wheat shall be made available to millers are also declared by the Committee each season, under previous regulations. Measures have also been taken to restrict the importation of flour so that the gristing of any necessary imports of wheat will be done in New Zealand mills.

BREWERIES AND MALTHOUSES.

The demand for the products of this industry fluctuates to a considerable extent with the change in spending-power of consumers. This industry, in common with other industries which do not manufacture what may be termed necessities, was greatly affected by the recent economic depression. The average consumption of beer per head of population fell from 9½ gallons during the three years 1926 to 1928 to only 6 gallons for 1932–34, or by more than one-third. However, 1934–35 saw much better conditions outside, and, consequently, inside the industry, production rising by 20 per cent. over the 1933–34 figure. A reduction, in 1934, in the rate of beer duty did not reduce the total amount of tax paid, for, with the increased production, receipts from beer duty rose from £661,216 in 1933–34 to £675,017 in 1934–35. The total value of all products rose from £1,571,352 in 1933–34 to £1,766,123 in 1034–35 (including beer duty).

SAWMILLING AND SASH AND DOOR FACTORIES.

This industry was profoundly affected by the depression period. The local demand for its products declined, as a consequence of the fall, to about one-fourth of the pre-depression normal in building activity. Again, the value of export trade in timber fell to less than one-half the total in 1929, with severe consequences to mills catering extensively for the export trade.

In both 1933–34 and 1934–35 conditions in the industry have shown considerable improvement, with the recovery in building activity, while exports—though now (as formerly) of much less importance than local demand—have also increased. The number of persons engaged has increased from 4,787 in 1932–33 to 5,323 in 1933–34 and 6,325 in 1934–35, the figures for 1929–30 being 7,381.

The output of sawn timber, which now accounts for 59 per cent. of the total value created by mills, was nearly 244,000,000 ft. in 1934–35, and was valued at £1,769,280—an average of 14s. 6d. per 100 ft. board measure. This represents an advance of over 46,000,000 ft. on the 1933–34 production, and is the highest figure recorded since 1929–30. The products of resawing and planing mills were valued at £1,204,224, and included an output of 43,200,000 ft. board measure of dressed timber.

A comparison of the sawn timber produced, classified according to species for the years 1930–31 and 1934–35, brings to light some interesting facts. Whereas the output of all species increased by only 14,300,000 ft. board measure, Pinus radiata showed an increase of 13,200,000 ft. board measure over the 1930–31 figure, representing a rise of over 100 per cent.

ELECTRICITY GENERATION AND SUPPLY.

Reference has already been made on pages 421–422 to the need for an abundant supply of cheap power to facilitate industrial progress. This, has been accomplished by the development of hydro-electric power during the last decade, a report on which is to be found in Section XLIV of the Year-Book.

There are ninety-eight power schemes which provided direct employment for 3,861 persons and paid £876,462 in salaries and wages during 1934—35. Some indication of the rapid development which has been taking place may be obtained from the figures showing the capacity of the plants installed. In 1930–31 the total capacity was 309,050 B.h.p.; by 1933–34 the capacity had reached 429,020 B.h.p., while the 1934–35 figure stands at 496,317 B.h.p. A better index to the growth of the industry, however, is the number of units generated which increased from 788,000,000 in 1931–32, to 832,000,600 in 1932–33, and 858,000,000 in 1933–34, and in 1934–35 readied the record high figure of 916,000,000 units. The capital invested in the industry amounted to over £34,800,000 in 1934–35, of which £32,100,000 is invested in fixed assets, £700,000 in stocks, trading departments, and rolling-stock, while the balance (£2,000,000) represents the floating assets (cash, sundry debtors, &c).

PRINTING AND PUBLISHING.

During 1934–35 the printing and publishing industry showed a substantial improvement over the position during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1934. The number of establishments reporting operations was only seven greater than in 1933–34, but the industry found employment for 8,079 persons, as against 7,744 in the previous year. Total salaries and wages increased by 5 per cent., the average amount received per person engaged for 1934–35 (£187) representing a slight increase on the 1933–34 average.

A fall in the prices of newsprint is shown clearly in the final results of the industry, the average price of newsprint falling from l·87d. per pound in 1933–34 to l·63d. in 1934–35. The reduction in price more than offset the 9-per-cent. increase in quantity used, and represented a saving to the industry of over £50,000. The revenue derived from the printing and publishing of newspapers increased by £150,000, and this, in addition to the increased activity in the job-printing trade and other branches of the industry, resulted in the total value of production for the industry being 7 per cent. above the 1933–34 level.

WOOLLEN-MILLS.

Twelve woollen-mills were in operation in 1934—35, employing 2,532 persons, an average of 211 persons per mill. The number of persons engaged shows an increase over the total in 1933–34 (2,466), while the aggregate amount paid in salaries and wages increased by 6 per cent.

The total value of products (£1,048,849) was 7 per cent. higher than in 1933–34, while the cost of materials increased by as much as 23 per cent., due to the relatively higher level of wool-prices ruling in 1933–34, when supplies for the 1934–35 season would be purchased by the mills. The rise in the cost of materials exceeded the increase in the value of products with the result that the added value decreased from £601,140 in 1933–34 to £588,448 in 1934–35.

CLOTHING FACTORIES.

The manufacture of clothing finds employment for more persons than any other industry covered by these statistics. In 1934–35, 9,394 persons were employed in 290 factories. Of this number, 1,550 were males and 7,844 females, who earned during the year an average of £204 and £81 per annum respectively, the total amount of salaries and wages being £952,844. The average weekly rate of wages for 1,050 male wage-earning employees engaged during the week ended on 30th March, 1935, was £3 5s., the corresponding figure for 7,744 female wage-earners being £1 l1s. 9d. Overtime was worked by 359 males, who averaged 6 hours overtime per week during those weeks in which overtime was worked, with an aggregate number of hours of 39,605. Corresponding figures for 2,209 females were 5·9 hours per week, with a total of 249,990 hours. On the other hand, 22,739 hours and 148,830 hours of employment were lost by 123 males and 892 females respectively.

The value added to materials by the processes of manufacture in the industry was £1,391,877, of which salaries and wages accounted for G8 per cent. The total value of products amounted to £2,958,508, but this includes £315,380 received for order work. A number of factories make up customers’ material, the value of which is not available. In these cases only the amount received for making up the goods is counted, so that both cost of materials and value of output (though not added value) are to a certain extent understated.

BOOT AND SHOE FACTORIES.

The manufacture of footwear in the Dominion is an old-established industry for which the value of fixed assets is £374,184, an average of £5,000 per unit. The footwear-requirements of the Dominion in 1934—35 amounted to 4,835,341 pairs, of which 2,531,749 pairs, or 52 per cent., were manufactured locally. Rubber-soled footwear for sports use accounts for a very large proportion of imports of footwear, the local factories supplying the bulk of the requirements of leather footwear. Factories used leather produced locally to the value of £289,115, and £132,950 of imported products. A study of the statistics of the industry for the last ten years reveals that, with the exception of the development of the slipper trade, no great changes have taken place. In 1925–26 there were 81 factories employing 2,541 persons manufacturing 1,406,523 pairs of boots and shoes and 14,850 pairs of slippers, as compared with 76 factories in 1934–35 employing the same number of persons manufacturing 1,698,408 pairs of boots and shoes and 833,341 pairs of slippers. The industry creates an added value of £540,663, of which salaries and wages (£344,504) represents 64 per cent.

DETAILS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.

The principal statistics regarding the leading factory industries for the last three years are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual “Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.”

STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.

1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
* The figures for persons engaged and salaries and wages in 1932–33 and 1933–34 include approximately 200 persons engaged other than in factories and the salaries or wages paid to them. † Including milk used (59,331,856 lb. in 1934–35) in making dried whole milk and condensed milk. ‡ Including butterfat (2,137,002 lb. in 1934–35) contained in milk used for making dried whole milk and condensed milk.
Meat Freezing and Preserving.
Number of—
Works363538
Persons engaged6,3657,6537,594
Salaries and wages paid £1,549,3611,511,6691,535,526
Cost of all materials used £9,119,43510,889,53013,909,585
Other expenses £765,956823,359868.928
Frozen sheep—
Carcasses No.2,660,5851,995,4352,216,889
Value £1,486,7411,461,0561,816,003
Frozen lambs—   
Carcasses No.9,235,6088,582,9578,904,983
Value £6,163,2417,095,2628,188,256
Frozen mutton and lamb pieces—
Quantity Cwt.20,02612,02477,794
Value £23,41817,45987,759
Frozen beef—   
Quantity Cwt.782.082981,757836,799
Value £846,842924,758820,850
Frozen rabbits—Value £23,80731,66328,066
Chilled beef—
Quantity Cwt.**48,966
Value £**57,048
Frozen pork—   
Quantity Cwt.**492,792
Value £**1,200,424
Preserved meats—
Quantity Cwt.51,53146,32453,906
Value £137,309127,658156,523
Tallow—
Quantity Cwt.446,356425,540446,013
Value £399,954345,744450,656
Bonedust—
Quantity Cwt.65,00985,35634,294
Value £22,12625,46811,431
Other manures—
Quantity Cwt.646,494669,3511,154,768
Value £167,734168,443324,313
Hides and pelts—
Quantity No.12,803,56311,317,53312,550,009
Value £783,5131,087,6451,314,686
Wool—
Quantity lb.32,784,93928,664,52631,012,306
Value £726,8271,016,6091,215,617
Total value of output £11,881,47414,034,74716,856,577
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of—   
Works403943
Persons engaged398427395
Salaries and wages paid £87,67591,00079,993
Pigs dealt with—
Number188,456209,954189,614
Cost £392,674499,903540,052
Cost of other materials used £34,19630,40236,453
Other expenses £142,188117,090116,571
Ham and bacon—Quantity Cwt144,575147,130143,575
Lard—Quantity Cwt.8,6548,4009,039
Total value of output £702,442755,716805,113
Butter, Cheese and Condensed Milk Factories.
Number of—
Factories478482485
Persons engaged4,137*4,346*3,787
Salaries and wages paid—£838,361*837,991*764,640
Number of separators—
At home58,24760,13160,573
At factories487507509
Butter separated—
At home lb.259,565,402277,245,222268,364,190
At butter-factories lb.7,334,38016,121,24018,096,662
Milk received by cheese-factories lb.2,244,198,4242,284,944,7272,098,329,367
Butterfat received lb.94,696,89497,136,86486,359,177
Value of materials used £14,337,53415,749,98415,990,918
Other expenses £1,290,9891,200,9191,280,562
Butter produced (including whey butter)—   
Quantity Cwt.2,974,7823,238,0383,157,055
Value £11,533,70812,679,43013,243,608
Cheese produced—   
Quantity Cwt.2,071,1812,135,5991,914,458
Value £4,482,6414,486,5104,066,899
Total value of output £16,612,98117,911,12918,172,547
Grain-mills.
Number of—
Mills485356
Persons engaged695747756
Salaries and wages paid £157,407167,475169,641
Wheat used—Quantity Bushels6,140,2296,305,5156,271,062
Total grain—Cost £1,703,8831,675,1671,657,542
Cost of other material £114,252121,184118,688
Other expenses £290,888306,097292,296
Flour produced Tons130,721133,624131,414
Oatmeal produced Tons4,4424,5884,139
Other oaten products for human consumption Tons3,0584,0553,242
Total value of output £2,384,3922,411,2572,320,611
1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
* Including beer duty.
Biscuit and Confectionery Making.
Number of—
Works585757
Persons engaged2,5122,7382,591
Salaries and wages paid £313,210312,012273,078
Flour used Tons3,8783,9245,247
Sugar used Tons6,0966,4166,908
Cost of other materials £401,992481,313516,701
Other expenses £287,200312,327235,816
Biscuits and confectionery made £1,174,6291,308,0811,387,824
Total value of products £1,246,7331,379,7601,481,575
Fruit-preserving and Jam-making.
Number of—   
Works11912
Persons engaged388347371
Salaries and wages paid £55,30248,83048,994
Fruit used Tons3,3173,9154,064
Cost of—
Fruit used £59,44653,59068,136
Sugar and other materials £106,61380,236111,211
Other expenses £28,93230,35231,362
Jams and jellies made—
Quantity Cwt.41,93434,19747,899
Value £126,815105,732144,879
Fruit bottled or canned £54,35052,15066,277
Other products—Value £96,70199,38190,986
Total value of output £277,866257,263302,142
Breweries and Malt-houses.
Number of—
Establishments ..505048
Persons engaged810807847
Salaries and wages paid £208,756193,782212,832
Barley used in production of malt Bushels434,856427,534497,271
Hops used Cwt.3,4543,5764,003
Sugar used Cwt.18,34518,70621,942
Total cost of materials used £300,629289,095343,008
Other expenses* £931,985960,0861,006,693
Ale brewed Gallons8,120,8408,141,0009,826,007
Stout brewed Gallons683,713696,446773,993
Value of output* £1,557,5571,571,3521,766,123
Aerated-water and Cordial Factories.
Number of—
Works123123127
Persons engaged541507531
Salaries and wages paid £100,96493,98199,878
Total cost of materials used £71,31270,22588,920
Other expenses £71,33966,06873,150
Aerated waters—In bottles Dozen1,378,6301,336,1301,728,782
Aerated waters—In bulk Gallons109,95097,858116,415
Cordials—In bottles Dozen39,46437,17652,893
Hop-beer—In bottles Dozen56,38047,93765,102
Hop-beer—In bulk Gallons63,42835,11552,065
Total value of manufactures £260,063249,789321,176
Sauce, Pickle, and Vinegar Making.
Number of—
Works201918
Persons engaged219237236
Salaries and wages paid £38,08639,94038,345
Cost of materials used £74,75773,89484,094
Other expenses of manufacture £34,01832,88838,560
Total value of manufactures £177,861176,561192,219
1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
† Not available.
Soap and Candle Works.
Number of—
Works232423
Persons engaged470468513
Salaries and wages paid £86,57085,20786,817
Cost of materials used £216,136210,664236,540
Other expenses £62,97654,46166,877
Soap manufactured Tons7,6337,3508,649
Soap-powder (including washing-powder) lb.2,989,0033,181,2683,720,979
Candles manufactured lb.2,424,9482,380,9892,472,825
Total value of products £467,393468,988536,235
Clothing Factories.
Number of works254249290
Number of persons engaged—
Males1,2781,3461,550
Females6,3386,5317,844
Salaries and wages paid—
To males £268,909275,671315,437
To females £538,297556,200637,407
Cost of materials used £1,212,4461,366,8781,560,631
Other expenses £272,178275,501336,160
Output—
Suits No.152,252172,050210,296
Shirts Dozen97,195104,597136,939
Hats and caps Dozen24,39426,58331,733
Total value of products £2,400,5992,631,1822,958,508
Hosiery Factories.
Number of—
Works323233
Persons engaged757913998
Salaries and wages paid £90,33295,763111,551
Cost of materials used £189,013204,022225,911
Other expenses £51,51561,58059,840
Total value of manufactures £365,327386,746440,089
Boot and Shoe Factories.
Number of works707176
Number of persons engaged—
Males1,3581,4391,472
Females9199901,069
Salaries and wages paid—
To males £253,436254,419251,439
To females £78,62581,97293,065
Cost of materials used—
New Zealand leather £259,162280,951289,115
Imported leather £118,333126,065132,950
Other materials £115,819134,041140,222
Total £493,314541,057502,287
Other expenses £115,685119,988131,398
Manufactures—
Adults’ boots and shoes Pairs1,445,2761,440,0101,548,475
Children's boots and shoes Pairs87,755153,261149,933
Slippers Pairs434,172689,251833,341
Uppers Pair9941,3732,166
Total value of manufactures £1,029,0111,064,5441,102,950
Flax-mills.
Number of—
Mills202321
Persons engaged213258316
Salaries and wages paid £27,34935,45642,160
Raw material used—
Quantity Tons20,56441,19639,216
Cost £15,97515,62911,443
Other expenses £18,75318,64323,048
Fibre dressed Tons3,9164,7704,860
Tow produced Tons738652778
Total value of output £54,65874,29180,711
Sawmills.
Number of—
Mills355422438
Persons engaged4,7875,3236,325
Salaries and wages paid £790,965859,4721,085,549
Cost of materials used £659,784747,256863,824
Other expenses £621,760670,000867,476
Sawn timber—
Quantity Ft.166,269,410197,654,900243,781,675
Value £1,144,6721,357,8801,769,280
Posts, rails, &c.—Value £5,4797,4076,708
Resawing, planed flooring, skirting, &c.—
Quantity Ft.36,430,18738,237,30843,207,248
Value £481,816528,854659,614
Doors and sashes—Value £62,26565,381115,232
Other products £343,550392,551429,378
Total value of output £2,037,7822,352,0732,980,212
Gasworks.
Number of—
Works464646
Persons engaged1,7871,7581,730
Salaries and wages paid £394,650384,202388,331
Coal used—   
Quantity Tons207,329203,669205,065
Cost £393,951378,698371,910
Other expenses £413,276397,611409,426
Total gas generated 1,000 cub. ft.3,961,6513,832,2643,817,166
Gas sold 1,000 cub. ft.3,338,4343,281,8283,263,004
Coke sold Tons65,00064,18164,863
Tar sold Gallons1,996,0751,994,7132,338,775
Total receipts £1,408,7121,377,2811,363,922
Total expenditure £1,201,8771,160,5111,169,667
Electric Current (see also Section XLIV).
Number of—
Works1009998
Persons engaged3,2393,2513,861
Salaries and wages paid £726,323730,483876,462
Horse-power available H.p.431,905429,020496,317
Fuel used—
Coal Tons24,9147,8057,740
Motor-spirit Gallons......
Crude oil Tons4,2341,043392
Units generated or purchased1,434,329,7261,488,520,5091,589,241,570
Revenue £4,541,5354,485,2834,640,462
Expenditure £4.532,0514,342,3654,468,992
Units retailed635,260,201667,289,250709,553,924
Lime and Cement Works.
Number of—
Works454550
Persons engaged688631704
Salaries and wages paid £134,842130,675144,617
Cost of materials used £101,937112,300123,301
Other expenses £179,361213,114194,759
Total value of output £483,849556,425582,784
Brick, Tile, and Pottery Works.
Number of—
Works444347
Persons engaged405467618
Salaries and wages paid £74,16782,664111,988
Cost of materials used £12,23714,27920,435
Other expenses £86,28081,678104,177
Bricks manufactured—   
Common No.7,704,89411,193,55621,328,524
Fire No.506,920461,616748,286
Total value of all bricks manufactured £47,42963,465104,878
Value of pottery manufactured £96,267117,880151,981
Total value of manufactures £180,785212,263285,164
Tinware and Sheet-metal Works.
Number of—
Works125125130
Persons engaged1,2621,2821,452
Salaries and wages paid £200,000197,655214,918
Cost of materials used £294,702344,350405,105
Other expenses £90,18185,97395,643
Total value of manufactures and repairs £628,294675,104763,082
Iron and Brass Foundries
Number of—
Works474441
Persons engaged529545074
Salaries and wages paid £94,69998,835113,215
Cost of materials used £55,88265,63989,439
Other expenses £43,53439,19242,594
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£189,060214,780203,844
Engineering-works.
Number of—
Works188181196
Persons engaged2,3292,2832,772
Salaries and wages paid £414,409398,721502,118
Cost of materials used £351,411402,005557,741
Other expenses £219,316214,646255,520
Total value of manufactures (including repairs) £974,4901,054,6431,413,701
Printing and Publishing Establishments.
Number of works362366373
Persons engaged—
Males No.6,0596,2466,503
Females No.1,3941,4981,576
Salaries and wages paid—
To males £1,300,4961,292,6411,356,152
To females £147,239151,491157,326
Cost of materials used £933,163630,659963,628
Other expenses £905,023911,215955,403
Total value of output £3,473,9872,525,1883,758,937
Agricultural and Dairying Machinery and Implement Making.
Number of—
Works373744
Persons engaged542532689
Salaries and wages paid £97,09495,301127,124
Cost of all materials used £158,001159,017253,571
Other expenses £51,60350,51461,900
Total value of manufactures (including repairs) £329,476338,049492,925
Coachbuilding and Motor and Cycle Engineering.
Number of—
Works1,0421,0241,077
Persons engaged4,5604,4915,473
Salaries and wages paid £731,296693,082889,439
Cost of materials used—
Coachbuilding £110,405123,001414,186
Motor engineering £682,887723,261703,528
Other expenses £325,737304,882353,508
Value of work done—
Coachbuilding £411,680466,220802,467
Motor engineering £1,483,5731,497,2771,768,496
Tanning.
Number of—
Works141315
Persons engaged465514531
Salaries and wages paid £96,20297,332100,668
Cost of materials used £241,730284,587294,150
Materials operated upon—
Sheep-skins No.665,962209,313178,048
Hides, pelts, &c. No.871,725483,510562,355
Bark used Tons1,7941,7911,796
Other expenses £62,42760,71163,839
Output—   
Scoured and slipe wool lb.868,760558,391595,255
Pelts No.678,909233,461258,940
Leather lb.4,652,2545,209,3035,475,485
Basils lb.363,381214,754208,458
Total value of output £437,296467,362492,604
Woolscouring and Fellmongering.
Number of—
Works333437
Persons engaged344366434
Salaries and wages paid £61,26665,26075,612
Cost of materials used £390,362824,536704,034
Materials operated upon—
Sheep-skins No.597,511565,4491,366,754
Greasy wool lb.19,994,48122,616,99619,742,196
Hides, pelts, &c. No.8,22134,34314,050
Other expenses £28,78536,16735,003
Principal products—
Scoured and slipe wool lb.14,360,43316,651,65317,299,748
Pelts No.41,006493,595452,364
Leather lb.215,383269,000327,111
Basils lb.4,000150
Pickled pelts No.448,706126,033754,243
Total value of all products £509,5921,025,953855,211
1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Woollen-mills.
Number of—
Mills101212
Persons engaged2,3492,4662,532
Salaries and wages paid £316,352326,156345,591
Scoured wool used—
Quantity lb.3,900,5474,037,3384,164,974
Cost £241,422294,105353,665
Cost of other materials used £82,18881,56876,736
Other expenses £154,015171,425175,455
Output—
Tweed and cloth Yards1,276,1441,347,7931,363,943
Flannel Yards865,726871,302934,137
Blankets Pairs110,668116,301127,112
Bugs and shawls No.39,20146,23643,854
Yarn lb.829,476809,884774,326
Total value £888,546976,8131,048, 849
Ship and Boat Building
Number of—
Establishments272426
Persons engaged460407585
Salaries and wages paid £93,48183,800111,538
Cost of materials used £48,15436,71373,995
Other expenses £20,87917,02630,753
Number of vessels built1245
Total value of manufactures and repairs £198,045166,811220,534
Furniture-making Works.
Number of—
Factories299281285
Persons engaged1,5841,5761,874
Salaries and wages paid £236,860233,300285,081
Cost of materials used £262,039269,244359,798
Other expenses £81,79073,38584,317
Total value of manufactures £611,019616,365773,810

Chapter 36. SECTION XXIII.—BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

WITHIN the short span of a century New Zealand has been transformed from a virgin wilderness into a country whose community enjoys all the amenities of modern social and industrial life. In the pioneer stages of colonization, the development of the resources of the Dominion demanded an almost mushroom growth of building and construction activity in the formation of railways, roads, and harbours, in addition to provision for the housing needs of a rapidly growing population. More recently the utilization of vast resources of water-power has involved major schemes of construction of hydro-electric stations in various parts of the Dominion, and the reticulation of practically the whole of the inhabited portion of the country. Land-settlement and the growth of factory industries have both required extensive building and construction works, rural and urban, while the increasing housing needs of a growing population are reflected in a steady long-term growth in the building of dwellings. The increase in trade and industry, and resultant growth of the towns has been accompanied by extensive construction of factories, shops, offices, warehouses, &c.

With the passing of the early stages of social and industrial development replacements of obsolete and obsolescent structures, and general maintenance have occupied a larger place in recent building and construction activity than was the case formerly; although, indeed, there have been new avenues of industry requiring further major building and construction operations. For example, the recent development of aviation in the Dominion required the formation of a chain of landing-grounds and air-ports, a work which is still being pushed forward; while the growth of motor traffic has necessitated a reorientation of roading policy, much new construction and extensive alterations to the surfaces of existing roads being required. The diversification of the Dominion's factory industries, in recent years, has involved extensive building operations—particularly in the engineering trades—while modernization of factory equipment, and of shop and office accommodation, has been responsible for a further appreciable proportion of building activity.

The building and construction industry is particularly sensitive to cyclical fluctuations in business conditions, and it is not surprising to note that in New Zealand marked changes in building activity coincide with the ebb and flow of trade and industry. Governmental policy in regard to public-works construction is, and has been, directed towards accelerating State activity in this direction in times of depression, with a view to alleviating the unemployment problem. While considerable success has been achieved on various occasions, at other times the expansion of public works has been prohibited by the straitened condition of the national finances. During the recent depression this factor resulted in the severe curtailment of public-works expenditure; although considerable assistance was given to private and public building enterprises through the agency of the Unemployment Fund. Private building, both of dwellings and business premises, suffered a severe setback during the years 1931–33; but since 1933—and more particularly since the beginning of 1935—a substantial revival in private building activity has taken place. Available statistics indicate severe declines in private building activity during previous depressions and subsequent periods of rapid recovery.

An interesting feature of building and construction activity in New Zealand is the absence of the marked seasonal decline in the winter months experienced in most countries. The Government in planning public works endeavours, with success, to make the period of greatest activity coincide with the slack season of the year for industry in general. Again, winters are not sufficiently severe, except in a few districts, to interfere materially with the building of dwellings or other construction work.

The function of the State in the stimulation of building and construction enterprise is twofold. Public works, involving both new construction and the maintenance of existing works, are in themselves responsible for a large percentage of the Dominion's total annual building and construction activity. Furthermore, the State encourages private building in various ways. The State Advances Department (see Section XXIVD of this Year-Book) has in the past done much to facilitate home building and land development, while State assistance has been also given in various other forms—e.g., subsidies from the Unemployment (now Employment Promotion) Fund.

While statistical evidence as to the growth of building of dwelling houses suggests that the rate of growth of dwellings in the Dominion as a whole has kept pace with the increase in housing needs directly attributable to the growth of population and the decrease in the size of the average family unit, it seems clear that the considerable variations in population growth, as between different localities, have produced a lack in the balance between available housing and requirements. In several towns where population has declined—mostly in localities where a mushroom growth and subsequent decline have resulted from the gold rushes of the “sixties” and “seventies”—there is ample housing accommodation for the needs of the present population; but, in many instances, the standard of comfort does not conform to modern requirements. Those towns and cities, founded early in the history of New Zealand and having made steady progress since, form another and more numerous class. In these localities there is still an appreciable percentage of old houses built in the early days of colonization, which urgently require modernization, or substitution by better-class homes. A third broad division exists in the areas which have progressed rapidly in recent years. In these instances a large proportion of modern homes of a high standard is to be found; but, with the fall in building activity consequent on the depression period, the growth of new buildings has fallen behind the housing requirements of an increasing population, so that there is an urgent need for fresh building on that account.

The question of improving housing conditions by the replacement of obsolete dwelling houses, and by the erection of further new buildings in localities where necessary, has recently received the attention of the Government. As a preliminary step towards a planned programme of housing reform, a Housing Survey Act was placed in the statute book in 1935, making provision for a detailed survey of existing housing-accommodation in relation to modern standards of living requirements.

The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, contains provision for the transfer of the administration of the Housing Act, 1919, to the Corporation and the opening of a special Housing Account with the Reserve Bank. It is the intention of the Government to pursue an active housing policy, making full use of the provisions in the Housing Act, by encouraging the building of dwellings to be let to workers at low rentals, and by arranging the necessary finance for workers to erect dwellings. The following passage from the Budget, 1936, indicates the Government's plans:—

“ Provision is made in the Housing Act for the erection of houses, and plans are in course of preparation to provide for the construction of some five thousand houses at a cost of approximately £3,000,000. It is hoped to erect some nine hundred houses before the end of the financial year. Finance will be available to local authorities for house building and full details of procedure will be sent to inquiring local bodies within the next few weeks.* Those who save to buy land upon which to erect their own homes may borrow a large proportion of the total cost at special low rates of interest—the interest and principal being repaid by small quarterly instalments spread over a period up to forty years. An interesting innovation in the Act is a provision under which the addition of a small sum to the principal of the mortgage to cover the life of the borrower enables the property on his death to be handed over to his widow free from all further payments.”

A Director of Housing has been appointed, and surveys, &c, have already (October, 1936) commenced.

* £1,500,000 has been made available to local bodies at 3 per cent, per annum.

THE LONG TERM TREND OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY.

A collection of annual statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts was initiated in 1921–22; while a monthly collection on a more restricted scale was begun in 1926. Since 1925–26 statistics have been collected directly from builders affording, inter alia, an analysis of costs, &c, not available from the building permit statistics. It will be realized that these statistics are of too recent origin to give an indication of the long term progress of building and construction. There are, however, extant certain statistical data from which the growth of building activity can be deduced. The following significant criteria have been selected as presenting an informative picture without the intrusion of too much detail:—

  1. Consumption of building materials—

    1. Production, plus imports less exports—i.e., approximate local consumption—of sawn timber.

    2. Imports of corrugated galvanized sheet-iron.

    3. Local production of bricks.

    4. Imports of channel and girder iron (since 1915).

    These data are presented in the following table at five-yearly intervals from 1880 to 1930 and annually since 1930.

  2. Relevant data from the population census are shown for each census date since 1871 (or earliest available date).

CONSUMPTION OF CERTAIN IMPORTANT BUILDING MATERIALS.

Year.Sawn Timber.Bricks.Corrugated Iron.Channel and Girder Iron.*
* Not available prior to 1915.
 Million Ft., B.M.Millions.Thousand Cwt.Thousand Cwt.
1880139·428·64·0*
1885184·334·76·9*
1890127·916·081·9*
1895157·319·0117·4*
1900214·641·3227·9*
1905272·570·6296·3*
1910231·863·6355·8*
1915195·549·4255·973·6
1920240·652·6367·442·4
1925357·072·9233·297·5
1930307·357·0353·1171·4
1931225·544·5206·6S2·2
1932133·112·7192·825·1
1933149·49·2200·128·1
1934173·812·7273·485·0
1935220·123·4305·099·8

Between 1880 and 1885 production of bricks increased by 21·3 per cent, and imports of corrugated sheet-iron by 72·5 per cent. The depression of the “nineties” is reflected in the sharp decreases in the figures for sawn timber and bricks shown for 1890—despite a material increase in population since the 1886 census. Imports of corrugated iron provide an interesting exception, this material evidently coming into use to a greater extent than formerly. An improvement in building activity is suggested by the statistics shown for 1895, building being no doubt stimulated by the fact that the first state Advances Act, passed in 1894, came into operation in 1895. The 1900 statistics indicate a substantial increase in building activity since 1895—considerably in excess of the population increase between the 1896 and 1901 census dates. The year 1905 would appear to have been a ,boom- year in respect of building activity, judging by the statistics shown for timber consumption and production of bricks. Imports of corrugated iron also display a material increase, though not to the same extent as other building materials. The depression of 1908–10 is reflected in a fall—as compared with 1905—in the 1910 statistics for timber and bricks; corrugated iron again being an exception.

The abnormal conditions created by the war are reflected in the figures for 1915, while the 1920 and 1925 statistics show substantial increases. In 1930 the effects of the depression on building activity were beginning to be felt, while the statistics from 1931 onwards illustrate the fall in the depression years and the recovery in 1934 and 1935.

Features of particular interest are the remarkable rise in imports of channel and girder iron between 1920 and 1930—a reflection of the increase of concrete buildings with a steel framework—and the decline in the production of bricks, which reached its maximum (for the years shown) in 1925. Imports of corrugated iron have also declined, the peak year shown in this instance being 1920. The use of this material for walls, fences, &c., was at one time widespread, but it has been largely replaced for these purposes by other materials.

CENSUS DATA.

In the following table the number of inhabited private dwellings (including flats, tenements, &c.) at each census date since 1871 is shown, while the movement in these figures is compared with inter-censal increases in population. Hotels and institutions are not included in the dwelling figures shown.

Census ofNumber of Private Dwellings.Inter-censal Increase in
Private Dwellings.Population.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
187157,182....
187461,3567·3016·82
187882,58634·6038·36
188195,75015·9418·2
1886111,97116·9418·07
1891123,85110·628·33
1896141,33914·1212·24
1901158,89812·429·86
1906184,45716·0914·99
1911215,42516·7913·49
1916238,06610·519·02
1921260,2299·3110·87
1926299,99715·2810·30

The rate of population growth exceeded that of private dwellings during each inter-censal period between 1871 and 1886; while each census between 1886 and 1916 revealed a greater increase in the number of private dwellings than in population. Except for the first and last periods shown in the table (1871–74 and 1921–26) there was, however, little disparity between the inter-censal increases shown by the two sets of figures. The growth in private dwellings between 1916 and 1921 was slightly less than the population increase, the five-yearly period between those years including the later years of the war. The increase in private dwellings between 1921 and 1926 exceeded considerably the population increase. The general trend since 1886 has been for the rate of increase of private dwellings to exceed the population increase, no doubt largely due to the decrease in the size of the average family.

The statistics of occupational and industrial distribution of the population and of unemployment; compiled as part of the census of population, indicate the growth of building and construction activity. Data are available in a comparable form back to the 1891 census, except for unemployment (1896).

PERSONS ENGAGED IN CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR OF BUILDINGS, ROADS, RAILWAYS, ETC.

Census ofWage-earners.Total Persons engaged.
Total.Employed.Unemployed.
Number.Inter censal Increase.Number.Per Cent. of Total.Number.Inter censal Increase.
* Decrease.
 Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
18918,836........12,601..
189611,53310,026..1,50713·0715,37822·04
190118,31517,43873·938774·7922,89248·86
190625,98624,81742·321,1694·5031,71538·54
191129,37128,50214·858692·9636,97916·60
191620,52319,782-30·60*7413·6127,319-26·12*
192125,63724,56924·201,0684·1733,59322·97
192634,98933,84937·771,1403·2643,30728·92

The statistics quoted above indicate a steady growth between census dates in both the total number of persons and of wage-earners engaged in the building and construction industry, with one exception (in 1916). The decline on that occasion is, however, attributable to war conditions, including the absence of an appreciable proportion of the male population of the working ages. Unemployment had not attained serious proportions on any census date, with the exception of 1896, when business conditions were abnormally depressed. From the statistics quoted in a later portion of this section (page 457) it will be apparent that the building and construction industry was exceptionally depressed during the years 1931·33, the number of persons engaged falling to very low levels.

The next table, compiled from the census data, indicates the long period changes in. the importance of the building and construction industry relative to that of other industries.

Year.Total Number of Persons gainfully occupied.Persons engaged In Building and Construction.
Number.Per Cent, of Total gainfully occupied Persons.
1891252,76312,6014·99
1896292,93215,3785·25
1901340,23022,8926·73
1906399,08531,7157·95
1911454,11736,9798·14
1916432,21627,3196·32
1921506,29333,5936·64
1926546,83943,3077·92

BUILDING PERMITS.—ANNUAL STATISTICS.

While the somewhat fragmentary statistics of consumption of building materials quoted under a previous heading afford an indirect indication of the long term movement in building and construction activity, direct evidence as to the changes in this industry, prior to 1922, are available only from the census data. Expenditure on public works by the General Government is included in this and previousissues of the Year-Book in the section relating to Public Finance. Statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts during each March year have been collected since 1921–22—for use, inter alia, as an aid in compiling inter-censal estimates of population. These statistics afford a conspectus of changes in building activity from year to year. It should be noted, however, that only buildings (including business premises, &c.) come within the purview of the returns of building permits; and, moreover, there are two other factors which impair somewhat the accuracy of the figures as a guide to short period fluctuations in building activity:—

  1. Permits may be issued and not made use of for a considerable time after they are taken out. Moreover, in some instances, permits may not be used at all. Neither of these facts should, however, affect seriously the reliability of the statistics as an indication of changes in building activity, since a fee is charged by local authorities for the issue of a permit; and a permit is not likely to be taken out until plans, &c, have been finalised and a definite decision to build arrived at.

  2. A more important consideration, which applies with special force to buildings other than dwelling houses, is the fact that the value shown represents, in the great majority of instances, the total contract price or estimated cost of the whole job. A permit for an exceptionally large building involves building activity spread over many months, whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown in a single year's totals only. This qualification applies with greater force to the monthly statistics, quoted in the next portion of this section, than to the annual statistics.

In 1926–27 certain road districts in Eden County (suburban to Auckland) were added, and in 1928–29 two counties (increased to four in 1929–30) adjacent to Wellington and Christchurch, were also incorporated in the collection.

The totals for all localities covered by the building permit statistics are given in the next table. The aggregate population of the areas covered by the statistics comprises approximately 62 per cent, of the total population of the Dominion. Although some 38 per cent, of the population resides in the rural areas outside the ambit of the statistical inquiry, it is probable that building activity in these areas accounts for only a very small percentage of the Dominion total.

BUILDING PERMITS.

Year ended 31st March.Number of New Private Dwellings.Value of New Buildings: All Classes.Value of Alterations and Additions.Total Value of al Building Operations.
 £££
1921–224,3304,602,834680,1785,283,012
1922–235,0256,124,439977,2427,101,681
1923–246,2457,708,9331,437,5469,146,479
1924–255,8057,823,3311,480,8299,304,160
1925–266,8508,613,5491,555,98110,169,530
1926–277,1799,357,9771,661,41211,019,389
1927–285,6908,127,7321,537,4849,665,216
1928–295,2127,326,4641,727,9579,054,421
1929–305,7477,917,3492,042,5289,959,877
1930–313,4634,240,2381,233,1575,473,395
1931–321,5551,936,447792,0392,728,486
1932–331,4961,874,795600,0712,474,866
1933–342,6493,141,897747,9933,889,890
1934–352,8922,742,495901,1933,643,688
1935–364,1404,695,7361,234,0675,929,803

The figures shown for the number of new private dwellings erected mirror the recent marked movements in building activity. A peak level was reached in1926–27, when 7,179 new dwellings were erected in localities covered by the statistics. The low point during the fifteen years covered by the table occurred in 1932–33, when only 1,496 new private dwellings were erected, a substantial recovery occurring in 1933–34. The 1935–36 statistics reveal a marked uplift as compared with the position for some years past.

The statistics of the total value of all building operations reveal marked fluctuations. The total value of £11,019,389 in 1926–27, the peak year covered by the table, probably represents the highest level in the history of the country. The value in 1932–33, the low point since 1921–22, was only 22·5 per cent, of the 1926–27 maximum. The 1935–36 total is 62·7 per cent, higher than that for 1934–35, and 139·6 per cent, higher than the total for 1932–33 (the low point). The statistics of permits issued for new private dwellings afford a striking indication of the extent of the fall, and—in 1934–35 and 1935–36—the recovery in the volume of building of dwelling houses. Only 1,496 permits were issued for the erection of new dwellings in 1932–33, a fall of 80 per cent, as compared with the total in 1926–27 (the peak year). The 1935–36 figure (4,140) represents an increase of 176 per cent, over the 1932–33 total; but is still substantially below the pre-depression average.

As indicated later in this section, there has been a substantial fall in the average value of dwellings erected as compared with average values in 1929–30 and previous years. Not only have building costs declined, but there has also been evident a tendency towards building a less expensive type of dwelling. The statistics of total value of all building operations show a very substantial fall; but it is probable that the fall in the volume of building activity as a whole, though very considerable, has been materially less than the fall in value owing to lower costs.

The Dominion aggregate statistics quoted in the preceding paragraphs relate only to the main types of building activity. More detailed statistics are included in the Annual Report on Population and Buildings, where, inter alia, permit statistics for individual towns and certain urban districts are given.

A detailed summary of the Dominion totals for the last three years follows:—

BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED.
 1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Private dwellings—
  New buildings—
    Number2,6492,8924,140
    Value£1,597,035£1,997,482£3,074,774
  Value of alterations and additions£304,004£327,455£421,456
Other buildings—
  New buildings—
    Number486525771
    Value£1,544,862£745,013£1,620,962
  Value of alterations and additions£443,989£573,738£812,611
Total—
  New buildings—
    Number3,1353,4174,911
    Value£3,141,897£2,742,495£4,695,736
  Value of alterations and additions£747,993£901,193£1,234,067

Blocks of flats, which numbered six in 1933–34, thirty-four in 1934–35, and twenty-two in 1935–36, are included with private dwellings. New private dwellings for 1935–36 show an increase of 1,248 in number and £1,077,292 in value compared with the previous year. Increases both in number and value have been recorded during the last four years, and it is noted that the average value per dwelling has increased considerably. In 1932–33 the average value was £575; in 1933–34, £603; in 1934–35, £691; and in 1935–36, £743.

New “other buildings” increased by 246 in number and £875,949 in value, while the value of alterations and additions to existing buildings increased by £332,874 on the figures for the previous year.

The following table arranges districts with minimum building values of £50,000 in 1935–36 in descending order:—

 £
Wellington City1,057,839
Auckland City710,447
Christ-church City445,950
Dunedin City347,911
Lower Hutt Borough236,370
Invercargill City200,767
Palmerston North City171,484
Hastings Borough140,387
Timaru Borough133,683
Napier Borough102,993
Hamilton Borough102,953
Nelson City86,003
New Plymouth Borough81,336
Mount Roskill Road District76,896
Petone Borough75,870
Mount Albert Borough70,093
Mount Eden Borough70,072
One Tree Hill Borough60,159
Hutt County58,389
Whangarei Borough55,735
Masterton Borough53,825
Greymouth Borough53,724
Waimairi County52,275
Rotorua Borough50,571

MONTHLY PERMIT STATISTICS.

While the annual statistics of building permits issued afford an indication of changes in the annual value and volume of building activity, short period movements in building activity are of considerable interest, particularly in times of rapid economic change. With the purpose of providing information as to current changes in building activity, the Census and Statistics Department initiated in 1926 the collection of monthly statistics of building permits issued in the larger towns. Although the monthly returns are not on such a comprehensive basis as the annual collection of these statistics, nevertheless, towns with an aggregate population of 783,000 are covered, so that the sample forms a sufficient representation of the Dominion as a whole.

In the first table following, the number of permits for new dwellings and the total value represented by all permits issued in the larger towns are shown for each month since January, 1929; while the statistics are shown in greater detail from January, 1935, in the second table:—

BUILDING PERMITS IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

Month.Year.
1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
New Dwellings.
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.
January3883351209484188233291
February3742891139263162195250
March3773241036590136225255
April377267876362107204275
May469306935185113239337
June38230090734797213340
July4822871007917979226344
August4532749180211149294319
September461172102122233247312273
October475298105119211303321..
November42620510173264246315..
December28914369100203179261..
All Permits.
 ££££££££
January645,120665,956229,606185,946125,312263,829257,191407,961
February648,338552,294239,089126,65396,812405,133259,379517,974
March652,073826,983257,097124,962301,279613,297332,076458,072
April672,284404,106179,044134,19676,028146,822537,172435,463
May853,759540,296187,225112,61398,369272,335346,367422,956
June840,142516,952208,515120,808146,410151,038282,063512,626
July857,948565,086292,309210,342183,886170,753301,384561,382
August782,916420,698239,693213,949247,082212,099391,505486,963
September827,063435,023237,892213,524590,720297,231416,044440,237
October796,792494,986177,357193,716259,923391,883399,403..
November766,748314,585153,027191,999264,596327,020486,546..
December580,116257,150143,386165,222214,670273,653354,107..

The monthly average number of permits issued for the erection of new dwellings in 1929 was 413, while, in 1932—the lowest year shown in the table—the average was only eighty-four. The actual low point was reached in June, 1933, when only forty-seven permits were issued for new dwellings.

It will be observed that the statistics of value of all permits display at times violent month to month changes. This is due to the influence on the figures of permits which may be taken out for exceptionally large undertakings in any one month, the actual work being spread over a considerable period. Nevertheless, the figures indicate clearly a sharp fall late in 1930 and during 1931 and 1932. In June, 1932, the late Unemployment Board initiated a building subsidy scheme, which was, no doubt, largely responsible for the better showing evident in the figures for the later months of the year as compared with those for the earlier months. On completion of the building activity stimulated by the subsidy a further setback became apparent, some of the early months of 1933 showing exceptionally low permit figures, particularly in respect of dwellings. The substantial revival indicated by the statistics for the later months of 1933 was due largely to the influence of a second subsidy scheme, which came into operation in June, 1933. The general trend in the statistics since the end of 1933 has been upwards, with minor recessions. Further building subsidy schemes were in operation in 1934, 1935, and 1936, the schemes terminating on 1st October, 1936; while, as indicated earlier in this section, Governmental plans for the stimulation of a substantial revival in building were made public in the 1936 Budget.

The statistics for the past twelve months indicate that the volume of building activity is being maintained at a much higher level than for some years past.

DETAILED STATISTICS, JANUARY, 1935, TO SEPTEMBER, 1936.

Month.Alterations to Existing Buildings.New Buildings.Totals.
Number.Value.Dwellings only.Totals.Number.Value.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
 £ £ £ £
January, 193539540,916233178,608254216,275649257,191
February, 193546070,255195164,963240189,124700259,379
March, 193560381,282225165,428276250,794879332,076
April, 193563575,212204135,895239461,960874537,172
May,193562178,763239186,227279267,404900346,167
June, 193550084,769213150,253241197,294741282,063
July, 193563095,402226191,143268295,982898391,384
August, 1935579109,057294228,185341282,448920391,505
September, 1935587121,449312244,380344294,555931416,004
October, 193564574,256321245,726378325,1471,023399,403.
November, 193555263,110315290,188352423,436904486,546
December, 193550576,810261215,691297277,297802354,107
January, 193647175,358291230,647336332,603807407,961
February, 1936571113,621250195,725307404,353878517,974
March, 193680695,365255204,257305362,7071,111458,072
April, 1936752103,552275222,055299331,9111,051435,463
May, 193670198,265337269,386376324,6911,077422,956
June, 1936712127,755340279,016370384,8711,082512,626
July, 1936668143,727344303,761437417,6551,105561,382
August, 1936673132,877319279,094361354,0861,034486,963
September, 1936692123,835273230,648314316,4021,006440,237

SEASONAL MOVEMENTS IN BUILDING ACTIVITY.

Since the collection of monthly building permit statistics was begun only in 1926, there are only four “normal.” years available from which to form an estimate of the normal seasonal fluctuations in building operations. With such a short period, the influence of fortuitous circumstances in the figures for any particular month cannot be entirely eliminated.

The following table, showing the percentage the value of permits issued in each month bears to the annual total, indicates a lack of any marked seasonal element:—

Month.1926.1927.1928.1929.Average, 1926–29.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
January67978
February881078
March1010879
April86687
May788108
June11711910
July8911109
August88898
September109899
October9138910
November99798
December66666
Totals100100100100100

It will be observed that the lowest month is December, due, no doubt, to the cessation of work caused by the holiday period; while April (in which month Easter usually falls) is also a relatively low month. The figures for other months do not show any marked seasonal trend, a noteworthy feature being the relatively high position occupied by the winter months. When activity on construction works is also taken into account, the lack of a winter decline is even more marked, as is illustrated by the employment statistics shown in the Employment and Unemployment section of this Year-Book.

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION STATISTICS.

While the building permit statistics give an indication of the movement in building activity in the areas covered by the statistics, they are incomplete in that rural building activity is not covered; while, again, the information so obtained does not give any indication of construction activity apart from buildings. A further point is that an analysis of the distribution of the costs of building is not possible from the permit statistics. Since 1925, however, an annual collection of statistics of building and construction, on the same lines as the returns of t factory production, has been made.

SCOPE OF STATISTICS.

The regulations empowering the collection of the statistics define the term “building and contracting establishment” as including establishments engaged in the construction or repair of buildings, wharves, jetties, bridges, or other construction work which employ two or more hands, inclusive of working proprietors.

The returns collected refer principally to the year ended 31st March. Where the ordinary financial year ends on a date other than the 31st March, figures are accepted in respect of the financial year, provided the last day falls within the three months immediately preceding or following the 31st March.

The statistics of building and construction do not include the construction of railways, roads, streets, bridges, wharves, buildings, &c, by the General Government or by local authorities, except where, in the case of bridges, wharves, buildings, and other similar constructions, the work has been carried out by contract. Reference to construction by the Public Works Department is made in Section XXIVA. Particulars are included in the following tables in respect of a few local authorities which have a special staff engaged on repairing and making alterations to existing structures.

From the nature of the industry it is obviously impossible to collect returns from all who engage in building operations, and undoubtedly many who only intermittently undertake building contracts or whose operations are small do not furnish returns. Nevertheless, the statistics cover a large proportion of building operations throughout the Dominion, all builders and contractors engaged in a. large way or on big contracts, and the majority of others regularly undertaking building and construction work, being included among those from whom returns are received.

Special efforts were made to get in touch with all builders for the 1934–35 collection, and a considerable part of the large increase in the totals shown for that year is no doubt due to this factor. It is probable that a considerably greater proportion of building activity (both urban and rural) is covered by the statistics for 1934–35 than was the case in previous years.

During the ten years ended on 31st March, 1935, the value of building permits issued in urban localities was £68,081,758, whereas the value of work done during that period by builders furnishing building and construction returns was £64,185,240.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

The explanations given hereunder will be found of assistance in interpreting the terms used in connection with the statistics:—

  1. (a) Average Number of Persons engaged.—This represents the sum of the persons engaged each month during the year covered, divided by twelve.

  2. (b) Cost of Materials used.—Included under this heading is the cost of timber, cement, bricks, &c, used, together with the amounts paid to sub-contractors where work such as plumbing, painting, electrical installation, joinery, &c, was carried out by sub-contractors.

  3. (c) Other Expenses of Operation.—This heading comprises expenditure on fuel and power, insurance, depreciation, &c.

  4. (d) Value of Work done.—This represents the total contract-price, of the work actually commenced and finished during the year. Where contracts were not commenced and finished within the period covered, the value of the work done was assessed as being a proportion of the total contract-price equal to the proportion that the total expenditure during the period bears to the total estimated expenditure on the contract.

SUMMARY OF STATISTICS.

The figures quoted in the following table illustrate the scope of the inquiry at each annual collection of these statistics:—

Year.Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials (including Payments to Subcontractors).Value of Buildings completed during Year.Total Value of Work done.
 ££££
1925–269789,9422,429,8314,957,1074,528,6208,153,383
1926–2795810,7452,532,9005,132,8285,412,7898,714,743
1927–281,03210,5002,417,6694,968,1915,366,4228,418,463
1928–291,45711,7032,736,5886,224,8267,136,8489,704,062
1929–301,31011,3122,665,4586,010,1136,790,5829,407,881
1930–311,1529,5052,096,4204,600,0595,522,0227,216,627
1931–328304,869920,0101,955,1381,815,6703,073,418
1932–338213,922662,0361,446,8571,407,0902,227,488
1933–348294,459712,3991,707,7321,555,5632,553,719
1934–351,3196,8521,177,0903,315,0183,091,8504,715,456

While the movements in the figures—particularly as between 1934–35 and previous years—must be interpreted with caution, in view of the variations in the size of the sample, a severe decline in building activity during 1930–31 to 1932–33 is clearly indicated.

CLASSIFICATION BY DISTRICTS.

The subjoined table shows the principal statistics for the year 1934–35:—

Provincial District.Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials (including Payments to Subcontractors).Value of Buildings completed during Year.Total Value of Work done.
 ££££
Auckland3641,606281,033851,162867,2881,185,233
Hawke's Bay8342469,921195,572205,032286,124
Taranaki5327039,381100,623112,485146,465
Wellington2901,687296,268836,183713,3221,199,179
Marlborough17659,64820,27615,95932,103
Nelson3418131,50363,68064,11199,985
Westland116910,86720,19622,20733,317
Canterbury2351,353239,459612,268630,163881,433
Otago145882148,912417,477257,904592,134
Southland8731550,098197,581203,379259,483
Totals1,3196,8521,177,0903,315,0183,091,8504,715,456

Of the total number of persons finding employment in building and construction operations covered by the returns in 1934–35, no fewer than 3,293, or 48 per cent., were located in the Auckland and Wellington Provincial Districts.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The number of persons engaged (including working proprietors, but excluding sub-contractors) and the salaries and wages paid to these during the year 1934–35 are given hereunder. The figure shown in respect of salaries and wages of proprietors is the aggregate amount drawn in lieu of salary or wages.

Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.
Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.
  £££
Proprietors1,411..1,411213,449..213,449
Managers and overseers142..14243,229..43,229
Accountants, clerks, &c.836414713,1995,96819,167
Wage-earners5,152..5,152901,245..901,245
Totals6,788646,8521,171,1225,9681,177,090

The following table shows, for each of the last ten years, the number of persons engaged, classified according to occupational status, together with the total salaries and wages paid to each group, and also the average payment received per person engaged.

Year.Proprietors.Managers and Overseers.Accountants, Clerks,&cWage-earners.Total.
Persons engaged.
1925–261,1572342058,3469,942
1926–271,0492562369,20410,745
1927–281,1462682418,84510,500
1928–291,5652542879,59711,703
1929–301,4442162869,36611,312
1930–311,2812452457,7349,505
1931–329231501453,6514,869
1932–339001311312,7603,922
1933–348961371313,2954,459
1934–351,4111421475,1526,852
Salaries and Wages paid.
 £££££
1925–26341,55097,19345,3531,945,7352,429,831
1926–27313,337107,21143.8652,068,4872,532,900
1927–28318,412110,11643,4601,945,6812,417,669
1928–29431,744110,80146,1642,147,8792,736,588
1929–30401,012102,09347,3192,115,0342,665,458
1930–31331,41394,94141,8151,628,2512,096,420
1931–32180,21156,67323,812659,314920,010
1932–33140,21142,93217,753461,140662,036
1933–34135,28140,27216,282520,564712,399
1934–35213,44943,22919,167901,2451,177,090
Average Amount of Salary or Wages.
 £££££
1925–26295415221233244
1926–27299419186225236
1927–28278411180220230
1928–29276436161224234
1929–30278473165226236
1930–31259388171211221
1931–32195378164181189
1932–33156328136167169
1933–34151294124158160
1934–35151304130175172

The decline in the building trade consequent upon the economic depression is clearly illustrated in the table. The amounts shown above as salaries and wages. of proprietors represent amounts drawn in lieu of salaries and wages.

WEEKLY RATES OF WAGES.

Returns as to employees and wages in a selected week are collected each year. The period covered is the nearest normal week to 31st March, and the data collected include the number of employees engaged at each wage rate, as well as the total employees and the total earnings during the specified week. Working proprietors, managers, overseers, accountants, and clerks do not come within the scope of the return, which covers wage-earning employees only.

The following table gives the number of wage-earning employees engaged at the various weekly rates of wages for the nearest normal week to 31st March in the years 1929, 1931, and 1933 to 1935:—

Rate of Wages.Year.
1929.1931.1933.1934.1935.
Under 20s. 169794792138
20s. and under25s.1801804649111
25s.and under30s.10284273031
30s. and under35s.2582381008263
35s. and under40s.2171631216538
40s. and under45s.13791596672
45s. and under50s.22024015912273
50s. and under55s.14596614530
55s. and under60s.5550205455
60s. and under65s.1355352101118
65s. and under70s.802274222200
70s. and under75s.6880177350660
75s. and under80s.9166115229307
80s. and under85s.799724117717436
85s. and under90s.8814497481,3082,227
90s. and under95s.319220276175489
95s. and under100s.42334816490174
100s. and under105s.1,5281,529715473
105s. and under110s347171462734
110s. an under115s1,8041,108364358
115s. and under120s.1879251211
120s. and under130s741333281926
130s. and under140s.3131316410
140s. and under160s.203116546
160s. and over 7750345
Number of employees9,4796,7132,5633,9645,451
Aggregate earnings during week£43,190£29,168£9,208£14,457£20,636
Average earnings during week£4 11s. 2d.£4 6s. 11d.£3 11s. 10d.£3 12s. 11d.£3 15s. 9d.

It will be observed that the highest individual class in 1933, 1934, and 1935 is the S5s.-90s. group; whereas in 1929 the group U0s.-115s. contained more wage-earners than any other groups.

MONTHLY EMPLOYMENT.

The next table gives the number of wage-earning employees engaged on the fifteenth or nearest representative day for each of the calendar years 1928, 1933, and 1934:—

Month.1928.1933.1934.
January9,4642,3843,788
February9,6262,2743,913
March9,6382,2134,204
April9,3732,0434,154
May9,6002,0804,366
June9,5412,0594,448
July9,5712,2264,489
August9,7732,8344,567
September9,7813,3454,877
October9,8543,9875,475
November9,8714,2015,628
December9,8394,1895,638

The decline in the 1933 and 1934 figures as compared with those for 1928 is very marked, while the absence of a seasonal decline in the winter months is another interesting feature of the statistics.

VALUE OF WORK DONE.

The value of work done by builders furnishing returns in each year is classified below according to the nature of the work done. The figures shown in respect of bridges, wharves, and “other” construction do not include construction work done by the General Government or by local authorities, except where such work is carried out on contract by private firms or individuals.

Year.Buildings.Bridges, Wharves.Other Construction.Jobbing and Repairs.Total.
Value.
 £££££
1925–266,577,67612,914240,7961,207,9978,153,383
1926–276,269,513294,1001,088,1831,062,9478,714,743
1927–286,204,96686,9651,009,5111,117,0218,418,463
1928–297,666,096201,534344,2631,492,1699,704,062
1929–307,294,729197,790280,8231,634,5399,407,881
1930–315,230,024233,589289,4911,463,5237,216,627
1931–321,873,87792,623161,816945,1023,073,418
1932–331,445,62866,31936,735678,8062,227,488
1933–341,730,67576,68662,668683,6902,553,719
1934–353,560,181110,051114,052931,1724,715,456
Per Cent, of Total.
1925–2680·671·562·9514·82100·00
1926–2771·943·3712·4912·20100·00
1927–2873·711·0311·9913·27100·00
1928–2979·002·083·5515·37100·00
1929–3077·542·102·9817·38100·00
1930–3172·473·244·0120·28100·00
1931–3260·973·015·2730·75100·00
1932–3364·902·981·6530·47100·00
1933–3467·773·002·4526·78100·00
1934–3575·502·332·4119·76100·00

Jobbing and repair work accounted for a considerably greater percentage of total work done during 1931–34 than in previous years, or in 1935.

OPERATING COSTS IN RELATION TO VALUE OF WORK DONE.

Following is an analysis of operating costs and their relationship to the total value of work done:—

Year.Operating Costs.Value of Work done.
Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials.Other Expenses.Total Costs.

* Difference between total costs and total value of work done.

† Excess of costs.

Amounts.
 £££££
1925–262,429,8314,957,107277,8097,064,7478,153,383
1926–272,532,9005,132,828298,3867,964,1148,714,743
1927–282,417,6694,968,191311,7447,697,6048,418,463
1928–292,736,5886,224,826286,8109,248,2249,704,062
1929–302,665,4586,010,113337,5439,013,1149,407,881
1930–312,096,4204,600,059307,8677,004,3467,216,627
1931–32920,0101,955,138193,7563,068,9043,073,418
1932–33662,0361,446,857146,3732,255,2662,227,488
1933–34712,3991,707,732137,6582,557,7892,553,719
1934–351,177,0903,315,018181,5614,673,6694,715,456
Per Cent, of Total Value.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.*
1925–2629·8060·803·4194·015·99
1926–2729·0658·903·4291·388·62
1927–2828·7259·023·7091·448·56
1928–2928·2064·152·9695·314·69
1929–3028·3363·883·5995·804·20
1930–3129·0563·744·2797·062·94
1931–3229·9363·616·3099·840·16
1932–3329·7264·966·57101·25-l·25
1933–3427·9066·875·39100·16-0·16
1934–3524·9670·303·8599·110·89

The figures shown for salaries and wages relate to the salaries and wages of those directly engaged by builders plus amounts drawn by builders in lieu of salary and wages. Payments to sub-contractors are included in cost of materials, the only possible classification, since the returns are collected from builders and not from sub-contractors—e.g., plumbers, electricians, &c.—also. A considerable proportion of the amounts paid to sub-contractors will be expended in wages, which consideration applies, of course, in the case of other “materials” also.

The marked upward trend in the ratio of total costs to the value of work done indicates the extent to which the industry was affected by the depression. It will be observed that in 1932–33 and 1933–34 costs (including amounts drawn by builders in lieu of wages) exceeded the total value of work done in those years. A marked fall in average amounts of salaries and wages of employees and in amounts drawn by proprietors in lieu of salary and wages is indicated by the-averages quoted in a preceding table.

NEW BUILDINGS COMPLETED.

A classification of the new buildings included in the returns for the past ten years is given in the following table:—

Year.Private Dwellings.Blocks of Flats.*Business Premises.Other.Total.
* Not classified separately prior to 1930–31, but included in “other.”
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
1925–263,205..3755284,108
1926–273,064..5316704,265
1927–282,761..5486783,987
1928–293,837..7359975,569
1929–303,868..7831,4546,105
1930–312,590304571,0584,135
1931–321,06882745281,878
1932–3398252164361,639
1933–341,446291874922,154
1934–352,511343228043,671
Value.
 £££££
1925–262,928,738..1,168,247431,6354,528,620
1926–272,759,236..1,822,194831,3595,412,789
1927–282,480,685..2,046,324839,4135,366,422
1928–293,311,328..2,708,9691,116,5517,136,848
1929–303,277,283..2,365,0361,148,2636,790,582
1930–312,196,857126,3281,866,3881,332,4495,522,022
1931–32796,70311,422572,855434,6901,815,670
1932–33590,0964,427525,155287,4121,407,090
1933–34869,71430,952394,148260,7491,555,563
1934–351,637,56455,936923,202475,1483,091,850

A considerable proportion of the buildings classified as “other” is accounted for by garages erected.

STATISTICS OF PRIVATE DWELLINGS.

Following is an analysis of the statistics of private dwellings included in the returns for the last six years:—

1929–30.Number of Rooms.Number of Dwellings.
1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
One11511139543956
Two18510362565387
Three217161998988138
Four1,038595271287447722
Five1,4961,099369327544972
Six545346143103191360
Seven1428036274892
Eight624323201948
Nine162169714
Ten3419106413
Over ten181210469
Totals3,8682,5901,0689821,4462,511
Number of Rooms.Number of Dwellings.
1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Value of Dwellings.
 ££££££
One12,41611,5953,2204,5853,2004,807
Two36,12120,88110,5598,6388,21413,861
Three78,78662,87632,60824,17424,83339.831
Four718,057404,149146,217131,458196,527362,662
Five1,318,706933,133286,866216,911348,833654,433
Six595,108389,369141,91198,703163,794313,776
Seven211,188122,96945,89033,42456,937108,652
Eight117,89982,75341,30626,71427,41870,158
Nine35,90352,09514,96517,3039,77323,670
Ten79,13653,19520,02315,7597,57226,758
Over ten73,96363,84253,13812,42722,61318,956
Totals3,277,2832,196,857796,703590,096869,7141,637,564

The classification of number of dwellings according to size shows that, throughout the whole period, five rooms was the most frequent size, followed by four-roomed dwellings. The predominance of four- and five-roomed dwellings is very marked, while only a very small proportion of the totals is accounted for by dwellings of over six rooms.

The next table affords an indication of the movements in values of dwelling houses. As stated previously, all statistics of value quoted in this section relate to the value of building operations, and do not include the value of the land on which the buildings are erected.

Number of Rooms.Private Dwellings: Average Values.
1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Per Dwelling.
One10810483858286
Two196203170154154160
Three363391329272282289
Four692679540458440502
Five881849777663641673
Six1,0921,125992958858872
Seven1,4871,5371,2751,2381,1861,181
Eight1,9021,9241,7961,3361,4431,464
Nine2,2442,4802,4941,9231,3961,691
Ten2,3282,8002,0022,6271,8932,058
Over ten3,5475,3205,3143,1073,7692,106
Per Room.
One10810483858286
Two9810285777780
Three121130110919496
Four173170135115110120
Five176170156133128135
Six182188165160143145
Seven212220182177169169
Eight238241225167180183
Nine249276277214155188
Ten233280200263189206

Recent statistics of average value per dwelling show a marked decline as compared with the average values for the years 1929–30 and 1930–31. The fall is in a large measure due to decreased building costs; but the figures suggest also a move towards a cheaper type of dwelling.

The table below gives the number and values of four-, five-, and six-roomed dwellings built, together with the average value per dwelling, in the four main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—for the years 1928–29 and 1934–35:—

City.Number of Dwellings erected.
Four Rooms.Five Rooms.Six Rooms.Four Rooms.Five Rooms.Six Rooms.
 1928–29.1934–35.
Auckland1291725510613559
Wellington18435890598733
Christchurch2302086310113243
Dunedin62160301687137
Values.
 ££££££
Auckland87,247137,40759,39147,34281,43750,298
Wellington158,975379,038116,82136,06466,41031,131
Christchurch159,000176,86764,66757,15492,74337,305
Dunedin50,057154,37840,47243,41755,16940,233
Average Value per Dwelling.
 ££££££
Auckland6767991,080447603853
Wellington8641,0591,298611763943
Christchurch6918501,026566703868
Dunedin8079651,3496387771,087

The salient feature of the foregoing table is that the average value per dwelling is considerably higher in Wellington and Dunedin than in either Auckland or Christchurch. Auckland and Christchurch are, of course, much nearer to sources of supply of suitable timbers than Wellington and Dunedin.

It must not be assumed, however, that the variations in the average value per dwelling shown, as between the four centres are accounted for entirely by differences in building costs. In the first place, there may be quite material differences as between one city and another in the average standard of comfort of dwellings erected in any one year. Furthermore, the minimum requirements embodied in the building regulations in force are not identical in each centre, due partly to differences in terrain, seismicity, &c.

Chapter 37. SECTION XXIV.—PUBLIC FINANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1926, which consolidated and amended the then existing enactments on the subject. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post and Telegraph Department, the Government Insurance Department, the Public Trust Office, the Native Trust Office, the State Advances Corporation, the State Fire and Accident Insurance Office, the various Public Service Superannuation Funds, the National Provident Fund, the National Broadcasting Service, and the Dairy Industry Account, are paid into one account at the bank called the “Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following funds or accounts in the books of the Treasury: The Consolidated Fund, the Public Works Fund, separate accounts or funds specially created. The Public Account, formerly held at the Bank of New Zealand, was taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand from 1st August, 1934.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The revenue of any financial year is the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year, together with that received into the Public Account at London, of which advice is received in time for inclusion in the accounts for the year. The expenditure is the money paid (a) at the Treasury within the year, (b) by imprestees of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year, and (c) at London of which advice is received in time for inclusion.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Act of that year lapses, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The normal practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year and to vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed. Where a later session of Parliament is foreseen, as has happened in both 1933–34 and 1935–36, a temporary amendment to the provisions set out in the preceding paragraph is made. In the event of a mid-session adjournment supplies in anticipation of the Appropriation Act are voted for more than one month, as, for instance, at the beginning of June, 1936, when three months' supplies were voted.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.

In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees, temporary officers, and officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; unauthorized expenditure; transfers between Government accounts; or expenditure chargeable against the accounts of local bodies. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

GROSS TRANSACTIONS OF ACCOUNTS.

Recent years have witnessed the cutting out of many small accounts and their merging with other accounts or funds. Accounts and funds which were included in the Public Account during 1935–36 are fisted in the table on the next page, which shows for each the year's transactions and the balance at the beginning and end of the year. For reasons that will be apparent later, the figures of gross transactions afford no indication of actual receipts and payments.

The State Advances Account covering State advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities, together with several minor accounts dealing with advances for various purposes, which are administered directly by the State Advances organization, are not included; nor are the other funds mentioned in the first paragraph on the preceding page. Particulars concerning these funds and the working of the Departments concerned will be found elsewhere in this book.

Account.Balance, 1st April, 1935.Receipts.*Credits.Payments.*Balance, 31st March, 1936.
* Excluding credits.† Now Employment Promotion Fund.
Consolidated Fund—£££££
 Ordinary Revenue204,83536,664,3685,223,57536,389,567479,636
 Local Bodies16,78247,026..51,92911,879
Deposits1,342,0631,836,112..1,794,7861,383,389
Public Works Fund—     
 General Purposes1,193,3312,463,1651,245,0031,753,8451,902,651
 Electric Supply332,458994,94421,1811,109,798217,604
 Electric Supply Sinking Fund1,66916,686..80017,555
Bank of New Zealand Shares1,859,375164,062..164,0621,859,375
Discharged Soldiers Settlement594,1481,581,050..2,023,447151,751
Land for Settlements269,981719,27510,773660,510328,746
Loans Redemption476,40015,013,208..14,905,025584,583
Loans Redemption—Part II, Conversion..1,915..1,915..
Main Highways—Construction Fund182,136373,00097,203553,2681,868
Revenue Fund33,5682,118,386116,7872,064,43187,523
Public Debt Repayment3,4691,543,133..1,440,215106,387
Remittances from London..........
Remittances to London..9,244,000..9,244,000..
Reserve Fund339,22828,70815615,439352,497
Silver and Bronze Coin558,426306,000..229,673634,753
State Advances Loan171....171..
State Coal-mines71,073228,7681,254223,96975,872
State Coal-mines Sinking Fund8,5918,821..8,5908,822
State Forests41,852108,4573,748135,74414,565
Unemployment Fund1,332,9463,956,61722,9354,882,852406,711
Working Railways1,840,1746,714,238413,6886,757,7561,796,656
Totals10,702,67684,131,9397,156,30384,411,79210,422,823

Of the total balances of the various accounts (£10,422,823) as at the 31st March, 1936, £3,871,824 represented cash, £335,087 imprests, and £6,215,912 investments.

NET RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

In ascertaining the aggregate net receipts and payments of a financial year it is always necessary to deduct substantial amounts from the figures of gross receipts and payments. Special factors operating during 1933–34 and 1934–35 swelled the gross transactions to a figure ten times greater than the net receipts and payments in the former year and five times greater in the latter.

Many of the accounts have their receipts and payments increased through the transfer of moneys from one account to another. Some of these transfers rank as credits, and are not included as receipts or payments in the table under the previous heading. The principal transfers between accounts which are treated as credits in reduction of expenditure are recoupments to the Consolidated Fund in respect of interest paid by that fund on loan-money.

There are, however, substantial transfers between accounts (or between items of an account) which rank as receipts of the receiving account. These are not always disclosed in the published statements, but an approximate total can be arrived at. This is found to have been in the neighbourhood of £6,400,000 for the year 1935–36. The principal item was the transfer of £1,975,945, representing motor-vehicles taxation, from the Consolidated Fund to the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account. Next in importance was the transfer of £1,543,087 from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Debt Repayment Account in accordance with the scheme of debt-reduction.

On the other hand, the Consolidated Fund received a good deal of revenue from other accounts, the principal items being £1,051,477 from the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability, £164,063 by way of dividends first paid into the Bank of New Zealand Shares Account, and £200,000 from the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account as interest on surplus moneys transferred from the Consolidated Fund some years ago and now forming part of the Public Debt Redemption Fund. Under the authority of the Main Highways Act of 1922 and amendments, certain transfers take place between the Construction Fund and the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account. A transfer of £123,000 from the Revenue Fund to the Construction Fund, and of £120,000 from the latter fund to the former were made during the year 1935–36. Payments aggregating £146,719 were made from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account to other accounts or funds, and £79,740 was paid from the Land for Settlements Account to other accounts.

Most payments from one item of the Consolidated Fund to another rank as credits, but there are two classes of exceptions—viz., interest payments on certain balances, and receipts of the Printing and Stationery Department from other Government Departments. The former totalled approximately £48,000 in 1935–36 and the latter £177,000. In addition, £55,000 of interest payments of the Consolidated Fund were paid into other accounts.

Although, as stated previously, post and telegraph receipts and payments are not included in the Public Accounts, interest on capital liability, as well as profits of the Post and Telegraph Department, are now payable to the Consolidated Fund. As costs of other Departments for postages and for other services performed by the Post and Telegraph Department aggregated approximately £200,000 for the year, this latter amount represents in effect a transfer to the Consolidated Fund revenue from various votes of that fund or of other accounts.

The revenue of the Working Railways Account also includes a considerable amount received from Government Departments and paid out of the Consolidated Fund and other accounts. The amount under this head in 1935–36 was approximately £405,000, exclusive of payments from the Post Office Account.

Included in the gross receipts of the Consolidated Fund are Treasury bill issues and renewals to the aggregate of £10,450,000, while redemptions and renewals of Treasury bills swell the expenditure by a similar amount.

Practically the whole of the receipts and payments of the Loans Redemption Account proper are nominal only, consisting in the main of entries due to the renewal of loan-moneys. A deduction of £13,331,345 must be made on this account from both receipts and expenditure in 1935–36, and a further deduction of £372,815 from each side in respect of sinking funds paid into the account for the redemption of securities.

The Remittances from and to London Accounts merely cover the withdrawal of money in London or Wellington for remittance to or from New Zealand, and are in practically the same category as the Loans Redemption Account, the receipts and payments representing book entries only, and usually balancing. Receipts and payments of these two accounts in 1935–36 totalled £9,244,000.

Imperial and Australian coin withdrawn from circulation involved an expenditure of £165,800 during the year, while the sale of New Zealand coin to banks resulted in a cash receipt of £250,000. Receipts and payments of the Silver and Bronze Coin Account should thus be reduced by the former amount.

Further deductions have still to be made from the gross totals before a figure approximately representing true Governmental revenue and expenditure (apart from State advances and other activities not included in the Public Account) can be arrived at. The accounts of local bodies merely record the receipt of moneys collected by the Government on behalf of local bodies and the payment of these to the local bodies concerned. The Deposits Account represents only lodgments and withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government moneys. The small balance in the State Advances Loan Account at 31st March, 1935, was paid during 1935–36 to the State Advances Office (now the State Advances Corporation), whose operations are, as previously stated, outside the Public Account. The three accounts referred to had in 1935–36 an aggregate of £1,883,138 receipts and £1,846,886 payments.

Including small per contra items not already referred to (£95,320), the total deductions to be made from aggregate nominal receipts and payments are approximately £41,900,000 on each side, leaving net totals of £42,200,000 receipts and £42,500,000 payments for the year.

The gross and net figures of receipts and payments are as follows for each of the last five years:—

Year ended 31st March.Gross Transactions.* Net Transactions.
Receipts.Payments.Credits.Receipts.Payments.
* Excluding credits. †£4·9 m. of this was from exchange on sale of surplus sterling assets.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
193284·185·06·935·738·7
193387·888·66·234·734·9
1934396·2380·06·037·337·7
1935195·5209·011·242·540·7
193684·184·47·242·242·5

The net totals would be still further reduced if only the net increase (£1,979,8S1 in 1935–36) in debt were taken into account as a receipt, and both receipts and payments diminished by the amount of loan-money redeemed.

THE CONSOLIDATED FUND.

The Ordinary Revenue Account of the Consolidated Fund covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the General Government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, &c. Until recent years its operations afforded an excellent comparison of State revenue and expenditure from year to year, but successive changes in system have largely destroyed the comparability of the figures. The principal of these changes are as follows:—

  1. The removal of railway revenue and expenditure from the Consolidated Fund from 1st April, 1925. Consolidated Fund receipts now include an amount paid by the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability.

  2. Similar action in regard to post and telegraph revenue and expenditure from 1st April, 1928. In addition to interest on capital liability, the Consolidated Fund now (commencing 1931·32) receives Post and Telegraph Department profits.

  3. Payment of motor-vehicles taxation receipts into the Consolidated Fund since 5th December, 1927, the great bulk of the money being later transferred to the Main Highways Account, into which these receipts were previously paid direct. In 1932–33 £500,000, in 1933–34 £500,000, and in 1934–35 £321,754 of motor-vehicles taxation receipts were retained in the Consolidated Fund.

  4. The transfer of reserve moneys into the Consolidated Fund, £1,494,825 in 1931–32, £2,500,000 in 1932–33, and £2,000,000 in 1933–34; £2,250,000 of the 1932–33 amount and the whole of the 1933–34 total having been obtained by hypothecation of securities of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account.

  5. Exchange charges on overseas payments, in consequence of the depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of sterling.

  6. Profits (£1,364,118 in 1934–35 and £231,271 in 1935–36) from the sale of coined gold, taken over under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act.

Fifty years' figures of receipts and expenditure of the Consolidated Fund will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume. Figures for the lust ten years are:—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.Surplus.
* Deficit.
 £££
192724,943,10724,355,965587,142
192825,123,98024,944,905179,075
192923,599,67624,176,928−577,252*
193025,349,86125,200,882148,979
193123,068,93124,708,042−1,639,111*
193222,719,73324,860,552−2,140,819*
193322,568,52122,528,37940,142
193423,492,74924,202,027−709,278*
193526,126,09424,499,5951,626,499
193626,172,36825,890,568281,800

REVENUE.

The revenue of the Consolidated Fund is now derived principally from taxation and from interest on the Public Debt Redemption Fund and other public moneys, with transfers from the Working Railways Account and from the Post and Telegraph Department in respect of interest on capital liability. An additional source;—viz., profits of the Post and Telegraph Department—was added in 1931–32, certain reserve moneys were paid into the Consolidated Fund in 1931–32 and the two following years, and in 1934–35 and 1935–36 the revenue included receipts from profits on the sale of coined gold taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Details of revenue during the last three years are given in the table following:—

Source.Year ended 31st March.
1934.1935.1936.
* This excludes unemployment-taxation receipts, which are not paid into the Consolidated Fund. For details of taxation receipts see Subsection B.
 £££
Taxation*17,057,60620,176,34521,554,397
Registration and other fees218,248228,563235,761
Marine133,110139,168138,189
Interest on Public Debt Redemption Fund629,496632,066615,020
Interest on railway capital liability1,085,0001,088,0501,051,477
Interest on post and telegraph capital liability553,000546,000541,000
Interest on other public moneys596,360664,130513,949
Profits on sale of gold..1,364,118231,271
Reserve bank profits....73,854
Post Office Savings-bank profits100,000145,75075,000
Post and Telegraph Department profits154,38813,0005,000
Tourist and health resorts65,70077,30885,652
National-endowment revenue134,249147,761146,126
Other territorial revenue245,163291,415289,478
Departmental receipts418,549467,215527,768
From reserves2,000,000....
Miscellaneous (including recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years)101,880145,20588,426
Totals23,492,74926,126,09426,172,368

EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure under the main heads of permanent appropriations and each head of annual appropriations during the last three years was as follows (the figures are net—i.e., exclusive of credits):—

Head.Year ended 31st March.
1934.1935.1936.
Permanent appropriations—£££
 Civil List22,50423,10026,516
 Debt services—
  Interest8,836,4678,023,8127,730,194
  Amortization1,412,9591,596,4781,567,933
  Administration and management61,045117,73329,285
  Payments on guaranteed loans86,86142,60518,543
 For education purposes53,22187,20795,968
 Transfers to Main Highways Account Revenue Fund1,080,2301,455,1431,975,945
 Motor-spirits tax paid to borough councils100,060110,748109,427
 Contribution towards Singapore Naval Base100,000100,000100,000
 Exchange1,797,1881,459,1591,593,536
 Other199,619425,777501,102
Totals, permanent appropriations13,750,15413,441,76213,748,449
Annual appropriations—
 Legislative74,10788,27379,238
P rime Minister's Department23,99122,59623,521
 Treasury31,08037,72241,834
 Customs83,51187,62796,034
 Land and Income Tax59,36764,60474,829
 Stamp Duties77,40081,90387,515
 Audit22,21826,73829,468
 Public Service Commissioner's Office4,3494,3774,334
 Internal Affairs320,414367,802363,658
 External Affairs81,16095,353136,667
 Printing and Stationery137,901155,015176,098
 Marine103,488109,182112,710
 Labour35,48439,96144,971
 Native65,16361,58348,918
 Valuation36,60838,95348,178
 Electoral5,6425,14885,833
 Census and Statistics18,26719,77126,205
 Justice and Prisons241,208239,240251,111
 Crown Law Office4,7235,6256,273
 Police427,344435,545453,890
 Naval Defence397,384437,839462,245
 Defence264,723465,232552,125
 Maintenance of public works and services72,40391,845145,492
 Lands and Survey151,658160,215189,652
 Agriculture675,464539,247591,802
 Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and Publicity99,968114,224135,667
 Scientific and Industrial Research48,74953,12759,848
 Mines19,54019,56719,240
Transport23,09627,46925,205
 Health741,846779,216808,966
 Mental Hospitals233,501252,442279,670
 Education2,526,0782,595,6612,795,098
 Pensions3,260,1093,439,8793,709,612
 National Provident and Friendly Societies80,28577,538102,866
 Services not provided for3,64417,31413,346
Totals, annual appropriations10,451,87311,057,83312,142,119
Grand totals24,202,02724,499,59525,890,568

Expenditure from the Consolidated Fund is divided into two main groups, according to whether it is made under permanent or under annual appropriation. The latter heading covers the expenditure under the various departmental votes, while the former covers interest on and amortization of the public debt, exchange, disposal of special taxation for main highways, and expenditure under numerous special Acts. From 1932–33 onwards several items which formerly ranked as permanent appropriations, including expenditure on pensions, superannuation, and Hospital Boards subsidies, have become the subject of annual appropriations.

The amounts shown under the head of “Education Department” do not represent the full payment on education services, expenditure under special Acts and from certain reserves revenue not being included. A statement of public expenditure on education is given at the close of Section VI (Education) of this volume.

A system of Departmental balance-sheets and statements of accounts was inaugurated on commercial lines in 1920 to show the true cost of the various Departments and services, as distinct from payments out of appropriations on the basis referred to at the beginning of this subsection. These balance-sheets and statements of accounts are published annually in Parliamentary Paper B.-l [Part IV], to which the reader is referred for details of income, expenditure, &c, in respect of the various Departments and services. A State balance-sheet covering all Departments and services, with the exception of the Post Office Savings-bank, the Public Trust Office, and the Insurance Departments, is now included in the publication mentioned. (Vide also Section XXXIV—Wealth.)

PUBLIC WORKS.

For the prosecution of the policy of public works inaugurated in 1870 there was set up a Public Works Fund. For many years all expenditure on public works was borne by this fund, but in course of time separate subsidiary accounts were established to deal with certain special activities. These subsidiary accounts have in general either become merged in the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund or have ceased to exist on the completion of the work for which they were called into existence. The Electric Supply Account, with its separate Sinking Fund Account, is the only one now remaining.

The Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account, which was established in 1923–24 to provide finance for the construction, reconstruction, &c, of main highways, is analogous to the Public Works Fund, and its operations are included in the following brief conspectus of public works receipts and payments. Several other accounts formerly treated similarly have now been merged in the Public Works Fund.

RECEIPTS.

A summary of the receipts of the accounts covering the construction of public works is given below for the last five years. The figures are exclusive of credits, and transfers between the accounts considered are omitted, as are also temporary transfers from other accounts.

Year ended 31st March.Loan-money.Transfers from Other Accounts.Recoveries on account of Expenditure of Previous Years.Interest on Investments, &c.Sales of Electrical Energy.Land Sales, Repayment of Advances, &c.*Other and Unspecified.Total.
* Native land settlement and settlement of unemployed workers.
 ££££££££
19324,393,5502,83672,45615,628648,029..20,3175,152,816
19331,019,851100,00074,4238,917823,644..11,7012,038,536
19341,607,5653,44547,0927,278880,37410,23710,7842,566,775
19352,078,900..378,7127,297932,68023,99910,3083,431,896
19362,400,00058175,0171,148983,20436,31512,3843,608,126

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of the various accounts dealing with the construction of public works is summarized below for the last five years. As in the case of receipts, the figures are exclusive of credits and of transfers between the various accounts.

Year ended 31st March.Public, Works.Dairy Industry Loans.Maintenance and Working-expenses.*Amortization of Debt.Interest.Debt Charges and Expenses.Other Items.Total.
* Where shown separately.
 ££££££££
19324,634,475..2,75417,163537,304131,7024555,323,853
19331,773,959..7937,876571,36935,5034392,419,225
19342,179,050..8820,539561,1703,4084392,764,694
19352,415,391..9139,240574,3532,5884423,032,105
19362,700,04310,7509016,670560,0024,0515,3053,296,911

No distinction is now made in the Electric Supply Account between capital and maintenance expenditure out of vote. The item “Departmental” in the Public Works Fund covers both construction and maintenance, and other items also are probably affected.

The principal items of public-works expenditure included in the first column are as follows for the five years:—

Year ended 31st March.Railways.Roads.Telegraph Extension.Development of Water-power.*Public Buildings.Lands and River Improvement, Irrigation, &c.Lands Settlement.Departmental and other.
* Including maintenance. † Settlement of unemployed workers and (from 1933–34) Native land settlement.
 ££££££££
1932952,3881,465,237249,9781,241,796454,803117,560..152,713
1933160,853538,44899,999589,06190,567107,003118,72269,306
1934132,111551,950144,160570,323149,392152,622351,594126,898
1935125,600689,465135,933555,519286,968188,352347,97785,577
1936258,012877,645195,380529,075346,879136,245218,367138,440

In addition to expenditure on reads included in accounts taken as covering public works, there is the expenditure incurred in roading Crown lands and lands purchased for settlement, which is a charge on the Land for Settlements Account, and is included in the values upon which the rentals of the lands are based.

A more detailed statement of the net expenditure out of public works accounts during 1935–36 is now given:—

 £
Public works, departmental..99,385
Railways258,012
Public buildings— 
 General Courthouses39,532
 Courthouses8,701
 Education buildings122,357
 Prison buildings and works2,123
 Police-stations6,710
 Postal and Telegraph97,800
 Mental-hospital buildings67,465
 Health and hospital institutions2,191
Lighthouses3,320
Harbour-worksCr. 399
Development of tourist resorts13,683
Main highways433,268
Roads, &c.444,377
Telegraph extension195,380
Lands, miscellaneous37,909
Irrigation and water-supply85,414
Swamp-land drainage12,922
Settlement of unemployed workers146,480
Native land settlement71,887
Dairy industry loans10,750
Development of water-power529,075
Plant, material, and services22,437
Services not provided for14
Subsidy to Ellesmere Lands Drainage Board439
Administration expenses in connection with Ellesmere lands90
Charges of raising loans913
Stamp duty330
Managements charge of consolidated stock, &c.2,808
Interest560,002
Amortization of debt16,670
Transfers to other accounts4,866
Total£3,296,911

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.

As stated, the figures given under the two preceding sub-headings include the operations of the Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account and, prior to 1932–33, those of various other accounts. The following figures relate only to those accounts which form part of the Public Works Fund—i.e., the General Purposes Account and subsidiary accounts.

Year ended 31st March.Receipts.Payments.
 ££
19325,179,8984,895,861
19331,958,3862,277,336
19342,363,7752,572,415
19353,000,3722,714,210
19363,458,1252,863,643

Similar figures, covering a period of fifty years, are contained in the Statistical Summary at the end of this publication.

GENERAL PURPOSES ACCOUNT.

The total net expenditure of the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund from its inception in 1870 to 31st March, 1936, has been £125,036,318, spread over the various classes of public works as follows:—

Class.£
Immigration3,313,059
Public works, departmental3,091,930
Railways56,582,336
Roads22,986,307
Land-purchases2,054,024
Settlement of unemployed workers664,485
Development of mining880,873
Telegraph extension11,755,917
Public buildings12,069,672
Lighthouses, harbour-works, and defences1,322,048
Contingent defence1,401,144
Rates on Native lands68,672
Thermal springs14,600
Development of tourist resorts717,136
Lands improvement928,036
Swamp-land drainage55,916
Plant, material, and services140,986
Charges and expenses of raising loans3,828,307
Coal-mines10,835
Interest and sinking fund218,500
Irrigation and water-supply1,303,179
Motor-transport service33,635
Transfer to Main Highways Account Construction Fund1,226,000
Native land settlement357,971
Dairy industries loans10,750
Total£125,036,318

The total receipts of the General Purposes Account to 31st March, 1936, were £126,938,970 of which £111,189,453 represented the proceeds of loans, and £14,555,000 transfers from the Consolidated Fund. The largest item in the residue of £1,194,517 was an amount of £506,820 in respect of sinking funds set free, next in importance being receipts from stamp duties to 31st December, 1876 (£264,658). The balance of the account at 31st March, 1936, was £1,902,652.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS.

Through the closing of several accounts and the merging of these in other accounts or funds, there now remain only two accounts dealing primarily with land-settlement—viz., the Land for Settlements Account and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account. The former has numerous and diverse activities in connection with land-settlement, while the latter is mainly concerned with the receipt of principal and interest in respect of advances to returned-soldier settlers and the making of fresh advances from repaid principal moneys.

The principal advances accounts, those relating to State advances to settlers and workers, are, as stated earlier in this subsection, outside the Public Account and are not included here.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS—RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

 1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
 £££
* Not included under other headings.
Receipts.
Repayments of advances772,082860,4711,014,407
Sales of land71,999138,222176,620
Rents359,455443,270401,307
Valuation fees14012078
Interest—   
 On advances493,773558,631555,819
 On sales of land26,91122,84429,426
 On investments11,43710,13911,938
Loan-money198,000160,635..
Profit on redemption of investments..12..
Transfers from other accounts....4,866
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years1,941625Dr. 5
Sale of live-stock, produce, &c.45,26943,13762,556
Suspense Account (net)2,6561,070..
Totals£1,983,663£2,239,176£2,257,012
Payments.
Administration57,68484,111100,465
Purchase of landsCr. 128Cr. 5,46010,038
Incidental expenses—roading, surveys, &c.1,3723,6582,513
Development of unoccupied lands91,09154,75067,335
Payments to lessees for improvements135....
Refunds of rent, &c. (deteriorated lands)9....
Farm accounts6,2206,9658,036
Advances made416,690500,195534,170
Interest payments1,014,1731,017,296956,401
Exchange....324
Management charges of consolidated stock799399798
Expenses of raising or transferring loan-money4505,669621
Principal refunded to Consolidated Fund200,000200,000950,000
Transfers to other accounts*16,2107,8215,251
“Halves,” “thirds,” and “fourths” to Local Bodies' Deposits Accounts836119
Suspense Account (net)....2,815
Totals£1,804,788£1,875,465£2,638,786

TRADING ACCOUNTS.

Several important trading operations of the Government (Public Trust, Post and Telegraph, fire, life, and accident insurance) are outside the orbit of the Public Account, while certain others are included in the Consolidated Fund; and the Electric Supply Account covers both construction and trading operations. Trading accounts other than those which might be so regarded but have already been dealt with under previous headings are now as follows:—

  • Working Railways Account.

  • State Coal-mines Account.

  • State Forests Account.

The revenue of these three accounts during the last three years was as follows:—

Item.Account.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
 £££
Railway revenueWorking Railways5,986,2246,371,6876,670,250
Contributions and subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit FundDitto8,0008,0008,000
Sale of coal and wood, rents, &c.State Coalmines199,168187,971224,913
Forests revenueState Forests52,23571,982106,007
Administration expenses recoveredState Forests475914976
Loan-moneyState Forests75,00060,000..
Interest receiptsVarious40,00442,97839,644
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous yearsVarious1,0593681,675
Totals..£6,362,165£6,743,900£7,051,465

Expenditure during the same three years was composed of the following amounts:—

 1933–34.1934–35.1935–30.
Out of appropriations—£££
 Working railways4,471,4375,214,1715,698,279
 State coal-mines176,750173,583201,358
 State forest112,462113,050127,492
Interest1,091,8941,092,5471,055,254
Exchange....596
Management charges of consolidated stock793979
Charges and expenses of raising or transferring loans149140461
Amortization of debt19,5788,51018,819
Transfers to other accounts3,8934,1577,132
Subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit Fund8,0008,0008,000
Totals£5,884,242£6,614,197£7,117,470

EMPLOYMENT PROMOTION FUND.

Receipts and payments on account of unemployment during the last three years have been as follows:—

Item.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Receipts.
 £££
Registration levy428,550433,665416,335
Employment charge3,998,3174,171,0543,503,691
Repayment of loans4,3406,24228,990
Interest on loans1,2101,2872,105
Interest on investments, &c.7,36510,7544,920
Fines356208208
Miscellaneous194229261
Total4,440,3324,623,4393,956,510
Payments.
Administration112,555139,000200,844
Employment grants and subsidies3,972,1863,436,4613,550,451
Loans20,92022,40358,886
Sustenance payments33,302239,983807,095
Food, clothing, &c.104,27874,285265,048
Exchange....528
Total4,243,2413,912,1324,882,852

An Unemployment Fund was set up in 1930–31 to handle receipts of taxation and other revenue for unemployment purposes and the disbursement of moneys for the relief of unemployment. This fund has been superseded by the Employment Promotion Fund, which was established under the Employment Promotion Act of 1936.

MAIN HIGHWAYS ACCOUNT.—REVENUE FUND.

The Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account is concerned with the maintenance of main highways and the payment of subsidies to local authorities. Its revenue consists mainly of special taxation collected by the Consolidated Fund and paid over, less certain deductions. Receipts and payments of the Revenue Fund during the last three years have been:—

Item.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
* Including interest on loan-moneys raised for construction purposes.
Receipts.
 £££
Taxation1,080,2301,455,1431,975,945
Repayment of advances12,85512,65414,064
Interest6,3858,1306,601
Recoveries on account expenditure of previous years..1,9551,588
Miscellaneous160270188
Total1,099,6301,478,1521,998,386
Payments.
Maintenance of highways*803,9711,083,6921,373,863
Subsidies to local authorities157,847359,351184,855
Advances to local authorities3,13218,93922,024
Transfers to Construction Fund (net)....3,000
Commutation of Hutt Road fees25,11225,16823,999
Abolition of toll-gates1,6621,7931,663
Interest on transfers from Public Works Fund61,30061,30061,300
Subsidies on farm-land rates....186,388
Loan charges11472..
Amortization of debt69,57975,57685,419
Exchange....1,920
Total1,122,6141,626,4911,944,431

The separate Revenue and Construction Funds of the Main Highways Account were merged into one account as from 1st April, 1936, by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935.

Chapter 38. SECTION XXIV.—PUBLIC FINANCE

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.

TOTAL TAXATION.

ALL revenue collected by means of taxation was until the end of the financial year 1921–22 paid into the Consolidated Fund and applied to general purposes. From 1922–23 to the 5th December, 1927, however, certain items were paid into the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund to help to defray the cost of improving and maintaining roads. From the last-mentioned date all such moneys are paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first instance, and (with certain exceptions) transferred to the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund. The proceeds of the employment promotion taxation introduced in 1930–31 are paid direct into the Employment Promotion Fund.

A summary of tax collections (total and per head) during the last ten years is given in the following table. For 1926–27 and 1927–28 the figures include amounts paid direct into the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account, while for 1930–31 and subsequent years gross collections of employment promotion taxation are included.

Year ended 31st March.Total.Per Head.
* Excluding employment promotion taxation, the total is £21,554,397, equal to £13 15s. 8d. per head.
 ££s.d.
192717,437,8271256
192817,145,14511177
192917,832,0331243
193019,471,1311337
193118,878,28512121
193217,405,6221196
193319,703,70312179
193421,470,82713187
193524,737,93915187
1936*25,476,3721659

The following table shows receipts under the various heads of taxation during the last five years:—

Head.Revenue for Year ended 31at March.
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
 £££££
Customs revenue5,904,3486,131,4146,485,0147,423,5978,161,161
Beer-duty641,080654,227655,464671,008715,042
Motor-vehicles taxation1,814,1861,680,6051,703,5271,910,4522,124,130
Land-tax542,128498,916498,978492,526458,873
Income-tax4,447,8143,556,7752,961,2433,796,4774,581,328
Death duties1,444,2981,511,6951,390,7422,205,3941,615,479
Bank composition260,206268,122279,244218,01734,389
Stamp duty on interest..309,13278,7716853
Duty on instruments228,975192,179199,639238,093277,441
Racing taxation410,878302,371340,740371,985378,851
Amusements-tax74,76353,56448,71549,52656,507
Other stamps taxation378,288361,050372,780436,379477,028
Employment promotion taxation1,217,4514,099,6624,413,2214,561,5943,921,975
Film-hire tax41,20730,10232,96044,49160,657
Sales tax..38,2531,847,3332,170,5032,462,602
Gold-export duty..15,636117,090102,617106,976
Interest-tax....45,00044,97943,823
Mileage-tax residue....36623357
Totals17,405,62219,703,70321,470,82724,737,939225,476,372

During the earlier years of the depression heavier imposts were made in existing fields of taxation and, in addition, new classes of taxation were imposed, the latter including a sales tax and a scheme of special taxation for the relief of unemployment, both of which are dealt with under subsequent headings.

The sharp rise in taxation receipts in 1934–35 as compared with 1933–34, and the further increase in 1935–36, are due entirely to the substantial and continued improvement in business. During these two years there were no increases in tax-assessment rates, except in a few minor instances; but in two important fields—Customs and employment promotion taxation—there were definite reductions in the rate and scope of taxation.

The aggregate revenue from taxation in the year 1935–36 is the highest ever recorded in New Zealand, although the per caput rate was once exceeded (in 1920–21).

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.

Revenue included under the heading of Customs is exclusive of receipts from tire-tax and from that portion of the petrol-tax which is imposed to provide funds for roading purposes, as referred to under the next heading. Gold-export duty and sales-tax receipts also are not counted as Customs revenue, although collected by the Customs Department.

The following figures show Customs and excise revenue for the last ten years:—

Year ended 31st March.Customs Duties.*Excise Duties.*Total Customs and Excise Duties.Proportion of Total Taxation.
* Excise duties in this table cover only beer-duty; other excise duties are here included with Customs duties.
 £££Per Cent.
19278,204,474621,8138,826,28750·62
19287,891,621609,6248,501,24549·58
19297,954,252611,4848,565,73648·04
19308,897,047620,3129,517,35948·88
19317,605,976575,1008,181,07643·34
19325,904,348641,0806,545,42837·61
19336,131,414654,2276,785,64134·44
19346,485,014655,4647,140,47833·26
19357,423,597671,0088,094,60532·72
19368,161,161715,0428,876,20334·84

For fuller information on the subject of Customs and excise taxation the reader is referred to Section IXD of this book.

MAIN HIGHWAYS TAXATION.

The Main Highways Act, 1922, laid down that the Revenue Fund (the Revenue and Construction Funds merged as from 1st April, 1936) of the Main Highways Account was to be credited, inter alia, with—

  • All moneys received as Customs duties imposed in respect of rubber tires, rubber tiring, and inner tubes of rubber for pneumatic tires, n.e.i. (as per the Customs tariff):

  • All moneys received by the Crown under any Act in respect of the licensing of motor-vehicles.

The tire-tax had been imposed by the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, prior to the passing of which tires had been admitted free. The licensing of motor-vehicles by the Crown became operative in the financial year 1924–25, consequent on the passing of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

A third class of taxation for main-highways purposes was introduced towards the end of 1927 by the Motor-spirits Taxation Act of that year, which imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon on all motor-spirits imported. The rate was increased to 6d. per gallon in 1930. The duty collected is paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first place, and after deduction of expenses of administration and of refunds (which are provided for in cases where the motor-spirit is used otherwise than for motor-vehicles) the residue is divided between (1) the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account, and (2) boroughs with a population of 6,000 or over, in the proportions of 92 per cent, and 8 per cent respectively. An additional 2d. per gallon was imposed from 7th October, 1931, and a further 2d. from 9th February, 1933, but these imposts (totalling 4d. per gallon, or 4½d. with the surtax of ½d. per gallon on imports from foreign countries) are for general purposes, and the proceeds are paid into the Consolidated Fund as part of the ordinary Customs revenue. For each of the years 1932–33 (£500,000), 1933–34 (£500,000), and 1934–35 (£321,754), a portion of the petrol-tax receipts otherwise payable to the Main Highways Account was retained in the Consolidated Fund by special legislative authority.

By section 19 of the Finance Act 1932–33 (No. 2), a mileage-tax was imposed on motor-vehicles using motive-power other than petrol. Part of the receipts is regarded as the equivalent of Customs taxation on petrol and remains in the Consolidated Fund, the balance for highway purposes being divided between the Main Highways Account and the larger boroughs after deduction of administration expenses and of refunds.

Taxation receipts for main-highways purposes have been as follows during the last ten years. Reference may be made also to the section relating to Roads and Road Transport.

Year ended Slat March.Fees, &c., under Motor-vehicles Act.Tire-tax.Motor-spirits Taxation.Mileage-tax.Total.Proportion of Total Taxation.
 £££££Per Cent.
1927395,797190,575....586,3723·36
1928345,510227,451143,516..716,4774·18
1929244,598196,747802,232..1,243,5776·97
1930391,368157,474961,948..1,510,7907·76
1931393,797130,4081,316,385..1,840,5909·75
1932370,12685,4371,358,623..1,814,18610·42
1933352,56164,1631,263,881..1,680,6058·53
1934346,25063,8011,291,8791,5971,703,5277·93
1935391,66092,5871,424,8091,3961,910,4527·72
1936431,89694,0711,596,4071,7562,124,1308·34

A change in the registration year is responsible for the apparent fall in 1928–29 in respect of fees under the Motor-vehicles Act.

All taxation receipts for main-highways purposes are paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first, place and then transferred to the Main Highways Account as permanent appropriations.

LAND AND INCOME TAX.

Except in regard to minor details, the system of land and income taxation in force at the outbreak of the Great War had remained unaltered for many years. Probably the only noteworthy change was the gradual hardening-up of the graduated land-tax, designed to prevent aggregation of land and to compel the cutting-up of large estates rather than to secure additional revenue.

The war taxation of 1915, however, not only included increased rates of 33J per cent, in the case of income-tax, ¼d. in the pound in the case of land-tax payable on mortgages, and 50 per cent, in the case of graduated land-tax, but also involved an important change of principle Among the incomes previously exempt from income-tax were those derived directly from land, but in 1915 income-tax was made payable on such incomes.

With the exception of the abolition of the land-tax on mortgages and the substitution of an income-tax in its place, the principles of land-tax assessment were not altered in 1916, nor were the rates increased, but an entirely new scheme known as the excess-profits tax was brought into operation in respect of income-tax, the 1915 system remaining also, with increased rates, for ordinary income-tax. The excess-profits tax being found inequitable and otherwise unsatisfactory, a system of progressive land and income tax, with a special war tax on incomes, was adopted in 1917.

In 1920 a complete revision of the rates of taxation was made. A feature of that year's legislation was the introduction of a deduction from the amount of tax payable of 10 per cent, in respect of tax assessed on “earned income.”

In 1923 further alterations were made, the principal being the restoration of the exemption from income-tax of income derived from the direct use or cultivation of land. Reductions in the rates of taxation were also made.

Further reductions in income-tax rates were made in 1924 and 1925, and other alterations in respect of exemptions, method of assessment, &c, were also made. Alterations made in 1927.in the progressive scale of increases in the rate of tax and also in the scale of reduction of exemptions had the effect of slightly increasing income-tax except on the very highest incomes and those below £450.

In 1929 the maximum exemption for mortgages in the computation of land-tax was reduced from £10,000 to £7,500, and special land-tax (additional to ordinary tax) was imposed on farm-lands exceeding £14,000 in unimproved value. At the same time income-tax was provided for in the case of farm-lands in excess of £14,000. From the income-tax assessed in such cases land-tax (including special) was deductible.

In 1930 the special land-tax was discontinued, but income-tax was imposed on profits from farm-lands of an unimproved value of £7,500 or over. Income-tax rates were increased by 10 per cent., and in place of the income exemption of 5 per cent, of capital value of land used in the derivation of income, a 5 per cent. allowance on taxable unimproved value, with an allowance for depreciation of premises, was substituted. An increase in the land-tax rates was also made, through the deduction of 5 per cent, from the computed tax (which had been in force for some years) being discontinued.

In 1931 the graduated scale of land-tax was abolished, a flat rate of Id. in the pound of taxable unimproved value being substituted. To balance the reduction in land-tax and to provide additional revenue, the following alterations were made in respect of income-tax:—

  • Reduction of general exemption to £260, diminished by £1 for every £3 of income between £260 and £560, and by £1 for every £1 10s. between £560 and £800.

  • Increase of surtax to 30 per cent.

  • Imposition of a special flat-rate tax of 4d. in the pound on incomes of individuals, with a general exemption of £500.

  • Imposition of a special emergency tax on unearned income of individuals equal to one-third of the income-tax payable on such unearned income.

  • Elimination of 10-per-cent. deduction on earned incomes up to £2,000.

  • Elimination of exemption of 5 per cent, of unimproved value of land used in production of income.

  • Extension (from 1st April, 1932) of income-tax provisions to farmers with £3,000 unimproved value or over.

  • Inclusion in assessments (but only for purpose of fixing rate and general exemption) of certain classes of non-assessable income.

  • Removal of discrimination in tax on income derived from local-body and company debentures issued before and after the 28th August, 1923. with the exception of “free of tax” company debentures.

In 1933 the general exemption was reduced to £210, but a special exemption of £50 (reducible by £1 for every £1 10s. of income over £725) was provided for a married man in respect of his wife if he supports her and if her own income does not exceed £50. A further amendment in 1933 extended this exemption to cover the case of a woman supporting her husband, and made a similar exemption in respect of the employment of a housekeeper by a widower or widow. The £50 exemption in respect of contributions to the support of a widowed mother were extended in 1935 to cover also the case of a widowed mother-in-law.

As part of the programme of the Labour Government, a graduated scale of land-tax was reintroduced as from 1st April. 1936. An amended scale of income-tax, with somewhat heavier imposts for the tax-year 1936–37, was also adopted, and various changes were made in regard to exemptions. Under the amended scale the reduction of exemptions with increasing income is discontinued, as is also the special flat-rate tax on incomes over £500. An innovation in the 1936 legislation is a provision whereby taxpayers may be required to pay their income-tax in instalments instead of in one sum as hitherto.

LAND-TAX.

Land-tax is assessed on the unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. An owner of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,500 is allowed an exemption of £500; and where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £2 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when £2,500 is reached.

Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale of exemption is provided—viz., £7,500 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £7,500, the exemption of £7,500 being diminished by £1 for every £1 above the margin of £7,500 of unimproved value, and disappearing altogether at £15,000. Where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is deducted instead.

No special exemption is allowed in the case of land not situated in a borough, which has been owned by a person for three years and not improved to the extent of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the unimproved value, when in the opinion of the Commissioner of Taxes it should have been so improved. In the case of such land, also, the rate of land-tax is 50 per cent, more than the ordinary rate.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and also severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital or half (in nominal value) of the allotted shares of each company is held by or on behalf of shareholders in the other.

In case of default by a taxpayer in respect of land-tax the amount of tax may be demanded from his successor in title, from a tenant of the taxpayer or his successor, or from a mortgagee of the estate or interest concerned. Land-tax constitutes a charge on the land, and, notwithstanding any disposition of it, such land continues to be liable in the hands of a purchaser or other holder thereof for the payment of the tax so long as the charge remains in force. Registration of the charge is required, and no disposition of the land or of any interest in it may be registered while the charge remains in force. Relief in cases of hardship is provided for.

Where the unimproved value on which land-tax is payable does not exceed £5,000 the rate of land-tax for 1936–37 is 1d. in the pound. This rate is increased by 1/800 d. for every £1 in excess of £5,000, with, however, a maximum of 6d. in the pound.

INCOME-TAX.

Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies, public authorities, and absentees, and in other cases on income in excess of £210 per annum. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation, and a further £50 is deductible from assessable income in respect of a dependent wife or husband whose personal income does not exceed £50. A similar exemption is allowed in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widower or widow; £50 deduction is allowed for each child or grandchild under eighteen years of age who is dependent on the taxpayer, and amounts up to £50 contributed towards the support of the taxpayer's widowed mother or widowed mother-in-law are also deductible from assessable income. Exemption (maximum, 15 per cent.) is allowed for life-insurance premiums and National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. By the Unemployment Amendment Act, 1931, amounts paid as unemployment-relief tax were also allowed as a special exemption; but this exemption was discontinued from 1st April, 1936. Allowance is made for depreciation of premises and plant used in the production of income, the scale of depreciation adopted in the ease of premises being 3 per cent, for wooden-frame buildings; 2 per cent, for brick, stone, or concrete walled buildings; and 1½ per cent, for buildings of reinforced stone or concrete throughout. A deduction may also be made in respect of any premium paid on account of leased machinery used in the production of income.

Income derived from farm-lands of an unimproved value of £3,000 or over is subject to income-tax, as also is income from (1) Crown land held as small grazing-runs or for pastoral purposes; (2) the extraction, removal, or sale of minerals, timber, or flax; or (3) the business of dealing in agricultural and pastoral products. Otherwise income derived by any person from his direct use or occupation of land is exempt from income-tax.

Where the income on which tax is payable does not exceed £5,500. the present rate of tax per pound is—

  • Companies and public authorities. Is., increased by 1/100 d. for every £1 of such income.

  • Other taxpayers (who, as stated above, are—with the exception of absentees—exempted in respect of the first £210 of income), ..... 8d., increased by 1/150 d. for every £1 of such income.

Where the income on which tax is payable exceeds £5,500, the rate per pound is—

  • Companies and public authorities, 5s. 7d., increased by 1/150 d. for every £1 in excess of £5,500, with a maximum rate of 7s. 6d. in the pound.

  • Other taxpayers, 6s. 3d., increased by 1/150 d. for every £1 in excess of £5,.500 (maximum, 8s. 2d. in the pound).

Except in the case of companies (and. as added in 1935, public authorities), an additional 33$ per cent, is imposed in respect of unearned income.

Income derived from debentures of companies, local authorities, and public authorities is taxable at the source unless a certified list of the debenture-holders (with certain other particulars) is furnished. Where such income is taxed at the source an adjustment is obtainable, so that no taxpayer need pay tax on debenture interest at a higher rate than on income from other sources.

In the case, however, of company debentures issued “free of tax,” the liability for tax is placed on the company and no adjustment is obtainable. No exemptions are allowed in respect of debenture income, and the following rates in the pound are in force at present:—

Companies: Debentures issued “free of income-tax”—s.d.
  Debentures issued before 28th August, 192340
  Debentures issued after 28th August, 192360
Companies—other cases82
Local and public authorities82

The additional 33⅓ per cent, for unearned income does not apply in respect of debenture income of the first two classes, but is imposed on the other two classes.

Companies pay tax on their full income (at the appropriate rate for such income) before distribution of dividends. The recipient of income from dividends does not pay income-tax on such part of his income, but the amount is taken into account in fixing the rate of tax to be paid. This provision also applies in the case of income from “tax-free” Government securities or “tax-free” company debentures.

In respect of stock or debentures issued by the Government of New Zealand, or by any local or public authority, or by the Public Trustee as agent of a land-settlement association, interest is not liable to New Zealand income-tax if it is payable out of New Zealand to a person not resident in New Zealand.

DEATH DUTIES.

The law dealing with these classes of duty is embodied in the Death Duties Act, 1921, as subsequently amended. The main heads of taxation are estate and succession duties, which are generally referred to by the collective title of “death duties.” In addition to these there are gift duties and Native succession duties.

Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Commissioner of Stamp Duties on assessment, an additional 5 per cent, penalty, together with interest at 5 per cent, per annum, being payable if duty is not paid within three months (this period may be extended in certain cases) after death. Gift duties are payable at the time the gift is made, and Native succession duties before the registration of the succession order by the Native Land Court. Generally the decision of the Commissioner of Stamp Duties in regard to matters of fact incidental to the assessment of duty is final, hut there is an appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court. An appeal on a question of law may he referred to the Court of Appeal.

The net revenue received from death duties during each of the last five years was—

Year ended 31st March.Estate Duty.Succession Duty.Gift Duty.Total Death Duties.
 ££££
19321,092,741302,34249,2151,444,298
19331,120,395349,43141,8691,511,695
19341,004,563263,14763,0321,390,742
19351,740,318419,67245,4042,205,394
19361,191,806319,067104,6061,615,479

ESTATE DUTY.

When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person, estimated as at the date of his death, exceeds £1,000 an estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5,000 is exempt from estate duty. The value of any life-insurance policy or policies comprised in the estate is also deductible up to a maximum of £1,000, irrespective of the amount of the estate. The rate of duty on the whole estate must, however, be determined before any deduction is made under either head.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent, in cases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 15 per cent, for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increased the duty payable, the rates, which were embodied in the Act of 1921, ranging from 1 per cent, on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent, on estates of more than £100,000. Part II of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed a rate of 30 per cent, on the amount by which the final balance exceeds £100,000. The present scale of duties is sis follows:—

Final Balance of Estate.Rate per Cent.
* 20 per cent, on first £100,000, and 30 per cent, on excess over £100,000.
££ 
1,000 to2,0001
2,000 to3,0002
3,000 to4,0003
4,000 to6,0004
6,000 to8,0005
8,000 to10,0006
10,000 to15,0007
15,000 to20,0008
20,000 to25,0009
25,000 to30,00010
30,000 to35,00011
35,000 to40,00012
40,000 to45,00013
45,000 to50,00014
50,000 to60,00015
60,000 to70,00016
70,000 to80,00017
80,000 to90,00018
90,000 to100,00019
Exceeding100,000*

SUCCESSION DUTY.

In addition to the estate duty referred to above, a succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will or by intestacy. An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of the war of 1914–19 is allowed a £5,000 exemption additional to the amounts otherwise provided.

The rates of duty vary according to the nearness of kin of the beneficiary to the deceased person. The rates shown below were introduced in amending legislation in 1920, and, as in the case of the estate duties, are embodied in the 1921 consolidating Act.

If Successor isValue of Estate.Rate per Cent.
* Including step-father, step-mother, half-brother, or half-sister.
 £ 
WifeUp to 10,000Nil.
10,000 to 20,0002
Over 20,0004
HusbandUp to 500Nil
500 to 1,5001
1,500 to 2,5002
Over 2,5003
Father, mother, brother, or sister*Up to 500Nil
500 to 20,0005
Over 20,00010
Child or lineal descendantUp to 1,000Nil
1,000 to 5,0001
5,000 to 10,0002
10,000 to 15,0003
15,000 to 20,000
Over 20,0004
Other relative to 4th degreeUp to 500Nil
500 to 10,0005
Over 10,00010
Other personUp to 500Nil
500 to 20,00010
Over 20,00020

In respect of moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand, and where the beneficiary is not the husband or wife of the deceased or a relative of the deceased within the third degree of consanguinity. there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent, of the excess over £1,000.

NATIVE SUCCESSION DUTY.

Where any succession order is made by the Native Land Court on the death of a Native, no death duty in the ordinary way is payable on the property included in it, but a Native succession duty of 2 per cent, is payable on the value of the property, with a general exemption of £200.

GIFT DUTY.

A gift means any disposition of property (situate in New Zealand at the time of the gift) which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £500. Exemption from gift duty is also provided in cases of voluntary discharge of a mortgage debt where the donor and beneficiary are not connected by ties of blood or marriage. Various other exemptions were made by the Death Duties Amendment Act, 1923.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made are required to be furnished for assessment, of duty within one month of the date of the gift, and in default an additional duty of 50 per cent, is payable. Where duty is payable, the rate is based on the following scale:—

Value of Gift.Rate of Duty.
Per Cent.
£500 to £1,000
£1,000 to £5,0005
£5,000 to £10,000
Over £10,00010

Prior to 1920 there was a flat rate of 5 per cent, on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value. Gifts between £500 and £1,000 were made dutiable in 1930.

STAMP DUTIES.

The term “stamp duties” covers a miscellany of items of taxation imposed by the Stamp Duties Act, 1923, as amended subsequently.

The receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads of stamp duties revenue used in the public accounts.

Year ended 31st March.
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
 £££££
Adhesive stamps104,05770,10480,581125,955149,575
Duty on instruments228,975192,179199,639238,093277,441
Impressed stamps174,470168,709173,311186,741197,637
Stamp duty on interest..309,13278,7716853
Licenses to companies85,35183 91084,98483,85687,781
Sharebrokers' licenses1,5211,5832,1782,0511,980
Bank composition260,206268,122279,244218,01734,389
Racing taxation410,878302,371340,740371,985378,851
Amusements-tax74,76353,56448,71549,52656,507
Lottery duty9,66117,30615,24518,00017,762
Oversea-passenger duty1,66818,24615,34818,45520,685
Mortgagees' indemnity fees1,5671,1651,0751,3161,604
MiscellaneousDr. 7275854
Totals1,353,1101,486,4181,319,8891,314,0681,224,269

Bank-note tax (i.e., bank composition) yielded diminishing returns from 1st August, 1934, when Reserve Bank notes commenced to replace those of the trading banks. As at 1st August. 1936, trading banks wore required to pay to the Reserve Bank amounts equal to their then outstanding notes, and the Reserve Bank assumed liability in respect thereof. As the Reserve Bank is not required to pay note-tax. this item of revenue now disappears.

Racing taxation, amusements-tax, and stamp duty on interest are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

RACING TAXATION.

The Government tax on totalizator investments is 5 per cent, of the gross amount passed through the machines. This percentage was substituted in August, 1930 (by Part I of the Finance Act, 1930), for the former rate of 2½ per cent., which had been in force since March, 1910, prior to which the percentage was 1½. A refund of 2½ per cent, (raised from 1¼ per cent, by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935) of gross totalizator takings (up to a limit of £500) may be made to a racing club, the Minister of Internal Affairs having the right to specify the purpose or purposes for which the amount refunded in any case is to be applied.

For some years past special provision has been made annually for the racing clubs to retain for their own use a proportion of the totalizator duty payable under the Stamp Duties Act. From 1st April. 1932, to 31st March, 1934, the proportion was one-fifth, for the next twelve months it was one-tenth, and since 1st April, 1935 (the existing authority extends to 31st July, 1937), the former proportion of one-fifth has been reverted to.

From the 1st November, 1915, a tax of 1 per cent, was imposed on the total value of all stakes, and a tax of 2½ per cent, on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments. The tax on dividends is computed on the gross amount paid into the totalizator for any horse-race after deducting the club's commission of 12½ per cent, (raised from 10 per cent, by the Finance Act, 1930). From the 22nd December, 1921, the tax on stakes was increased to 10 per cent., and that on dividends to 5 per cent. From the 1st April, 1924, the tax on stakes was reduced to 5 per cent., with a further reduction to 1 per cent, from 1st August, 1935.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on the 31st July:—

Year ended 31st July
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
* Retained by the clubs.
Number of racing-days312319319320320
Number of races2,4222,4702,4792,4852,492
 £££££
Amount of stakes352,173312,788335,985348,815368,112
Totalizator investments3,680,0083,678,2513,904,9484,017,1504,645,968
Amount paid in dividends3,036,7473,033,5103,221,8123,314,9613,835,073
Government taxes—
 On totalizator investments176,447147,130161,383174,809185,838
 On dividends160,943160,839170,753175,667203,173
 On stakes17,60915,63916,79917,4413,681
Totals354,999323,608348,935367,917392,692
Percentage of totalizator investments retained by clubs283,554312,651326,735327,335394,908
Unpaid fractions*22,31724,12124,26524,37826,976
Refunds of taxation granted to clubs24,47726,27123,61927,63042,718

The gross revenue accruing to the State during the 1935–36 racing year is seen to have totalled £392,692. Refunds to racing clubs totalled £42,718 in the racing year 1935–36, as against £27,630 during the preceding twelve months.

For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1936, the gross figure of racing taxation was £378,851, while £41,479 was paid back to clubs by way of refunds.

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.

A form of tax first introduced in 1917 is the amusements-tax, payable on payments for admission to entertainments. The present authority is the Amusements-tax Act, 1922, amended in 1923 and in 1930. “Entertainment” is defined as “any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” The maximum admission charge above which tax is payable was originally fixed at 9d., but has been successively altered to 1s., 2s., and (in 1930) 1s. 6d. When the payment for admission exceeds 1s. 6d., but is not more than 2s., the tax is 3d.; thereafter, up to 3s., it is 4d.; up to 3s. 6d., 5d.; and above 3s. 6d., 1d. for each 1s. or part thereof, plus 2d. “Payment for admission” includes reservation charges. Provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases—viz., shows promoted by agricultural, pastoral, horticultural. or poultry societies; meetings held for educational, scientific, patriotic, or philanthropic purposes; and swimming-sports.

The following net amounts have been collected during the last ten years:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount collected.
 £
192763,555
192863,165
192960,586
193079,887
1931105,936
193274,763
193353,564
193448,715
193549,526
193656,507

FILM-HIRE TAX.

Part V of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed, as from 1st July, 1930, a film-hire tax, which is payable monthly by holders of renters' licenses under Part IV of the Cinematograph Films Act, 1928.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net monthly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British films the tax is 10 per cent., and on foreign films 25 per cent., of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of £41,756 in 1930–31 (nine months), £41,207 in 1931–32, £30,102 in 1932–33, £32,960 in 1933–34, £44,491 in 1934–35, and £60,657 in 1935–36.

EMPLOYMENT PROMOTION TAXATION.

Towards the provision of funds for the relief of unemployment, an unemployment levy was instituted as from December, 1930. Originally at the rate of £1 10s. per annum, payable quarterly, the levy was imposed on all males of the age of twenty years and over, with certain exceptions.

In 1931 the levy was reduced to £1 per annum, but an “emergency unemployment charge” was imposed at the rate of 1d. for every 6s. 8d. of salaries or wages (other than those of domestic servants in private homes and of relief workers employed by public authorities, but with their wages wholly (from 1934, partly) borne by the Unemployment Fund). A similar charge was imposed on incomes received from other sources by all males not wholly exempt from the levy and by women with incomes of £250 or over (from any source). In 1932 the emergency unemployment charge was altered to 1d. for every 1s. 8d. of wages, &c, and in the case of income of women other than from salary or wages was made applicable to the portion of such income in excess of £20 per annum. From 1st October, 1934, the emergency unemployment charge was reduced to 1d. for every 2s. or part thereof, and from 1st October, 1935, to 1d. for every 2s. 6d. or part thereof.

An amendment passed in November, 1934, exempted persons under twenty from tax on earned income. Women under twenty; women in receipt of pensions; and men of sixty-five, or women of sixty upwards, or permanently disabled persons whose incomes (in all cases) are under £105 are exempted from the tax on unearned income. Natives (male and female) of twenty years or over are required to pay tax on unearned income in the same way as if Europeans. The exemption of women in respect of unearned income was increased from £20 to £50.

For the portion of 1930–31 during which the Unemployment Act, 1930, was in force, levy receipts totalled £280,829. Unemployment taxation yielded £1,217,451 in 1931–32, £4,099,662 in 1932–33, £4,413,221 in 1933–34, £4,561,594 in 1934–35, and £3,921,975 in 1935–36. Towards the 1935–36 total the tax on salaries and wages provided £2,461,218, and on other income £1,042,410, the balance of £418,347 representing levy receipts. Corresponding figures for 1934–35 were: Tax on salaries and wages, £2,793,266; on other income, £1,354,022; and levy receipts, £414,306.

TAXATION OF INTEREST RECEIPTS.

Part IV of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, imposed a stamp duty of 3d. for every 2s. 6d. of interest derived from New Zealand Government and local-body debentures or other securities, with certain specified exceptions. The duty receipts (less 5 per cent, thereof to cover administrative expenses) in respect of securities of local bodies, the State Advances Department, and the Rural Intermediate Credit Board were payable to the respective authorities. The proportion of the duty accruing to Governmental revenue during the year 1932–33 amounted to £309,132, a further sum of £78,771 being received in the early portion of 1933–34, £68 in 1934–35. and £53 in 1935–36.

The stamp duty on interest was imposed not only to aid the public revenues, but to assist in equalizing in equity the 20-per-cent. reduction in mortgage interest and in rents. The balance of the equivalent reduction in interest on Government and local-body securities was to be obtained by an adjustment of income-tax rates on investment income.

In lieu of the imposition of stamp duty on interest, a general conversion of the whole internal public debt on the basis of a 20-per-cent. reduction to a minimum effective rate of 1 per cent., operative from 1st April, 1933, was undertaken: while as a preliminary to conversion a statutory reduction of 20 per cent. to a minimum of 4¼ per cent, was made in the interest on local-body securities.

Interest on such part of the public debt as continued to bear a higher rate than 4 per cent.—i.e., the small “dissented” balance—was made subject to an interest-tax of 33⅓ per cent., and this provision is also applicable to dissenters from local-body conversions. Post Office investment certificates are at maturity dutiable at 20 per cent, in respect of interest accruing after 1st April, 1933. A tax of 20 per cent., payable (less 5 per cent, of proceeds) to the. Departments concerned, was also imposed on State Advances, Rural Intermediate Credit, and Land Settlement Association securities.

Government receipts from the present interest-tax amounted to £45,000 in 1933–34, £44,979 in 1934–35, and £43,823 in 1935–36.

SALES TAX.

The 9th February, 1933, marked the inauguration of a sales tax in New Zealand. The tax is at the rate of 5 per cent, of the sale value of the goods to which it applies, a discount of 5 per cent, of the amount of tax otherwise payable being allowed for prompt payment. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable once only and, so far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to the retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department. The net amount yielded by the sales tax has been: 1932–33 (less than two months), £38,253; 1933–34, £1,847,333; 1934–35, £2,170,503; 1935–36, £2,462,602.

Numerous classes of goods are exempt from the tax, these being, in the main, commodities of primary production, articles used in the primary industries, machinery for use in manufacture, and foodstuffs for household consumption. Goods exported from the Dominion are exempt, as are also certain commodities (e.g., gold, motor-spirit), subject to special taxation.

Monthly net collections of sales tax to date are as follows:—

Month.1933.1934.1935.1930.
 ££££
January..187,649211,137233,103
February10,785143,631157,653186,875
March27,469162,416179,568206,101
April191,091168,313191,607234,491
May119,967165,007194,685233,493
June136,733160,877196,571241,154
July129,951168,662189,657232,237
August134,290185,037201,446252,621
September151,796172,945200,300254,669
October158,073194,397219,537..
November164,829205,256223,808..
December166,847202,383223,970..

The collections during a month relate in general to sales during the preceding month. At the commencement of the scheme tax on goods sold in February and March, 1933, except in the case of goods imported by retailers, was not payable until April, hence the low figures for February and March and the high aggregate for April.

LOCAL TAXATION.

Local-governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes, as set out in Section XXV of this book. The amount of revenue collected by local bodies during the ten years ended 31st March, 1935, was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Rates.Licenses and other Taxes.Total.Per Head of Population.
 ££££s.d.
19265,039,645435,7245,475,3693188
19275,311,260576,7615,888,0214211
19285,615,672507,7036,123,3754410
19295,844,495503,2656,347,7604611
19306,010,987535,8096,546,796487
19315,637,254535,8476,173,101425
19325,511,818508,8576,020,6753195
19335,237,688505,7965,743,4843152
19345,541,255489,2246,030,4793183
19355,511,442530,5916,042,03331710

The figures are exclusive of wharfage dues, tolls, &c., received by Harbour Boards, such receipts being regarded as in respect of charges for services.

Chapter 39. SECTION XXIV.—PUBLIC FINANCE

SUBSECTION C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE Minister of Finance may raise loans, when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion, and may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment of loans, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured, as well as for the redemption and cancellation of securities before maturity. Section 5 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1934, authorized the Minister of Finance to transfer the management of the public debt to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. In pursuance of this authority, the transfer has been effected as from the 1st October, 1936.

During the war period provision was made for the issue to the public of “Post Office investment certificates” of a nominal value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation was enacted which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates. Receipts from this source are utilized for the purposes of any loan which may be authorized by Parliament. The term of the certificates, formerly a minimum of five years, was altered in 1927 to such term as the Minister of Finance may determine. Certificates are now issued with a definite currency of six years, the redemption value being calculated at 3 per cent. compound interest. After six months from date of issue the certificates have a graduated redemption value, and, in addition, if not presented for payment at date of maturity, remain interest-bearing (at the maximum rate payable on Post Office Savings-bank deposits) for four years more.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of the Dominion. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

The public debt is domiciled partly in New Zealand and partly in the United Kingdom, with a little in Australia.

In the debt tables the whole debt is shown (in pounds) at its nominal amount, no adjustment having been made on account of the fact that New Zealand currency is at present at a discount on sterling and at a slight premium on Australian currency: If the whole of the debt (£159 millions) domiciled in the United Kingdom were redeemed in cash at the present time, an amount equal to approximately £200 millions in New Zealand currency would be required for the purpose.

Similarly, the present depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of sterling is not taken into account in reckoning the rate or amount of interest on the debt domiciled in the United Kingdom. Interest is taken at its nominal rate, and the cost of purchasing sterling for payment in London is included in the-public accounts as expenditure on exchange.

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS.

The gross debt of the General Government stood at £282,501,098 at 31st March, 1936, as compared with £280,581,217 a year earlier.

The gross indebtedness of the General Government and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (inclusive of Maoris) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table:—

As at 3l8t March.Amount.Per Head of Population.
* Including £5,379,105 raised in January, 1929, for expenditure in 1929–30.† Increase mainly floating debt, paid off in 1934–35.
 ££s.d.
1917129,836,105112162
1918150,840,0551301211
1919176,070,26014985
1920201,170,755162129
1921206,324,319162157
1922219,054,385168610
1923218,953,32416542
1924221,616,36116486
1925227,814,647165211
1926238,855,47816986
1927245,850,889170195
1928251,396,252172192
1929264,191,983*1791210
1930267,383,343179125
1931276,033,3581821310
1932281,942,800184186
1933282,622,958183178
1934302,791,99619599
1935280,581,217179181
1936282,561,098179106

On only three occasions in the history of New Zealand has a reduction in the gross public debt been effected during the financial year. The first occasion was in 1891–92, when the debt was reduced by £117,282; and the second in 1922–23, when another slight reduction (£101,061) was recorded. The third occasion was in 1934–35, when the huge floating debt of £22,856,981, comprising outstanding Treasury revenue bills amounting to £3,452,109 and Treasury bills for £19,404,872 in respect of the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, were entirely paid off.

After the establishment of the Reserve Bank (1st August, 1934), £20,229,700 of sterling funds held by the Government in London were transferred to New Zealand at the current rate of exchange through the Reserve Bank, the credit received (£25,084,828 in New Zealand currency) being sufficient with other funds available to redeem all Treasury bills then outstanding.

The public debt figures do not include loans under the Rural Advances Act, 1926, amounting to £4,213,050 at 31st March, 1936, nor an amount of £2,900,000 in respect of Discharged Soldier Settlement securities subject to a deed of hypothecation. This latter amount, which is held departmentally, shows a reduction of £950,000 as compared with the previous year, brought about by a refund to the-Consolidated Fund from the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account.

The history of the public debt in New Zealand may conveniently and with advantage be divided into four distinct periods—viz., (1) Up to the end of the financial year 1890–91; (2) from the 1st April, 1891, to the 31st March, 1914; (3) from the 1st April, 1914, to the 31st March, 1920; and (4) from the 1st April, 1920, to date.

Up to the 3lst March, 1891, loan expenditure had been chiefly concerned with railways and roads, the taking over of the loan liabilities of the Provincial Governments on their abolition, and the Maori War. The year 1891 marks the beginning of a period during which the functions of the State were widely extended, most notably as regards financial assistance to settlers, workers, and local bodies, the repurchase of alienated lands, the working of coal-mines, the development of hydro-electric power, and the establishment of State fire- and accident-insurance offices.

The advent of the war in 1914 created a second point of demarcation in the history of the loan expenditure of the General Government, necessitating as it did the postponement of all public works, &c., except those of pressing necessity. Expenditure of an unproductive nature occasioned by the war was necessarily continued for some time after the Armistice, but the end of the financial year 1919–20 may be fairly regarded as concluding this period.

The gross indebtedness at the 31st March, 1891, 1914, 1920, and 1936, with the increase between these dates, is as follows:—

 £
* Excluding £4,970,600 raised in March, 1914, for redemptions early in 1914–15.
At 31st March, 189138,830,350
Increase to 31st March, 191455,923,477*
At 31st Marc, 191494,753,827*
Increase to 31st March, 1920106,416,928
At 31st March, 1920201,170,755
Increase to 31st March, 193681,390,343
At 31st March, 1936282,561,098

In addition to the foregoing, there are certain contingent liabilities, consisting of (1) loans guaranteed by the State; (2) liabilities in respect of superannuation funds; and (3) State guarantees in respect of various undertakings.

In regard to the first item, the amount of guaranteed loans outstanding at 31st March, 1936, was £2,717,975, as against which accumulated sinking funds amounted to £898,700. With the exception of £13,400 in respect of land-settlement finance debentures, the loans are those of certain local authorities. Net payments on guaranteed loans during the year 1935–36 aggregated £18,543, comprising £17,915 in respect of interest and principal in arrear made good under the authority of the Land Settlement Finance Act, 1909 (section 13), and £628 as subsidies on sinking funds, &c, in the case of local authorities' loans.

As at 31st March, 1934, the total of subsidies (not including accumulated interest) short paid to the Teachers' and Public Service Superannuation Funds, and the excess of subsidies recommended by the Actuary over subsidies paid to the Railways Superannuation Fund, was £4,634,151. This subject is covered in detail in the next section (No. XXV).

The third class of contingent liabilities comprises various items, such as: the State guarantee to policyholders of the Government Insurance Department under the Government Life Insurance Act, 1908; the guarantee to the Reserve Bank under the Finance Act, 1934, in respect of sterling exchange; and certain undertakings under the Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35, superseded and amended by the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936.

CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DEBT.

In classifying the public debt according to nature or purpose the most usual distinction is that made on the basis of whether raised for ordinary purposes, war purposes, the settlement of discharged soldiers, or State advances. The following summary shows that the whole of the increase between 31st March, 1920, and 31st March, 1936, is in respect of the ordinary and State advances debt, the war and discharged soldiers sections showing substantial reductions. The total war loans raised amounted to £82,245,673, of which over £17,000,000 has been redeemed to the 31st March, 1936.

Class.Total.Per Head.
1920.1936.1920.1936.
 £££s.d.£s.d
Ordinary95,483,658176,450,4177731111222
War80,089,02565,035,735641504165
Discharged soldiers11,120,0006,853,3398199471
State advances14,478,07234,221,60711141211410
Total201,170,755282,561,098162129179106

A somewhat more detailed allocation of the debt as at the 31st March, 1936, is now given:—

 £
Railways60,947,861
Hydro-electric schemes12,159,512
Post and telegraph13,486,190
Public buildings, schools, and sites13,447,716
Roads and highways27,922,257
Harbours and lighthouses2,202,360
State forests1,938,037
State advances37,722,474
Land settlement and improvement29,439,602
Shares in Bank of New Zealand875,000
Shares in Reserve Bank of New Zealand1,000,000
Share in Nauru and Ocean Island phosphates410,915
Development of mining1,006,377
Tourist resorts647,867
Immigration3,317,778
War and defence70,330,860
Revenue deficiencies (prior to 1893)2,216,856
Old provincial liabilities878,739
Miscellaneous708,046
Cash and investments in hand1,902,651
Total£282,561,098

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1935–36.

The public debt showed an increase of £1,979,881 as a result of operations during the year 1935–36. Additional debt to the amount of £3,836,591 was incurred for the following purposes:—

 £
Expenditure on public works2,400,000
Cost, charges, and expenses of dealing with £10,135,800 of London debt836,015
Premiums on conversions in New Zealand340,576
Greymouth Harbour Board guaranteed debt taken over260,000

Redemptions of long-term debt during the year aggregated £1,856,710, of which. £187,900 was domiciled in Australia, £1,261,615 in London, and the balance in New-Zealand.

PUBLIC DEBT CONVERSION.

A scheme of conversion of practically the whole of the locally domiciled debt bearing interest higher than 4 per cent, was successfully carried out in the early part of 1933. Holders had the option of dissenting, but, as mentioned in the preceding subsection, interest on the dissented portion was made subject to an interest-tax of 33⅓ per cent. Holders who signified neither assent nor dissent were regarded as having assented.

On the new securities issued in lieu of converted securities the interest-rate is 4 per cent, per annum, except that in the case of securities exempt from income-tax the rate will be 3½ per cent, until expiration of the period of exemption and 4 per cent, thereafter. The new securities are spread over six maturity dates as follows:—

  • 15th January, 1940.

  • 15th March, 1943.*

  • 15th February, 1946.

  • 15th April, 1949.

  • 15th May, 1952.*

  • 15th June, 1955.

* For securities exempt from income-tax.

In cases where interest was reduced by not more than 20 per cent., the new securities issued were for the same amount of principal as the converted securities. Where the reduction of interest amounted to more than 20 per cent., the holder received a premium, the conversion scheme thus involving a slight increase (£491,254) in the aggregate gross debt.

The amount of debt to which the conversion scheme applied was £115,000,000. Actual assent to conversion was given in respect of some £110,000,000, and implied assent to approximately £5,000,000, dissents expressed covering only £480,000, or less than ½ per cent, of the total.

The successful conversion of £5,000,000 5-per-cent. debt into 3½-per-cent. securities at £97 in October, 1933, was the only debt operation undertaken in England during the fiscal year 1933–34.

During 1934–35 and 1935–36 further conversion operations were carried out in respect of external debt, where, of course, it is possible to take action only in the case of loans where the right to repay has accrued. The first comprised £3,989,100 of 4-per-cent. stock, which was converted to 3½-per-cent. stock at par in October, 1934. The second and larger operation concerned £10,135,800 of 5-per-cent. stock maturing in 1945 but with a right to redeem on or after 1st July, 1935. Of this, £8,000,000 was converted to 3-per-cent. stock at £98£, and the balance (£2,135,800) redeemed.

On 1st August, 1936, the right accrued to redeem £5,869,989 of 6-per-cent. stock, and of this £4,000,000 was converted to 3-per-cent. stock at 98½, and the balance (£1,869,989) redeemed, mainly by the utilization of funds in the Public Debt Repayment Account. Allowing for discount on issue and other expenses, the cost to the Government of this new loan is £3 4s. 10d. per cent.

The option of repayment of £12,400,000 of 4-per-cent. stock domiciled in New Zealand becomes effective on 15th January, 1937, and the Minister of Finance has given, by Gazette notification published on 14th October, 1936, the necessary three months' notice of the Government's intention to repay this stock at par on the said date. A prospectus has been issued offering conversion of the 4-per-cent stock to securities maturing in 1957 bearing interest at 3£ per cent., or, at the option of the holder, to 3-per-cent. securities maturing in July, 1941.

DOMICILE OF DEBT.

Between the 31st March, 1914, and the 31st March, 1936, the amount of New Zealand's public debt domiciled in London increased from 78½ to 159 millions, while that domiciled in New Zealand increased from 17 to 122 millions. The amount domiciled in Australia is relatively negligible. The table following shows, of the total amount outstanding in each of the last ten years, the amount domiciled in London, Australia, and New Zealand.

At 31st March.Amount.Percentage of Total.
London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1927132,512,8054,042,450109,295,63453·901·6444·46
1928139,750,9734,168,850107,470,42955·591·6642·75
1929149,346,2444,168,350110,677,38956·531·5841·89
1930146,580,5024,276,750116,526,09154·821·6043·58
1931154,546,9414,175,350117,311,06755·991·5142·50
1932159,641,8553,914,550118,386,39556·621·3941·99
1933161,400,7032,868,710118,353,54557·111·0141·88
1934160,908,1052,908,150138,975,74153·140·9645·90
1935160,972,2302,183,550117,425,43757·370·7841·85
1936158,711,9301,592,650122,256,51856·170·5643·27

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT.

The maturity years of the debt outstanding at the 31st March, 1936, are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between the various countries of domicile.

Maturity Year (ended 31st March).Due in London.Due in Australia.Due in New Zealand.Total.
Public.Departmental.
* Advances by Imperial Government for Slate Advances purposes. † Government has option to redeem on or after the earlier date on giving notice. ‡ Funded debt—repayable by instalments.
 £££££
Overdue....3,070..3,070
1925–15*2,090,909......2,090,909
1936–373,800667,75034,730..706,280
1936–515,869,989......5,869,989
1937–38..92,600751,400..844,000
1937–40101, l25..12,325,550..12,426,675
1938–394,0003,000265,130..272,130
1938–41....3,833,675..3,833,675
1939–4017,173,191..15,141..17,188,332
1940–41....500,015..500,015
1940–43....13,680,225..13,680,225
1941–12..17,30039,600..56,900
1943–447,339,656......7,339,656
1943–46....9,842,625..9,842,625
1943–6310,505,989..378,639..10,884,628
1944–457,780,408......7,780,408
1945–4622,543,590..2,500..22,546.090
1946–49....8,907,195..8,967,195
1947–4811,221,609......11,221,609
1948–49......10,50010,500
1948–5819,225,465......19,225,465
1949–507,500,000......7,500,000
1949–52....12,493,105..12,493,105
1949–545,000,000......5,000 000
1950–511,250,000812,000250,000..2,312,000
1952–53......260,000260,000
1952–558,000,000..9,976,125..17,976,125
1955–56......466,156466,156
1955–603,989,100......3,989,100
1956–715,000,000......5,000,000
1956–5712,900....4,024,7904,037,690
1957–5824,100,199....14,385,11438,485,313
1958–59......18,768,34818,768,348
1959–60......10,982,88510,982,885
Totals158,711,9301,592,65073,358,72548,897,793282,561,098

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCKS.

The highest and lowest London prices for the principal New Zealand stocks, taken over a range of five years, are quoted.

Rate per Cent.Maturing.Highest.Lowest.
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* Redeemed or converted.
  ££££££££££
3194581⅜92½95¼100⅜101 1/1670⅜63 3/1690 1/1694 11/1697
194089¾98 15/16100½103 15/16104½797398 5/16100¼98½
41933–4392¼100 7/16102 7/16102*86739999 7/16*
41943–6391⅝102102 15/16105 11/16106 7/167466100101100 11/16
194497½104⅞107111110 3/1685½77 7/16101 15/16105 3/16104 5/16
194597 9/16104⅞107111110 3/1685½77⅜101 15/16105 3/6104 5/16
194797 7/16106½107 1/16111 1/16111 7/1683⅛77⅛102 11/16105⅝105 1/16
1948–5897 3/16106⅝107 9/16110 13/16111 11/1684½74 7/16101 15/16105⅞105⅞
51935–45101 7/16103103⅜102 11/16101½8984101⅛101 3/16100¼
51946102 5/16107½109 11/16115115¼8984106¾109⅜108 15/16
51949102 13/16110⅞113 7/16116 3/16117 3/168983 11/16110¼ll2 3/16111
61936–51103 7/16105107 1/16106⅜105⅞9096104¾105 3/16101½

INTEREST.

Of the public debt outstanding at 31st March, 1932, only £78,749,156, or 29 per cent, of the total (excluding Treasury bills), bore interest at a rate of 4 per cent, or lower. Chiefly as a result of conversion operations, the corresponding figures at the 31st March, 1936, were £176,609,268 and 63 per cent. The rates of interest on the debt as at the 31st March 1936, were as given below.

Rate of Interest.Debt maturing in—Total.Gross Annual Interest Charge.
London.Australia.New Zealand.
* Funded debt.
Per cent.—£££££
....9,919,0009,919,000247,975
317,670,380..22,908,03240,57S,4121,217,351
3⅛....250,000250,0007,813
....500,000500,00016,250
26,161,291..40,795,91266,957,2032,343,501
....4,222,5754,222,575158,346
410,607,114..43,574,96454,182,0782,167,283
47,463,54720,30014,33547,498,1822,137,418
£4 19s. 5·88d.*24,100,200....24,100,2001,193,230
525,585,610..11,42025,597,0301,279,851
5⅛..466,1501,880468,03023,987
....2,5002,500131
1,253,8001,106,20052,8302,412,830132,705
65,869,988....5,869,988352,199
Overdue (unpresented)....3,0703,070..
Totals158,711,9301,592,650122,256,518282,561,09811,278,040

The total annual amount of interest payable on the public debt as at the 31st March, 1936, including the funded debt (payments in respect of which are at present in abeyance), is £11,278,040, which gives an average rate of £3 19s. 10d. per £100. The total interest and the average rate per cent, payable on the debt domiciled in the various markets are:—

 Total.Average Rate.
 ££s.d.
London (sterling)6,899,5694611
Australia85,644577
New Zealand4,292,8273103

The actual net interest payments during the last twenty years out of the Consolidated Fund Ordinary Revenue Account are shown in the table following, together with the rate per head of mean population. The figures for recent years have been affected by the discontinuance of payments on the funded debt, by conversion operations, and (adversely) by the existence of Treasury bills of considerable proportions.

Year ended 31st March.Amount.Rate per Head.
 ££s.d.
19173,705,961346
19183,936,080384
19195,409,2104129
19206,352,344552
19216,807,217588
19227,390,8645150
19237,904,260607
19247,877,5975181
19257,865,2025158
19268,129,79951610
19278,450,7945190
19288,397,0745156
19298,675,22051810
19309,136,301638
19319,266,676639
19329,035,0255191
19338,498,6815112
19348,836,4675148
19358,023,813534
19367,730,19441810

The above amounts are net payments out of the Consolidated Fund only, and do not comprise the whole of the interest payments in respect of moneys raised by way of loans. For loans raised for the purposes of Slate advances to settlers, workers, local authorities, &c., the interest, although made a charge upon the Consolidated Fund, is recovered from the receipts derived from interest paid by borrowers. Other loan-money coming within the same category is that raised for land-settlement, State coal-mines, the development of water-power, and a number of other purposes. Such interest does not become a burden upon the taxpayer, and consequently is not included in the figures upon which the rate per head of mean population is calculated.

The gross interest charges borne by the Consolidated Fund during the year ended 31st March, 1936, totalled £10,333,070 of which £2,602,876 was recovered from other accounts, &c. In addition there should be set off against, the interest charges certain amounts shown in the public accounts not as recoveries but as revenue. These are interest on railway capital liability (£1,051,477), interest on post and telegraph capital liability (£541,000), and interest earned on the investment of public moneys (£513,949).

Of the gross interest payments from the Consolidated Fund during 1935–36 £5,725,115 was paid in London, £97,563 in Australia, and £4,510,392 in New Zealand. The figure for payments in London represents interest only, exchange being additional. At the instance of the Imperial Government, no payments were made in respect of the funded debt (vide later reference).

Administration and management charges in respect of debt services amounted to £29,285 in 1935–36 and payments on guaranteed loans to £18,543. Amortization charges are shown under the next heading.

AMORTIZATION OF DEBT.

PUBLIC DEBT REPAYMENT.

A brief historical account of the provisions for paying off loan-moneys will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. With certain exceptions, the public debt is now subject to the provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925. This Act, which repealed the Public D Extinction Act, 1910, substituted for the long-term sinking-fund system a method whereby the Dominion's debt-reduction resources may be available to purchase and cancel Government securities as the market price is advantageous, or pay them off at maturity, and so ensure an actual reduction in the public debt annually. For this purpose there is issued annually out of the Consolidated Fund a sum equal to ½ per cent, of the debt affected as at the 31st March, plus ½ per cent, of the total amount previously repaid or redeemed under the provisions of the Act. To this is added a sum equal to interest at 3£ per cent, per annum on the debt paid off under the scheme. By this means the bulk of the savings in interest on debt paid off is applied to further repayments of debt, and the debt existing at the commencement of the scheme will be liquidated in about sixty years, while all future loans will be liquidated within a similar period from the date of their inception.

Under the Act of 1925 a capital fund termed “The Public Debt Redemption Fund” was created, consisting of (1) the accumulations of sinking funds, amounting to £11,225,645 (leaving aside the State Advances, Westport Harbour, and other special sinking funds); (2) the amount advanced out of surplus revenue for discharged soldiers settlement, originally £13,500,000, but since reduced to £6,000,000 through £4,850,000 having been, transferred to the Consolidated Fund and £2,650,000 written off as a result of the revaluation of the properties of discharged soldiers. The net earnings from the Public Debt Redemption Fund are credited to the Consolidated Fund and applied towards meeting the charge against that fund created by the Act.

The Act does not apply to the whole of the public debt, revenue bills and certain classes of the debt for which there are special amortization provisions being excluded. The latter include funded debt, loans raised for State advances, and loans raised in respect of electric supply. Of the total gross indebtedness of £227,814,647 at the 31st March, 1925, £174,128,135 was subject to the operations of the Act. The corresponding figure at the 31st March, 1936, was £210,862,371.

To the 31st March, 1936, securities of a nominal value of £13,272,249, had been redeemed under the operation of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act. Those transactions have effected an annual saving of interest to the Consolidated Fund amounting to £182,891, the difference between the rate formerly payable on the securities redeemed and the rate of 3£ per cent, now payable to the Public Debt Repayment Account in respect of these securities.

The following table shows the operations of the Public Debt Repayment Account during each of the eleven years of its existence, together with the interest earnings of the Redemption Fund. In addition to transfers from the Consolidated Fund, the Public Debt Repayment Account is credited with interest earnings (£0,082 to 31st March, 1936) on its investments. On the expenditure side there have been £242 for cost of exchange and transfers of £23,672 to the Consolidated Fund in respect of premium on exchange. The account had an unexpended balance of £106,387 at 31st March, 1936.

Year ended 3lst March.Interest on Redemption Fund (paid to Consolidated Fund).Transfers from Consolidated Fund.Utilized to redeem and cancel Securities.Nominal Value of Securities redeemed and Cancelled.
½ per Cent. of Debt at Beginning of year or redeemed under Act.3½ per Cent of Dept redeemed.Total.
Prior to Beginning of Year.During Year.*
* Computed from dates of redemption.
 £££££££
1926897,756870,641..2,093872,734870,637889,733
1927863,942896,65131,14113,737941,529939,231942,020
1928878,408919,72764,1119,926993,764998,188999,811
1929995,202944,45499,1053,3691,046,9281,041,8711,046,000
1930996,695993,567135,71524,9631,154,2451,158,4721,158,472
1931858,8931,006,800176,26123,9981,207,0591,209,9281,209,928
1932699,7901,047,687218,60912,9041,279,2001,243,1181,264,330
1933620,0891,066,173262,8616,9861,336,020919,850922,310
1934629,4961,083,209295,14113,9121,392,2621,776,2301,776,270
1935632,0651,183,761357,31137,2211,578,2931,023,1611,623,161
1936615,0201,102,160414,12126,8061,543,0871,440,2151,440,215

The funds in the Public Debt Repayment Account are not the only source from which debt-redemptions are made. Other accounts provided £416,405 for redemption purposes in 1935–36.

AMORTIZATION OF FUNDED DEBT.

At the 31st March, 1922, £27,532,164 of New Zealand's public debt was owing to the British Government, all but £1,191,919 of this being on account of war expenditure. Arrangements were made with the Imperial Government in 1922 for the funding of this debt.

The funding was carried out on an annuity basis of 6 per cent., the total payment each year (payable half-yearly at 1st June and 1st December) being £1,651,930. Interest is at the rate of £4 19s. 5·88d. per cent., the balance of the 6 per cent, going to reduction of the debt.

Under the agreement the original amount of £27,532,164 would have been automatically discharged from the public debt by the end of the financial year 1958–59. The British Government has, however, following the Hoover proposals regarding war debts, voluntarily suspended New Zealand's obligations in respect, of the funded-debt payments due in and since December, 1931. On the other hand, a provision that any part of the funded debt may be redeemed at any time was taken advantage of in 1924, when £200,000 was paid off the Naval Defence Loan.

Payments to the end of 1935–36 have been:—

Year ended 31st March.Interest.Principal.Balance of Debt outstanding.
* Half-year only. † Including £200,000 additional, paid off Naval Defence loan.
 £££
1923*684,794141,17127,390,993
19241,358,966292,96427,098,029
19251,344,212507,71826,590,311
19261,318,641333,28926,257,022
19271,301,856350,07425,906,948
19281,284,224367,70625,539,242
19291,265,706386,22425,153,018
19301,246,254405,67624,747,342
19311,225,822426,10824,321,234
1932*604,930221,03524,100,199
1933,1934,1935, and 1936NilNil24,100,199

The provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, do not apply to the funded debt.

ACCRUED SINKING FUNDS.

Special sinking funds have been set up in respect of certain classes of debts not covered by the Repayment of the Public Debt Act. The amount remaining in these sinking funds as at 31st March of each of the last ten years was as follows:—

As at 31st March.Amount.
 £
19272,443,540
19282,635,766
19292,156,561
19302,331,423
19312,313,673
19322,435,117
19332,509,545
19342,647,985
19352,657,832
19362,502,458

Payments to sinking funds during the year ended 31st March, 1936, totalled £40,385, and the funds earned £24,782 by way of interest. Sinking-fund holdings to the amount of £9,390 were utilized for the redemption of debentures during the year. An amount of £121,125 was deducted by way of adjustment from the sinking fund in respect of the Local Authorities branch of the Advances Office Sinking Fund, and an administration fee of £25 was paid in the case of Westport Harbour.

Details of the accrued sinking funds as at 31st March, 1936, were as follows:—

 £
State advances to settlers 
State advances to workers2,263,608
State advances to local authorities 
State coal-mines8,821
Westport Harbour loans298,436
Electric supply17,555
Samoan loan4,038
Total£2,592,458

NET INDEBTEDNESS.

While the sinking funds were annually increasing it was customary to regard the net-indebtedness figures as giving the best comparison between one year and another. The initiation of the present system of amortization has, however, destroyed the comparison on this basis, and the gross figures now afford a better and more comparable index. The figures of net indebtedness for the last twenty years are as follows:—

As at 31st MarchAmount.Per Head of Population.
 ££s.d.
1917125,572,51510921
1918145,868,450126610
1919170,125,20414475
1920193,913,191156155
1921197,561,222155174
1922208,241,12116008
1923207,024,04815642
1924208,595,743154153
1925214,287,12815569
1926236,581,216167163
1927243,407,34916955
1928248,740,73617127
1929256,652,371174104
1930265,051,92017811
1931273,715,71018131
1932279,507,68318367
1933280,113,41318250
1934300,144,011193157
1935277,923,38517840
1936279,968,640177177

In general the net indebtedness shown in the foregoing table is merely the balance left after deducting the accrued sinking funds from the amount of debentures and stock in circulation. In some years, however, a further deduction has been made on account of loan-money, included in the gross indebtedness, having been raised towards the end of the financial year for the redemption of debentures falling due early in the succeeding financial year, or (in 1928–29) for expenditure in the next year. The years concerned and the amounts so deducted on this account are—

Year ended 31st March.Amount.
 £
192125
1922157,870
192350,020
192446,590
192564,680
192819,750
19295,383,051
19313,975

In computing the net indebtedness, no allowance is made for the fact that portion of the debt is actually held by the Government itself. In the course of the year†s financial transactions securities are bought and sold by Treasury accounts, and the investments held as at the 31st March in each year, while forming part of the debt, do not represent amounts due directly or indirectly to the public. Public debt held by Treasury accounts as at the 31st March of the last five years has been: 1932, £2,085,828; 1933, £3,201,668; 1934, £429,663; 1935, £1,188,555; and 1936, £1,081,418.

GENERAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT DEBT.

The statistics given throughout this subsection refer to the indebtedness of the General Government only, and do not include the debt of local-governing authorities, which are dealt with in the section of this volume relating to local government.

Local-governing authorities had at the 31st March, 1935, a gross indebtedness of £72,470,400, and if this amount be added to the gross debt of the General Government at 31st March. 1935 (£280,581,217) the aggregate becomes £353,051,617. From this total should be deducted £4,741,805 in respect of outstanding loans to local authorities from the State Advances Office and the Main Highways Board, and £1,740,799 on account of inscribed debt under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, leaving £346,569,013 as the sum total of the public and semi-public debt. This figure represents a rate of £222 per head of population.

The figures relating to local authorities' indebtedness in the foregoing paragraph are inclusive of Hospital Boards, and to this extent differ from those given in the section on local government. Hospital Board indebtedness at 31st March, 1935, totalled £1,224,942, including £68,432 from the State Advances Office.

Chapter 40. SECTION XXIV.—PUBLIC FINANCE

SUBSECTION D.—STATE ADVANCES.

INTRODUCTORY.

As is shown in Subsection C of this section, an appreciable proportion of the-public debt of New Zealand is represented by money borrowed by the State not for its own requirements, but for the purpose of lending out at easy rates of interest for various defined purposes.

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c, for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes varied considerably in detail, but all lay in one of two main classes—those in which the money was advanced on security, and those in which the expenditure was incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, and discharged soldiers are the principal examples. of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlements (including the settlement of discharged soldiers) is the principal of the latter.

Of the advances proper, several classes are administered by a Department known as the State Advances Corporation, and the accounts relating to these are not included in the Public Account, nor are they dealt with in Subsection A of this section. The various systems of advances administered by the State Advances Corporation are dealt with in the present subsection, as is also the rural intermediate credits scheme. The system of advances to discharged soldiers for settlement purposes is dealt with in the section of this book dealing with land tenure and settlement, while particulars of advances for mining purposes are given in the section relating to mining.

The National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, effected a reduction in the rate of interest of existing mortgages as from 1st April, 1932. The reductions were originally intended to operate for three years only, but the term was extended to five years by the Finance Act, 1934; and the reduction has now been made permanent by a section in the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936. The standard reduction is 20 per cent, in the case of mortgages entered into on the 1st January, 1930, or within five years immediately preceding, and in the case of earlier mortgages 20 per cent, of the rate of interest (determined in manner laid down) that would have been fixed by the mortgage had it been entered into on the 1st January, 1930. No such deduction shall, however, have the effect of bringing the net interest rate on chattel mortgages below 6i per cent, or on other mortgages below 5 per cent.

During the last five years legislation has widened the powers of granting relief to, and otherwise ameliorating the conditions of, mortgagors who have been unable to meet their obligations in full.

Statistical and other information in this subsection refers to the position existing at the close of the financial year 1934—35—i.e., the last year of operation of the former State Advances Department. Subsequent to that date the State Advances Department was virtually abolished, practically the whole of its operations being taken over by the Mortgage Corporation, created under the Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934—35. The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936 (described under the next heading), effected what amounts to a reversion to the traditional State advances system. The double change in a little over twelve months has involved major problems of organization. Statistics of the operations of the State Advances Corporation are not yet available (October, 1036), so that the financial statistics quoted later in this section relate to the year 1934—35.

STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION.

As indicated in the preceding paragraph, a radical change in the policy of advances by the State was effected by the Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35. This statute authorized the creation of a corporation under a Board composed of directors appointed partly by the State and partly by the shareholders of the Corporation. By the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the private capital invested in the Mortgage Corporation is cancelled, provision having been made for repayment to shareholders in respect of shares held in the Corporation. The capital of the Corporation is maintained at £1,000,000. however, by a grant from the Consolidated Fund, while all securities issued by the Corporation are to be State guaranteed. The management of the Corporation is vested in a Board of Directors consisting of two joint managing directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one or more other directors similarly appointed, and an ex officio member (necessarily a Treasury official) appointed by the Minister of Finance. In the exercise of its powers, the Board is enjoined to have regard to any representations that may be made by the Minister of Finance. Every direction in writing given by the Minister is binding on the Board.

The change in administration and the institution of a State guarantee on securities issued by the Corporation represent the major alterations in the preexisting law. All the functions of the Mortgage Corporation are transferred to the new body, while certain extensions are made—e.g., the administration of the Housing Act, 1919. Following is a resume of the principal functions of the State Advances Corporation:—

The Corporation will administer the State advances, &c, loans transferred to the pre-existing Mortgage Corporation, viz.—

  1. Mortgages in respect of advances to settlers or workers under the State Advances Act, 1913:

  2. Mortgages in respect of advances under the Rural Advances Act, 1926:

  3. Debentures or other securities vested in the State Advances Superintendent in respect of advances to local authorities under Part HI of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, or corresponding provisions of former Acts:

  4. Crown mortgages in respect of advances under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, or any amendments thereof (including advances under section 11 of the Finance Act, 1933):

  5. Crown mortgages in respect of advances made out of the Land for Settlements Account by direction of the Lands Development Board established under Part I of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929.

In addition, all other mortgages of land or any other securities held by the State Advances Superintendent or by the Crown as security for loans made out of the State Advances Account or out of the Public Account are now transferred to the Corporation.

The Corporation may advance on mortgage, generally speaking, tip to two-thirds of the value of the security, with provision for the extension of the limit in certain specified cases. In such instances the Minister of Finance guarantees the Corporation against any loss attributable to the excess of the loan over two-thirds of the security. In order to provide finance the Corporation may issue bonds, stock, or other securities, which are State guaranteed. In addition to its primary function of providing cheap long-term finance in the form of first mortgages on land, the Corporation may now make loans to local authorities for purposes of erecting workers' dwellings; while it may also make advances for the development of existing industries or the establishment of new industries.

Loans are, in general, secured by table mortgage for a term not exceeding fifty years, though in certain instances flat mortgage for a period not exceeding five years may be accepted. There is provision for varying the scheme of table mortgages in special circumstances, part of the mortgage (at least one-half), to be in the form of a table mortgage and the remainder a flat mortgage falling due on the date of the last instalment of the table mortgage.

A mortgagor may be required to effect a policy of life insurance as additional security, such policy to be assigned to the Corporation. A mortgagor may not give any subsequent mortgage or any other charge over land subject to any mortgage to the Corporation except with the written authority of the Board.

The Board is required from time to time to fix the rates of interest to be paid under mortgages to the Corporation, so as to make adequate provision to cover the costs of administration and for all other matters incidental to the proper functioning of the Corporation. After such provision as the Minister of Finance thinks proper has been made for the depreciation of securities or other assets and for such other matters as in his opinion are necessary for the efficient conduct of the business of the Corporation, the surplus for each financial year is to be paid into the Public Account unless the Minister, in his discretion, authorizes the Board to credit it, in whole or in part, to the General Reserve Fund of the Corporation.

Each mortgagor is required to pay in cash or to borrow, as an addition to the capital sum, 2 per cent, of any mortgage granted by the Corporation. These amounts, together with the surplus profits referred to above, and certain payments on account of mortgages transferred to the Corporation, form a General Reserve Fund.

The Corporation is to administer the Housing Act. 1919 (sec Section XXXVIII—Labour Laws and Allied Legislation). Upon a date to be fixed by Order in Council the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation will constitute the Rural Intermediate Credit Board established under the Rural Intermediate Credit Act, 1927.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

The following résumé covers collectively the three major fields of operation of the former State Advances Department—viz., Advances to Settlers (including Rural Advances), Advances to Workers, and Advances to Local Authorities. As stated previously, no statistical data later than for the year 1934–35 are available.

From the inception of the Department in 1894 to the 31st March. 1935, a total amount of £75,878,20S was advanced. Repayments in full and payments of instalments aggregated £34,622,007, leaving a balance of principal outstanding of £41,255,701, comprising outstanding loans to settlers, £22,520,021; to workers, £14,302,257: and to local authorities, £4,433,423. These figures are exclusive of £235,939 earthquake advances, referred to later in this subsection.

The average balance of principal outstanding per mortgagor at 31st March, 1935, was:—

 £
Loans on rural properties1,065
Loans on urban and suburban properties548
Loans to local authorities15,341

The total losses from the inception up to the 31st March, 1935, amounted to £885,396, or £1 3s. 4d. in every £100 of advances. This total does not include losses which may in fact exist, but are not definitely ascertainable until securities are realized.

At the 31st March, 1935, the proportion of arrears to the balance of advances outstanding was 6–196 per cent., as compared with 5–510 per cent, a year earlier. The increase in arrears of interest and instalments of principal during 1934–35 was £207,671; in 1933–34, £50S,132; in 1932–33, £559,210; and in 1931–32, £642,184. These exclude arrears from local-body investments under Part III of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. Postponements of principal are excluded from arrears, except where the postponement arises after due date. Arrears have also been capitalized in some instances.

The total capital amounted to £44,229,509 at the end of 1934–35 and the cost of management in 1934–35 was £70,172, being thus 0–159 per cent., or 3s. 2d. per £100, of capital employed.

During 1934–35 mortgages and instalments of principal repaid amounted to £1,671,592. Interest collected totalled £1,991,578, and interest capitalized £40,294. The interest paid on loan-moneys during the year was £1,652,377. Interest earned for the year on the sinking funds administered was: Public Debt Sinking Funds, £123,989; Advances Office Sinking Funds, £95,340. The assets of the Advances Office sinking funds amounted to £2,374,017 at the close of the year.

To assist those urban and suburban mortgagors who, through adverse circumstances, were unable to meet their commitments in full on the half-yearly due date, the Department instituted a system of frequent and regular collections. For the year ended the 31st March, 1935, the number of cases under collection was—Instalments, 11,922; rentals, 3,534, A total of 364,701 collections brought in £606,526, of which £158,975 was in respect of rentals.

Consequent on the Department exercising its powers of sale, the following advances granted to purchasers replaced existing mortgages during the year:—

 Number.Amount.
 £
Loans to settlers158171,440
Loans to workers63,900

Under the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1933, power was given, on the application of a mortgagor, to agree to the postponement of principal repayment by way of temporary relief. The Finance Act, 1932, gave the necessary authority for the capitalization of arrears of interest. The following table illustrates the relief extended during the financial year 1934–35:—

 Number of Cases. Amount.
 £
Arrears of interest remitted131 16,694
Current interest reduced82 ..
Arrears of interest capitalized306 40,294
Suspension of principal repayments3,188 106,187
Mortgage readjusted108Annual instalments reduced— 
   From9,549
   To5,798
  Annual reduction£3,751
Term of mortgage extended8Annual instalments reduced—£
   From776
   To711
  Annual reduction£65

The following table, which relates to the position of advances to settlers and workers at June, 1935, is illuminating in view of the financial stresses upon the community during the depression years. Out of 50,884 mortgagors, 20,736, equal to nearly 41 per cent., were in arrears. The original amount of advances in respect of those in arrears was £20,279,400, of which the balance of principal outstanding (i.e., original advances, less instalments repaid) was £17,932,589. The 30,148 mortgagors who were up to date in payments had an aggregate balance of principal outstanding of £18,498,801, out of original advances totalling £24,133,305.

Percentage of Principal repaid.Farm, 75 Per Cent Limit.Farm, 66 ⅔ Per Cent. Limit.Residential, 95 Per Cent. Limit.Residential, 75 Per Cent. Limit.Rental Properties, 75 Per Cent. Limit.Rental Properties, 95 Per Cent. Limit.
Mortgagors up to Date.
50 per cent, or over1,67996,12062151
25 per cent., but under 501,864214,9001,217143
10 per cent., but under 252,598851,5051,53869
Under 10 per cent.1,9181,1771,4983,8811413
Total8,0591,29214,0236,6994926
Mortgagors in Arrears.
50 per cent, or over310..1,0848381
25 per cent., but under 5080461,96848623269
10 per cent., but under 251,461418151,192209416
Under 10 per cent.2,5901,1991,0754,2183632,151
Total5,1651,2464,9425,9048422,637
Grand total13,2242,53818,96512,6038912,663

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS.

The Advances to Settlers Office was established by an Act passed in 1894. An account of the system will be found in the 1935 or an earlier number of the Year-Book.

Statistics given under this heading include advances, &c, from the Rural Advances Branch.

The number and amount of advances which were outstanding at the 31st March, 1935, were classified according to amount as follows:—

 Number of Advances.Amount outstanding.
 £
Freeholds19,78518,218,126
Leaseholds8,9223,903,712
Freeholds and leaseholds combined368398,183
Totals29,075£22,520,021

The number and amounts of current advances on rural and on urban and suburban land are—

 Number.Amount.
 £
On rural land16,32517,380,182
On urban and suburban land12,7505,139,839

During the year 1934–35 234 advances, aggregating £161,590, were paid over as loans to settlers.

At 31st March, 1935, interest overdue on loans amounted to £1,050,340, as compared with £1,100,328 at 31st March, 1934, and £905,209 at 31st March, 1933. Instalments of principal overdue at 31st March, 1935, amounted to £514,626. From 1932 a postponement of principal was not included in the arrears position unless the postponement arose after clue date—i.e., through a Court order. Furthermore, arrears were cleared in some cases by way of capitalization.

RURAL ADVANCES.

The Rural Advances Act, 1926, established, as from the 1st April, 1927, a separate branch of the State Advances Office, known as the Rural Advances Branch, and controlled by the State Advances Hoard (vide 1935 or an earlier Year-Book).

To provide funds wherewith to make rural advances, the Superintendent of the State Advances Office issued bonds or stock or other securities, which constituted a floating charge on all the assets of the Rural Advances Branch, including all mortgages for the time being securing loans granted under the Act. Such bonds, &c, are not secured on the public revenues, and do not form part of the public debt. Bonds to an aggregate value of £4,213,050 were issued to the 31st March, 1934. No bonds were issued during 1934—35.

All statistics of loans, repayments, &c, are incorporated in those of advances to settlers, given previously. It may be mentioned that principal owing by mortgagors at the 31st March, 1935, amounted to £4,406,917, inclusive of £61,535 representing overdue instalments of principal. Overdue interest on mortgages at the end of 1934–35 amounted to £270,683. At the same date half-yearly instalments of interest and principal postponed totalled £13,853.

RURAL INTERMEDIATE CREDIT.

The Rural Intermediate Credit Act, which was passed during the 1927 session of Parliament and came into force on the 1st January, 1928, provided for the setting-up of a special Rural Intermediate Credit Board, and the making of advances as follows:—

  1. To members of co-operative rural intermediate credit associations, whose formation (with not less than twenty members and with certain defined objects) is provided for. The application for the loan is received and considered by the association concerned, which, on approving it, applies to the Board to advance the amount required to cover the loan. The term of the loan is-not more than five years. An association may arrange with a bank or other approved financial institution for a loan in cases where the term is less than six months.

  2. To persons engaged in farming operations on their own account, or to trustees, executors, or administrators carrying on farming operations, the loan (for certain specified purposes and for a term of not more than five years) being advanced direct.

  3. To co-operative societies (with not less than thirty members and with a subscribed capital of at least £2,500) having for their principal objects the production or sale of staple agricultural or pastoral products. In this case the term of the loan is not less than six months nor more than three years.

The Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), authorized the Board, or an association with the consent of the Board, to grant an extension of time or other concession in the case of an existing loan. Every loan granted after 10th March, 1933, by the Board or an association may be made repayable upon demand, or by instalments, and upon such other conditions as the Board thinks fit.

The Board may also carry on the business of discounting farmers' promissory notes and bills of exchange.

The total amount of advances in force at any time to a person in classes (a) or (b) was originally set down as not to exceed £1,000. This limit was extended to £2,000 by the Rural Intermediate Credit Amendment Act, 1929. In the case of cooperative societies the amount advanced may be not more than 80 per cent, of the fair market value of the live-stock or produce upon which the loan is secured.

The Rural Intermediate Credit Board now consists of seven members, including the Public Trustee, who is the principal executive member, and in his capacity as such is styled the Commissioner of Rural Intermediate Credit. [NOTE.—Vide page 503 in respect of future transfer of operations to the State Advances Corporation.] The funds of the Board are obtained partly by way of advance from the Consolidated Fund and partly by the issue of debentures.

There are also throughout the Dominion sixteen District Rural Intermediate Credit Boards to which has been delegated authority to approve applications referred to in classes (a) and (b) up to certain amounts and subject to certain stipulated conditions.

The accounting year under the scheme ends on the 30th June. The following figures show the position at 30th June, 1935:—

 £
Investments (including loans made and face value of bills and notes discounted)200,144
Loans granted but not completed12,869
Applications entertained and in course of consideration2,389
Total£275,402

The investments referred to above were made up as follows:—

 £
Advances to associations for preliminary expenses835
Advances to associations under Part II of the Act195,513
Advances to farmers under Part III of the Act62,339
Bills and notes discounted (face value)1,457
Total£260,144

From the inception of the scheme on 1st January, 1928, up to the 30th June, 1935, advances made and bills discounted totalled £1,150,132, and the business dealt with up to or under consideration at that date reached the total of £1,165,390.

The interest fixed for advances other than to co-operative rural intermediate credit, associations is now 5 per cent, per annum, this being also the discount rate. In the case of loans to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations the rate charged is 4½ per cent., so that associations may be in a position to make advances to their members at 5 per cent. The Board has imposed conditions as to the manner in which this margin of ½ per cent, is to be employed by the associations.

Advances totalling £400,000 have been received from the Consolidated Fund, and £262,900 had been raised to the 30th June, 1935, by the issue of debentures. Income from investments during the year ended 30th June, 1935, totalled £13,450. and expenditure for the year was £15,773, resulting in a net loss of £2,323. The income referred to does not include £7,469 earned by the investments of the Rural Intermediate Credit Redemption Fund, to which one-third of all advances received from the Consolidated Fund must be allocated and invested in Government securities. The interest earned by this Fund, plus one-half of the net profits on the year's working, is credited to the Redemption Fund, the grand total of which amounted at 30th June, 1935, to £191,040.

ADVANCES TO WORKERS.

The system of advances to workers was instituted in 1906. Particulars will be found in the 1935 or an earlier Year-Book.

The net amount of the 22,709 advances outstanding at the end of the financial year 1934–35 was £14,302,257, secured upon the following tenures:—

Tenure.Number of Loans outstanding.Aggregate Amount outstanding.
 £
Freehold21,29013,530,693
Leasehold1,419771,564

The whole of advances current are secured upon urban or suburban land.

During the year 1934–35 £38,485 was paid over in respect of seventy-two advances to workers.

Interest overdue on loans to workers at 31st March, 1935, was £802,198, as compared with £686,414 at 31st March, 1934, and £543,058 at 31st March, 1933. Instalments of principal overdue at 31st March. 1935, amounted to £331,378. Remarks at the close of paragraphs relating to advances to settlers should be noted.

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The system of State advances to local authorities was initiated in 1910. The total advances current at 31st March, 1935, were £4,433,423, of which £2,312,465 was classified as upon rural land and £2,120,958 as upon urban or suburban lands. The security consists of debentures issued by the local authority.

Interest overdue on loans to local authorities at 31st March, 1935, amounted to £17,640, and may he compared with £22,002 overdue at the end of 1933–34 and £20,602 at the end of 1932–33. Instalments of principal overdue at 31st March, 1935, totalled £12,265.

No advances were made to local authorities in the year 1934–35.

The foregoing figures are exclusive of funds (£237,115) provided by the Treasury and advanced under the Hawke's Bay Earthquake (1931) rehabilitation scheme. The balance outstanding at the close of the year 1934'35 was £235,930.

MISCELLANEOUS ADVANCES.

The administration of the following accounts, created as national emergency measures during the war period, was transferred by amalgamation to the State Advances Superintendent in 1922. The functions in respect of each account are now limited.

Housing Account.—No moneys were expended during the year 1934–35 in acquiring land, in preparing land for dwellings, or in the erection of houses. As indicated in other sections of this book (Sections XXIII and XXXVIII), plans are in train (October, 1936) for the erection of several thousand dwellings under the Housing Act, 1919.

The amount outstanding at the close of the year in respect of 473 homes under agreements to purchase was £251,906, and the arrears at the close of the year were £12,470, as compared with £13,270 a year earlier. The net loss for the year was £1,817.

Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings Account.—The investments under this account have been repaid and the relative loan liability was redeemed during 1934–35. The account is now closed.

Repatriation.—During the year 1934–35 the sum of £8,540 principal-moneys was repaid by borrowers.

At 31st March, 1935, 910 borrowers were indebted to the extent of £113,967 for business loans, and 3,592 borrowers owed £74,389 for furniture loans: a total of £188,356 in respect of principal-moneys. Overdue interest on bills of sale at the end of the year amounted to £4,483, as compared with £4,697 a year earlier.

Repatriation advances should not be confused with the system of advances to discharged soldiers to enable them to acquire farms and homes. Discharged soldiers' settlement advances are dealt with in Section XVII of this book.

Fruit-preserving Industry Advances Account.—At 31st March, 1935, principal owing amounted to £27,690 and overdue interest on mortgages to £2,708.

Cold-storage Advances Account.—At 31st March, 1935, the sum of £12,518 was owing by mortgagors in respect of principal and £1,203 in respect of overdue interest.

Fishing-industry Promotion Account.—The principal (instalments overdue) owing on bills of sale at the 31st March, 1935, was only £75, with a further £8 as overdue interest.

Chapter 41. SECTION XXV.—PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

SUMMARY OF PENSIONS.

A SUMMARYshowing the total amount of pensions administered by the Pensions Department during the last two fiscal years is as follows:—

Class of PensionAnnual Value.Gross Payments.
As at 31st Mar., 1935.As at 31st Mar., 1936.1934–35.1935–36.
* Excludes payments under section 15 of Pensions Act, 1926. These are included in old-age pensions
 ££££
War1,264,3751,384,3401,264,1101,349,447
Old-age1,583,4131,828,1501,519,8891,718,601
Widows'294,437321,605296,565311,864
Maori War3,1852,1073,6072,577
Miners'60,51073,33158,74067,834
Epidemic1,5635011,983907
Blind22,15123,96121,22722,991
Boer War*2,1082,0862,0842,127
Civil Service Act5,0734,4605,2114,676
Sundry pensions and annuities12,17615,06512,12013,053
Family allowances151,169144,856152,818149,043
War veterans' allowances..58,358..16,544
Totals3,400,1603,858,8203,338,3543,659,664

Total payments in 1935–36 represented £2 9s. 2d. per head of mean population other than Maori.

As an illustration of the growth of the pension responsibilities of the State, figures are appended covering total and per caput payments at five-yearly intervals on account of civil pensions and family allowances. Civil pensions comprise old-age, widows', miners', blind, epidemic, and Maori war pensions. Only old-age pensions were in force over the whole period.

Year ended 31st March.Payments during Year.
Total.Per Head of Population.*
££s.d.
* Excluding Maoris.
1900157,343042
1905195,475047
1910362,496075
1915540,0490910
1920931,5200161
19251,132,6020174
19301,577,641124
19352,054,829179
19362,273,8171107

The aggregate amount paid to the 31st March, 1936, in respect of civil pensions and family allowances is £32,900,933.

War and other pensions paid by the Pensions Department in 1935–36 on behalf of other Governments amounted to £223,346 in actual payments for the year.

The necessity for the exercise of economy measures led to the passing in May, 1932, of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act. Inter alia, this Act imposed reductions in the rates of certain classes of pensions. Apart from certain other provisions, the general effect may be stated as a reduction of 10 per cent. in the case of old-age, widows', and miners' pensions, and family allowances, and 17½ per cent. in the case of war pensions payable to certain dependants of a deceased soldier. Varying reductions (maximum, 30 per cent.) were made in economic pensions. The maximum income limit (including pension) of old-age pensioners who served in the South African War and who receive the additional pension of 5s. per week was reduced by 17½ per cent.

From the 1st April, 1934, the Finance Act (No. 2), 1934, effected a partial restoration of 5 per cent. of existing pension rates in the case of old-age pensions, and of 5 per cent. of the existing maximum income limit (including pension) of old-age pensioners (referred to in the immediately preceding paragraph) who served in the South African War.

The Finance Act, 1935, operative from the 1st August, 1935, completed the restoration of old-age, widows', and miners' pension reductions; completed the restoration to £97 10s. per annum of the maximum income limit (including pension) of old-age pensioners who served in the South African War; and increased by 7£ per cent. of the existing rates pensions for dependants of soldiers whose pensions had been reduced, and economic pensions. A new type of non-contributory pension was provided by the War Veterans' Allowances Act referred to later.

The law was substantially amended by the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, in the direction of making more liberal both the scope of the Act and the benefits received. The basic rate of the old-age pension is increased from £45 10s. to £52 per annum as from 1st July, 1936, and a further increase to £58 10s. per annum becomes operative as from 1st December, 1936. Certain disqualifications have been removed, the residential qualification has been reduced from twenty-five years to twenty years, and Chinese or other Asiatics (if British subjects), are now eligible for the pension. The yearly income limit, including pension, has been raised from £97 10s. to £104 from 1st July to 30th November, 1936, and £110 10s. thereafter for single pensioners, and for married pensioners from £143 (joint income of husband and wife. plus pension) to £156 from 1st July to 30th November, 1936, and £169. thereafter. Provision has been made for the payment of a widows' pension to any married woman who has been deserted by her husband, or whose husband is subject to a reception-order under the Mental Defectives Act, 1911, or is detained in an institution under that Act. The rate of widows' pension has been increased. The qualification for miners' pensions has been extended to include any other occupational disease or heart disease, as well as miners' phthisis; and the rate of pension payable to the widow of a miner dying while in receipt of a miners' pension has been increased. The maximum income limit (including pension) of old-age pensioners who served in the South African War and who receive the additional pension of 5s. per week has been increased to £104 per annum from 1st July to 30th November, 1936, and £110 10s. thereafter. One of the most important amendments is that providing for the payment of an invalidity pension to every person of the age of sixteen years or upwards who is totally blind or is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect, and who fulfils certain residential, &c, qualifications. Previously pensions were payable in respect of blindness only, and on more restricted terms.

War pensions and economic pensions generally have been restored by the War Pensions Amendment Act, 1936. to the rates in force immediately prior to 1st April, 1932.

Under the Family Allowances Amendment Act, 1936, the limit for the average weekly income (including allowance) of the applicant and his wife and children has been restored from £3 5s. to £4.

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

The history of old-age pensions in New Zealand dates back to 1898, in which year was passed the original Old-age Pensions Act. The law relating to old-age pensions is now contained in the Pensions Act, 1926 (which is a consolidation of previous enactments on the subject), and its amendments.

The qualifications for the old-age pension, as amended in 1936, are briefly as follows:—

  1. The applicant, if a male, must have reached the age of sixty-five, or, if a female, must have reached the age of sixty, except in cases where the applicant is the parent of two or more children under fifteen years of age who are dependent on him (or her). The pension-age in such cases is sixty for men and fifty-five for women, and the pension payable may be any sum up to £13 per annum, in addition to the ordinary pension payable.

  2. The applicant must be resident in New Zealand, and must have resided continuously in the Dominion for the past twenty years.

  3. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have deserted his wife (or her husband, as the ease may be) or children under the age of fifteen years.

  4. The applicant must be of good moral character and have lived a sober and reputable life during the past year

  5. The yearly income (including pension) of the applicant, if single, must not exceed the rate of £104 per annum between 1st July and 30th November, 1936, and £110 10s. thereafter, and, if married, the rate of £156 per annum between 1st July and 30th November, 1936, and £169 thereafter (joint income of husband and wife, plus pension).

  6. The net value of accumulated property (see below) must be under £520 between 1st July and 30th November, 1936, and £590 thereafter.

  7. The applicant must not have deprived himself or herself of property or income to qualify for a pension.

All residents of New Zealand who fulfil the necessary conditions are eligible for the old-age pension, with the exception of—

  1. Maoris who receive votes other than pensions out of sums appropriated for Native purposes by the Civil List Act, 1920.

  2. Aliens.

The term “alien” is deemed not to include a woman who ceased to be a British subject by reason of marriage with an alien who is since deceased, or from whom she is legally separated. The position of women who have married aliens is further improved in this respect by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Amendment Act, 1934.

The original Act of 1898 provided for a maximum general pension of £18 per annum. This maximum was increased to £26 in 1905, to £39 in 1917, to £45 10s. (in certain cases in 1924; all cases, 1925); in 1932 was reduced to £40 19s.; from the 1st April, 1934, increased to £43; and from the 1st August, 1935, restored to £45 10s. By the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, the maximum general pension is increased to a rate of £52 per annum between 1st July and 30th November, 1936, and £58 10s. thereafter, reducible in both cases by—

  1. £1 for every complete £1 of income over £52.

  2. £1 for every complete £10 of net capital value of accumulated property.

Income includes the reasonable cost of board and lodgings—estimated at a rate not exceeding £26 per year where the applicant is in receipt of free board and lodgings—but does not include—

  1. Any payment by way of funeral benefit from any registered friendly society:

  2. Any money received on the sale or exchange of land or property:

  3. Any money received under an insurance policy on the destruction or damage by fire or otherwise of a building or other property:

  4. Any capital moneys expended for the benefit of the applicant or for the benefit of his wife or her husband or dependent children:

  5. Any principal or capital sum received by an applicant on the intestacy or under the will of the deceased husband or wife of the applicant:

  6. Any moneys not exceeding in the aggregate the sum of £500 that may be received by way of legacy or under any life-assurance policy' or as compensation or damages in respect of any accident causing the death of or bodily injury to any person, and that are expended in the purchase of property to be used as a home, or for improvements or renovations to property used as a home, or to pay off any principal sum or interest on mortgage on any such property, or for an}' other purposes that the Commissioner deems reasonable.

The income of a married applicant for pension purposes is considered to be half of the joint incomes of husband and wife. The joint incomes of a married couple must not exceed, with pension added, the rate of £156 per annum between 1st July and 30th November, 1936, and £109 thereafter.

Net accumulated property is the capital value (reduced by £500) of all property owned by an applicant except his interest in any land (including his interest under any mortgage of any estate or interest in land), his interest in any annuity or in any policy of life-insurance, and his furniture or personal effects. The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for pension purposes is half of the total net accumulated properties of both.

The exemption of the total value of the home in the computation of net accumulated property was not provided for prior to 1925, but a substantial allowance was made. If an old-age pensioner is in a mental hospital the whole of the pension is paid to the Mental Hospitals Department towards the pensioner's maintenance.

From the inception of the scheme to 31st March, 1936, 117,810 old-age pensions have been granted. Of these, 60,506 have been discontinued on account of the death of the pensioner, and 13,995 for other reasons. The number of pensions in force on the 31st March, 1936, was 43,309, an increase of 3,168 on the figure for the previous year. The annual liability was £1,828,150, being an average of £42 4s. 3d. per pension. A decennial summary is—

At 31st March.Pensioners.Amount paid during Year.
 £
192723,751982,356
192824,8751,010,575
192926,1101,060,760
193026,9091,107,993
193128,9951,158,788
193232,3171,277,107
193334,9321,271,157
193437,5071,350,982
193540,1411,519,889
193643,3091,718,601

The total payments in respect of old-age pensions have aggregated £25,095,618 to the 31st March, 1936. Thirty per cent, of the net revenue from national endowments is apportioned to old-age-pensions expenditure, the total amount so credited to 31st March, 1936, being £819,449.

WIDOWS' PENSIONS.

The Widows' Pensions Act, 1911, came into operation on the 1st January, 1912. The scope of this Act, which is embodied in its amended form in the Pensions Act, 1926, has been widened from time to time by various amendments.

Applicants for widows' pensions must be British subjects of good character with at least one child under fifteen, and applications require to be lodged with the local Registrar of Pensions and to be investigated by a Magistrate, who alone (except as below) has power to grant pensions. Under the 1936 amending Act a pension may be granted to any married woman, as if she were a widow, who has been deserted by her husband and who has taken proceedings for but failed to obtain a maintenance order, or has obtained a maintenance order which has not been complied with, and is unaware of the present whereabouts of her husband. A pension may also be granted to any married woman in respect of whose husband a reception-order under the Mental Defectives Act, 1911, is for the time being in force (whether or not he is detained in an institution under that Act), or to any married woman whose husband is for the time being detained as a voluntary boarder in accordance with-Part V of that Act. Previously the extension applied only to a woman whose husband was detained in an institution under the Mental Defectives Act, 1911. It should be noted that the whole of the pension is payable to the wife, none being payable to the Mental Hospitals Department. There were 193 such pensions in force on 31st March, 1836.

An Act of 1924 empowered the Minister in Charge of Pensions to grant, after investigation by a Magistrate, a widows' pension to a mother, otherwise ineligible, having care of her child or children whose father was dead and who were dependent upon her. By the Finance Act (No. 2), 1936, this provision is extended to include cases where the father is subject to a reception-order under the Mental Defectives Act, 1911, or is detained in an institution under that Act, or has failed to make adequate provision for the maintenance of such child or children.

The maximum rate of pension (after 1st July, 1936) payable is £1 10s. per week to a widow with one child under fifteen years of age, with an additional 10s. per week for each additional child under fifteen, the maximum gross pension payable being £4 10s. per week. The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child legally adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant, and (under the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936) may include any child who is in fact maintained by the applicant and who was maintained by her husband before his death.

The annual amount of the pension as computed above is diminished by £1 for every complete £1 by which the total income of the applicant and of any child or children in respect of whom the pension is payable exceeds £7S per year.

The number of widows' pensions in force on the 31st March, 1936, was 4,369, covering in addition 8,901 children. The figures for the last five years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Number at End of Year.Annual Value. £Annual Payments. £
19324,709345,471340,162
19334,687307,926311,317
19344,619301,388302,020
19354,505294,437296,565
19364,369321,605311,864

The average pension as at 31st March. 1936, was £73 12s. 3d. The total widows' pension payments since the inauguration of the scheme in 1912 have been £4,851,386.

MAORI WAR PENSIONS.

The Military Pensions Act, 1912, was enacted to provide for the payment of an annual pension of £36 (now at the rate of £52 per annum between 1st July and 30th November, 1936, and £5S 10s. thereafter) to veterans of the Maori wars who were awarded a medal for active service in those wars. This Act i3 now embodied in the Pensions Act of 1926, and amendments.

The figures for the last five years arc—

Year ended 31st March.Number at End of Year.Annual Value. £Annual Payments. £
19321437,0077,582
19331065,1945,831
1934864,2144,522
1935653,1853,607
1936432,1072,577

The grand total paid in pensions of this class since the institution of this scheme in 1912–13 has been £607,437.

MINERS' PENSIONS.

Miners' pensions were provided for by Part IV of the Pensions Act, 1926 (which incorporated the Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, and amendments), and by a section of the Finance Act, 1929, which extended the grounds on which a claim for pension might be based and increased the amount of pension where there were dependent children.

Under this legislation the pension is payable to any miner, qualified by residence, &c, who is totally incapacitated or seriously and permanently incapacitated for work owing to miner's phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand. The term “miner's phthisis” was extended in. 1929 to include tuberculosis of the lungs and any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with or a sequel to pneumoconiosis. By the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, the qualification has been extended to include any “other occupational disease or heart disease.” The weekly pension (from the 1st August, 1935) payable during incapacity is as follows:—

  • To an unmarried man, £1 58.

  • To a married man with wife or children under fifteen years of age dependent on him, £1 5s., plus 10s. in respect of his wife and 10s. in respect of each child.

  • To a widower with children under fifteen years of age dependent on him, £1 5s., plus 10s. for each child.

The maximum weekly pension is £4 5s. The annual amount payable in respect of any child or children is reducible by £1 for every £1 of income from other sources in excess of £104. Under the Finance Act (No. 2), 1936, in computing the amount of pension payable to a miner, no allowance is payable in respect of his wife for any period in respect of which she is in receipt of a pension under the Pensions Act, 1926.

The qualifications for this class of pension are—

  1. The applicant must be a British subject.

  2. He must have resided continuously in New Zealand for five years immediately prior to his application. By an amendment of November, 1932, occasional absences not aggregating six months do not make an interruption.

  3. He must have been employed as a miner in New Zealand for two years and a half.

  4. He must not have deserted or failed to provide for his wife or children.

  5. He must be of sober habits and good moral character.

The Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, provides that upon the death of a miner while in receipt of a miner's pension his widow is entitled during widowhood to a pension at the rate of 17s. 6d. a week. Where such a miner has died before 1st July, 1936, his widow is entitled to the increased rate of pension as from 1st July, 1936. Previously the widow of any miner who was entitled to a pension under the Act and who died of miner's phthisis wa3 entitled to claim a pension of 17s. 6d. a week for two years (prior to April, 1932, the period was “during widowhood”) following her husband's death; and the Pensions Amendment Act of November, 1932, as amended by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, provided, inter alia, that every widow in receipt of a pension as a miner's widow should on the termination of that pension be entitled to a maximum pension of £40 10s. during widowhood or until entitled to an old-age pension.

The actual reasonable expenses (not exceeding £20) of the funeral of a miner dying of miner's phthisis or other occupational disease or heart disease are also payable.

The average pension in force at 31st March, 1936, was £86 3s. 5d. Pension payments from the commencement of the scheme aggregate £820,205. Against this the amount of £54,742 was credited in respect of gold duty up to the 31st March, 1933, since when this credit has been discontinued. Funeral expenses paid to the 31st March, 1936, have totalled £8,952.

The figures for the last five years are—

Year ended 31st March.Number.Annual Liability.Annual Payment.
  ££
193299174,03569,785
193374356,61862,563
193473656,18456,810
193578360,51058,740
193685173,33167,834

Of the 851 pensions in force at the 31st March, 1936, 717 were being paid to miners and 134 to widows of miners.

The total pensions granted since 1916 have been 2,391. Of these, 972 have been discontinued on account of death and 568 for other reasons.

WAR PENSIONS.

The War Pensions Act, 1915, as amended, provides for the payment of pensions on certain conditions to disabled members of the New Zealand Forces (as defined by the Act) and to dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of the Forces.

No person in receipt of a pension under the Pensions Act, 1926 (other than an old-age pension) can now receive a pension under the War Pensions Act, 1915. War pensions (except economic pensions, which were separately dealt with) payable to dependants of a deceased soldier (other than a widow, child, or widowed mother) were diminished by 17½ per cent. as from the 1st April, 1932, but an increase of 7½ per cent. of the then existing rates was granted as from the 1st August, 1935. Under the War Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, the rates of pension are restored as from 1st July, 1936, to the rates in force immediately prior to 1st April, 1932.

Provision is also made in the War Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, whereby a returned soldier's widow has now the right of pension if she was married prior to 1st August, 1936. Previously a returned soldier's widow had a right to a pension only if she was married not later than seven years after her husband's discharge from the Forces.

SUMMARY OF ANNUAL LIABILITY AT 31ST MARCH, 1936.
Class of Pension.Number of Pensioners.Number of Children.*Annual Value.Average Pension.
* I.e., Dependent children under sixteen covered by War Pensions.
 ££
Soldiers (permanent)10,30138572,51756
Soldiers (temporary)4,26360301,58471
Dependants of disabled soldiers2,6584,960199,30475
Widows (without children)1,233..115,48494
Widows (with children)35170357,530135
Other dependants of deceased soldiers—Parents3,582..127,24736
Other adult dependants88..2,66630
Guardians of children1552928,00852
Totals22,6316,0531,384,34061

Figures showing the number of pensions, according to class, in each of the last five years are given below:—

At 31st March.Soldiers (Permanent).Soldiers (Temporary).Dependants (on account of Disablement).On account of Death.Total.
Widows (including Children's Pensions).Parents and other Dependants.
19329,5043,4721,5031,3945,16821,041
19339,5483,6151,7441,3884,80921,104
19349,6863,7621,9881,4034,47521,314
19359,9863,8752,2301,4124,17521,678
193610,3014,2632,6581,5843,82522,631

The total payments on war pensions to the 31st March, 1936, were £24,827,219, the figures for the last ten years being—

Year ended 31st March.Pension Payments. £
19271,128,988
19281,151,979
19291,184,003
19301,207,748
19311,245,499
19321,261,778
19331,217,586
19341,246,441
19351,264,110
19361,349,447

During the year 1935–36 medical treatment of war pensioners cost £70,995; railway concessions to certain classes of war pensioners cost £1,596; and loading on life-insurance policies of war pensioners due to war-service disabilities amounted to £171.

War pensions payable outside New Zealand (chiefly in Great Britain and Australia) as at 31st March, 1936, numbered 1,763 with an annual liability of £97,443.

ECONOMIC PENSIONS.

By an amendment of the War Pensions Act, 1915, provision was made for the payment of economic pensions to soldiers or their dependants. An “economic pension” is defined under the Act as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds, and being in addition to any pension payable as a right in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the Forces.

Considerable reductions (maximum, 30 per cent.) in economic pensions were made as from 1st April, 1932. As from 1st August, 1935, an increase of 7½ per cent. on the then existing rates was granted, and by the War Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, the rates of pension generally have been restored to those in force immediately prior to 1st April, 1932; an exception is that the maximum rate of pension to disabled soldiers is now £1 5s. per week, as compared with £1 10s. prior to 1st April, 1932.

Economic pensions consist of three classes. Rates, as from 1st July, 1936, are:—

  1. A maximum pension of £1 5s. weekly to disabled soldiers.

  2. A maximum pension of 10s. weekly to widows of soldiers with one child, with an additional 2s. 6d. weekly for each child in excess of one.

  3. A maximum pension of £1 weekly to widowed mothers of deceased soldiers.

In every case the income of the pensioner affects the grant. Soldiers pensioned for minor disabilities do not receive economic pensions.

The total number of economic pensions in force at the 31st March, 1936, was 3,601, of an annual value of £189,884. Payments in respect of economic pensions are included in the general total of war pensions.

WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES.

The object of the War Veterans' Allowances Act, 1935, which is deemed part of the War Pensions Act, 1915, is to make provision for returned soldiers (or nurses) who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service, are ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unemployable by reason of physical or mental disability. The term “veteran” includes—

  1. Any person who, having been a member of the Forces within the meaning of the principal Act, served overseas as a member of the New Zealand Army Nursing Service, or, in the case of any other member of the Forces, served as such with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy; and

  2. Any other person who, being domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the Great War, served therein as a member of any of His Majesty's Forces other than the New Zealand Forces with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy; and

  3. Any person who, being domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the South African War, served therein as a member of a New Zealand contingent raised for service in connection with that war, with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy.

The War Pensions Board is required to be satisfied that an applicant veteran is unfit for permanent employment by reason of physical or mental disability, and that he has resided continuously in New Zealand (irrespective of occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate) for five years immediately preceding his application.

The rates of allowances payable are—

  1. Unmarried veteran (including married veteran whose wife and children are not dependants): £52 per annum, diminished by £1 for each complete £1 of his annual income (not including this allowance) in excess of £26.

  2. Married veteran or widowed veteran with dependent children: £52 per annum in respect of the veteran's personal claim; £39 per annum in respect of his wife; and £13 per annum in respect of each dependent child. These rates are diminished in every case by £1 for every complete £1 of combined annual income (not including this allowance) in excess of £39. The total allowance payable is limited to £143 per annum.

Other provisions of the Act authorize the payment of a gratuity to the widow of a deceased veteran in receipt of an allowance. The receipt of an allowance under this Act does not affect any right to receive a pension under the War Pensions Act.

SOUTH AFRICAN VETERANS' WAR PENSIONS.

The total number of pensions in force under this heading at the 31st March, 1936, was fifty-five, corresponding to an annual liability of £2,086. The amount paid out on claims during the year was £2,127. Pensions are granted under authority of the Defence Act, 1909.

In addition to the war pensions granted to South African veterans, old-age pensioners who served in the South African War may receive an additional old-age pension of 5s. per week in cases where the total income, including pension, does not exceed the rate of £104 per annum between 1st July and 30th November, 1936, and £110 10s. thereafter. Prior to April, 1932, the total was not to exceed £97 10s., but was then reduced to £79 19s., increased to £84 from 1st April, 1934, and restored to £97 10s. as from 1st August, 1935. The latest increases (see above) in the income limit, including pension, were authorized by the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936. Payments referred to in this paragraph are included with old-age pensions and not with South African War pensions.

DEFENCE PENSIONS.

Section 34 of the Finance Act, 1926, provides for pensions to be paid in the event of the death or disablement of members of the New Zealand Defence or Naval Forces by reason of misadventure suffered in the performance of their duties. The rates under this section are not to exceed the corresponding pension rates under the War Pensions Act, and all applications for pensions of this class are dealt with by the War Pensions Board.

EPIDEMIC PENSIONS.

To relieve distress arising out of the influenza epidemic of 1918 a system of pensions was instituted. The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1936, was 10, representing an annual liability of £501, the average pension being £50 2s. Id. The amount paid during the financial year 1935–36 in respect of epidemic pensions was £907, and the total amount paid since the commencement of the scheme £473,834.

The number of pensions is rapidly decreasing, having fallen during the past year by twenty-four, and since the 31st March, 1920, by 929.

INVALIDITY PENSIONS.

An important extension of the pensions legislation is contained in Part II of the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, which provides for the payment of an invalidity pension to every person of the age of sixteen years or upwards who is totally blind, or is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident, or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect, and who satisfies certain other conditions. Prior to the passing of this amendment, pensions on more restricted terms were payable in respect of blindness only. The other conditions referred to are as follows:—

  1. That the applicant has resided continuously in New Zealand for the past ten years. In the case of blind persons, any period of absence for purposes of vocational training or of medical treatment in respect of the eyes, and in all other cases, occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate, are not deemed to be interruptions.

  2. In the case of an applicant in respect of blindness, that he was born blind in New Zealand, or became blind while permanently resident in New Zealand. In the case of every other applicant, that he was born in New Zealand with the condition to which his incapacity for work is attributable, or that he became incapacitated for work by reason of an accident happening in New Zealand or by reason of illness contracted in New Zealand.

  3. That his incapacity for work was not self-induced, or was not in any way brought about with a view to qualifying for an invalidity pension.

  4. That where his incapacity for work is the result of an accident he has no claim outstanding against any employer or against any other person for compensation or damages in respect of such accident.

  5. That he is of good moral character and sober habits.

Applications for invalidity pensions are determined by the Commissioner, who may require applicants or pensioners to be medically examined. If a claim is declined or pension cancelled on medical grounds, there is a right of appeal to a Board of three registered medical practitioners to be appointed for the purpose. The Commissioner may require blind pensioners under the age of twenty years to undergo occupational training.

The rate of pension is £1 a week, increased by 10s. a week in respect of the applicant's wife if dependent, and a further 10s. a week in respect of each dependent child under the age of sixteen years. In the case of a married man with a wife or wife and dependent children, or of a widower with dependent children the annual amount of the pension as above is diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of the total annual income of the applicant and of his wife and dependent children in excess of £104, and also by £1 for every complete £10 of the net capital value of their accumulated property computed as for the old-age pension. In the case of a married woman, the annual amount of the pension is diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of the total annual income of the applicant and her husband in excess of £104, and also by £1 for every complete £10 of the net capital value of their accumulated property. In every other case the annual amount of the pension is diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of the applicant's income in excess of £52, and also by £1 for every complete £10 of accumulated property.

In computing the annual income of any blind person, no account is taken of any personal earnings up to but not exceeding £2 15s. a week.

No pension is payable in excess of £4 a week, except that in the case of a blind pensioner an additional pension equal to 25 per cent. of his earnings is granted, but so that his total receipts in his own right—that is, exclusive of pension in respect of his wife and dependent, children—whether derived from pension or personal earnings or from any other source do not exceed the rate of £3 15s. a week.

Under the Finance Act (No. 2), 1936, in computing the amount of an invalidity pension payable to an applicant, no allowance is payable in respect of his wife for any period in respect of which she is in receipt of a pension under the Pensions Act, 1926.

The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child legally adopted by the applicant prior to the date of his application for a pension, and the Commissioner may regard any child who is in fact maintained by the applicant as if such child were a dependent child.

Instalments of pension may be paid to the applicant personally, or may be apportioned between the applicant and his wife and children, or may be paid to any reputable person on his or their behalf.

The provisions relating to invalidity pensions came into operation as from 1st July, 1936. All pensions previously granted in respect of blindness now come under the above provisions as invalidity pensions.

The number of pensions in respect of blindness in force at the 31st March, 1936, was 507, representing an annual liability of £23,961, or an average of £47 5s. 3d. per annum. The total amount of pension-money that has been paid under this head to the 31st March, 1936, is £173,857.

FAMILY ALLOWANCES.

The Family Allowances Act was passed in the session of 1926, to provide for the granting of allowances towards the maintenance of children by parents of limited income. The Act came into force on the 1st April, 1927.

The allowance is at the rate of 2s. per week for each child in excess of two, the average weekly income of the applicant and his wife and children, including allowance, not to exceed £4 (the maximum from April, 1932, to June, 1936, was £3 5s.) plus 2s. for each child in excess of two. For the purposes of the Act the term “child” in general means a child under the age of fifteen.

The application for the allowance may be made either by the father or by the mother.

The number of claims dealt with during the year ended 31st March, 1936, totalled 2,270, of which 1,730 were granted and 315 rejected, the remaining 225 being held over. Of the rejected claims, 117 represent cases where the income of the family was in excess of the limit. The total number of family allowances in force at the 31st March, 1936, was 11,691, with an annual liability of £144,856. This averages £12 7s. 10d per annum each. The total amount paid out during the year was £149,043, the aggregate for the nine years during which the Act has been in force being £878,596. Altogether, 20,793 family allowances have been granted to 31st March, 1936, and of these 9,102 have been discontinued.

The total number of children of the 11,691 families receiving allowances at 31st March, 1936, was 51,788, and the number in excess of two was 28,406, the average per family being 4·43 and 2·43 respectively. The number of families granted allowances during the year 1935–36, according to the number of children in excess of two, is set out in the following table:—

Number of Children in Excess of Two.Number of Families.
One983
Two406
Three186
Four97
Five29
Six22
Seven4
Nine3

Of the 1,730 families granted allowances during the year 122 had incomes of £1 or under; 752 over £1 and up to £2; 515 over £2 and up to £3; 315 over £3 and up to £3 5s.; and 26 over £3 5s. The weekly rates at which allowances were granted were—

Rate.Number.
1s.13
2s.997
3s.1
4s.405
5s.3
6s.167
7s.2
8s.92
10s.26
12s.19
13s.1
14s.4

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS.

In addition to the various classes of pensions enumerated in the foregoing part of this section, the Pensions Department is charged with the payment of pensions under the Civil Service Act, 1908, and other miscellaneous pensions and annuities.

The total number and the annual value of pensions in force under the Civil Service Act at the 31st March, 1936, were 13 and £4,460 respectively. The total payments during the year amounted to £4,676. These pensions are granted to ex-officers of the Civil Service, and since the introduction of compulsory contributory superannuation schemes are rapidly dwindling. There were at the 31st March, 1936, 151 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities,” of a total annual value of £15,065, the amount paid out during the year being £13,053. This class covers ex-members of the Legislative Department, and of the Police, Defence, and Naval Forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others by way of compassionate allowance, &c.

SUPERANNUATION FUNDS.

Schemes in force for the provision of superannuation pensions for public servants on their retirement embrace the State Railways, Public Service (including Police), Teachers, and Stipendiary Magistrates. Local bodies are empowered to establish schemes under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908.

The law relating to the various superannuation schemes, other than those for the Railways Department and local authorities, is contained in the Public Service Superannuation Act, 1927, a consolidation of former legislation on the subject.

PUBLIC SERVICE SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Public Service superannuation scheme, which includes all branches of the Public Service except the Railways Department and that part of the Education service which comes under the operations of the teachers' superannuation scheme, came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The scheme, although optional on the part of public servants permanently employed at that date, is compulsory on all persons appointed thereafter.

The Police Provident Fund, which was established on the 1st December, 1899, under the Police Provident Act, 1899, was merged in the Public Service Superannuation Fund on the 1st April, 1910.

The fund is administered by a Board, and consists of payments by contributors, interest on investments, Government subsidy, fines imposed on public servants, and proceeds of sales of unclaimed property.

The contributions vary with the age on joining the fund: For ages under thirty they are 5 per cent. of the salary; ages thirty and under thirty-five, 6 per cent.; thirty-five and under forty, 7 per cent.; forty and under forty-five, 8 per cent.; forty-five and under fifty, 9 per cent.; fifty and over. 10 per cent.

The principal benefits are—

  1. A pension for every year of service equal to one-sixtieth of the average annual salary for the last three years, payable (a) after forty years' service, or (b) at age sixty-five, or (c) on retirement owing to ill-health. The maximum pension is not to exceed two-thirds of the salary, nor, in the case of entrants after the 24th December, 1909, £300 per annum.

  2. A pension of £31 per annum to the widow of a contributor or pensioner during widowhood, and £26 per annum for each child under the age of fourteen. Prior to the 1st April, 1925, widows' and children's pensions were £18 and £13 per annum respectively.

Special pensions may be given in the case of members of the Police Force for injuries received on duty.

Females may retire after thirty years' service or at the age of fifty-five. In certain cases, and subject to certain terms and conditions, the Minister in charge of a contributor's Department may reduce the retiring age to sixty years for males and fifty years for females, or may reduce the requisite service to thirty-five years irrespective of age, or may reduce the retiring-age to fifty-five years if length of service is not less than thirty years.

Section 14 of the Finance Act, 1931, as amended by a section of the Finance Act (No. 4), 1931, modified the retiring qualifications to permit of a further reduction of five years in age or service in the case of contributors compulsorily retired through no fault of their own. A specially computed reduced superannuation was provided.* The provisions covered the three major funds.

At the 31st March, 1936, there were 19,199 contributors, paying £263,077 per annum into the fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 3,677, and were entitled to £497,764 per annum, made up as follows:—

 Number.Pensions. £
Retired for age or length of service1,943421,696
Retired for ill health31132,117
Police injured on duty111,789
Widows1,09033,790
Children3228,372
Totals3,677£497,764

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the fund at the 31st March, 1936, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution:—

Rate per Cent. of Contributions as provided by the Act.Number.Annual Salary.Annual Contributions.
Male.Female.Total.
 £s.d.£s.d.
514,0842,21316,2974,056,65300202,832130
61,3131351,448439,85512626,39169
778585870266,4900018,65460
839642438136,79101010,94358
91161112741,2891183,71613
10172195,3881845381710
Totals16,7112,48819,1994,946,46834263,076106

Accumulated funds at the 31st March, 1936, amounted to £2,934,240, total assets to £3,028,433, and investments to £2,806,023, £1,354,700 being invested in mortgage securities, £1,215,167 in local-body debentures and Government securities, and £236,156 in rural advances and rural intermediate credit bonds. The investment figures include £20,882 invested on Stipendiary Magistrates' account.

Officers who have retired since the initiation of the scheme, and who possessed compensation rights under the Civil Service Act, 1866, would have been entitled to receive the sum of £561,134, the amount of compensation accrued to the date when they joined the Superannuation Fund, had they not become participants in the benefits of the fund. To this amount must be added accretions to the date of retirement, approximately £143,000, for which the Consolidated Fund would otherwise have been liable, and the whole may be fairly set against the total subsidies paid to the fund, amounting to £2,333,333.

The Government subsidy to the fund was originally £20,000 per annum, rising in 1910 to £22,500, and in the next two years to £23,000. In 1913 it was increased to £48,000, and in 1919 to £86,000. In consequence of the position disclosed by the Actuary as at 31st December, 1919, an additional amount of £100,000 was contributed to the fund by the Government, divided between the years 1923–24 and 1924–25. An additional amount, of £100,000 was also paid in 1929–30, following the actuarial investigation as at 31st March, 1927; while during the years 1932–33 to 1935–36 additional amounts were paid, mainly to compensate the fund for losses incurred as it direct result of the statutory reduction in interest.

* By the Statutes Amendment Act, 1936, the method of computation is altered so as to increase the annual payment.

The actuarial report for the quadrennium 1930–34 gives the valuation of the fund on 31st March, 1934, as follows:—

 ££
Present value of existing pensions and allowances..4,471,373
Present value of prospective benefits11,001,720 
Less present value of members' contributions2,761,470 
 8,240,250
Total net liabilities 12,711,623
Funds in hand 2,964,064
Present value of total liability of State 9,747,559
Less present value of present subsidies of £86,000 and £40,000 (if treated as a perpetuity) 2,800,000
And less present value of State subsidy under section 114 of the Act 625,839
Value of future subsidies to be provided for by the State over and above the present subsidy £6,321,720

The actuarial report draws special attention to the significance of the deficiency to be made good by the State disclosed in the above analysis. It points out that the deficiency of £9,747,559 is equivalent to an annual interest income (at 4½ per cent.) of £438,640. Attention is directed to the fact that if any less annual sum than £438,640 is paid in by the State as subsidy the total deficiency will increase, and the subsidy must accordingly by way of compensation rise later on to a much higher figure than £438,640 per annum in respect of present contributors alone.

All valuations of the fund prior to 1924 were made on the basis of interest at 4 per cent., a 4½-per-cent. rate being adopted for the last three periods. This rate is, however, much lower than that received for many years past, the average rate of interest earned on the mean funds being:—

Year ended 31st March.Average Rate per Cent.
 £s.d.
1927610
1928618
19295176
193051611
193151611
19325196
19335189
19345116
1935584
1936565

The total revenue of the fund for the year ended 31st March, 1936, was £565,307, including members' contributions £256,249, interest on investments and on contributions £151,775 (which includes a special payment of £28,324 from the Consolidated Fund to reimburse the Superannuation Fund of the amount of the statutory reduction of interest on all classes of securities), and Government subsidy £147,952, the last-mentioned including a special payment of £18,034 on account of increased benefits to widows and children. The total amount expended during the year was £548,519, including retiring and other allowances £494,988, refunds of contributions £44,804, transfers to other funds £305, and cost of administration £7,250.

A table is now given showing the progress of the fund for the last five years;—

Year ended 31st March.Number of Contributors.Annual Contributions.Interest receivable from Investments.Contributions from Government.Annual Value of Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
 £££££
193217,516241,966168,453102,082458,4342,888,034
193317,219225,301166,814104,388482,5912,897,415
193417,369227,015157,200143,529488,0742,899,564
193518,205240,406153,333149,211489,1992,917,452
193619,199263,077151,599147,952497,7642,934,240

TEACHERS' SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The scheme of superannuation for teachers came into operation on 1st January, 1906. The benefits were brought into line with those of the Public Service Superannuation Fund in 1908, existing contributors having, however, the right of electing to remain subject to the provisions formerly in force.

There are a few slight differences between the Public Service and the Teachers' Funds, the chief being that where teachers' back service is recognized it need not be continuous, and that a contributor is not deemed to have retired from the Education service by reason of unemployment unless the unemployment extends for twelve months or unless the contributor deliberately retires from the service as distinct from a particular position in the service. In certain circumstances the period of twelve months can be extended by the Board.

The total amount of Government subsidy paid into the fund to the 31st January, 1936, is £1,436,669. The expenditure of the fund for the year ended 31st January, 1936, was £350,303, of which retiring and other allowances represented £313,372, and refunds of contributions £33,508. The revenue for the year was £335,708.

On the 3l8t January, 1936, there were 8,148 contributors, representing annual contributions amounting to £118,699.

The retiring and other allowances as at 31st January, 1936, were made up of—

 Number.Amount of Pension. £
Retired for age or length of service1,430278,873
Retired for ill health19925,575
Widows2888,936
Children792,054
 1,996£315,438

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Year ended 31st JanuaryNumber of Contributors.Amount of Contributions received.Interest received.Government Subsidy.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
 £££££
19329,964115,96172,68246,917254,9271,218,166
19339,355113,76461,11747,020283,7381,111,642
19348,903114,77554,31055,948299,5161,003,185
19358,500114,69948,327166,048300,350989,310
19368,148119,56846,056170,046313,372974,715

The actuarial report on the Teachers' Superannuation Fund for the triennium ending 31st January, 1930, gives the present value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund at that date as £5,559,202.

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Government Railways Superannuation Fund was established on the 1st January, 1903, by the Government Railways Superannuation Fund Act, 1902, now embodied in the Government Railways Act, 1926.

The pension is here also one-sixtieth of the annual rate of pay for every year of service, but the retiring-age is sixty for both males and females (cf. Public Service, supra). The only other difference of importance is that the annual allowances to widows and children are paid only in cases where contributors die before retiring on a pension.

From 1st April, 1924, the moneys belonging to the fund have been separately invested by the Public Trustee. The average rate of interest earned during the year 1935–36 was 5–48 per cent.

The income for the year totalled £476,139, including members' contributions £144,836, interest £65,877, and subsidies from Railways Department £182,963 (including £12,963 on account of increased allowances to widows and children) and Consolidated Fund £82,200. The expenditure during the year amounted to £468,832, of which retiring-allowances represented £419,569, allowances to widows and children £29,029, and refunds of contributions, &c, £20,234.

At the 31st March, 1936, there were 3,308 persons on the fund, receiving allowances involving an annual liability of £435,876.

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown below:—

Year ended 31st March.Number of Contributors.Amount received from Contributors.Interest earned by Fund.Amount received from Government.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
 £££££
193212,828142,23984,483182,200373,6751,454,173
193312,172143,98482,297182,545451,5951,333,245
193411,865133,56075,220183,006454,1731,240,831
193511,832137,39267,994269,999451,4981,239,705
193611,954144,83665,877265,163448,5981,246,984

The actuarial report on the Railways Superannuation Fund as at 31st March, 1927, gives the present value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund at that date as £6,810,204.

SUPERANNUATION OF MAGISTRATES.

The scheme for Magistrates provides for the same rates of contribution as under the Public Service scheme, but gives an annual retiring-allowance for each year of service (whether continuous or not) equal to one-fortieth of the annual salary receivable at the date of retirement, with, however, a limit of twenty-five fortieths. The retiring-age is also increased to sixty-eight, instead of sixty-five.

Members' contributions during the year ended the 31st March, 1936, totalled £1,445, and interest on investments brought in £1,080. Administration expenses during the year were £45, and retiring-allowances were £4,451. The accumulated fund at the 31st March, 1930, amounted to £20,882.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES SUPERANNUATION.

The Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, which came into force on the 10th October, 1908, applies to Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, Road Boards, Harbour Boards, Fire Boards, tramway companies, or any body possessing rating-powers over any district.

Statistical information as to the various funds which have been initiated under the authority of this statute is not available. Local authorities have not availed themselves of the provisions of the Act to any great extent, however, special provisions concerning their employees having been subsequently made under the National Provident Fund scheme, referred to under the next heading.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.

The National Provident Fund was established by Act in 1910, and came into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The fund is administered by a Board composed of the Minister of Finance as Chairman and four members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is the Superintendent of the fund.

The system is open to any person between the ages of sixteen and fifty years residing in New Zealand whose average income during the three years prior to joining has not exceeded £300 per annum. There is no medical examination on entry, and the method of joining is extremely simple, the applicant having merely to fill in a form at a postal money-order office or local office of the fund, and pay a first weekly contribution.

The following benefits are payable:—

  1. After contributing for twelve months, a payment not exceeding £6 for medical attendance and nursing on the birth of a contributor's child or children.

  2. After contributing for five years, an allowance, after three months' incapacity for work, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age; payable independent of any allowances due from friendly societies. No contributions payable while in receipt of incapacity allowance.

  3. After contributing for five years, an allowance, on the death of a contributor, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age, and 7s. 6d. for the widow so long as any child is under fourteen years of age.

  4. On reaching age sixty, a pension of 10s., 20s., 30s., or 40s. per week, according to the scale of contributions. The receipt of a pension under the National Provident Fund Act originally did not affect a person's claim to the old-age pension under the Pensions Act, but this provision was repealed in respect of persons joining the fund after the passing of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932 (10th May, 1932).

The maternity allowance is payable only if the combined income of a contributor and wife or husband does not exceed £300 per annum at the time of claim, but this limitation does not debar from the other benefits. The incapacity allowance is not to exceed the pecuniary loss which, in the opinion of the Board, the contributor has probably suffered during incapacity, and the income of a contributor during incapacity, independent of the fund, is not to exceed the rate of £4 per week.

The contributions for each 10s. of weekly pension range from 9d. per week in the case of persons joining at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age fifty.

In the event of a contributor leaving the fund or dying, all contributions (less any benefits received) are returnable. If a contributor dies before the first five years are completed his representatives receive the contributions he has paid, less anything he received during lifetime. Should he die after ago sixty, before receiving in benefits a sum equal to the contributions paid in during his lifetime, the difference is returnable to his representatives; and, further, if the allowances paid for widow and children do not exhaust the contributions his representatives are entitled to the residue. If a contributor dies before age sixty, leaving a widow and no children, all the contributions are returnable, less benefits paid out.

The benefits under the Act are guaranteed by the State, which subsidizes the contributions to the extent of one-fourth (for the four years from 1st April, 1931, the subsidy was one-fifth) of the amount paid into the fund.

An important extension of the fund was made in 1914, when it was provided that the employees of local authorities, &c, could be enrolled in the fund for superannuation purposes, and an amending Act of 1931 provided certain modifications consequent upon the general reduction in wages and salaries. Another extension of the fund was made in 1916, whereby members of approved friendly societies were granted maternity allowances and offered annuities on reduced terms and under special tables.

In 1925 provision was made for the payment out of the National Provident Fund of retiring-allowances to nurses and other members of the permanent staffs of Hospital Boards. The National Provident Fund Act, 1926, which is a consolidation of previous legislation on the subject, imposes on Hospital Boards the obligation to contribute to the Fund on behalf of their permanent officers, and thus places Hospital Boards in a different category from other local bodies, which are empowered, but not obliged, to become contributors.

Schemes of contribution by employers on behalf of employees are provided for by sections of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1927, and the Finance Act, 1929.

Since the inauguration of the fund in 1911, 90,206 persons (74,511 males and 15,695 females) have entered, and of these 64,424 (males, 52,497; females, 11,927) have discontinued for one reason or another, leaving 25,782 (males, 22,014; females, 3,768) on the books at the 31st December, 1935. Of 2,367 discontinuances in 1935, 76 were on account of death and 119 on account of having attained the pen3ion-age.

The numbers of contributors for the various pension rates as at 31st December, 1935, were as follows, male and female contributors being shown separately:—

Pension Rate.Males.Females.Total.
10s.15,46066416,124
20s.1,6803111,991
30s.18655241
40s.440107547
Other4,2482,6316,879
Totals22,0143,76825,782

Contributions received during the year 1935 amounted to £233,178 and interest to £168,039. Government contributions under the Act totalled £58,303, not including £27,844 for maternity claims, which are a charge on the Government. The largest item on the expenditure side was £57,898 by way of refund of contributions on lapse, reduction, or withdrawal.

As an emergency measure, the National Provident Fund provided for its own administration expenses during 1931–32 to 1934–35; but, commencing with 1935–36, this item is again met from the Consolidated Fund.

The progress of the National Provident Fund scheme during the last five years is indicated in the following table:—

Year.Number of Contributors.Annual Rate of Contribution payable.Total Amount of Fund.Claims paid during Year.
Maternity.Incapacity.Retiring.Widows and Children.
 ££££££
193129,359253,5253,263,00543,5825,78529,44511,559
193226,140233,7503,501,55041,0146,75735,20311,820
193324,949225,8163,756,98136,9787,64441,71511,981
193425,172231,8584,037,79335,1307,75346,40411,873
193525,782239,3754,341,06032,3987,84051,75812,349

The amounts required to provide maternity allowances are voted by Parliament annually, and these allowances are accordingly regarded as being outside the actuarial aspects of the scheme.

Chapter 42. SECTION XXVI.—LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

INTRODUCTORY.

LOCAL government throughout New Zealand is exercised by a number of local authorities constituted under various Acts of Parliament. These Acts provide for the creation of districts over which the local authorities exercise jurisdiction. Different types of district are distinguishable, each type being identified with a specific function or group of functions. Geographically, the Dominion is divided into 129 counties, which comprise its total area, except for certain small islands which are not included within the boundaries of the adjacent counties. Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties—e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are comprised of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose—e.g., electric-power districts. The number of local authorities actively functioning at the 1st April, 1936, was G84, made up as follows: County Councils, 125; Borough Councils, 124; Town Boards (independent), 38; Town Boards (dependent), 26; Road Boards, 16; River Boards, 44; Land-drainage Boards, 51; Urban Drainage Boards, 3; Water-supply Boards, 5; Fire Boards, 54; Local Railway Board, 1; Harbour Boards, 45; Electric-power Boards, 40; Hospital Boards, 45; Tramway Board, 1; Transport Board, 1; Gas-lighting Board, 1; and Rabbit Boards, 64. In addition to the foregoing there are 18 District Councils of the Main Highways Board constituted under the Main Highways Act, 1922. These, although not local authorities in the strict sense of the word, are nevertheless intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, and have power to make recommendations of great importance.

Detailed statistics relating to each local body, other than Hospital Boards, are contained in the Local Authorities Handbook, an annual publication of the Census and Statistics Office. Hospital Boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted also from the statistics contained in this section, but summarized data relating to them will be found in Section VB

Full details of the constitution, functions, powers, &c, of local authorities, and also an account of the origin and development of local government in the Dominion are contained in the 1932 edition of the Local Authorities Handbook. Some of the principal powers of local authorities are briefly referred to under the next heading.

A recent occurrence of some interest was the appointment by the Napier Borough Council (under section 49 of the Municipal Corporations Act, 1920) of two persons to act as a special committee of management to whom the powers of the council were delegated. This appointment followed the disastrous Hawke's Bay earthquakes of 3rd February, 1931, and the powers of the committee were extended by section 64 of the Hawke's Bay Earthquake Act, 1931. The committee ceased to function in May, 1933. In view of the financial position of the Thames Borough, the Thames Borough “Commissioner Act, 1932, was passed and a Commissioner appointed to administer the borough as from the 21st September, 1932. For similar reasons, section 10 of the Local Legislation Act, 1932–33, provided' for the administration of Matakaoa County by a Commissioner whose appointment. was made from the 1st May, 1933. The three cases of Napier, Thames, and Matakaoa represent a form of local-authority administration believed to be without, precedent in New Zealand.

GENERAL POWERS.

Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act, 1926, and the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. In the case of Harbour Boards, there is in addition to a general Harbours Act a special Act for each Board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—Urban Drainage Boards, the Local Railway Board, the Tramway and Transport Boards, and the Gas-lighting Board—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

TOWN-PLANNING.

Town-planning legislation of 1926 and 1929 provides for the making and enforcement of town, extra-urban, and regional planning schemes. Every town-planning scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the city or borough to which it relates (including the reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as to promote its healthfulness, amenity, convenience, and advancement. Extra-urban schemes have a like object in regard to their areas.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of their areas, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, services, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority.

The principal Act constitutes a Director of Town-planning and a representative Town-planning Board under the Minister of Internal Affair as chairman. The office of Director is at present in abeyance. A Town-planning Adviser to the Department of Internal Affairs was, however, appointed in February, 1935.

All cities or boroughs with a population of one thousand or over at the census of 192C, together with certain road districts, are required to prepare town-planning schemes and submit them to the Town-planning Board by the end of 1936. Other boroughs may be added by Order in Council, and smaller boroughs may submit schemes voluntarily. Provision is made for a combined scheme by two or more adjoining local authorities.

Counties, inclusive of smaller boroughs and of town districts, comprise rural areas for the purpose of extra-urban schemes. The authority responsible for the scheme is the County Council, or where more than one local authority is concerned a representative committee approved by the Board.

When a town or extra-urban scheme has been approved by the Board it is the duty of the local authorities having jurisdiction to enforce the requirements of the scheme in respect of all new works of any description. The provisions of a regional planning scheme are not obligatory, but are intended to serve as a guide to the local authorities within the region.

One of the most important divisions of the town-planning legislation deals with betterment, which is defined as the increase in property values attributable to the approval or carrying-out of a town-planning scheme. Briefly, one-half of betterment increase in the value of rateable property constitutes a debt payable to the local authority by the owner of the land. Moneys from this source are to be applied, inter alia, to compensate persons whose lands are acquired for town- or extra-urban-planning schemes, or who are otherwise injuriously affected within prescribed limits.

Town-planning activities have been restricted of later years by reason of the depression.

HOUSING.

The Housing Survey Act, 1935, was passed in October, 1935. Its purpose is to ascertain the extent to which the existing housing-accommodation in the Dominion falls short of reasonable requirements. The Act applies to every borough (or city) or town district whose population was estimated by the Government Statistician to be not less than one thousand at 1st April, 1934, to certain road districts, and to any other local authority prescribed by Order in Council.

Such local authorities are required to make a housing survey, and are given for this purpose power to enter and inspect dwellings or to require occupiers to furnish a written statement within fourteen days of notice being given them. The results of the housing survey are to be reported to the Minister of Internal Affairs. In default of the local authority conducting a survey, it may be carried out by the Minister at the expense of the local authority.

The field covered by the survey is in respect of each dwelling:—

  1. Number and sizes of rooms.

  2. Physical condition of dwelling and appurtenances.

  3. Age, sex, and number of occupants.

  4. Owners and occupiers, and rentals of rented houses.

  5. Extent of overcrowding.

  6. Population densities of residential areas.

  7. Any other particulars prescribed by regulations.

Under section 28 of the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the Corporation is empowered to make loans to local authorities for the acquisition of land for the erection of workers' dwellings, or for any other purpose in relation to workers' dwellings.

As part of the Government's housing plans, an amount of £1,500,000 has been made available to local bodies at an interest-rate of 3 per cent, for the purpose of erecting municipally owned workers' dwellings for letting at low rentals. Applications by local bodies for loans under this arrangement must be approved by the Local Bodies' Loans Board and the Minister of Finance.

BORROWING.

Under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. The Board consists of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department, and five other members appointed by the Governor-General. In cases where a poll of ratepayers is necessary preparatory to raising a loan, the Board's consent must be obtained before the poll is held. In no case may the Board sanction any application unless provision is made to its satisfaction for repayment of the loan within such period as it deems reasonable, having regard to the probable duration and continuing utility of the works on which the loan-moneys are to be expended.

The principal legislation dealing with the borrowing-powers of local authorities is contained in the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, which is mainly a consolidation of previous measures on the subject. A local authority is thereby empowered to raise a special loan for the construction of any public work, for the purchase of land or buildings, or for the purpose of engaging in any undertaking which the local authority may lawfully enter into. As explained previously, a loan proposal first requires the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. It must then be sanctioned by the ratepayers at a special poll held for the purpose (except in those cases where a poll is not required to be taken), and the proposal is not-deemed to have been carried unless at least three-fifths of the valid votes recorded are in favour of it, save in the case of boroughs and town districts, where a bare majority only is necessary. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The special provisions for borrowing under the authority of the Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1926, and the (idem) Extension Act, 1931, were repealed by section 52 of the Finance Act, 1932.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospital and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, a Hospital Board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. In the case of Fire Boards the precedent consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs is required, and Rabbit Boards must first seek the approval of the Minister of Agriculture. In both of these cases the amount that may be borrowed is limited by statute. Harbour Boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour-works from special empowering legislation. Similar authority is given for the capital works of Urban Drainage Boards, the Christchurch Tramway Board, the Auckland Transport Board, and the Petone and Lower Hutt Gas-lighting Board.

The Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Amendment Act, 1934, limits future borrowings to an interest-rate not exceeding 3½ per cent., provided, however, that a different rate may be prescribed by Order in Council under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926. County Councils, under conditions specified, are authorized to raise loans for defined areas without taking polls.

The Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, extends the right of applying for a State guarantee of a special loan under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 192G, to cover also any loans that a local authority is authorized to raise by the latter Act without taking a poll.

RATING.

Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are ultimately liquidated by such revenues—known then as special rates. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:—

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Separate rates are levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

  3. A special rate is imposed to secure the repayment of loan-money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be. Special rates can be levied only by resolution gazetted, and, unlike general and separate rates, are not subject to any statutory limit.

There are three main systems of rating: (1) Capital (land and improvements) value, (2) annual value, and (3) unimproved value. In a few cases rating is on an acreage basis; and in the case of certain Rabbit Boards the rate is according to the number of sheep or cattle owned.

The Rating Act, 1925, provides that the local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or on the capital value shall be in force in the district. The system of rating is upon the basis that Is. in the £1 on the annual value is deemed to be equivalent to ¾d. in the £1 on the capital value of rateable property; or where in a district not rating on the annual value it is necessary for any purpose to ascertain the annual value of any rateable property, then the annual value thereof is equal to 6 per cent, on the capital value of such property. The annual value is deemed to be the letting-value, less 20 per cent, in case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per cent, of land, but in no case is the rateable value to be less than 5 per cent, of the value of the fee-simple.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932, with the object of affording some relief to owners of farm lands subject to rating by a borough council, authorizes the preparation of a special farm-land roll, which is deemed part of the valuation roll for rating purposes.

Consequent upon the recent decline in property values, many owners took advantage of the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act permitting individual revaluations. In order to preserve equity in rating, the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933, authorized local authorities' to levy rates upon aproportionate part, not being less than 75 per cent, of the values upon the roll. Where individual revaluations have been made, rates are to be levied either upon the new valuation or upon the proportionate part of the value existing prior to revaluation, whichever value was the lower.

RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE OF LAND.

The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, was passed by the General Assembly to afford local authorities the opportunity of adopting the principle of rating which is expressed in the title of the measure. The Act is now incorporated in the Rating Act, 1925. It is entirely at the option of the ratepayers of local districts to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. The poll is to be taken in the same manner as in the case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. Under the original Act it was necessary for a minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers to vote, and a majority of their votes carried the proposal. Now the question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a bare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

The valuation roll is supplied to the local authority by the Valuer-General, under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1925, and the definitions of “capital value,” “improvements,” “unimproved value,” and “value of improvements” set out in that Act, as amended in 1926 and 1927, apply also to rating on unimproved value. Provision is made for adjustment of rating-powers given under other Act/, by fixing equivalents. Thus a rate of Is. in the pound on the annual value is to be considered equal to íd. in the pound on the capital value.

It should be noted that some local authorities automatically adopt rating on unimproved value. For example, a town district, borough, or another county formed from part of a county which itself rates on unimproved values, automatically rates on the system in force in the county at the time of the constitution of the new district; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their Councils agree to the contrary.

A table is given of systems in force during the fiscal year 1934–35:—

——System of Rating. 
Unimproved Value.Capital Value.Annual Value.Acreage Basis.On Stock.Total.
* Includes one system based on water consumption.
Counties5966......125
Boroughs791726....122
Town districts32305....67
Road districts312......15
River districts1424..6..44
Land-drainage districts3022......52
Electric-power districts1327......40
Water-supply districts..3*......3
Urban drainage districts..21....3
Tramway district..1......1
Rabbit districts..6..48559
Totals23021032545531

Although the figures referred to indicate that the number of local authorities rating on the unimproved value during 1934–35 was 43 per cent, of the total, yet on a population basis the figures reveal that 59 per cent, of the people of the Dominion are in districts so rating. The position in regard to the four majorclasses of local authorities at 1st April, 1935 (i.e., the beginning of the 1935–36 financial year), was as follows:—

District.Rating on Unimproved Value.Total for Dominion.*Ratio of Unimproved Value to Total.
No.Population.No.Population.No.Population.
* Exclusive of migratory, &c, population of 5,794.† Includes the four counties, Eden, Taupo, Sounds, and Fiord, in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force.
     Per Cent.Per Cent.
Counties (excluding all town districts)59283,690129596,28045·7447·58
Boroughs8O604,950124913,45064·5266·34
Town districts (independent)1616,7103834,51042·1148·42
Town districts (dependent)145,080269,59053·8552·97

For the purposes of the foregoing tables a district is deemed to rate on the unimproved value where the general rate i3 levied on an unimproved-value basis. In a number of instances, in particular of boroughs, certain of the subsidiary rates are levied on other systems.

FINANCIAL STATISTICS OF LOCAL GOVERNING AUTHORITIES.

A study of the finance of local governing authorities from their incipient stages to the present time reveals a process of evolution from a state of semi-dependence on the General Government to a stage where, with the exception of subsidies on rates, contributions from the Main Highways Board (or, for boroughs of 6,000 population or over, receipts under the Motor-spirits Taxation Act), together with occasional grants for special works, all expense is borne locally.

The sources from which the various classes of local authorities secure the moneys necessary to exercise their functions vary greatly according to the nature of the statutory duties of the local authority concerned. Generally, however, receipts fall under one of three main classes—viz., rates, licenses and fees, and receipts which cannot properly be regarded as revenue. These three classes are dealt with in detail below, where the nature and relative importance of each are more particularly referred to.

The tables given in this section cover the operations of all local authorities which furnish statistical returns to the Census and Statistics Office. Hospital Boards supply their returns to the Inspector-General of Hospitals, and their financial statistics are given in Section VB of this volume.

The local-body year now uniformly ends on 31st March, except in the case of most Harbour Boards. In certain cases where the harbour is administered by a County or Borough Council, the year ends on 31st March, but in all other cases on 30th September.

RECEIPTS.

The receipts of local governing authorities, divided into the various groups shown above, are given for each of the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March.Revenue fromTotal Revenue.Receipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Fees, Rents, and other Sources.Government.
 ££££££
19265,039,6458,014,583319,33813,373,5667,505,70220,879,268
19275,311,2608,621,964332,72114,265,9456,680,17620,946,121
19285,615,6729,454,315331,95615,401,9435,667,65121,069,594
19295,844,4959,190,655392,92115,428,0716,042,00721,470,078
19306,010,98710,309,785436,94616,757,7185,495,42722,253,145
19315,637,25410,201,076426,31516,264,6454,432,95620,697,601
19325,511,8189,054,187628,06415,194,0694,374,25119,568,320
19335,237,6888,462,628450,65714,150,9734,433,29418,584,267
19345,541,2558,245,173443,23914,229,6673,821,77918,051,446
19355,511,4428,608,064559,22314,678,7293,943,48818,622,217

Local governing authorities received by way of rates in the financial year 1931–35 a total amount of £5,511,442, of which £2,461,161 consisted of general rates and £3,050,281 of other rates, including penalties on overdue rates. The sum of £407,373 was raised by licenses, and £123,218 by other taxes, making £6,042,033 altogether from taxation, which sum is equivalent to £3 17s. l0d. per head of the mean population (including Maoris).

During 1934–35 rates formed 37·6 per cent, of the revenue proper: licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 58·6 per cent.; and 3·8 per cent, came from the General Government.

Of the revenue proper of counties, which amounted to £2,371,042 in 1934–35, no less a sum than £1,407,241, or 59 per cent., was raised by way of rates. Town districts, road districts, river districts, land-drainage districts, and urban drainage districts also rely on taxing for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, electric-power districts, and Harbour Boards, on the other hand, rates supply a considerably lesser proportion of the total revenue. During 1934–35 this source of income accounted for 48 per cent, of the total revenue of boroughs, the corresponding proportion for Harbour Boards and electric-power districts being as low as 13 per cent, and 2 per cent, respectively.

LOCAL GOVERNING AUTHORITIES.—RECEIPTS,1934–35.

——Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Rents, &c.Government.
 £££££
Counties1,407,241600,485363,3161,624,9303,995,972
Boroughs3,312,1973,475,235144,0791,622,6538,554,164
Town districts111,02845,1736,84676,561239,608
Road districts46,3795,4794,47831,09787,433
River districts67,75116,654125111,358195,888
Land-drainage districts56,0121,57215927,56685,309
Electric-power districts54,0642,252,187..124,4142,430,665
Water-supply districts3,5401541,6765,235
Urban drainage districts233,2762,835762,199298,317
Urban transport districts..709,75749315,869726,119
Railway district..17,903....17,903
Gas-lighting district..45,642..11045,752
Rabbit districts18,3763,48814,6901,99238,546
Fire districts..145,0833,43915,025163,547
Harbour Boards201,5781,286,55621,587228,0381,737,759
Totals5,511,4428,608,064559,2233,943,48818,622,217

RATES.

As stated previously, rates contributed in 1934–35 the sum of £5,511,442 to the revenue of local governing authorities. General rates levied brought' in £2,461,161, and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates), £3,050,281. Of the latter' £2,213,229 was received by boroughs and £605,289 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by Harbour Boards (£201,578) were general rates.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1934–35 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £4·46 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). In boroughs it was £8·43; in independent town districts £12·72; and in town districts forming parts of counties, £6·04 (excluding rates levied by County Councils).

Sections in successive Finance Acts from 1930 onwards have authorized the remission or postponement in whole or in part of the 10-per-cent, penalty on unpaid rates.

LICENSES, TOLLS, RENTS, &c.

Rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publicans' licenses, heavy-traffic fees, motor-drivers'licenses, drivers' (other vehicles) licenses, auctioneers' and hawkers' licenses, abattoir fees, building permits, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, tolls, &c. Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are—rents; fines and penalties; market dues; sales of material; sales of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works; tramway receipts; interest on deposits; wharf dues, &c.

Of a total revenue of £3,475,235 accruing to boroughs under this head in 1934–35, £647,538 represented tramway and omnibus receipts, £1,284,243 sales of electric light and power, and £368,583 sales of gas.

RECEIPTS FROM GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

In addition to the following revenue receipts, there are special grants from the General Government (£2,747,283 in 1934–35) for various local works of a public or semi-public character, including from 1930–31 subsidies from the Unemployment Board, the amount in 1934–35 being £1,925,757. A further class of receipts from the Government is provided by loans from the State Advances Office and advances from the Main Highways Board. These totalled £7,254 in 1934–35, bringing the total receipts from Government during 1934–35 to £3,313,760. Of this total, counties received £1,861,510 and boroughs £1,149,027.

A statement of revenue receipts by controlling bodies of local districts from the Government during the last five financial years is given in the next table:—

——Year ended 31st March.
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Rates on Crown and Native lands4,7991,5381,2421,0522,527
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment or held on perpetual lease10,3795,4604,5575,9717,947
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs2,1535105635671,004
Timber and flax royalties13,2329,4804,9454,3756,513
Goldfields revenue and gold duty28,50317,93420,98825,44729,535
Subsidies on rates—     
Ordinary231,815204,644193,366171,078192,411
Special 12½-per-cent. subsidy on rural lands..253,143....178,227
Petrol-tax83,227101,08999,302100,794103,088
Stamp duty on interest....105,600104,790..
Fees and fines7,0757,1165,7416,0905,639
Other receipts45,13227,15014,35323,07532,332
Total, Revenue Account426,315628,064450,657443,239559,223

Section 45 of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4), as amended by section 39 of the Finance Act, 1932, provided for a subsidy to County Councils and Road Boards of 12J per cent, of the average annual amount of rates collected during the three years ending March, 1930. This subsidy, which was derived from the Main Highways Account, was in general to be applied as a partial refund or rebate of rates paid or due in respect of the year 1931–32. The Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, authorized payment out of the Main Highways Account not later than the 31st March, 1935, of a similar subsidy of 12½ per cent, of rates made and levied. This applied to farm lands in counties and road districts, and also to urban farm lands within the meaning of the Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932. The subsidy was to be devoted to a refund or rebate of 12½ per cent, to ratepayers concerned. The Finance Act, 1935, made similar provision for the 1935–36 year.

Reductions of 10 per cent, from 1st April, 1931, and a further 10 per cent. (on the reduced amount) from 1st April, 1932, were made in the rates of grants or subsidies from the Consolidated Fund to various classes of local authorities by section 7 of the Finance Act, 1931, and section 8 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. These reductions were restored by a section in the Finance Act, 1936, in respect of rates levied for the year ended 31st March, 1936, and for every year thereafter.

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of local governing authorities during each of the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Public Works (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies:Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Other.*Total Expenditure.
* Including payments for amortization of debt, the amount for l934–35 being £1,096,777.
 ££££££
192615,454,839549,938908,6062,726,2771,275,98520,915,645
192715,831,600565,733941,7943,079,3781,329,05221,747,557
192815,200,280629,379965,3763,452,2932,175,83922,423,167
192913,298,839677,085964,0983,641,5492,718,45321,300,024
193014,486,488685,1341,053,6133,895,6321,940,22122,061,088
193114,402,327699,5841,029,0174,021,2332,022,36322,174,524
193212,694,508561,905989,3663,963,3341,878,26820,087,381
193311,584,311574,960907,6593,877,3401,940,90318,885,173
193410,754,446592,092879,2763,476,7672,035,21117,737,792
193511,656,773601,448875,3173,362,0132,249,34018,744,891

The decline since 1930–31 has been achieved in spite of the inclusion in payments for subsequent years of expenditure out of grants from the Unemployment Board, the total grants received from this source in 1934–35 being £1,925,757. Included in other payments for 1934–35 is an amount of £216,296 for exchange, the bulk of which related to interest payments.

The expenditure of the various classes of local governing authorities during 1934–35 is shown below:—

——Public Works (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Amortization of Debt.Total Expenditure.*
* Including other items.† Included in “Construction and Maintenance.”
 ££££££
Counties2,843,624289,614261,220339,605141,8643,953,189
Boroughs5,314,183299,045354,4701,555,194522,8898,676,437
Town districts145,0749,03221,68836,69011,838230,149
Road districts58,5133,7576,98314,5584,96890,034
River districts130,135..13,73624,1038,034177,648
Land-drainage districts45,059..7,36320,34611,50884,999
Electric-power districts1,648,071..614,697196,3152,602,122
Water-supply districts3,477..6115322384,858
Urban drainage districts84,655..16,945111,35840,738319,296
Urban transport districts511,745..35,673149,07731,461768,809
Railway district8,744..2,314919..12,061
Gas-lighting district29,643..2,9884,9681,93643,558
Rabbit districts33,525..6,27035535741,147
Fire districts135,112..6,06911,7346,696161,461
Harbour Boards665,213..138,987477,877117,9351,579,123
Totals11,656,773601,448875,3173,362,0131,096,77718,744,891

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure on new works out of loan-money during the last ten years, classified under various heads:—

Year ended 31st March.Streets and Footways.Drainage and Sanitation.Waterworks.Tramways and Bus Services.Abattoirs, Slaughterhouses, and Pounds.Lighting and Power Services.Other Public Works.Totals.
 ££££££££
19261,039,948348,685456,359214,23725,089268,306266,7292,619,353
1927875,704311,820362,177223,44515,883235,018214,6482,238,695
1928939,786268, O83394,026163,97526,390176,972149,9872,119,219
1929649,081236,068202,7441,4996,612259,796134,8061,490,606
1930715,818289,430154,4341,25411,042304,860119,5431,596,381
1931475,644271,906145,55539514,331308,589120,6731,337,093
1932359,486222,72785,22498819,265134,05677,504899,250
1933133,417164,08022,334..1,3768,01051,477380,694
193476,862105,72937,0622,3191,81921619,372243,379
193579,205126,972144,1063,7403,285140,130397,439

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The assets and liabilities of local-governing authorities at the end of the financial year 1934–35 are as shown in the table following. Further details are given in the section relating to “Wealth.” The figures shown in the column “Other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete.

——Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets (as estimated In published Balance-sheets).Loans—Net Indebtedness (excluding Loans from Government).Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board(Amount owing on 31st March,1935.)Inscribed Stock,i.e., Loans from Treasury under Loans to Local Bodies Acts (Estimated Present Indebtedness.)Liabilities other than the Loans included in preceding Columns (Bank Overdrafts Temporary Loans, Outstanding Accounts, &c.)
 ££££££
Counties1,620,0841,802,0633,709,2132,066,309278,578297,577
Boroughs4,552,73730,114,27424,499,7122,029,229244,2471,078,371
Town districts109,821581,766516,903210,3311,82822,609
Road districts33,489156,662244,20514,6731,31219,430
River districts77,692261,326408,11051,3129,96141,799
Land-drainage districts60,52263,399211,721143,93420,47016,743
Electric-power districts3,617,24613,226,23011,273,421....490,024
Water-supply districts1,3022,2327,8571,22620027
Urban drainage districts132,5931,120,7492,412,928102..138,238
Urban transport districts51,1793,658,1842,264,054....110,132
Railway district515179,916......17,000
Gas-lighting district8,752172,914111,954....17,088
Rabbit districts32,94415,8914,265....5,304
Fire districts31,614627,569211,77110,350..79,084
Harbour Boards1,544,77815,340,9838,445,767145,907..163,677
Totals11,875,26867,324,15854,321,8814,673,373550,5962,497,103

It should be noted that the figure for “Other assets” is on the conservative side, inasmuch as no valuations are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads, which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, do not figure at all in the assets. In this connection it may be mentioned that the greater part of the expenditure of counties and road districts goes in this direction, while in the case of boroughs no less than 34 per cent, of the loan-money expended during the last five years went on streets and footways. Assets of all local authorities as returned for the last ten years are as under:—

As at 31st March.Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).
 ££
19269,743,96953,646,527
19279,930,58156,999,264
19289,648,08760,328,936
192910,443,79462,550,235
193012,859,67664,509,880
193112,194,41766,504,801
193212,820,72467,811,808
193310,646,33667,323,298
193411,176,56267,118,852
193511,875,26867,324,158

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to £10,509,405 at 31st March, 1935, do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are comprised mainly of fixed assets and stocks of stores and materials.

Boroughs are responsible for 44 per cent, of the total assets, Harbour Boards for 21 per cent., and electric-power districts for 21 per cent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 4, but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure goes on roads, for which no valuation is available.

INDEBTEDNESS.

The total gross debt of local bodies at 31sfc March, 1935, was £71,245,458, made up of debentures and stock in circulation, £64,831,286; loans from the State Advances Office, £4,599,766; loans from the Main Highways Board, £73,607; and inscribed debt (i.e., inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882), £1,740,799. The not indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and stock in circulation, and making an actuarial estimate of the liability on account of inscribed debt) was £59,551,850.

It is necessary to observe that figures of local-body debt given herein are not quoted in terms of New Zealand currency, except in such instances as refer solely to debt held in New Zealand. Debt held in Australia is expressed in Australian currency, and debt held in the United Kingdom is expressed in sterling. The total is ascertained by adding the three currencies together without conversion to a common basis. Australian currency is at present at a very slight depreciation in comparison with New Zealand currency, and the rate for sterling is approximately £(N.Z.)124½ = £100 London. As, however, the question of immediate repayment is not involved, little gain would be achieved by expressing the figures in New Zealand currency converted at present rates of exchange.

Since 1913–14 the gross debt has increased by £47,472,029. Up to 1918–19 the increase was gradual, being on an average about £850,000 per annum. The following eight years, mainly because of the vigorous prosecution of electric-power and road works, marked a period of intensive borrowing, during which the debt increased by £35,937,297, an amount equal to practically half of the present total, and an average of £4,500,000 per annum. Since the coming into operation of the Local Government Loans Board Act in 1927, borrowing has been on a muchlower scale, and during the eight years from April, 1927, to March, 1935, the net increase in the debt aggregated £7,233,211, a yearly average of £904,151. Since 1930–31 there has been an almost progressive decline, the total decrease to the end of 1934–35 being £1,440,578. Part of the decrease since 1932–33 has been due to conversion operations, in which accumulated sinking funds were utilized for repayment purposes.

The following summary of the operations of the Local Government Loans Board since taking office shows concisely the trend of local-body borrowing during recent years:—

Year.Total Applications.Sanctioned.
New Works.Redemption Loans.
 £££
1927–284,636,6493,212,1851,048,796
1928–296,007,0453,866,551809,221
1929–304,218,7303,563,842967,875
1930–313,840,5051,766,256838,901
1931–323,412,365781,1952,483,810
1932–332,951,645406,5212,348,231
1933–343,884,132917,5602,744,245
1934–353,859,3631,585,4402,379,955
 32,810,43416,099,55013,621,034

The difference—namely, £3,089,850—represents the amounts referred back and declined by the Board during the period in question. Hospital Boards are included.

The outstanding loans of local authorities at the end of each of the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

As at 31st March.Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board.Inscribed Debt.Total Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt.Amount borrowed.Amount owing.Gross Debt.Present Indebtedness.Gross Debt.Net Debt.
 ££££££££
192651,726,89746,029,5496,228,3975,453,2402,239,6171,067,00959,419,75452,549,798
192756,412,75950,107,4646,293,8355,409,8612,189,6271,006,25464,012,24756,523,579
192858,949,02851,812,9716,325,7005,325,4012,129,743944,31566,404,17258,082,687
192962,003,78653,972,6926,328,0305,212,7452,078,088886,68669,294,61960,072,123
193064,052,02155,638,9666,370,4965,128,0482,027,470828,72671,207,53961,595,740
193165,692,60656,369,1456,391,5485,024,4031,969,027772,65172,686,03662,166,199
193265,467,71855,828,7456,506,1335,009,9991,924,565716,16272,402,28261,554,906
193365,642,54155,274,0506,601,7104,965,8131,867,702662,76972,476,05660,902,632
193465,337,70354,435,3766,588,7164,810,4741,821,210608,88671,969,38759,854,736
193564,831,28654,321,8816,269,9084,673,3731,740,799556,59671,245,45859,551,850

Of recent years loans advanced to local authorities by the State Advances Department have been less than the repayments, with the result that the amount outstanding under this head has decreased. In addition to the scheme of State advances, there exists a system whereby the State guarantee to the payment of interest and principal in the event of default by the local authority may be obtained by the borrowing authority. The amount outstanding in respect of local-body loans guaranteed by the State aggregated £2,975,075 at the 31st March, 1935, sinking funds in respect of these loans totalling £941,541. Included in these figures is one loan (£12,000; sinking fund, £5,796) to a Hospital Board.

Of the total net indebtedness of £59,551,850 at the 31st March, 1935, boroughs were responsible for £26,773,188, which represents 9–88 per cent, of their rateable capital value. In the case of counties, which have a much less per caput expenditure on public works, the percentage is only 1·93.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross debt of local governing authorities and the annual charge thereon for the last ten years.

As at 31st March.Population.Gross Debt.Annual Loan Charge.
Amount.Rate per Head.Amount.Rate per Head.
 ££s.d.££s.d.
19261,409,81259,419,754422113,740,6472131
19271,437,98064,012,247441044,050,8952164
19281,453,51766,404,172451384,255,4692186
19291,470,65469,294,61947244,479,1803011
19301,488,59571,207,539471684,682,1813211
19311,510,94072,686,03648224,828,7933311
19321,524,63372,402,28247994,905,467344
19331,536,96472,476,05647314,919,221340
19341,548,90971,969,38746934,449,7772175
19351,553,00571,245,458451764,421,50621611

INCIDENCE OF DEBT.

During the ten years 1924–25 to 1934–35 the gross debt of all local authorities increased by £17,891,992, of which boroughs were responsible for £5,038,505, and electric-power districts for £6,884,296. It should be noted that the debt of electric-power districts does not represent the complete local-body debt on account of electric power, since a considerable portion of the borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose. The debt of “other districts” at 31st March, 1935, was mainly that of urban transport districts (£3,172,963) and urban drainage districts (£2,629,342).

The table below is of interest as showing the movement in loan indebtedness of each of the principal types of local authority. The figures represent the gross liability on all loans.

As at 31st March.Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Electric-power Districts.Harbour Boards.Other Districts.Total.
 ££££££££
19266,650,71328,816,717702,810502,9988,745,7559,993,2594,007,50259,419,754
19277,215,85130,823,857804,079625,41610,113,40010,257,7814,171,86364,012,247
19287,374,70632,374,244831,181688,25510,175,36410,476,8834,483,53966,404,172
19297,483,63133,012,519904,780343,39011,986,70710,774,1394,789,45369,294,619
19307,624,39532,276,814810,178343,98012,636,35110,468,8817,046,94071,207,539
19317,699,17532,894,635835,205274,62513,011,52910,517,3967,453,47172,686,036
19327,719,43132,445,623820,219288,37513,121,96010,549,4937,457,18172,402,282
19337,610,69832,534,350820,917286,43513,031,93010,620,4427,571,28472,476,056
19347,523,01732,094,214810,820287,36313,213,07910,496,5337,544,36171,969,387
19357,306,48131,714,600812,996286,59613,399,05310,524,7887,200,94471,245,458

DOMICILE OF DEBT.

The loans outstanding, other than Government loans, at the end of the financial year 1934–35, are 3hown below, classified according to domicile, and also rate of interest. In the case of loans domiciled in New Zealand, the rates of interest shown are the reduced rates consequent upon the interest-reducing legislationreferred to later in this section. Reference should be made to observations on page 537 in regard to the currencies in which local-body debts are expressed.

Rate of Interest Per Cent.Domiciled in New Zealand.Domiciled in United Kingdom.Domiciled in Australia.Total.
 ££££
Free of interest500....500
320,000200,000..220,000
213,607....213,607
545,366104,400..649,766
3⅝3,000....3,000
329,416....329,416
3⅚..2,500..2,500
3⅞68,200....68,200
41,237,337431,800..1,669,137
4⅛526,262....526,262
36,997,536156,000656,75037,810,286
4 3/1019,792....19,792
4⅖1,499,842....1,499,842
175,7752,039,02552,4002,267,200
4⅗1,667,614..15,0001,682,614
4 7/1019,200....19,200
4½ 19/25108,746....108,746
4⅘2,540,579....2,540,579
5102,2766,652,500102,4006,857,176
5⅛....50,00050,000
5⅕76,170....76,170
..1,951,90077,0002,028,900
..1,912,000519,0022,431,002
5⅝....25,00025,000
5 1/1 1/6....130,000130,000
6,0009,700836,941852,641
620,8501,710,00074,2001,805,050
..918,70026,000944,700
Totals46,178,06816,088,5252,564,69364,831,286

The interest-rates quoted above are those applicable to the amount of debt outstanding. They have not been adjusted to the prices at which the respective loans were raised—e.g., where a loan was issued below par the rate of interest on the sum actually received (omitting the question of flotation expenses) would be higher than the rate shown above.

During 1934–35 the amount domiciled in New Zealand increased by £1,786,496. The amount domiciled in the United Kingdom decreased by £659,700, and in Australia by £1,633,213. The New Zealand domiciled proportion of the total has increased continuously for several years past, and at 31st March, 1935, represented 71 per cent, of the total, the United Kingdom's share being 25 per cent, and Australia's 4 per cent.

A five-year summary of the domicile of loans outstanding, other than loans from the Government, is given hereunder.

At 31st March.Amount.Percentage of Total.
London.Australia.Now Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
193117,533,4258,574,52939,584,65226·6913·0560·26
193217,362,7257,281,98140,823,01226·5211·1262·36
193317,003,3215,729,67842,909,54225·908·7365·37
193416,748,2254,197,90644,391,57225·636·4367·94
193516,088,5252,564,69346,178,06824·823·9571·23

The increase since 1930–31 in the amount domiciled in New Zealand is mainly due to the transfer of loans formerly domiciled in Australia, for which reason also the amount domiciled in Australia shows a marked reduction.

PURPOSES OF DEBT.

In the 1935 and preceding editions of the Year-Book a detailed statement was included showing the purposes for which local-authority debt was raised. Owing to consolidation of loans as a result of conversion operations it is no longer practicable to compile this data.

DEBT CHARGES.

Particulars of the annual loan charges of local bodies during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

As at 31st March.On Debentures and Stock.On State Advances and Main Highways Debt.On Inscribed Debt.Total.Average Rate of
InterestSinking FundTotal.Interest on Debentures and Stock.Total Debt Charge (including Government Loans).
 ££££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19262,740,445580,2003,320,645337,25982,7433,740,6475·306·30
19273,000,223628,7503,628,973341,41480,5084,050,8955·326·33
19283,158,359675,5103,833,869343,43778,1634,255,4695·366·41
19293,334,009725,5474,059,556343,69575,9294,479,1805·386·46
19303,467,994789,8214,257,815350,62273,7444,682,1815·406·57
19313,536,510866,6464,403,156354,32571,3124,828,7935·386·64
19323,536,936931,3664,468,302367,68069,4854,905,4675·406·78
19333,547,877931,4964,479,373372,69967,1494,919,2215·406·79
19343,058,282965,5024,023,784360,77365,2204,449,7774·686·18
19352,938,3301,073,3684,011,098347,85361,9554,421,5064·536·21

The following table gives a more detailed analysis for 1934–35. It sets out the annual charge according to the rates of interest in force on 31st March, 1935.

 £
* On actuarial computation, assuming that annual payments on inscribed debt represent partly interest and partly extinction of debt. By statute the annual payments are regarded wholly as interest, and the original amount of the debt remains until the last instalment of interest has been paid.
interest charges—
On debt owing to Government—
Inscribed debt*9,039
State Advances debt183,216
Main Highways Board debt3,127
On other debt— 
Domiciled in New Zealand1,975,491
Domiciled in United Kingdom828,542
Domiciled in Australia134,297
Total interest charges3,133,712
Amortization charges—
On debt owing to Government—
Inscribed debt*52,916
State Advances debt148,537
Main Highways Board debt12,973
On other debt1,073,368
Total amortization charges1,287,794
Total interest and amortization charges£4,421,506

The average rate of interest on the locally domiciled portion of the debt (other then Government) at 31st March, 1935, was 4·28 per cent.; the average over the whole debt (excluding Government) being 4·53 per cent. On the debt domiciled in the United Kingdom the rate of interest averaged 5·15 per cent, and on that domiciled in Australia 5·24 per cent. Interest payable in the United Kingdom is subject to an additional charge for exchange (vide observations on page 537).

INTEREST REDUCTION AND LOANS CONVERSION.

As part of the interest-reduction policy of the Government, Part IV of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, passed on the 10th May, 1932, imposed, inter alia, a stamp duty of 10 per cent, on interest derived from local authority debentures or other securities. All local authority interest coupons or warrants presented in New Zealand for payment on or after the 14th May, 1932, were chargeable. Interest payments made (as of express right) out of New Zealand were exempted from charge. After deduction of 5 per cent, of the proceeds as administrative charges the net amount of stamp duty collected was returned to the respective local authorities. A hardship clause permitted the Minister of Finance to refund stamp duty where the total annual income of the payer was not in excess of £100. An additional provision allowed payment of stamp duty of this nature to be treated as a special exemption under the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923. The stamp duty was abolished, in so far as it affected interest accruing after 31st March, 1933, by the legislation next mentioned.

A further step towards reduction o- interest on local authority debt was taken by the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, and its amendments of 1933 and 1934. This statute, passed on the 9th March, 1933, followed somewhat similar legislation dealing with the public debt. The principal section of this Act imposed a reduction in the rate of interest payable in New Zealand on all local authorities' securities existing at the 1st April, 1933, by 20 per cent, or to 4¼ per cent, per annum, whichever rate was the higher. Loans domiciled outside New Zealand were again exempted, and rules laid down for the determination of domicile. The Act also empowered local authorities to draw up individual conversion schemes whereby existing securities could be converted to new securities at a lower and uniform rate of interest. Any such proposals are required to be submitted to the Local Government Loans Board and to receive the consent of the Governor-General given by Order in Council. Where any such conversion scheme is undertaken, and any holder of existing securities signifies his dissent from their conversion as prescribed in the Order in Council, the rate of interest in his case is then further reduced to 33⅓ per cent, below the rate originally prescribed by the securities. Further sections of the Act limit the rate of interest for future loans, empower relief measures in certain cases of hardship, and create necessary machinery for implementing its provisions.

Conversion schemes under the statutory provisions referred to above have proceeded very rapidly and at the 31st December, 1935, no less than 89·9 per cent. of the debt convertible at 31st March, 1933, had been converted. Details according to a statement by the Minister of Finance are as follows:—

——Convertible Debt as at 31st March, 1933.Converted to 31st December, 1935.Repaid, renewed, or excluded.Outstanding.
 ££££
Counties6,084,3105,091,435335,196657,679
Boroughs21,968,95120,040,9711,673,521254,459
Town districts748,106662,30352,13733,666
River districts439,786293,7868,558137,442
Drainage districts388,086222,53012,720152,836
Harbour Boards5,386,6144,663,780191,822531,012
Road districts278,941265,32586212,754
Electric-power districts7,995,3707,773,192159,31662,862
Water-supply districts10,0468,7651,281..
Urban drainage districts1,912,5001,852,10060,400..
Transport districts1,469,7501,459,74110,009..
Gas-lighting district123,558122,832726..
Rabbit districts5,233....5,233
Fire districts262,428155,85060,68445,894
Hospital districts1,382,966927,559357,00998,398
 48,456,64543,540,1692,924,2411,992,235

The total of the convertible debt represents 493 local authorities, of whom 349 have converted. The remaining 144 have not taken action under the legislation, the amount in many cases being too small to warrant conversion.

The provisions of the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, ceased to operate on 31st December, 1935; but provision is contained in section 20 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, for voluntary conversion to be carried out under the provisions of the principal Act, and applications for conversion are still being received.

LOAN MATURITIES.

The following table classifies loans (other than from Government) according to years of maturity and countries of domicile.

Years of Maturity (ended 31st December)New Zealand.United Kingdom.Australia.Total.
 ££££
Prior to and during 19373,089,168588,10039,0503,716,318
1938–425,195,0864,331,200161,0989,687,384
1943–476,698,0033,198,600967,68410,864,287
1948–527,742,2661,778,825154,3439,675,434
1953–578,882,3933,058,500156,63712,097,530
1958–628,416,7592,631,300477,90711,525,966
1963–675,684,698502,000373,9746,560,672
1968–72353,312....353,312
1973–....234,000234,000
Unspecified116,383....116,383
Totals46,178,06816,088,5252,564,69364,831,286

Chapter 43. SECTION XXVII.—VALUATION OF LAND.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE.

THE existing law relating to the valuation of land in New Zealand is contained in the Valuation of Land Act, 1925 (a consolidation of previous legislation), and its amendments of 1926, 1927, 1932, and 1933. A brief historical account appears in the 1932 and earlier Year-Books.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General. The actual work of valuation is done by District Valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of die buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the “capital value” of the property. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides that in. boroughs rating on the unimproved value the unimproved value only or the value of improvements only may be ascertained, the capital value being adjusted accordingly.

Under the New Zealand law the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local body expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value.” Any increased value, however, which is represented by the improvements effected by the individual possessor, either past or present, does not form part of the “unimproved value.”

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land under exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling-value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used. Land containing or supposed to contain oil, coal, or other mineral deposits is valued as for the surface use only.

THE VALUATION ROLL.

The Valuation of Land Act directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:—

  1. The name of the owner of the land and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:

  2. The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act:

  3. The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. The nature and value of the improvements on the land:

  5. The unimproved value of the land:

  6. The capital value of the land:

  7. Such other particulars as are prescribed.

The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

In December 1932, the Urban Farm Land Rating Act (amended in 1933 and 1936) was passed with the object of giving some rating relief to farm lands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town boards, and certain road boards. The Act provides for the preparation of farm-land rolls, which are deemed to be part of the valuation roll for rating purposes.

After the values in a district have been revised a new valuation roll is prepared, and the Valuer-General addresses to each person whose name appears thereon a notice setting forth the values at which his property is entered, and naming a date on or before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged.

THE ASSESSMENT COURT.

The Valuer-General refers objections to values to the District Valuer to enable him to review valuations before the sitting of the Assessment Court. If after careful reconsideration by the District Valuer it is decided that an objection will be allowed or a reasonable compromise effected, the valuation is altered accordingly. On the other hand, if the Valuer-General considers that the valuer's estimates are fair, the objection is heard and determined by the Assessment Court.

The Assessment Court consists of three members, of whom one—the President—is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Of the other two members of the Court, one is appointed by the Governor-General in Council, and the other by the local authority of the district whose roll has been revised, or by two or more local authorities acting in unison, provided the appointee is not a member or a paid officer of any local authority. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides for assessors representing local bodies to be elected (after nomination by two or more ratepayers) by a meeting of ratepayers convened for the purpose.

If the objection to the valuation is allowed, the new valuation is deemed to lie entered on the valuation roll, for rating purposes, as on the 31st March of the calendar year following that on which notice of objection was duly given. If the objection is disallowed, the owner may, within fourteen days after the hearing by the Assessment Court, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the objector) considers to be the fair selling-value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of His Majesty at that value or sold in the prescribed manner.

If the Valuer-General is of opinion that the Assessment Court has made an unfair reduction in a valuation he may, within fourteen days of the hearing, require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair selling capital value, and, failing such consent being given within thirty days after notice is delivered at his address, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of His Majesty.

The decision of the Assessment Court on any objection is subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on a question of law. On all other questions the decision of the Assessment Court is final. The decision of a majority of the three members constitutes the decision of the Court, but if no two members agree the President's decision is taken.

Owing to the recent heavy decline in values and the impracticability of a universal revaluation, advantage of the provision enabling new valuations has been taken by many owners with the object of reducing their rate-payments. In order to maintain rating equity, the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933, authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part (not being under 75 per cent.) of values upon the roll. Where an individual owner has obtained a revaluation, the new figure or the proportionate part of the previously existing figure is taken, whichever is the lower.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND.

General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1S97–98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole Dominion 18—Ybk.have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures have been revised to include the latest valuations of small divisions.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES.
Year.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of land (included in previous Column).
££
187899,566,67962,573,868
1882101,000,000..
1885113,270,649..
1888111,137,71475,497,379
1891122,225,02975,832,465
1897138,591,34784,401,244
1902154,816,13294,847,727
1905197,684,475122,937,126
1907236,644,536149,682,689
1909271,516,022172,759,948
1911293,117,065184,062,798
1913340,559,728212,963,468
1915371,076,683230,705,147
1916389,164,729241,322,255
1917405,466,071251,087,708
1918421,383,373260,921,812
1919445,533,445275,988,409
1920470,093,697290,880,264
1921518,584,318317,631,245
1922544,503,376329,174,337
1923553,403,794330,790,991
1924568,500,653333,869,581
1925587,349,575339,310,260
1926603,250,306341,047,952
1927618,264,093341,519,107
1928631,454,676335,217,075
1929655,906,887344,757,796
1930664,571,181338,887,411
1931667,911,212331,634,774
1932662,829,264321,798,700
1933653,707,517314,556,174
1934650,362,355309,770,390
1935637,604,203301,137,513

Recent revaluations have resulted in lower unimproved values being placed on country lands, a progressive decline having set in since 1925, the decrease to 1935 being nearly £46,000,000. This decline was partly counterbalanced by increases in urban districts up to 1931, but urban valuations have declined since that year, and the total unimproved value of the Dominion in 1935 was over £43,500,000 less than in 1929. The total capital value of the Dominion continued to increase until 1931, but dropped by over £30,000,000 in the next four years.

The values shown in the foregoing table and in that following are the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

GROSS VALUES.
Year.NumberNorth Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
££££££
Counties.
1926129218,934,039137,478,551127,019,17693,135,848345,953,215230,614,399
1927129220,899,534136,669,081128,528,98493,546,458349,428,498230,215,539
1928129222,034,723128,466,999128,979,60093,112,481351,014,323221,579,480
1929129218,994,024125,113,171128,578,47792,339,116347,573,101217,452,287
1930129217,047,143120,939,949128,369,80590,038,141345,416,948210,978,090
1931129216,904,602119,125,252126,112,06784,989,699343,017,269204,114,951
1932129214,849,109115,921,478123,017,74879,835,599337,866,857195,757,077
1933129212,616,936113,753,386121,051,37178,032,449333,668,307191,785,836
1934129211,394,504111,951,849120,118,12476,809,704331,512,628188,761,553
1935120210,258,539110,798,741119,933,61874,875,011330,192,157185,673,752
Boroughs.
1926119176,492,48479,937,20372,316,31520,911,670248,808,799106,848,873
1927119184,483,84980,253,29875,083,75727,279,451259,567,606107,532,749
1928119193,357,81682,113,91077,546,51527,760,690270,904,331109,874,600
1929119215,559,20792,633,63983,723,05731,178,700299,282,264123,812,336
1930121224,252,97693,192,26785,669,38731,108,515309,922,363124,300,782
1931122228,502,59593,016,63887,312,58331,204,231315,815,178124,220,869
1932122228,332,22891,862,45487,553,54130,934,909315,885,769122,797,363
1933122223,524,94088,941,86287,637,53030,724,359311,162,470119,666,221
1934122221,931,73187,589,82887,736,35530,445,661309,668,086118,035,489
1935124211,900,63182,645,18487,807,00030,220,358299,707,631112,865,542
Independent Town District.
1926397,450,9253,202,3241,037,367382,3568,488,2923,584,680
1927408,221,3723,387,7361,046,617383,0839,267,9893,770,819
1928428,468,6863,397,3421,067,336365,6539,536,0223,762,995
1929427,977,8323,136,3771,073,690356,7969,051,5223,493,173
1930418,145,6443,277,4341,086,226331,1059,231,8703,298,539
1931407,936,5502,967,9641,142,215330,9009,078,7653,298,954
1932407,920,4862,911,4191,156,152332,8419,076,6383,244,260
1933407,676,6962,752,6901,200,044351,4288,876,7403,104,118
1934418,009,1742,642,6951,172,467330,6539,181,6412,973,348
1935386,092,9452,301,1411,011,470297,0787,704,4152,598,219
Grand Totals
1926..402,877,448220,618,078200,372,858120,429,874603,250,306341,047,952
1927..413,604,755220,310,115204,659,338121,208,992618,264,093341,516,107
1928..423,861,225213,978,251207,593,451121,238,824631,454,676335,217,075
1929..442,531,663220,883,184213,375,224123,874,612655,906,887344,757,796
1930..449,445,703217,409,650215,125,418121,477,761664,571,181338,887,411
1931..453,343,747215,109,854214,567,465116,524,920667,911,212331,634,774
1932..451,101,823210,695,351211,727,441111,103,349662,829,264321,798,700
1033..443,818,572205,447,938209,888,945109,108,230653,707,517314,556,174
1934..441,335,409202,184,372209,026,946107,586,018650,362,355309,770,390
1935..428,852,115195,745,066208,752,088105,392,447637,604,203301,137,513

A summary of rateable values for the year 1935 is next given:—

North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included In previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included In previous Column).
££££££
Counties199,731,166105,381,319113,300,30872,301,474313,037,474177,083,155
Boroughs191,224,14173,588,04279,726,02627,398,130270,298100,080,778 
Town districts (independent)6,190,9222,157,478922,030270,2987,113,552,427,776 
Totals397,140,229181,127,439193,954,96499,970,270591,101,193281,097,709 

Of the gross capital value, counties represent 51·8 per cent., and boroughs and independent town districts 48·2 per cent. For unimproved value the proportions are 61·7 per cent, and 38·3 per cent, respectively.

On the basis of rateable values, counties possess 53·0 per cent, of capital and 63·2 per cent, of unimproved values, as against 470 and 36·8 per cent, for boroughs and independent town districts.

The gross capital and unimproved values for each county, borough, and independent town district as in 1935 are next given.

COUNTIES.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1934.
County (including Dependent Town Districts).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
££
Mangonui1,511,358599,280
Whangaroa435,844127,835
Bay of islands2,241,414869,484
Hokianga1,592,166568,736
Whangarei4,831,7521,674,116
Hobson2,436,0041,028,225
Otamatea2,100,719874,038
Rodney1,747,588571,756
Waitemata4,693,8082,430,844
Eden2,803,9241,116,405
Manukau5,026,7602,854,513
Franklin5,985,0153,214,628
Great Barrier Island154,48097,590
Islands—Little Barrier, Waiheke, &c.535,889348,042
Waikato5,632,2483,110,465
Raglan4,020,4741,773,546
Waipa6,157,4433,306,074
Coromandel648,428363,518
Thames728,538370,028
Hauraki Plains2,158,4891,040,465
Ohinemuri790,353395,573
Tauranga2,281,6861,004,090
Piako4,442,1542,378,559
Matamata3,738,2521,781,792
Rotorua1,823,3731,345,967
Whakatane2,497,1581,427,403
Taupo803,007527,011
Taumarunui1,157,398488,813
Ohura1,024,918337,004
Kawhia692,634264,709
Waitomo2,789,7251,166,323
Otorohanga2,140,764978,253
Island—Motiti33,12019,150
Opotiki1,049,072605,357
Matakaoa856,872347,263
Waiapu3,104.0681,154,966
Uawa1,467,402678,514
Waikohu3,862,7531,715,490
Cook5,330,3732,406,741
Wairoa3,848,9221,522,997
Hawke's Bay10,796,1666,668,728
Waipawa3,079,1081,845,699
Waipukurau954,913579,364
Dannevirke3,796,4982,027,895
Woodville1,765,6531,057,895
Patangata4,376,7202,932,697
Weber633,480356,823
Clifton1,367,299779,281
Taranaki2,753,2081,495,335
Inglewood1,395,953651,515
Egmont2,063,3561,089,284
Stratford3,114,6261,692,305
Whangamomona545,832168,351
Waimate West2,093,2731,341,123
Eltham2,598,0221,408,085
Hawera3,388,1792,078,242
Patea3,307,6361,869,890
Waitotara2,570,8841,474,541
Waimarino1,774,537552,146
Wanganui2,319,2721,018,685
Rangitikei9,359,9755,580,749
Kiwitea2,652,8621,509,635
Pohangina1,261,098671,304
Kaitieke1,017,302455,647
Manawatu3,563,7932,495,331
Oroua3,049,1922,080,424
Kairanga4,329,7042,698,561
Horowhenua5,257,4183,237,482
Islands—Kapiti, Mana, and Somes17,98413,378
Chatham islands250,685169,770
Pahiatua2,524,3241,419,402
Akitio1,494,100727,918
Castlepoint1,120,232638,609
Eketahuna1,828,937991,012
Mauriceville614,454333,764
Masterton4,327,0982,728,061
Wairarapa South3,048,3731,776,874
Featherston4,724,1173,002,760
Hutt4,036,6661,797,246
Makara1,559,194667,137
Collingwood445,198267,038
Takaka713,360390,028
Waimea3,505,6131,536,464
Sounds823,298492,243
Marlborough4,064,4862,478,338
Awatere2,043,6701,343,558
Buller1,228,143463,684
Murchison538,963219,126
Inangahua763,197390,155
Grey1,042,614600,535
Westland1,020,387577,439
Kaikoura1,568,3451,056,555
Cheviot1,455,0301,087,645
Amuri2,409,1011,661,011
Waipara3,067,8452,324,715
Ashley944,720726,980
Kowai1,380,3141,041,804
Oxford987,996692,121
Rangiora1,541,4601,062,390
Eyre1,445,5251,028,990
Waimairi4,676,8231,979,942
Paparua2,743,7921,737,013
Malvern2,433,3391,824,143
Tawera442,440322,505
Heathcote2,012,310807,110
Halswell1,127,545766,275
Selwyn1,564,0441,076,219
Springs1,210,985894,895
Ellesmere2,281,8351,721,455
Mount Herbert590,455413,995
Wairewa1,292,590987,160
Akaroa1,795,9901,282,240
Ashburton11,030,7708,447,210
Geraldine3,474,6452,376,620
Levels3,448,2852,589,745
Mackenzie2,495,6751,547,770
Waimate6,199,4884,049,768
Waitaki6,131,6743,132,346
Maniototo1,554,9351,036,805
Waihemo800,811586,368
Waikouaiti1,282,226769,246
Peninsula719,618346,300
Taieri2,426,1861,612,055
Tuapeka2,454,1981,534,670
Bruce1,701,0851,135,686
Clutha3,045,8541,708,428
Islands—Quarantine and Coat3,454900
Vincent1,652,8681,033,518
Lake842,543579,079
Fiord144,293137,513
Wallace4,178,3892,284,907
Southland12,811,3136,478,701
Stewart Island103,33049,955
islands—Antipodes, &c.13,33013,880

Borough.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1934.
Borough.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
££
Whangarei2,558,097912,054
Dargaville545,0172138,871
Birkenhead784,881289,820
Devonport3,337,0661,338,190
Auckland City—
City Portion32,938,60310,302,547
Parnell Portion2,475,9081,063,725
Grey Lynn Portion2,840,542888,592
Arch Hill Portion552,359193,495
Eden terrace Portion615,885215,711
Point Chevalier Portion1,210,949496,823
Avondale Portion1,352,545493,704
Epsom3,185,1421,181,528
Remuera Portion6,037,4112,307,223
Orakei Portion365,250277,840
Tamaki Portion2,236,9911,235,895
Total of City Portion53,811,58524,657,083
Newmarket1,687,346846,388
Onehunga3,081,4921,056,975
Takapuna1,922,037731,175
Northcote Portion537,083215,669
New Lynn Portion674,345187,701
Mount Albert4,224,7281,363,433
Mount Eden5,932,3192,127,462
One Tree Hill3,460,5191,391,917
Otahuhu Portion1,427,841429,288
Pukekohe Portion869,863385,782
Hamilton Portion5,905,2222,432,593
Cambridge Portion812,691291,251
Huntley Portion373,58496,239
Ngaruawahia262,48062,045
Te Awamutu Portion721,153251,406
Thames Portion724,931178,190
Tauranga Portion966,091394,386
Paeroa Portion527,851171,791
Waihi Portion368,28953,032
Te Puke329,366114,749
Morrinsville485.S21132.130
Te Aroha781,643285,245
Matamata411,790139,735
Rotorua1,771,063810,303
Whakatane393,021101,342
Taumarunui728,839273,393
Te kuiti700,901250,469
Opotiki372,237139,044
Gisborne4,978,5031,692,714
Wairoa597,742189,081
Napier4,666,6321,669,850
Hastings3,724,9901,380,535
Dannevirke1,544,265492,057
Woodville191,17554,066
Waipawa300,678113,126
Waipukurau552,301163,319
New Plymouth5,392,9641,707,352
Hawera1,451,950582,538
Patea160,38557,348
Waitara347,967101,509
Inglewood294,36969,476
Stratford1,002,318348,454
Eltham393,397101,413
Wanganui City0,716,6312,017,754
Marton870,377213,590
Raetihi219,30147,203
Ohakune131,34817,415
Taihape481,005191,540
Feilding1,516,707496,256
Palmerston North City8,083,4882,480,749
Foxton300,33567,876
Wellington City—
City Portion31,914,68615,828,844
Wadestown Portion1,149,522368,302
Northland Portion883,855280,375
Melrose—Portion
Kilbirnie Portion4,749,0601,457,705
Island Bay Portion1,783,405515,485
Wellington City—
Ohiro Portion2,434,305766,890
Onslow Portion1,481,4551,455,070
Karori2,058,085638,680
Miramar Portion3,320,705899,940
Total of City49,775,07821,211,291
Shannon173,19558,170
Levin794,406215,853
Otaki339,572137,940
Pahiatua376,82395,747
Masterton2,866,832845,454
Carterton539,223102,855
Greytown229,92654,421
Upper Hutt859,098216,651
Lower Hutt5,839,3171,891,660
Petone3,285,943891,609
Eketahuna166,69942,124
Martinborough256,47647,940
Featherston207,93343,812
Eastbourne779,435285,285
Richmond279,711119,237
Nelson City3,376,3721,286,583
Picton400,015149,850
Blenheim1,608,898520,182
Motueka434,327190,629
Westport629,813177,637
Greymouth1,556,287384,267
Brunner177,01472,783
Kumara22,2435,543
Hokitika437,00589,246
Ross24,8797,427
Runanga88,99021,567
Rangiora512,415139,705
Kaiapoi337,09889,683
CHRISTCHURCH CITY—
St. Albans Portion5,303,7601,759,980
North Rich-Portion622,025158,175
Papanui Portion1,242,050396,215
Richmond Portion394,235121,845
North-east Portion1,208,105504,620
North-west Portion3,983,4702,030,885
South-east2,799,2651,320,740
South-west6,280,2603,628,755
Sydenham3,105,6751,038,537
Opawa Portion332,685119,835
St. Martin's279,70586,023
Beckenham Portion443,500112,805
Linwood1,950,250605,920
North Linwood Portion554,255140,485
Avonside Portion447,695127,805
East Linwood Portion158,12543,665
Woolston Portion1,109,870334,547
Spreydon west Portion1,032,770302,275
Spreydon Fast Portion995,980262,855
Total of City32,243,68013,096,027
New Brighton913,041305,255
Sumner866,470307,167
Lyttelton803,410278,485
Akaroa127,57150,636
Riccarton1,597,153408,302
Ashburton781,096279,239
Timaru5,100,3051,767,025
Geraldine211,08450,285
Temuka434,195129,960
Waimate552,910127,510
Oamaru1,672,050556,807
Hampden34,7329,667
Naseby19,9782,583
Palmerston131,13329,253
Waikouaiti130,00939,142
Port Chalmers382,021119,608
West Harbour426,37080,880
DUNEDIN CITY—
Valley Portion1,183,031296,252
Maori Hill Portion975,364244,425
Roslyn Portion1,812,449479,800
Mornington Portion1,266,651265,645
Leith Portion4,817,6641,832,431
Central Portion5,287,5452,200,870
Caversham Portion1,736,000409,660
South Dunedin Portion1,148,911278,375
Bay Portion1,216,176229,357
Total of City19,443,7916,236,815
St. Kilda1,839,421395,153
Green Island406,21586,040
Mosgiel378,82570,940
Roxburgh87,13521,715
Lawrence70,7208,702
Tapanui42,9209,125
Milton253,34355,826
Balclutha308,14085,155
Kaitangata112,90631,543
Cromwell86,57116,234
Alexandra98,98915,376
Arrowtown20,7002,780
Queenstown190,42534,325
Gore1,069,470281,010
Mataura318,81083,455
Winton197,81056,880
Invercargill City5,903,0421,662,632
South Invercargill137,46048,160
Riverton188,43249,012
Bluff339,60077,310

INDEPENDENT TOWN DISTRICTS.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1935.
Town District.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
££
Kaitaia161,62844,040
Kaikohe172,51555,000
Hikuranga175,19341,708
Kamo131,51542,595
Warkworth99,71019,185
Helensville207,41954,852
Henderson212,69674,140
Glen Eden205,83166,915
Ellerslie631,824207,940
Waiuku282,48597,554
Howick248,840110,650
Papatoetoe657,473250,457
Manurewa454,370169,598
Papakura414,025167,607
Tuakau192,00878,355
Leamington148,90567,810
Putaruru184,07568,385
Otorohanga193,07860,854
Taradale293,856113,722
Havelock North356,944132,334
Opunake222,42970,108
Manaia119,00225,953
Waverley117,73526,245
Ohura63,97721,028
Rangataua12,869869
Mangaweka55,84921,233
Hunterville104,75135,986
Bulls124,24638,025
Manunui71,28325,941
Johnsonville376,414112,052
Tahunanui196,73756,405
Leeston150,86538,240
Tinwald136,59551,615
Pleasant Point118,55039,300
Nightcaps79,67515,140
Otautau142,23842,883
Lumsden64,88513,965
Wyndham121,92539,530

Chapter 44. SECTION XXVIII.—BANKING AND CURRENCY.

INTRODUCTORY.

BANKING institutions operating in New Zealand may be enumerated as follows:—

  1. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

  2. Six trading banks.

  3. The Post Office Savings-bank.

  4. Five trustee savings-banks.

In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, &c, perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque-issuing.

Until the establishment of the Reserve Bank, which commenced to function on 1st August, 1934, each of the six trading banks held the right of note-issue, which is now vested solely in the Reserve Bank.

A full description of banking practice in New Zealand is beyond the scope of a Year-Book section, but those desiring information on this subject may usefully refer to the report of the Parliamentary Monetary Committee, parliamentary paper B.-3 (1934), and to its minutes of evidence, published as an appendix. In the analysis of recent banking movements presented in the following pages the explanatory letterpress contains a resume of the main features of present banking practice in the Dominion.

THE RESERVE BANK.

The Reserve Bank was constituted by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933 (amended in minor respects by the Finance Act, 1934), with the primary object of exercising control, within defined limits, over monetary circulation and credit in the Dominion. As originally constituted, the Bank had a share capital of £500,000, composed of 100,000 publicly subscribed shares of £5, bearing a cumulative dividend of 5 per cent. Very important changes in the constitution of the Bank were made by the Reserve Bank Amendment Act, 1936, which, inter alia, abolished the subscribed share capital of the Bank, with provision for the repayment to shareholders (either in cash or in Government stock, at the option of the shareholder) of the value of shares held and accrued dividends. The General Reserve Fund of the Bank is maintained at £1,500,000, made up of a contribution of £1,000,000 by the Government at the passing of the original Act, and £500,000 to replace share capital after the passing of the 1936 Amendment Act. It will be seen then that the whole of the reserve fund is now contributed by the State—the Bank being virtually State-owned. Additional powers were conferred on the Reserve Bank by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1936. Following are the more-important features of the legislation at present in force defining the management, functions, &c, of the Bank.

MANAGEMENT.

The management of the Bank is entrusted to a Board of Directors consisting of the Governor and the Deputy-Governor and seven ordinary members, three appointed by the State and four who were originally appointed by the shareholders. All seven ordinary members of the directorate now hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General in Council; while provision is made for the retirement of a certain number (one or two) of the present ordinary members each year, who may be reappointed. Ordinary members appointed or reappointed in future cannot hold office continuously for a longer period than five years without reappointment.

The Secretary to the Treasury is an ex officio member with voting-power. All members of the Board (other than the Secretary to the Treasury) must be British subjects by birth, and may not be members of the Legislature, public servants of any Department, or undischarged bankrupts. Not more than one member may act as director of any other bank.

FUNCTIONS.

The general function of the Bank is defined in section 10 (1) of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act, 1936, as follows: “It shall be the general function of the Reserve Bank, within the limits of its powers, to give effect as far as may be to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated to it from time to time by the Minister of Finance. For this purpose, and to the end that the economic and social welfare of New Zealand may be promoted and maintained, the Bank shall regulate and control credit and currency in New Zealand, the transfer of moneys to or from New Zealand, and the disposal of moneys that are derived from the sale of any New Zealand products and for the time being are held overseas.” The Bank is empowered under the existing legislation to—

  1. Make and issue bank-notes (see heading in “Coinage and Currency” post).

  2. Buy and sell gold and silver coin and bullion.

  3. Accept money on deposit or current account.

  4. Discount, rediscount, buy, and sell (a) bills, notes, &c, whether commercial or agricultural, maturing within one hundred and twenty days from date of document or ninety days after sight; (b) agricultural bills, notes, &c., maturing within six months of acquisition; (c) Treasury bills of any Government, or bills of any local body in any British country, all such bills to be maturing within three months of acquisition.

  5. Grant advances, up to three months, against (a) gold coin or bullion or relative documents; (b) Government, local body, or other approved securities readily marketable in New Zealand; (c) bills, &c, as referred to above; (d) promissory notes of banks in New Zealand: it is also empowered to grant accommodation by way of overdraft to the Government of New Zealand or to any Board or other authority having statutory powers in relation to the marketing of any New Zealand produce for the purpose of financing the purchase and marketing of any such produce.

  6. Buy and sell securities of the New Zealand or United Kingdom Governments, or securities guaranteed by the Government of New Zealand or by the Government of the United Kingdom.

  7. Buy and sell currencies of other countries.

  8. By authority of the Governor-General in Council underwrite any loan proposed to be raised by the New Zealand Government, or by the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand.

  9. Issue and manage loans for the Government or any local body or public body in New Zealand.

  10. Keep a register of inscribed stock on behalf of a local authority or public body.

  11. Organize a clearing system.

  12. Act as correspondent for overseas banks or as agent of other reserve banks.

  13. Do any other banking business not prohibited by the Act.

Other duties of the Bank in connection with note-issue, exchange, and maintenance of reserves are referred to elsewhere in this section.

On the commencement of business on 1st August, 1934, the Public Account Was transferred to the Reserve Bank, and the management of the public debt has been taken over by the Reserve Bank as from the 1st October, 1936.

Inter alia, the Bank is prohibited from engaging in trade; purchasing its own shares or those of other banks (except the Bank for International Settlements); making unsecured loans or advances; purchasing or making advances on real property; paying interest on moneys placed with it on deposit or on current account, except to the Government on Government funds held by the Bank outside New Zealand; renewing bills, except in exceptional circumstances; drawing or accepting bills payable otherwise than on demand. There is also a limit (of one-fourth of the estimated revenue for the year) placed upon the accommodation that can be given Government Departments, local authorities, or public bodies. The Bank may, however, accept Treasury bills up to the total revenue or estimated revenue of the General Government for the year. In computing the amount of accommodation which the Bank may grant the General Government, any securities mentioned in paragraphs 5 (e) or 0 above must not be taken into account.

The Bank is required to furnish to the Treasury a weekly statement in prescribed form, and this is directed to be published in the Gazette. A copy of the annual accounts must be laid before Parliament.

The net profits of the Bank are paid to the Consolidated Fund, provided that the Bank's General Reserve Fund is not less than £1,000,000. If the Reserve Fund falls below that level part of the profits must be credited to the Reserve Fund.

An analysis of the liabilities and assets of the Bank on the last Monday in each month since the Bank commenced operations is shown on the next page.

The liabilities of the Bank have not up to the present included any liabilities in currencies other than New Zealand currency (except on isolated occasions for comparatively small amounts), while discounts do not appear among the assets.

The net reserve ratio has been at phenomenally high levels over the whole history of the Bank; the ratio (81·96 per cent, on 26th October), though recently falling somewhat, is still markedly in excess of the statutory obligation of 25 per cent. As pointed out later in this section (under the caption “Legal Tender and Issue of Notes”), the term “reserve” includes, inter alia, sterling exchange. The relatively minor importance of gold holdings in relation to sterling exchange is striking evidence of the extent to which sterling exchange forms the base of the New Zealand monetary system. A sterling-exchange standard was the de facto position even in the now-distant days when gold was freely circulating, though it is probable that the ? predominance of sterling exchange in banking reserves was never in the past as high as at present.

LIABILITIES OFRESERVE BANK.
As atCapital and General Reserve Fund.Bank-notes.Other Demand Liabilities.Other Liabilities.Total Liabilities.
State.Banks.Other.
1934.£££££££
August 27th1,500,0007,975,3103,298,17410,510,5661,29429,97429,315,318
September 24th1,500,0008,664,8024,413,59315,913,4751,67819,63430,513,182
October 29th1,500,0008,878,2885,020,11312,676,7662,64935,57228,113,388
November 26th1,500,0009,611,4786,390,50610,737,4923,48937,49928,280,524
December 31st 1935.1,500,0009,772,2796,693,0879,071,6995,89939,91827,082,882
January 28th1,500,0009,533,9748,294,7357,687,0725,76751,47627,073,024
February 25th1,500,0009,320,97810,246,6595,953,8954,32744,68027,076,539
March 25th1,500,0009,341,39212,033,1144,795,7238,19258,18027,736,601
April 29th1,500,0009,433,67012,342,4493,832,9477,36888,23927,204,673
May 27th1,500,0009,302,09312,767,4054,205,63012,08787,80527,875,020
June 24th1,500,0009,111,27013,287,9263,915,16522,51153,80827,890,680
July 29th1,500,0008,848,74111,287,5584,262,131145,97875,31826,119,726
August 26th1,500,0008,769,36210,977,9174,472,260180,57863,53025,963,647
September 30th1,500,0008,893,9659,197,9254,644,581545,90071,09324,853,470
October 28th1,500,0008,950,6125,691,3394,495,911687,26797,02621,422,155
November 25th1,500,0009,123,7065,717,0845,256,643341,33799,40422,038,174
December 30th 1930.1,500,00010,720,5553,696,0619,678,905362,143113,91026,071,580
January 27th1,500,00010,063,6894,510,17010,253,190451,780123,41826,902,247
February 24th1,500,0009,854,5865,676,06510,671,35897,510127,51627,927,035
March 30th1,500,00010,153,1298,788,9058,991,691122,059144,92729,700,711
April 27th1,500,00010,240,2468,584,2658,584,599103,395101,54329,114,053
May 25th1,500,00010,156,7958,983,2708,078,108190,16577,75728,986,095
June 29th1,500,00010,040,7058,839,6326,697,464258,41089,69527,425,906
July 27th1,500,00010,177,7039,128,9736,372,641149,82294,63327,423,772
August 31st1,500,00011,148,2946,436,0155,697,438288,68290,49825,160,927
September 28th1,500,00011,174,7583,898,0636,873,521241,635105,48923,793,466
October 26th1,500,00011,480,3344,083,3957,691,539349,240128,66925,233,377
ASSETS OF RESERVE BANK.
As atReserve.Subsidiary Coin.Advances.Investments.Other Assets.Total Assets.Not Reserve Ratio.*
Gold.Exchange.
*I.e.—Reserve, less liabilities in currencies other than New Zealand currency, expressed as a percentage of notes and other demand liabilities.
1934.£££££££Per Cent.
August 27th3,202,17924,487,093108,046. .1,500,00018,00029,315,31899·05
September 24th4,351,72724,501,380123,161. .1,500,00036,91430,513,18299·51
October 29th3,201,72723,222,189115,886. .1,530,47337,11328,113,38899·42
November 26th3,001,73123,607,75786,933. .1,559,31624,78728,280,52499·50
December 31st 1935.3,001,73122,092,02193,700. .1,872,11123,31927,082,88298·24
January 28th3,001,73121,867,952190,723. .1,971,78440,83427,073,02497·44
February 25th3,001,73121,810,0.25184,617. .2,043,79935,76727,076,53097·18
March 25th3,001,73122,434,593177,794. .2,095,06827,41527,736,60197·16
April 29th2,801,73122,088,845173,109. .2,095,80745,18127,204,67397·16
May 27th2,801,73122,789,228154,633. .2,094,07535,35327,875,02097·35
June 24th2,801,73222,813,024145,975. .2,094,07535,87427,890,68097·25
July 29th2,801,73221,053,702135,293. .2,094,07534,92426,119,72697·19
August 26th2,801,73220,813,691222,110. .2,102,85923,25525,963,64796·78
September 30th2,801,73219,688,594219,950. .2,134,5368,65824,853,47090·00
October 28th2,801,73216,831,482218,027. .1,529,98740,92721,422,15599·03
November 25th2,801,73317,458,573210,845. .1,540;89926,12422,038,17499·13
December 30th 1930.2,801,73321,398,949195,812. .1,639,18135,90520,071,58098·95
January 27th2,801,73322,103,949198,617. .1,771,47026,47820,902,24798·52
February 24th2,801,73323,113,211199,118. .1,779,04433,92927,927,03598·54
March 30th2,801,73324,830,181202,162. .1,828,81437,82129,700,71198·49
April 27th2,801,73324,224,599205,791. .1,815,59566,33529,114,05398·23
May 25th2,801,73323,737,755200,874. .1,995,994249,73928,986,09596·83
June 29th2,801,73322,122,319192,158. .2,036,800272,89627,425,90096·50
July 27th2,801,73322,129,379100,188. .2,035,320267,15227,423,77290·52
August 31st2,801,73319,799,230184,01065,1182,038,324272,50025,160,92795·89
September 28th2,801,73316,835,564170,5241,795,3502,123,57766,71823,793,40088·50
October 2flth2,801,78916,545,194157,8593,453,3372,186,24488,95425,233,37781·96

TRADING BANKS.

The Banking Act, 1908, which consolidated the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in the Dominion, provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed by the Act, and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for bank holidays and for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of ten years from the date or due date of such documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1908, consolidates the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The Companies Act, 1933, with the exception of Part XII (re companies incorporated outside New Zealand) and also of the provisions relating to branch registers, does not apply to banking companies formed within and operating only within the Dominion.

With the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, which commenced to function on 1st August, 1934, there was inaugurated an entirely new era in banking practice in New Zealand. The function of note-issue has been transferred from the trading banks to the Reserve Bank; while all gold coin or bullion held by trading banks for their own account was required by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, to be transferred to the Reserve Bank in exchange for equivalent notes of the Reserve Bank or for credit with that Bank. The basis of payment was £3 17s. l0½d. per ounce of standard—i.e., eleven-twelfths fine—gold content, which was the price at which such gold (in actual fact, coin only) had originally been acquired by the banks. Any profit derived from the sale of this gold overseas by the Reserve Bank accrues to the State and not to the Reserve Bank. Consolidated Fund receipts from profits on the sale of gold coin were £1,364,118 in 1934–35 and £231,271 in 1935–36.

While the regulation of currency exchange is now a function of the Reserve Bank, comniercial exchange transactions are still carried out through the medium of the trading banks. The Reserve Bank does not compete for this business, its rate being ½ per cent, higher than the trading banks rate.

Each trading bank is required to maintain with the Reserve Bank a balance of not less than 7 per cent, of its demand liabilities in New Zealand, and 3 per cent, of its time liabilities in New Zealand. These requirements may be varied by the Governor of the Bank, acting with the authority of the Minister of Finance, but not so as to be less than the percentages quoted above.

There are six banks trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of the Dominion. The other four banks, which are predominantly Australian institutions, have in the aggregate much greater capital resources, &c, than the two New Zealand banks. The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in the Dominion have in the past resulted in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the foundation of the Reserve Bank.

The Bank of New Zealand is partly State-owned, the New Zealand Government holding preference and long-term-mortgage shares to the aggregate value of £2,109,375 out of a total paid-up capital of £6,32S,125. Four of the six directors are appointed by the Government, the remaining two by the shareholders. The Bank has branches in London, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa; while its branches and agencies within the Dominion number 220. The other five banks have between them 295 establishments within the Dominion, making a total of 515, or an average of one branch bank to every 3,056 inhabitants.

STATISTICAL SOURCES.

The statistical tables included in the following pages have been compiled from one or other of the following sources:—

  1. Quarterly returns gazetted under the authority of the Banking Act, 1908.

    (These returns arc) now in abeyance.)

  2. Monthly returns gazetted under the authority of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, and amendments.

  3. Weekly statistics collected under the authority of the Census and Statistics Act, 1926.

Most of the data for back years is compiled from the long-standing quarterly returns, while the monthly returns date from the commencement of the Reserve Bank (August, 1934). Weekly trading bank statistics have been collected by the Census and Statistics Office since April, 1928.

CAPITAL AND RESERVES.

The total paid-up capital of the trading banks, their reserve funds, and the rate of their last dividend, as on the 31st December, 1935, were as follows:—

Bank.Paid-up Capital.Rate per Cent. per Annum of Last Dividend and Bonus.Reserves.
Blank of New Zealand—£Per Cent.£
“ A” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)500,00010£
“ B” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)1,375,0007 
“ C” long-term mortgage shores Issued to the Crown234,37563,923,137
“ D” long-term mortgage shares468,750 
Ordinary shares3,750,00010 
Union Bank of Australia, Ltd.4,000,00055,076,016
Bank of New South Wales8,780,00051,269,995
Bank of Australasia4,500,00074,657,266
National Bank of New Zealand, Ltd.2,000,00041,615,365
Commercial Bank of Australia, Ltd.—
Ordinary2,000,000 
Preference2,117,35042,449,822

As observed previously, four of these banks are predominantly Australian-institutions, and consequently the statistics of paid-up capital, &c., quoted above are not necessarily indicative of the relative status of the banks in respect of New Zealand business. The reserves of the trading banks have totalled upwards of £20,000,000 during each of the last ten years.

LIABILITIES.

The liabilities of the trading banks for the ten years 1925 to 1934 are shown in the table following, the figures given referring to New Zealand business only. The liabilities shown represent the average of the four quarters of the year.

Year.Notes in Circulation.Bills in Circulation.Balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Total Liabilities.*
* Including from 1927 transfers from Long-term Mortgage Department in case of Bank of New Zealand.
 £££££
19256,775,470312,983924,04252,207,20260,219,697
19266,730,421292,370850,25650,135,11458,008,161
19276,510,018292,369948,92648,294,09656,321,397
19286,374,043307,0071,146,54353,799,22161,850,595
19296,433,911327,667850,44157,609,74665,232,866
19306,255,717269,2941,024,96356,425,01463,984,419
19315,782,354191,4171,798,37553,645,01861,463,034
19325,958,268158,8661,566,10752,851,73660,649,208
19336,205,429179,4271,111,97957,620,23365,281,375
19344,844,826197,882576,86363,417,29969,259,271

MONTHLY LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS.

As atNotes in Circulation.Demand Liabilities.Time Liabilities.Total Liabilities.
In New Zealand.Outside New Zealand.In New Zealand.Outside New Zealand.
 £ (000).£ (000).£ (000.)£ (000).£ (000).£ (000).
1934.      
August 27th3,60926,1855,14940,26374875,954
September 24th2,71625,77229239,58782269,189
October 29th2,20624,02519939,04681866,294
November, 26th1,84623,83531238,06686064,919
December 31st1,48624,17826036,76284663,532
1935.
January 28th1,04325,85723036,44484664,420
February 25th92127,12926036,04283165,183
March 25th85427,67427035,45585465,107
April 29th80027,09629435,75584564,790
May 27th75326,37532235,88687564,211
June 24th71025,92237935,82790663,744
July 29th68225,19651235,9901,13863,518
August 26th65824,77943036,3821,12363,372
September 30th63224,63540836,7511,11463,540
October 28th62024,92248636,19242862,648
November 25th60525,83641836,22335963,441
December 30th58527,16854137,13655265,982
1936.
January 27th57228,82841237,03465567,501
February 24th56030,46944937,16166869,307
March 30th54531,94752736,53058570,134
April, 27th53732,04959237,31166171,150
May 25th52831,58467536,67572370,185
June 29th51830,80660536,06777768,773
July 27th51130,26887835,61460767,878
August 31st. .29,90783334,89364166,274
September 2Sth. .28,93588734,48659664,904

Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. The foregoing table shows an analysis of liabilities on the last Monday of each month since August, 1934.

Notes of trading banks were finally withdrawn from circulation on 1st August, 1936 (see “Coinage and Currency,” post).

ASSETS.

Assets are now presented in a manner similar to that in which liabilities are shown. The annual figures represent the average of the four quarters of the year, while the monthly statistics relate to the position on the last Monday in each month.

Year.Coin and Bullion.Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due, exclusive of Had Debts.Balances due from other Banks.Government Securities.Total Assets (including others).
 ££££££
19257,722,9171,639,16843,659,7871,214,3214,782,17062,128,808
19267,797,3191,787,50447,361,756881,8454,654,84665,765,297
19277,874,9711,610,36848,421,835978,2644,647,19166,626,676
19287,511,8331,286,18544,893,2781,301,9074,790,40462,819,485
19297,051,3911,103,14948,175,045955,8034,887,46265,475,529
19306,798,5561,173,36752,484,0301,075,3344,777,89669,748,071
19316,917,897843,04151,576,4861,832,7814,505,58168,557,120
19325,957,944644,95349,610,7211,592,8948,521,01769,015,209
19335,105,846814,22844,890,8161,109,25715,266,03269,656,700
19343,477,2481,174,40740,215,0506,040,48618,105,02573,509,177

MONTHLY ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS.

As atCoin and Bullion.Reserve Bank Notes.Balances held in Reserve Bank.Overseas Assets.Securities held.*Advances and Discounts.Land, Buildings, &c*Total Assets,

* Data as to securities held and land, buildings, &c, were not included in the monthly statements prior to October, 1935.

† The figures in this column for dates prior to October 28th, 1935, are incomplete.

 £(000).£ (000).£ (000).£ (000).£ (000).£ (000).£ (000).£ (000).
1934.
August 27th1,8025,48816,51120,427. .41,261. .85,489
September 24th6025,19715,91310,881. .41,603. .80,196
October 29th5885,04412,07719,443. .43,540. .81,202
November 20th6105,36910,73719,190. .44,418. .80,324
December 31st6154,4179,07219,542. .44,903. .78,549
1935.
January 28th7274,4907,68320,132. .44,799. .77,831
February 25th7314,0595,94022,651. .44,301. .77,688
March 25th7883,9594,72423,918. .44,573. .77,902
April 29th7783,8543,82525,348. .45,401. .79,206
May 27 th7943,8794,19524,989. .45,381. .79,238
June 24th7983,7143,87724,497. .45,172. .78,058
July 29th6753,4374,25823,842. .45,900. .78,112
August 26th8163,1584,45423,198. .40,340. .77,966
September 30th8173,0344,03321,879. .47,711. .78,074
October 28th7603,0524,49518,0585,10046,8771,43979,831
November 25th8053,2445,23417,9325,10047,3131,49381,121
December 30th7453,6919,67615,7835,05740,5671,49083,009
1936.
January 27th8123,78810,24717,3335,08145,6491,49784,407
February 24th7023,40710,00310,2195,09344,7011,50185,490
March 30th7553,5938,93820,3705,38944,9191,50885,472
April 27th7393,0278,57122,2855,45045,0911,50587,274
May 25th7303,5208,07522,8595,50144,9711,51287,174
June 29th7333,3376,08023,2175,02245,0771,53786,209
July 27th7183,5186,30022,0065,52445,1851,52585,442
August 31st6843,3575,09320,3955,47845,8201,53482,907
September 28th6533,4036,80518,0765,40440,0001,54082,001

The total amount of deposits, the amount per head of mean population, the total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits, taking the average of the four quarters for each of the last ten years, are as follows:—

Year.Deposits.Advances
Total Amount.Per Head of Population.Total Amount.Ratio to Deposits.
 ££s.d.£Per Cent.
192650,135,114359349,149,26098·03
192748,294,0963311450,032,203103·60
192853,799,2213619146,179,46385·84
192957,609,746392349,278,19485·54
193056,425,0143716253,657,39795·10
193153,645,0183581152,419,52797·72
193252,851,7363412750,255,67495·09
193357,620,233379045,705,04479·32
193463,417,2994018241,389,45765·27
193561,474,511397944,666,54172·66

A fifty-years table of deposits and advances will be found in the Statistical Summary at the end of this volume.

The average amount on deposit during each month since January, 1932, is shown in the next table:—

Month.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
 £££££
January52,964,22353,860,60561,131,78061,071,90364,956,400
February53,566,65655,757,08862,447,44562,012,86366,239,999
March53,422,32956,209,52963,626,10761,979,47866,834,807
April53,980,47257,043,91064,636,96862,398,92567,903,297
May54,163,13457,429,33564,861,04761,869,36367,750,752
June53,858,84357,960,95364,791,74161,063,98366,634,017
July52,298,10858,227,22464,612,89660,729,07565,627,929
August52,140,92958,723,80266,017,84160,435,71064,644,582
September51,976,53758,808,76864,744,75560,562,85163,226,587
October52,086,42559,075,17362,649,98460,624,353. .
November51,979,74959,428,61861,335,67061,114,994. .
December51,647,00859,390,02160,553,76463,285,499. .

In the following tables the three different classes of deposits are shown for each month since January, 1932:—

Month.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
£££££
Government Deposits.
January1,567,6742,679,2261,280,706534,907455,800
February1,790,9142,678,4331,050,999555,266473,034
March2,276,9482,211,4961,217,728673,072496,150
April1,857,1632,123,9341,219,094542,697482,578
May1,799,7361,634,459909,249545,459488,277
June1,731,8501,488,993874,242572,167572,381
July1,267,0621,286,985915,375470,891594,048
August1,561,7471,404,5362,338,533449,199689,947
September1,425,6291,050,3521,502,380435,464828,842
October1,456,7401,045,538609,332368,441. .
November1,483,9441,280,556525,268391,846. .
December1,430,5671,116,910581,947447,304. .
Deposits not bearing Interest.
January16,797,35216,266,99520,503,17122,956,91225,913,664
February17,413,42317,990,86922,009,54024,260,77727,075,222
March16,682,03618,424,55422,673,50324,677,40128,307,392
April17,063,55118,854,25623,230,74425,098,42928,916,815
May16,900,63718,955,93622,983,90024,449,34728,684,616
June16,462,28718,766,78022,319,23023,578,32328,033,276
July15,629,02718,550,51121,930,11523,214,63027,648,382
August15,312,87318,393,06622,125,86722,718,50927,021,073
September15,183,13218,204,90222,273,92822,431,39126,366,247
October15,304,33618,264,48121,550,22322,514,237. .
November14,915,48618,571,84421,229,16623,006,244. .
December14,987,86919,120,14221,717,26824,546,562. .
Deposits bearing Interest.
January34,599,19735,014,38439,287,90337,580,08438,586,936
February34,362,31935,087,78639,380,90037,196,82038,691,743
March34,463,34535,573,47939,734,87636,629,00538,031,265
April35,059,75836,065,72040,187,13036,757,79938,503,904
May35,462,76130,838,94040,967,89830,874,55738,577,859
June35,664,70637,705,17441,598,26936,913,49838,028,360
July35,401,11938,389,72841,767,40637,043,55437,385,499
August35,266,30938,926,20041,503,44137,268,00236,933,562
September35,307,77639,553,51440,968,44737,695,99636,031,498
October35,325,34939,705,15440,490,42937,741,675. .
November35,580,31939,576,21839,581,23637,656,904. .
December35,228,57239,152,96938,254,54938,291,633. .

The average amount of advances outstanding during each month since January, 1932, is shown below:—

Month.1932.1933.1934.1935.1935.
 £££££
January49,582,84749,720,19042,117,15743,006,40445,781,785
February50,108,03047,910,38441,053,25842,890,30344,955,068
March51,037,20147,565,29041,420,83743,334,61044,685,841
April51,387,05347,697,52541,253,83743,874,10844,966,339
May50,282,01746,091,32241,622,41243,837,52945,031,522
June50,169,97445,898,92841,178,70043,862,38244,670,300
July50,580,53444,502,33040,590,94044,105,88645,003,064
August49,791,32743,317,13839,579,23544,787,53145,427,855
September49,594,61843,440,07840,250,32345,497,72045,762,885
October49,951,02543,930,21941,734,15346,682,016. .
November50,139.22143,850,10942,479,04047,234,645. .
December50,681,68643,431,07343,173,51946,890,090. .

The ratio of advances to deposits follows:—

Month.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
January93·6292·3168·9070·4270·48
February93·5585·9365·7469·1667·87
March95·5484·6265·1069·9266·86
April95·1683·6263·8270·3166·22
May92·8381·3064·1770·8566·47
June93·1579·1963·5671·8367·04
July96·7376·4362·8372·6368·57
August95·5073·7659·9574·1170·27
September95·4274·7062·1775·1272·38
October95·9074·3666·6177·00. .
November96·4673·7969·2677·29. .
December98·1373·1371·3074·09. .

Since the provision of Treasury-bill finance has now become largely a function of the Reserve Bank, interest attaches to the following table showing the movement in advances, Government securities held by the trading banks, and deposits, The annual figures shown for 1928—34 represent the average of the four quarters, while quarterly averages are quoted for 1935. Commencing with January, 1936, a statement of the position on the last Monday of each month is shown.

Advances.Government Securities.Total Advances and Government Securities.Total Deposits.Ratio of Advances (plus Government Securities) to Total Deposits.
 ££££Per Cent.
192846,179,4644,790,40450,969,86853,799,22094·74
192949,278,1954,887,40254,165,65757,609,74694·02
193053,657,3984,777,89658,435,29456,425,014103·56
193152,419,5274,505,58156,925,10853,645,018106·11
193250,255,6748,521,01758,776,69152,851,736111·21
193345,705,04415,266,03260,971,07657,620,233105·82
193441,389,45718,105,02559,494,48263,417,29993·81
1935.
March quarter43,077,1155,840,39048,917,50561,688,08979·30
June quarter43,859,2455,506,31249,365 55761,825,15679·85
Sept quarter44,797,7255,181,64249,979,36760,585,88982·49
December quarter46,761,9354,778,86251,540,79761,897,40083·27
1936.
January 27th45,495,7564,773,86250,269,61865,222,74177·07
February 24th44,569,2624,785,76449,355,02666,937,23773·73
March 30th44,604,2695,081,91649,686,18567,858,78073·22
April 27th44,919,1785,157,28650,076,46468,690,77972·90
May 25th44,811,7735,202,00150,013,77467,540,00174·05
June 29th44,886,8905,325,56650,212,45666,082,56775·98
July 27th45,029,6385,228,69750,258,33565,200,19877·08
August 31st45,591,2665,183,66950,774,93564,098,02079·21
September 28th45,847.9265,170,60751,018.53362,738,72981·32

DEBITS-AND CLEARINGS.

The following tables show annual aggregates of bank debits and clearings from 1929 to 1935, and weekly averages for each month since 1932. Debits represent the total amount debited to customers' accounts at all branches, and clearings show the total outward exchanges delivered at all branches. These figures, which have been compiled from the weekly returns furnished by the six trading banks, give a reliable indication of appreciable changes in the volume of business, and strikingly reflect the depressed trade conditions which set in during 1930 and continued downward until the end of 1932. A gradual improvement in business conditions in 1934, and a substantial recovery in 1935 which continued during 1936, are indicated by the figures for these years. The recent fall in Government debits is a consequence of the opening of the Reserve Bank.

Aggregate for Year.Debits other than Government.Government Debits.Clearings.
 £ (million).£ (million).£ (million).
1929881262529
1930792272473
1931593224343
1932542206307
1933559248352
1934676280430
193568773365

Averages of debits and clearings for the four or five weeks ending on the last Monday of each month from January, 1932, onwards are next given:—

Month.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
Debits, other than Government.
 £££££
January10,237,4349,595,74811,950,22711,470,22613,544,621
February12,224,81512,062,67315,534,01714,578,35016,673,056
March11,459,05112,410,70215,202,92415,649,97218,440,331
April11,045,99510,826,19014,678,08613,792,50517,033,002
May10,854,85210,345,04713,210,97612,864 53916,326,743
June10,175,20710,269,16011,733,12311,949,63714,959,241
July10,099,09510,641,24211,503,43712,236,33114,868,127
August8,793,4399,555,75411,463,77712,149,33314,184,388
September8,780,2569,771,22810,624,96412,839,99313,631,191
October9,963,71810,677,82412,165,62011,930,131. .
November10,398,94210,485,81011,717,16013,144,518. .
December10,936,29812,813,57613,361,56415,444,844. .
Government Debits.
January2,931,3394,017,1474,595,6421,085,9521,239,613
February5,097,1205,532,9057,093,6691,442,2441,532,495
March6,425,3236,938,3258,170,8601,783,9271,827,417
April3,584,1355,895,3488,101,8211,415,4491,466,475
May3,702,3194,316,2194,906,2411,325,9841,537,077
June3,434,5973,843,4155,117,3661,393,7771,632,102
July3,779,4664,742,1194,448,6861,375,4381,633,897
August3,594,4404,129,10610,120,4101,404,8091,548,553
September3,651,7184,707,6252,776,9711,387,2091,451,624
October3,444,0833,798,3504,294,9241,338,133. .
November3,442,8404,411,3472,017,1071,346,149. .
December4,508,7965,521,7962,335,3261,575,528. .
Clearings.
January5,845,5915,611,8447,909,6706,242,2067,109,851
February7,120,3027,561,86311,038,6618,053,1969,205,432
March6,704,9337,561,59011,390,6268,594,4359,928,035
April5,920,8176,254,43710,708,6047,062,7668,839,203
May6,134,6346,040,9108,494,2246,827,4418,782,345
June5,560,9986,209,8058,450,4486,395,5678,215,098
July5,646,9807,319,9937,726,9736,391,2618,017,416
August5,207,3866,244,5096,546,4766,530,7897,419,259
September5,115,7706,581,4575,620,4816,653,1387,399,338
October5,501,9786,592,4976,345,6426,351,251. .
November5,701,9697,121,5206,331,1516,912,669. .
December6,213,5978,586,9187,084,4008,084,969. .

NOTES IN CIRCULATION.

As indicated elsewhere, the Reserve Bank assumed the note-issuing function on the 1st August, 1934. As from the 10th January, 1935, the notes of the trading banks ceased to be legal tender, while on 1st August, 1936, the liability for the remaining outstanding trading-bank notes was taken over by the Reserve Bank, thus completing the process of the transfer of the note-issue to the Reserve Bank. A résumé of legislation dealing with the note-issue is included later in this section under the heading “Coinage and Currency.” The following table shows the position in respect of note-circulation at monthly intervals from August, 1934, to September, 1936.

As atNote Issue.Less Notes held by other Banks.Net Note Circulation.
Notes of Trading Banks.Notes of Reserve Bank.Gross Total.Notes of Trading Banks.Notes of Reserve Bank.Total.
 £££££££
1934.
August 27th3,609,1637,975,31011,584,47323,8955,487,7135,511,6086,072,865
September 24th2,705,7318,664,80211,370,53314,5135,196,6845,211,1976,159,336
October 29th2,206,6518,878,28711,084,93810,8605,042,0675,052,9276,032,011
November 26th1,846,3729,611,47811,457,8503,6265,367,0S45,370,6606,087,190
December 31st1,483,4999,772,27911,255,7785,5984,415,8994,421,4976,834,281
1935.
January 28th1,043,4819,533,97410,577,4552,9394,489,8334,492,7726,084,683
February 25th921,5529,326,97810,248,5302,1674,057,7334,059,9006,188,630
March 25th852,7519,341,39210,194,1431,8453,955,9243,957,7696,236,374
April 29th800,5799,433,67010,234,2491,8083,852,6823,854,4906,379,759
May 27th753,2449,302,09310,055,3379623,877.3333,878,2956,177,042
June 24th708,0279,111,2709,819,2977463,714,0243,714,7706,104,527
July 29th681,9498,848,7419,530,6905243,435,6793,436,2036,094,487
August 26th658,2238,769,3629,427,5854433,156,2013,156,6446,270,941
September 30th632,5338,893,9659,526,4983433,032,8083,033,1516,493,347
October 28th619,9348,950,6129,570,5464513,050,4313,050,8826,519,664
November 25th605,2939,123,7069,728,9994033,242,7553,243,1586,485,841
December 30th584,66810,720,55511,305,2235463,689,4043,689,9507,615,273
1936.
January 27th571,76710,063,68910,635,4563263,786,7853,787,1116,848,345
February 24th560,0599,854,58610,414,6452463,496,0343,496,8806,917,765
March 30th545,25410,153,12910,698,3832063,593,3433,593,5497,104,834
April 27th537,62410,240,24610,777,8701713,627,1893,027,3607,150,510
May 25th528,06210,156,79510,684,8571753,520,0303,520,2057,164,652
June 29th517,74510,040,70510,558,450863,336,5133,336,5997,221,851
July 27th510,52910,177,70310,688,232323,517,6613,517,6937,170,539
August 31st. .11,148,29411,148,294. .3,357,0123,357,0127,791,282
September 28th. .11,174,75811,174,758. .3,402,8293,402,8297,771,929
October 26th. .11,480,33411,480,334. .3,427,7403,427,7408,052,594

For reasons indicated in a previous paragraph, notes of trading banks do not appear in the table from August, 1936.

OVERSEAS FUNDS OF BANKS.

(On account of New Zealand business only.)

As atTrading Banks Overseas Assets.Reserve Bank's Holdings of Sterling Exchange.Total Overseas Assets.Overseas Liabilities of Trading Banks.Net Overseas Funds.
In London.Elsewhere.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
1934.
July 30th8,821,5388,359,977. .. .3,399,401. .
August 27th11,171,9879,255,54224,487,09344,914,6225,897,24339,017,379
September 24th7,751,1719,129,64124,501,38041,382,1921,114,49440,267,698
October 29th10,494,5708,948,81123,222,18942,665,5701,016,68941,648,881
November 26th10,120,8689,069,11923,607,75742,797,7441,171,60241,620,082
December 31st10,618,3288,924,25422,092,02141,034,6031,105,98840,528,015
1935.
January 28th12,234,3557,897,23421,867,95241,999,5411,076,02140,923,520
February 25th15,299,7867,351,00321,810,62544,462,0141,090,51143,871,503
March 25th10,605,2007,312,98022,434,59346,352,7731,124,03745,228,730
April 29th18,266,1337,081,88422,088,84547,430,8621,138,89640,297,966
May 27th18,746,1136,242,94422,789,22847,778,2851,197,34746,580,938
June 24th18,682,7945,813,84422,813,02447,309,6621,285,80846,023,854
July 29th18,034,0345,807,95321,053,70244,895,6891,649,89343,245,796
August 26th17,173,5016,024,54620,813,69144,011,7381,553.55442,458,184
September 30th16,200,5265,672,47519,088,50441,507,5951,522,00840,045,587
October 28th12,293,3675,764,51316,831,48234,889,302913,20533,970,157
November 25th12,065,0015,866,81017,458,57335,390,384776,90834,013,476
December 30th9,754,7176,028,13321,398,94937,181,7991,093,20030,088,539
1936.
January 27th11,149,8796,183,19222,103,94939,437,0201,067,40038,309,560
February 24th12,725,2686,493,03923,113,21142,332,1181,110,55141,215,567
March 30th14,143,3096,220,32124,830,18145,199,8711,111,72S44,088,143
April 27th15,980,1606,305,06824,224,59946,509,8271,252,81145,257,016
May 25th10,700,9236,158,04423,737,75540,596,7221,397,51745,199,205
June 29th17,316.0595,900,33422 122 31945,339,3121,382,80743,950,445
July 27th16,729,2195,876,67422,129,37944,735,2721,485,57443,249,698
August 31st14,137,8955,957,12119,799,23640,191,2521,474,22438,720,028
September 28th12,890,5715,785,49916,835,50435,511,6341,483,29534,028,339

Under section 46 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, the trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly interval showing, inter alia, overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business. From these statements, published in the New Zealand Gazel and the weekly gazetted statements of assets and liabilities of the Reserve Bank the foregoing table has been compiled. All the amounts are expressed in New Zealand currency.

The statements of the Reserve Bank do not show, up to the present, at overseas liabilities; and, consequently, no column under this heading is included in the table.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

In connection with the Post Office in New Zealand a savings-bank has be conducted since the 1st February, 1861. The minimum deposit receivable, exec in certain specified cases, is 1s., and no interest is given on any sum less than £1. The present rate of interest on so much of the deposit as does not exceed £;1 is 3 per cent, per annum, and on so much as exceeds £500 and does not exec £2,000, 2i per cent, for the amount over £500. No interest is payable to a depositor in respect of any amount of his deposit in excess of £2,000. T provision came into force on the 1st March, 1935.

The Postmaster-General may pay deposits to a maximum of £200 to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters administration or to prove the will. This provision, together with another p vision whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part of the amount at credit after the depositor's death, enables a widow or orphan to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without either delay or cost.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business the 31st March, 1936, was 892. There were 94,628 new accounts opened during the year ended the 31st March, 1936. and 71,574 accounts were closed during 1 period. The total number of open accounts at the 31st March. 1936, was 840,6 or 54 to every 100 of the population, including Maoris.

Year ended 31st March.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.
  £££££
1927783,82729,456,38330,149,629–693,246*1,767,42648,985,502
1928804,72527,611,06630,584,998–2,973,932*1,747,15647,758,726
1929828,29627,252,38128,111,940–859,559*1,745,05048,644,217
1930852,75728,561,85429,575,994–1,014,140*1,806,41449,436,491
1931878,04324,531,56928,063,338–3,531,769*1,763,82547,668,547
1932877,09019,463,98525,488,081–6,024,096*1,611,04843,255,499
1933797,09716,933,17619,635,928–2,702,752*1,475,87442,028,621
1934798,26219,428,85317,818,1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,391
1935817,61724,179,53720,946,5623,232,9751,320,34849,423,714
1936840,07125,619,77523,533,5962,086,1791,406,45952,916,352

Section 26 of the Finance Act, 1932, provided that moneys lying in savings-bank accounts not operated on for twenty-five years should be treated as unclaimed moneys, which are payable into the Consolidated Fund. The consequential, closing of many years' accumulations of “dead” accounts (with average deposits of under £1) was responsible for the decrease of 80,000 which occurred in 1932–33 in the number of open accounts.

There was a steady increase in the average amount standing to the credit of each depositor up to the 31st March, 1921, but a practically continuous fall was recorded to 1932, when the average open account at 31st March was £49 6s. 4d. The average open account at the 31st March, 1936, was £62 18s. lid., as against £60 8s. lid. in 1935.

The substantial increases shown in 1934, 1935, and 1936 are in conformity with the improvement in trade and industry and the “easy” monetary situation. It should be noted also that the Post Office interest-rate for small amounts (under £500) at present exceeds the maximum paid by trading banks on fixed deposits.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings-bank Fund on the 31st March, 1936, represented a nominal value of £52,584,866. A summary of the investments is as follows:—

 £
In New Zealand Government securities48,973,516
In Government stock of other British countries3,611,350
 £52,584,866

TRUSTEE SAVINGS-BANKS.

There are five savings-banks not connected with the Post Office—viz., Auckland, established in 1847; New Plymouth, 1850; Dunedin, 1864; lnvercargill, 1864; and Hokitika, 1866. The total amount to the credit of depositors at the 31st March, 1936, was £11,773,482, representing an average account of £49 8s. lid. Figures for the last ten years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st MarchNumber of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
* Excess or withdrawals over deposits.
  £££££
1927151,4075,500,2815,137,088363,193280,5347,008,110
1928166,6945,787,8355,403,091334,744314,5537,657,407
1929180,0156,307,5095,839,060467,849352,8638,478,119
1930193,0846,703,6226,324,762378,860376,5269,233,505
1931204,4676,555,2866,512,46942,817410,2649,680,586
1932214,5176,168,0326,138,77029,26246,38510,132,233
1933212,6735,678,8435,718,258–39,415*377,72010,470,538
1934219,7325,817,8465,741,98975,857301,31410,847,709
1935227,9256,199,2116,073,447125,764312,58911,286,062
1936238,1086,651,5256,487,282164,243323,17711,773,482

The following table shows the results of the transactions of each of the trustee savings-banks during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1936.

Bank.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total A mount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.
 £££££
Auckland169,9974,095,1744,015,00580,169208,9727,617,947
New Plymouth14,088459,859397,55362,30620,715778,179
Hokitika2,12251,95748,9642,9934,365152,906
Dunedin34,259828,986848,011–19,025*66,1042,305,472
lnvercargill17,6421,215,5491,177,74937,80023,021918,978
Totals238,1086,651,5256,487,282164,243323,17711,773,482

COMPANY, ETC., DEPOSITS.

Statistics of deposits with building and investment societies and trading companies are available at quarterly intervals since April, 1932. The following table shows the amounts at the end of each quarter, classified according to the period of the deposit:—

As atBuilding and Investment societies.Trading Companies. 
At Call.Three Months and under Two Years.Two Years or over.Totals, Building and Investment Societies.At Call.Three Months and under Two Years.Two Years or over.Totals, Trading Companies.Grand Total.
 £££££££££
1932.
June 30th986,953909,6051,488,3743,384,9324,896,608739,0731,134,6526,770,33310,155,265
September 30th877,268852,4191,547,5553,277,2424,624,632905,2161,669,5107,199,35810,470,600
December 31stMarch 31st801,478813,0701,625,6273,240,1754,202,943943,0621,645,8556,791,860
1933.
March 31st746,240721,8651,650,8383,118,9434,042,5471,008,1851,892,5216,943,25310,062,196
June 30th712,192705,7361,752,6043,170,5323,835,539909,7121,705,8706,451,1279,621,659
September 30th690,259666,0521,893,3593,249,6703,824,173870,6171,720,6446,427,4349,677,104
December 31st600,853651,2701,929,2883,181,4113,630,657929,7581,629,3306,189,7459,371,156
1934.
March 31st437,257672,5782,128,2753,238,1103,292,7401,004,0311,691,3445,988,1159,226,225
June 30th603,603650,0002,063,7703,317,3733,511,445895,3351,748,1506,155,0309,472,403
September 30th745,161643,9611,936,5803,325,7023,172,955974,1321,808,2415,955,3289,281,030
December 31st591,648613,6122,135,2903,340,5503,178,1621,148,7111,661,8805,888,7539,229,303
1935.
March 31st621,410612,8421,984,4953,218,7502,756,1871,106,836l,983,39l5,846,4149,065,170
June 30th637,592672,7522,122,3503,432,0942,971,313982,3831,990,7305,944,4209,377,120
September 30th655,987708,5982,124,2933,488,8782,980,3471,074,5891,806,9555,861,89119,350,769
December 31st662,756650,7302,245,4103,558,8902,098,4631,067,1261,933,7475,699,3309,258,232
1936.
March 31st684,599712,2192,218,8033,615,62l2,583,1671,077,7541,887,6486,548,5699,164,190

SUMMARY OF ALL DEPOSITS.

In the preceding paragraphs statistics of deposits with each of the various classes of banking institutions are shown. It is of interest to show the position in a summary form in respect of all hanks and other institutions performing certain banking functions.

 As at 31st March, 1936. £
Deposits with trading banks67,858,780
Deposits with Post Office Savings-bank52,916,352
Deposits with trustee savings-banks11,773,482
Total of above£132,548,614
Per head of population£84 4s. 9d.

In addition to the classes of deposit shown above, there were on 31st March, 1936, deposits of £3,615,621 with building and investment societies and of £5,548,569 with trading companies. it should be noted also that other classes of deposit exist—e.g., the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office, deposits with local authorities, &c.

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES.

The overdraft rates and the rates of discount current in the Dominion were h per cent, higher in 1920 than the corresponding rates ruling prior to the 1914–18 war. A further increase of A per cent., following a period when importations had been made on a larger scale than at any previous time in the Dominion's history, was made in January, 1921, the demand on banks for money being very considerable Another aspect of the position was the rapid diminution—from twenty millions to two millions—in the excess of deposits (other than Government) over advances during the closing six months of 1920. It is not surprising accordingly to find a further increase in the overdraft (and the discount) rates as from March, 1921. There was no further alteration in the rate until January, 1923, when the overdraft rate was reduced to 6½ per cent., a rate which ruled until April, 1927. As a result of financial stringency, occasioned by adverse trade conditions during 1926–27, both the overdraft and discount rates were increased to 7 per cent, in May, 1927. Vastly improved conditions, brought about by the successful export season of 1927–28 and a diminution in imports, were responsible for the reduction of both rates to 6£ per cent, in July, 1928; but by February, 1930, conditions had so changed that a return was made to 7 per cent. in each instance. This rate remained in force until the 1st November, 1931, when a reduction to 8£ per cent, was made, followed by further reductions to 6 per cent, as from the 1st September, 1932, 5 per cent, as from the 1st May, 1933, and 4½ per cent, as from the 30th November, 1934.

The Reserve Bank's minimum discount or rediscount rate for New Zealand bills was originally 4 per cent., but was reduced to 3½ per cent, from the 29th July. 1935, and to 2½ per cent, on 2nd March, 1936. A further reduction to 2 per cent, was made on 29th June, 1936.

DEPOSIT AND INTEREST RATES.

TRADING BANKS.

The following is a schedule (since June, 1912) of the rates paid by the Associated Banks in New Zealand for moneys lodged on fixed deposit:—

Date Operative fromThree Months and under Six Months.Six Months and under Twelve Months.Twelve Months and under Twenty-four Months.Twenty-four Months.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1st June, 1912. .24
20th January, 192134
20th June, 19213x00BE;4
11th December, 19264
9th May, 192745
9th July, 19284
1st February, 19305
22nd April, 193045
1st August, 19314
1st June, 193234
2nd December, 19323
11th-July, 193323
5th July, 19342
2nd November, 1934

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

Following is a statement of the interest rates payable in respect of Post Office Savings-bank deposits since 1914:—

 Amount of Deposit:
Date Operative from£l–£300.£300–£500.£500–£1,000.£l,000–£2,000.£2000–£5,000.

* Rate in existence on 1st January, 1914.

† See paragraph following.

 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1st January, 1914*544NilNil.
1st January, 192144
1st April, 192844
1st August, 1931
1st April, 19333333
1st August, 193333
1st August, 193433
1st March, 193533Nil.

Prior to 1st January, 1914, the maximum amount on which interest was payable was £600; but on that date the maximum was raised to £1,000. Between 1st January, 1921, and 1st April, 1928, interest was allowed on deposits up to a maximum of £5,000; but, as from the latter date, the maximum deposit on which any interest is payable is £2,000. In respect of deposits lodged prior to 1st April, 1928, however, interest at 3¼ per cent, on the excess over £500 was still allowed up to a maximum deposit of £5,000; the rate in respect of the amount between £500 and £5,000 being reduced to 3 per cent, from 1st April, 1933, 2¾ per cent. from 1st August, 1933, and 2½ per cent, from 1st August, 1934. Since 1st March, 1935, interest has not been payable in respect of the excess above £2.000 in any deposit.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS-BANKS.

Under the provisions of the Savings Banks Act, 1908, which applies to trustee savings-banks only, these hanks were required to pay interest at the rate of 5 per cent, on deposits of £1 and upwards, but not on fractions of £1 or on amounts of under £1. The maximum amount of deposits on which interest was to be paid was fixed at £100 for each depositor; but by the Finance Act, 1921–22, the maximum was raised to £200, which figure still stands. The banks were empowered to reduce the rate of interest with the consent of the Governor-General after three months' notice given by an advertisement published in the Gazette.

In the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, provision is made for the fixation by the Governor-General in Council of the maximum rates of interest payable by savings-banks. Ruling rates immediately prior to July, 1932, varied between 4 per cent, and 4½ per cent.; but, by Order in Council, the maximum interest payable was reduced to 3¾ per cent, as from 1st July, 1932, while a further reduction to 3 per cent, was enforced as from 1st April, 1933.

COMPANY, ETC., DEPOSITS.

Authority was taken in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, to fix by Order in Council the maximum rates of interest payable on deposits with-stock-and-station agents, trading companies, and building and investment societies. The maximum rates fixed by subsequent Orders in Council were:—

Period of Deposit.Deposits (including Renewals) taken after—
30th June, 1932.31st March, 1933.31st July, 1934.
Stock-and-station Agencies, &c.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
At call or under 3 months
3 months and under 6 months44
6 months and under 12 months
1 year and under 2 years4
2 years and under 3 years55
3 years and over55
Building or Investment Societies.
At call or under 3 months32
3 months and under 6 months3
6 months and under 12 months3
1 year and under 2 years4
2 years and under 3 years4
3 years and over44

OTHER DEPOSIT AND INTEREST RATES.

It is of service at this stage to mention briefly the interest rates payable in respect of certain other classes of deposits. The highest rate of interest payable on moneys in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office (see Section XLV) was fixed at 3½ per cent, by Order in Council dated 20th March. 1933. previous reductions having been made from 5¼ per cent, in 1928 to 4¾ per cent, in 1931, and 4 per cent, in 1932.

Local authorities may also accept deposits (in practice, only for short periods). The present maximum rates of interest on such deposits were fixed by Order in Council dated 20th March, 1933, at: Call and under three months, 2½ per cent.: three and under six months 3 per cent.; six months and over, 3¼ per cent.

References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section XXXII (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section XXIVc (State Indebtedness).

COINAGE AND CURRENCY.

The consolidating and amending Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain), empowered Her Majesty by Proclamation to direct that the whole or any part of the Act should apply to any British possession with or without modification. On the 1st August, 1890, Her Majesty directed that the Parts of the Act, as amended in 1891, that were set out in the Proclamation should be in force in New Zealand from the promulgation of the Proclamation in New Zealand. By Proclamation of the Administrator of 17th March, 1897, it was declared that Her Majesty's Proclamation should take effect from the publication of the Administrator's Proclamation in the Gazette (25th March, 1897).

The Coinage Act, 1920 (Great Britain) altered the fineness of silver coins. Its provisions were adopted for New Zealand by Proclamation of 14th September, 1920.

Subject to the modifications of the Coinage Act, 1933 (see below), the legal coinage of New Zealand was and is the coinage of Great Britain as determined from time to time by Royal Proclamation under the Act of 1870. Formerly the necessary supply of coins was obtained from the Royal Mints and put into circulation by the banks. In practice certain coins—e.g., £5, £2, crown, double florin, and farthing, have never circulated to any appreciable extent in New Zealand. Since the Proclamations referred to in a later paragraph, gold has virtually disappeared from circulation.

NEW ZEALAND COIN.

Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), authorized the Minister of Finance to arrange with the Master of the Royal Mint (in England) for a special is3ue of silver and bronze coinage of distinctive design for use in New Zealand. Any coins minted in accordance with this arrangement would conform to the standard Mint requirements of weight, fineness, &c, and were given status as legal tender in New Zealand.

Before proceeding with the arrangement as authorized, the question of possible changes in the coinage system e.g., to a metric basis) was, inter alia, referred to a committee of investigation appointed in May, 1933. This committee, which included a representative of the Treasury, Audit, Industries and Commerce, and Post and Telegraph Departments, together with a representative of the Associated Banks, of the Associated Chambers of Commerce, of retail interests, and of the New Zealand Numismatic Society respectively, in a report released 1st July, 1933, advocated, in the circumstances prevailing, adherence to coins of the existing face-value and mintage in England.

Arrangements were made under which the Royal Mint agreed to remint free of charge the Imperial and Australian silver coin circulating in the Dominion, replacing it with New Zealand coin of distinctive design, and to allow the New Zealand Government the bullion value of the coin not used in making such replacement.

It was at one time estimated that the profit arising to the New Zealand Government from the recoinage on this basis would be in the neighbourhood of £180,000, but this will depend on the amount of coin actually replaced, and the relative fineness of such coin. The profit arises from the fact that the Australian coinage and a proportion of the British coinage hitherto in circulation in New Zealand contained a larger proportion of silver than is required in the new coin under the standard set out in the Schedule to the Coinage Act, 1933, which is also the standard governing the present production of Imperial silver coin. The profit would have been much larger had it been possible to repatriate all such coin at its face-value, which was, of course, the value at which New Zealand actually purchased it. The Commonwealth Government agreed to the repatriation at face-value of a proportion of Australian coin circulating in the Dominion.

Up to the 30th June, 1936, New Zealand coins have been imported from the Mint of a total face-value of £1,920,500, and comprised of the following denominations and total face-values:—

 £
Half-crown666,500
Florin570,500
Shilling354,000
Sixpence179,000
Threepence150,500

The first consignment of New Zealand silver coins, consisting of half-crowns, arrived towards the end of November, 1933, and was put into circulation almost immediately. Since then other shipments have arrived and been put into circulation. A few crowns have also been minted, but these have not been put into general circulation, being coined purely for numismatists.

By Order in Council of the 3rd May, 1934, New Zealand coins were made subject to the “Trial of the Pyx” in the same manner and by the same jury as in the case of British coins, one silver coin being set aside for this purpose from each journey weight consisting of 60 lb. troy weight. The verdict given was that the coins were within the permitted degrees of variation in weight and fineness.

Up to the 30th June, 1936, New Zealand coin of a nominal value of £1,920,500 had been handed to banks; Imperial coin of a nominal value of £946,813 18s. 9d. and Australian coin of £266,186 nominal value had been forwarded to the Royal Mint; and Australian coin to the extent of £75,000 had been forwarded to Australia, for which £75,000 was received. A further amount of £1,000 in Imperial coin was disposed of at face-value to the Royal Mint. Expenses of the Silver and Bronze Coin Account totalled £71,174 to the 30th June, 1936, and the credit balance at that date amounted to £652,422, of which amount £72,422 was held in cash and £580,000 invested in securities.

The Coinage Act, 1933, which came into operation on the 1st December, 1933, repeals section 8 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1932–33, and makes necessary provisions in respect of silver and of bronze or cupro-nickel coins. The Act makes no provision for the issue of New Zealand gold coins. The denominations of bronze or cupro-nickel coins are to be determined by Proclamation under the Act. Section 5 (4) of the Act authorizes Proclamations declaring that British coins (other than gold coins) shall not be legal tender in New Zealand, and a Proclamation has been issued declaring British silver coins not legal tender in New Zealand on and after the 1st February, 1935; but otherwise the Act does not appear to affect the continued applicability to New Zealand of the Coinage Acts of Great Britain. A schedule to the Act gives the principal requirements of New Zealand silver coins; these are identical with Royal Mint standards.

Denomination of Coin.Standard Weight.Standard Fineness.Remedy Allowance.
Imperial Weight.Metric Weight.Weight per Piece.Millesimal Fineness.
 Grains.Grammes. Imperial Grains.Metric Grammes. 
Crowns436–3636328·27590500·02·0000·12965
Half-crown218·1818114·13795500·01·2160·07885
Florin174·5454511·31086500·00·9970·06465
Shilling87·272725·65518500·00·5780·03755
Sixpence43·636362·82759500·00·3460·02245
Threepence21·818181·41379500·00·212001385

The melting of current gold or silver coins is made an offence by section 48 of the Finance Act, 1920.

COIN NOT LEGAL TENDER.

In past years certain private tokens, mainly of penny-size, were issued in times of copper shortages. They have long disappeared, and their issue would now be unlawful.

Australian gold coins (the first Mint was established at Sydney in 1855) were not legal tender abroad until the Royal Proclamation of 1866, although they are understood to have circulated in New Zealand during those years. Under the Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain) gold coin struck at all the Australian Mints has been an integral part of the currency of Great Britain, distinguished from that struck at the Tower Mint only by an inconspicuous mint-mark. Australian gold coins, therefore, were and still are legal tender in New Zealand. Australian silver and bronze coins have never been legal tender in New Zealand, although in free circulation at face-value both among the general public and into and out of the banks. The quantity of Australian silver currency in circulation was considerable for some years prior to the introduction of the special New Zealand coinage. The infusion of Australian silver coins increased substantially after the depreciation of the Australian pound in 1930.

No other non-legal-tender coin circulates. As noted above, British silver coin ceased to be legal tender from 1st February, 1935.

RESTRICTIONS ON DEALING IN COIN.

During the period 1914–19 various Orders in Council (now revoked or lapsed) prohibited absolutely, or without the consent of the Minister of Customs, the exportation to a varying extent of silver coin, and in one instance of gold coin. The Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, authorizes the issue of Proclamations prohibiting the export of coined gold except with the consent of the Minister of Finance. Previous restrictions in respect of gold are referred to under the next sub-title.

The depreciation of the Australian currency in 1930 created a strong incentive for the substitution of British silver coinage circulating in New Zealand by Australian coins. The depreciation of the New Zealand pound to £N.Z.125 = £stg.lO0 on 20th January, 1933, created a further impetus to this substitution. British silver coins, which would, of course, preserve their face value in England and elsewhere, were exported in considerable quantities. Accordingly, regulations effective from the 2nd April, 19S1, were gazetted under the Customs Act, 1913, and its amendment of 1921, prohibiting the import or export of silver coins save with the consent of the Minister of Customs. These regulations were revoked as from the 23rd July, 1931, and were replaced as from the same date by regulations under the Finance Act (No. 2), 1931. Under the new regulations a person entering New Zealand was permitted to bring with him silver coins to the value of £2, and a person departing to take silver coins of a value of £10 if going direct to the British Isles, or, if otherwise, £5. These sums could be increased only by consent of the Minister of Finance. Later amendments, dating from the 30th March, 1933, and still in force, diminished the latter sums to £5 and £2 respectively. With the advent of New Zealand coins the necessity for these regulations has diminished. Although it is intended that the New Zealand issue of subsidiary coinage will eventually replace all previously circulating issues, no copper coinage has as yet been struck. Imperial and Australian copper coins still circulate freely. Regulations were gazetted in August, 1935, prohibiting the export of any bronze or copper coin, or of any coin inferior in value to silver, except with the consent of the Minister of Customs.

The appreciation in the price of gold having led to a temporarily large trade in the realization of jewellery and hoarded coin, and to attempts to melt or export the latter, it became necessary to introduce safeguards. The Board, of Trade (Coined Gold) Regulations, 1932, were therefore enacted, whereby a system of licenses for dealers was introduced, evidence of character and suitability being required. To enable purchases of coin to be traced a register is required to be kept, open to police inspection. Under an amendment, effective from the 16th November, 1933, delivery of gold coin in the case of purchases must take place in the presence of a notary public, Justice of the Peace, or officer of the police to whom the purchaser is personally known, and whose signature must be affixed to the record.

LEGAL TENDER AND ISSUE OF NOTES.

By a provision of the Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain), made applicable to New Zealand, coins of Great Britain were legal tender in New Zealand to the same extent as in Great Britain—viz., gold, to any amount; silver, for amounts not exceeding £2; bronze, for amounts not exceeding Is. Section 5 (1) of the Coinage Act, 1933, declare^ that a tender or payment of money, if made in British coins or New Zealand coins of current weight, shall be a legal tender to the extent quoted above. Under section 5 (4) a Proclamation has been issued declaring that British silver coin shall no longer be legal tender in New Zealand from the 1st February, 1935.

Prior to the establishment of the Reserve Bank under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act passed on the 27th November, 1933, the Banking Act, 1908, dealt with the issue of notes generally. The Governor-General could empower any bank to issue and circulate notes, subject to the provisions and restrictions contained in the charter or letters patent under which such bank is incorporated; all such notes to be payable in gold at the office of the bank at the place of issue, and to be a first charge on all assets of the bank.

Under the Bank-note Issue Act, 1893 (amended in 1894 and 1895), certain bank-notes were, for a short period, made legal tender in New Zealand.

On the 5th August, 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the Great War, an amendment to the Banking Act was passed empowering the Governor-General in Council, from time to time, to make a Proclamation declaring “that the notes payable on demand by any bank therein named, and then issued or thereafter to be issued or reissued within New Zealand under any lawful authority in that behalf, shall during the period limited by the Proclamation be everywhere within New Zealand a good and legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable.” Conditions governing the issue of such Proclamation were laid down, and the bank might be required to give adequate security that it would redeem the notes in gold on the expiration of the period covered by the Proclamation. Provision was also made for payment by the State Treasury in case of default by the bank. During the period any such Proclamation was in force coined gold could not be exported except with the consent of the Minister of Finance. During the period between 5th August, 1914, and 5th November, 1919, this prohibition also applied to uncoined gold. Immediately on the passing of the amendment referred to, a Proclamation was gazetted declaring notes of all six banks of issue doing business in New Zealand to be legal tender from the 6th August to the 6th September, 1914. Further extensions were made from time to time. Under the Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, this legislation is repealed as from the 10th January, 1935. The position in respect of export of coined gold has been given under the preceding sub-title. That in respect of legal-tender notes is next referred to.

The position in respect of the note-issue was radically altered by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933. Section 15 enacted that on and after a date fixed by Proclamation—the Proclamation was signed on the 26th January, 1934, and fixed the date as the 1st August, 1934—the Reserve Bank had the right to issue bank-notes in New Zealand; and thereupon the authority of every other bank to issue or re-issue bank-notes was terminated, and such banks were required to redeem their outstanding notes in Reserve Bank notes or subsidiary coin to the extent to which the latter was legal tender. On the 1st August, 1936, every other bank carrying on business in New Zealand was required to pay over to the Reserve Bank an amount equal to the value of its then outstanding notes issued or payable in New Zealand, and its liability in respect of such notes to the holders has been assumed by the Reserve Bank. Bank-notes not presented for payment within forty years, commencing 1st April after date of issue in the case of Reserve Bank notes, or after assumption of liability (as above) in other cases, are deemed not to be in circulation, and an amount equal to the value thereof must be paid into the Consolidated Fund as if unclaimed moneys.

Reserve Bank notes are constituted legal tender up to any amount. There is a provision in the existing legislation which requires the Bank, on presentation at its head office in Wellington of notes to any amount not less than £1,000, to give in exchange sterling for immediate delivery in London. On similar presentation of gold or of sterling for immediate delivery in London, in either case to an amount of £1,000 or more, the Bank must give its notes in exchange therefor. These requirements may be suspended at the discretion of the Minister of Finance. The rate of exchange for the above transactions shall be fixed by the Bank.

The Bank is required at all times to maintain a minimum reserve of not less than 25 per cent, of the aggregate amount of its notes in circulation and other demand liabilities. The term “reserve” includes—

  1. Gold coin and trillion in the unrestricted ownership of the Bank.

  2. Sterling exchange, comprising (1) Deposits at the Bank of England,(2) British Treasury bills of not more than three months unexpired currency, (3) bills of exchange hearing at least two good signatures and of not more than three months unexpired currency.

  3. Net gold exchange, as defined in section 17 (c).

At the request in writing of the Board of Directors, the Minister of Finance may suspend the requirements as to maintenance of the above minimum reserve for a period not exceeding thirty days, with extensions, upon further request, of not more than fifteen days at any one time.

The Reserve Bank may not issue bank-notes of a less denomination than 10s., except with the authority of the Governor-General in Council. The present issue of notes consists of the following denominations: 10s., £1, £5, and £50.

CURRENCY OTHER THAN LEGAL TENDER.

The use of Australian silver has been referred to in an earlier paragraph. Neither Australian nor other overseas paper-money circulates, presumably on account of the exchange fee charged by the banks on receiving it.

No consideration of the amount of credit currency in use at any moment can overlook the very large proportion of payments made by cheque, mainly upon the trading banks, but also upon trustee savings-banks and upon various stock-and-station agents which act in this respect for their customers in the capacity of banker. Such cheques usually go straight from the payee to the collecting bank, but occasionally in odd localities they pass from hand to hand, as was the custom in earlier days.

At the present time Government postal notes (issued in thirty-nine denominations of from Is. to £1) sometimes enjoy a certain life in the form of currency.

NEW ZEALAND-STERLING EXCHANGE.

Although the movement of gold, whether internally or externally, was unrestricted in years prior to the War, certain of the conditions usually considered essential in the full operation of the gold standard were never effective in New Zealand. More correctly, New Zealand was, and still is, upon a sterling-exchange standard. The explanation is that the New Zealand banking system is not self-contained, in that the banks normally hold a large amount of funds in London. In fact, these London balances are the real regulative factor and the key to the whole banking system. This system has evolved out of economic conditions, and, in general, has functioned smoothly without effective legislative regulation.

War conditions caused the abandonment of the gold standard by Great Britain. A return was made in May, 1925, but from September, 1931, Britain has again departed from a gold basis. While New Zealand currency was at parity with sterling, except for minor fluctuations above or below parity, no necessity existed for distinction between sterling and New Zealand currency. The latter is entitled to be considered as one of the sterling currencies; but, adopting the convenience of a growing usage, sterling is used herein to refer solely to the currency of Great Britain.

The relationship of New Zealand currency to sterling assumed added significance since December, 1929. Prior to that date the Dominion currency was at virtual parity with British currency, only slight deviations occurring from time to time, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931, a level of approximately £110 New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January, 1933, when as a result of Government intervention (referred to below) it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree.

The unusual significance of the currency level in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon its position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of the Dominion has not reached a stage where the country is self-contained to an average degree and the external trade per caput is greater than that of almost all, if not all, other countries. Most of this external trade is with the United Kingdom, while the function of London as an international clearing-house is also of importance in this connection. New Zealand's borrowings overseas, chiefly from the London financial market, have also been upon a high scale, requiring, as noted elsewhere (vide State and also Local Authority Indebtedness), heavy annual payments in London.

The following table gives, in order to complement and interpret other data in this volume, quotations representing the amount of New Zealand currency required to purchase £100 London. The period covered is from January, 1929, to the commencement of Reserve Bank operations (1st August, 1934). Figures are quoted for telegraphic transfer (cable) and sixty-day rates New Zealand on London as sufficiently indicative of the position. The majority of quotations are from The Statist (London), supplemented in a few instances from other sources.

Operative fromBuying (£100 London).Selling (£100 London).
Cable.Sixty Days.Cable.Sixty Days.
Actually from 15th November, 1928.
1929—
1st January*. .98⅜10O¾99½
29th July. .98⅝10199¾
4th September. .98⅞101¼100
30th September. .98⅞101½100¼
4th December. .99101¾l00½
21st December. .99¼102⅛100¾
1930—.
31st January. .99⅝102⅝101¼
18th February. .100⅛103⅛101¾
19th March. .100⅝103⅝102¼
3rd April. .102½105103⅝
1931—    
14th January. .105107½106⅛
29th January. .107½110108⅝
4th June. .107¾110109
12th October. .107½110109
1932—
—March. .107¾110109
3rd May. .107⅞110109⅛
1933—
20th January to 31st July124½123½125124⅝
1934

From the 1st August, 1934, Reserve Bank quotations for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London are: Buying rate, £124; selling rate, £125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. To assist in achieving this measure of stability, the Reserve Bank was prepared to enter into forward exchange contracts with the trading banks. While prepared to fill its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank does not desire to compete for exchange business, provided adequate facilities are available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted an adjusted scale of rates as from the 1st August, 1934. The following, quoted for New Zealand on London, basis £100 London, will serve as an example: Telegraphic transfers—Buying-rate, £124; selling-rate, £124 10s. Sixty days—Buying-rate, £123; selling-rate, £124 2s. 6d. These rates represent a reduction of 10s. per £100 on the rates ruling from the 20th January, 1933, to the 31st July. 1934.

It may be observed that the above exchange rates have not had entirely universal operation. The primary purpose in raising the exchange rates in January, 1933. was to assist the farming community, and the increased exchange was intended only for genuine trading transactions, and did not apply in general to imports of capital, lottery prizes, private investments, &c. Legacies below a certain limit received the premium, and also if the money was intended to be applied to developmental purposes. Cases of hardship were considered on their merits. Revenue, such as interest from overseas investments, received the exchange premium. This position, however, was terminated as from the 1st August, 1934, exchange thenceforward functioning without restriction in this way. As most of the export crcaits are utilized for financing imports, it is advisable to note that the full exchange rate is not operative in respect of dutiable goods. This arises from the fact that, although Customs duties are assessed in sterling, payment of Customs duties is accepted in New Zealand currency without addition of exchange.

A proportion, although probably not a large one, of exchange business functions through channels other than those of the recognized banking institutions. Exchange rates in such instances are understood to fluctuate more widely than the “official7#x201D; rates.

Based upon the average of daily London quotations of gold prices during the month of July, 1936, the New Zealand pound was worth 9s. 9Jd. in terms of gold, conversion New Zealand-London being allowed at the ratio 1245 = 100. At the latest available date (10th November, 1936) the level was £8 17s. 6d.

Figures given previously link the New Zealand currency to that of Britain, but since the British suspension of the gold standard on the 21st September, 1931, it is necessary to provide complementary data giving the relationship of British currency to gold. For this purpose the following quotations of The Statist's index number (parity = 100) of the value of British currency in terms of the gold standard currencies serve admirably:—

1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
* September 1st–19th, 100·18; September 21st–30th, 82·63.
January100·0770·7069·1265·5359·9160·19
February100·1471·1670·2262·7659·6160·18
March100·1174·5870·3962·3958·0360·19
April100·1377·1170·2762·7459·0960·27
May100·1775·3569·0462·1859·7760·76
June100·2674·9469·4561·5960·0761·29
July100·1073·0868·4961·5460·19. .
August100·1571·5567·3261·1660·44. .
September*71·5464·5460·1660·26. .
October79·7469·9964·4559·9659·90. .
November76·7667·5065·8960·9960·12. .
December69·5267·5467·2860·3960·12. .

The course of exchange Australia on London may be noted briefly. As in the ease of New Zealand, depreciation of Australian currency commenced at the end of 1929. The principal movements have been (telegraphic transfer, equivalent of £100 London): 18th December, 1929, £102; 17th February, 1930, £103; 10th March, 1930, £104; 24th March, 1930, £106; 9th October, 1930, £109; 6th January, 1931, £115; 13th January, 1931, £118; 17th January, 1931, £125; 29th January, 1931, £130; 3rd December, 1931, £125. It has remained around the last-quoted figure since that date.

EXCHANGE POOL.

In order to ensure that funds would be available overseas to meet all commitments, arrangements were made with the banks in 1931 for the formation of an exchange pool. Regulations were gazetted in December, 1931, under the Customs Act, 1913, and the Board of Trade Act, 1919, prohibiting the export of goods after the 1st January, 1932, except under license. Conditions of such licenses, inter alia, provided for the proceeds of the sale of goods to be paid to an authorized bank to be remitted to Now Zealand at the current rate of exchange at the time of payment to the bank.

The system of export licenses terminated as from the 30th June, 1932.

BANKS INDEMNITY (EXCHANGE) ACT, 1932–33.

As a matter of policy the Government arrived at the decision to raise the exchange-rate, New Zealand on London, to a level of approximately £125 New Zealand = £100 London, as from the 20th January, 1933.

At the request of the Government the banks carrying on business in New Zealand raised, as from the date quoted, the rates of exchange based on the rate for the telegraphic transmission of moneys from New Zealand to London. In return the Government undertook to insure the banks against any losses they might sustain by reason of such fixation of the rates of exchange and arising from the purchase and sale of exchange. Legislative sanction was given by the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, passed on the 1st March, 1933.

The Bank of New Zealand was constituted the agent of the Government for this purpose, and was authorized to buy surplus exchange held in London by other banks, or to re-sell to any such bank exchange up to the amount purchased from it under the Act. Sales to or from the Bank of New Zealand were required to be made at the fixed exchange-rate, subject to such concessions as might be mutually agreed upon. Exchange purchased or sold on Government behalf was authorized to be paid for in cash or in Treasury bills, the latter to be discounted at a rate not exceeding the ruling rate fixed for overdrafts on best accounts. Provision was made regarding the issue of Treasury bills, &c. (part under the further authority of section 4 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1932–33), and the investment of exchange purchased under the Act.

From the 20th January, 1933, to the commencement of Reserve Bank operations, exchange purchased and paid into the New Zealand Government Indemnity Exchange Account in London aggregated £36,208,000. The exchange cost of London funds treated as surplus sterling assets (i.e., additional to Government requirements) was £4,899,703. During the year 1934–35, £20,229,700 of sterling funds held by the Government were transferred to New Zealand, the resultant New Zealand credit of £25,084,82S being utilized to redeem outstanding Treasury bills.

The regulation of currency exchange is now a function of the Reserve Bank, as noted previously. Since the Reserve Bank commenced business the Suspense Account created for operations under the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act has been liquidated and the outstanding Treasury bills redeemed. The Act has been repealed, as from the 1st August. 1934, by the Finance Act, 1934, thus terminating the period in which the rate of sterling exchange was fixed by statute. The Finance Act, 1934, provides that any appreciation or depreciation of the assets of the Reserve Bank (expressed in the currency of New Zealand) due to any alteration that may subsequently be made in the exchange rate, while the value of the local currency is not fixed by statute in terms of sterling, shall be credited to or borne by the Consolidated Fund.

Chapter 45. SECTION XXIX.—INSURANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—LIFE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statutory provisions affecting life insurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendments of 1920, 1921–22, and 1925; the Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910; and the Government Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendment of 1912. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Every life company must deposit with the Public Trustee money or securities of the statutory character to the value of from £5,000 to £50,000. Deposits aggregating £750,575, representing statutory deposits by life-insurance companies, were held by the Public Trustee as at 31st March, 1935.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making such funds available only for liabilities arising from such business.

The law bearing on industrial assurance has received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of insurance the premiums must be payable at shorter intervals than three months, and provision is made for its control by regulation. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements.

The most recent legislation on the subject of life insurance is contained in section 26 (2) of the Finance Act, 1932, which provides that the proceeds of a policy shall become “unclaimed moneys” on the expiration of six years from the date on which the company first has reason to suppose the policy has matured by death or the date (if any) on which it otherwise matures, whichever date is the earlier. This provision operates notwithstanding that the policy may provide for legal proof of death, or proof of age, &c.

Annual returns of life assurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance. It is from these returns that the statistical matter following has been compiled.

Fourteen life-assurance offices were operating in the Dominion during 1935. Of these, three only are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, the Provident Life Assurance Co., and the Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand, Ltd.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in the Dominion.

LIFE INSURANCE.—ORDINARY AND INDUSTRIAL.

Ten years' figures for new business, discontinuances, and amount in force for the combined departments (ordinary and industrial) are given in the table following.

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
 £££
192611,769,2906,415,55686,754,094
192712,544,7227,188,59592,110,221
192813,576,8317,612,87898,074,174
192914,586,0397,388,794105,271,419
193014,928,1338,132,934112,066,618
193111,410,69910,774,277112,703,040
193210,375,17910,984,419112,093,800
193310,737,7329,955,758112,875,774
193412,378,2438,697,260116,556,757
193515,358,7498,011,946123,903,560

The increase in number and value of new policies evident in 1933 and 1931 has been more than maintained during 1935. The amount of business transacted, £15,358,749 (ordinary life assurance. £12,605,789; and industrial life assurance, £2,752,960) reached a new high level, and exceeds the previous record established in 1930 by £430,616. The amount discontinued, which reached its peak in 1932, continued to decline, the 1935 figure being £2,972,473, or 27 per cent., below that of 1932. The net result of the transactions for 1935 was to increase the amount in force by £7,346,803, compared with an addition of £3,680,983 in 1934, and a net decrease, of £609,240 in 1932.

During the ten years from 1925 to 1935 the amount in force has increased by £42,503,200, or 52 per cent. The increase in the Dominion's population during the same period was 11 per cent. Policies existing at the end of the year represent a rate of 322 per 1,000 of population (other than Maoris) for 1925 and 421 per 1,000 for 1935. The sum assured rose from £60·5 per head of population in 1925 to £83 per head in 1935. According to a statement prepared in 1933 by the Los Angeles (U.S.A.) Chamber of Commerce, New Zealand occupies third place in the life-insurance world on a per caput basis. United States was ranked first, with Canada. New Zealand, Australia, United Kingdom, Sweden, Italy, Norway, and the Netherlands following in that order.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.

A table showing the progress of business over a period of ten years is given below:—

 Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Year.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
 ££ ££ ££
192624,3809,425,686324,34916,2075,018,926172,468230,43576,787,2512,492,153
192724,7889,797,732334,49917,0995,512,913187, 813238,12481,072,0702,638,839
192826,99710,826,619371,10017,7335,786,691212,017247,38886,111,9982,797,922
192928,18911,534,102393,68517,4415,515,811194,040258,13692,130,2892,997,567
193028,32111,975,361413,69618,1065,969,955207,937268,35198,135,6953,203,326
193124,5089,166,928311,90422,6608,125,699281,384270,19999,176,9243,233,846
193222,3538,123,793280,57724,4038,594,783300,341268,14998,705,9343,214,082
193324,5038,357,590282,75622,8427,995,447281,020269,81099,068,0773,215,818
193428,5549,778,967312,84820,4446,999,072246,476277,920101,847,9723,282,190
193535,19912,605,789400,14019,1266,292,730216,015293,993108,161,0313,466,315

New assurances effected in 1935 show an increase of £2,826,822 over the 1934 total, and are £630,428 above the figures of the previous record year of 1930. Between the pre-depression year of 1930 and the year 1932 there was a decline of £3,851,568, while the following year showed only a slight increase over 1932. During the succeeding two years, however, the volume of business accelerated very rapidly, the increase during that period amounting to £4,248,199, or slightly over 50 per cent. Discontinuances continue to decline, the 1935 total being £706,342 less than in 1934 and £2,302,053 below the figure for 1932, in which year the amount written off actually exceeded new assurances. As a result of the year's transactions, the amount in force has been added to by £6,313,059, as against the previous year's increase of £2,779,895.

The average sum assured per new policy taken out in 1935 was £358, compared with £342 in 1934 and £404 for the average of the pre-depression period 1926–30. In 1930 this figure had reached £422, while in the succeeding three years (1931–33) the amounts were £374, £363, and £341 respectively. The per-policy average premium for new assurances in 1935 was £11 7s. 4d., compared with £13 17s. for the period 1926–30, £14 12s. 2d. in 1930, £12 14s. 6d. in 1931, £12 11s. 1d. in 1932, £11 10s. 10d. in 1933, and £10 19s. 2d. in 1934.

The corresponding figures for total insurances in force are £368 and £11 15s. 10d. respectively.

Particulars of policies discontinued during the last five years are contained in the next table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Totals.
Number of Policies.
19311,6503,3427,06210,04656022,660
19321,6923,4158,9859,96534624,403
19331,7043,5048,1969,12731122,842
19341,7093,5956,4808,34231820,444
19351,7363,4905,4668,03340119,126
Sum assured.
 ££££££
1931627,687627,6062,550,2964,015,711304,3998,125,699
1932651,514660,4573,166,1053,859,950256,7578,594,783
1933733,402706,3512,891,9053,377,641280,1487,995,447
1934739,757739,6202,278,1672,985,448256,0806,999,072
1935707,790698,8651,835,5372,799,274251,2646,292,730

A noteworthy feature is the continued decline in the amounts written off by way of surrender and lapse. Lapses reached their highest peak in 1931 and surrenders in 1932, and each succeeding year has recorded an improvement in the figures for these causes. Discontinuances by death and maturity show merely normal fluctuations. The total amounts written off represent for 1935 and 1934 6·18 per cent. and 7·06 per cent. respectively of the amount in force at the end of the year immediately preceding.

Reducing the amounts in the foregoing table to a percentage basis, the following result is arrived at:—

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
19317·727·7231·3949·423·75100·00
19327·587·6836·8444·912·99100·00
19339·178·8336·1742·253·58100·00
193410·5710·5732·5542·653·66100·00
193511·2511·1129·1744·483·99100·00

The proportions of the amount in force at the end of 1934 written off during 1935 on account of the four main causes give percentages of 0·69, 0·69. 1·80, and 2·75 for death, maturity, surrender, and lapse respectively.

A statement of the income and outgo of all the companies operating in the Dominion, so far as ordinary business only is concerned, further illustrates the progress of business during the last ten years. The ratio of management expenses to premium and total receipts is also given.

Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19263,472,5262,137,9451,334,581385,18715·7511·09
19273,616,3672,460,5221,155,845395,24015·3610·93
19283,855,1752,684,3441,170,831419,35815·2110·88
19294,139,9292,655,7671,484,162453,39615·3210·95
19304,495,0002,863,7661,631,234465,45614·7510·35
19314,943,2563,334,2501,609,006426,13613·338·62
19324,726,9183,421,9711,304,947415,28913·128·79
19334,856,1623,547,2941,308,868431,75513·328·89
19345,113,5673,511,5181,602,049467,91313·949·15
19355,386,1003,364,7032,021,397544,07914·9010·10

As a result of the greatly increased new business and, consequently, the amount of commission payable, there has been a sharp increase in management expenses during the last three years, and it is interesting to note that the proportion of management expenses to premium receipts in 1935 is slightly greater than the corresponding figure for 1930.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Revenue. ££££
Renewal premiums2,897,7872,899,2162,936,0092,943,3393,129,608
New premiums298,957266,857305,145413,441522,645
Consideration for annuities33,95431,865123,495140,652169,849
Interest1,687,1701,527,2971,459,6691,549,9831,558,588
Other revenue25,3881,68331,84466,1525,410
Total revenue4,943,2564,726,9184,856,1625,113,5675,386,100
Expenditure.
Claims by death1,053,5951,102,6611,277,9231,317,0931,274,762
Claims by maturity652,979691,433696,726734,274704,270
Annuities41,96942,05244,19752,80064,009
Surrenders676,329790,030759,255680,432557,141
Cash bonuses99,300114,52499,17682,09461,642
Management426,136415,289431,755467,913544,079
Taxes125,160173,211154,098123,417130,565
Other expenditure258,78292,77184,16453,49528,235
Total expenditure3,334,2503,421,9713,547,2943,511,5183,364,703

Each of the major items of receipts shows an increase over the previous year, although the amount received by way of interest has not yet regained the proportions it reached prior to the operation of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, which came into force in April, 1932. An outstanding feature in regard to expenditure is the decrease during the last three years in the amounts paid out on account of surrenders and cash bonuses.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.

A summary of the progress of industrial assurance business is given in the following table:—

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
192642,9932,343,604141,17829,0051,396,63088,709224,9839,966,843607,708
192751,0592,746,990167,35434,1591,675,682106,804241,88311,038,151668,258
192851,1622,750,212168,40937,1331,826,187117,468255,91211,962,176719,199
192956,0603,051,937188,53038,2031,872,983120,455273,76913,141,130787,274
193053,6762,952,772182,30643,0392,162,979138,231284,40613,930,923831,349
193143,1732,243,771140,71151,3232,648,578167,169276,25613,526,116804,891
193246,0302,251,386137,73947,1482,389,636152,315275,13813,387,866790,315
193352,2232,380,142144,98338,7141,960,311123,559288,64713,807,097811,739
193457,3382,599,276158,48635,2551,698,188104,369310,73014,708,785865,856
193558,1912,752,960165,21235,1951,719,216104,175333,72615,742,529926,893

The peak year for this class of life assurance was reached in 1929, as against 1930 in the case of ordinary life assurance. The 1930 new business figures for the former showed only a slight fall; but in 1931 a decline to the extent of £808,166, or 26 per cent., was recorded when compared with 1929. In 1932 a slight recovery was experienced, whereas in that year the ordinary department reached its lowest level. A gradual improvement has taken place in each year since 1932, although the relative increase is not so great as that shown by ordinary life assurance. During the period 1932–34 discontinuances showed a substantial decrease, the figures for the latter year being the lowest recorded since 1927. In 1935, however, a small increase of £21,028 over 1934 has taken place.

As a result of the year's transactions, the amount in force has increased by £1,033,744. The average sum assured under each policy of new business effected in 1930 amounted to £55, with an annual premium of £3 7s. 11d. From that year onwards a steady decline was recorded in this respect up to and including 1934, the average for the latter year being £45 and £2 15s. 3d. respectively. The 1935 figures, however, show a slight improvement, the average sum assured being £47 and the premium £2 16s. 9d.

A summary of the number of industrial policies and the sums assured written off according to the several causes is now given in the form of a five-years table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
Number of Policies.
19311,7578,6403,16837,55220651,323
19321,8468,5124,13332,36529247,148
19331,7166,4613,62126,73618038,714
19341,8855,8612,58524,69722735,255
19351,9575,1632,35125,49423035,195
Sum assured.
 ££££££
193166,899278,751171,6552,118,58912,6842,648,578
193268,839289,297218,7431,796,30716,4502,389,636
193364,032237,290185,0781,463,54510,3661,960,311
193468,992212,680129,4601,273,57013,4861,698,188
193571,823198,771113,6091,321,04913,9641,719,216

A feature of this table is the decline in lapsed policies between 1931 and 1934, and, although there is a slight increase in 1935, the amount written off in that year under this heading is still below that of 1929 or 1930. Surrenders during 1935 show a further decrease.

The amount written off in each year is considerably greater in proportion in the Industrial than in the Ordinary Branch. Whereas in the case of the latter 6·18 per cent. of the amount in force at the end of 1934 became void during 1935, the corresponding percentage for industrial insurance was 11·69. The cause showing the greatest difference in this respect is “lapses,” the proportions of total discontinuances for 1935 being 44·48 per cent. for the Ordinary Section and 76·84 per cent. in the Industrial Section, and the percentages of the amount in force at the end of 1934 lapsing being 2·75 and 8·98 respectively. Surrenders, on the other hand, are considerably less in proportion in Industrial Insurance, the percentage of the amounts in force at the end of 1934 written off on this account during 1935 being 0·77, as against 1·80 in the Ordinary Section.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—INCOME AND OUTGO.

Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
1926655,244423,685231,559202,93335·0030·97
1927723,558503,165220,393229,12735·9731·67
1928797,797561,260236,537244,45734·9830·64
1929869,071603,228265,843264,31335·0330·41
1930944,406700,613243,793275,63633·9529·19
1931952,302767,129185,173261,46732·3427·46
19321,010,507771,068239,439257,72832·3825·50
19331,011,174693,676317,498264,62433·2026·17
19341,106,939697,683409,256285,11133·7325·76
19351,150,183671,534478,649295,80032·8125·70

The total receipts for 1935 exceeded the previous year's figure by £43,244, while expenditure was less to the extent of £26,149. During the years 1932–34 there was a slight but steady rise in the management-expense ratio, but the figure for 1935, 32·81 per cent. of premium receipts, shows a small decrease. The corresponding ratio in the Ordinary Branch was 14·90 per cent. The difference is largely accounted for by the high cost of collection of premiums in the Industrial Branch, principally in the shape of renewal commission. In the Ordinary Branch commission (new and renewal) was equivalent to 7·07 per cent. of the premium income, and in the Industrial Branch to 21·61 per cent. Excluding commissions, the ratio of management expenses to total income works out at 11·20 per cent. in the Industrial Branch, as against 7·83 per cent. in the Ordinary.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Revenue.
Premiums808,394795,896797,099845,213901,507
Interest140,231211,840209,712232,568241,530
Other revenue3,6772,7714,36329,1587,146
Total revenue952,3021,010,5071,011,1741,106,9391,150,183
Expenditure.
Claims by death211,396217,007172,308155,873122,216
Claims by maturity170,010178,401164,711169,401178,441
Surrenders62,55162,21955,48139,35342,751
Management261,467257,728264,624285,111294,576
Taxes16,61921,57920,34118,09119,647
Other payments45,08634,13416,21129,85413,903
Total expenditure767,129771,068693,676697,683671,534

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The balance-sheets of the companies transacting industrial business do not in every case apportion their liabilities and assets over ordinary and industrial business, for, although the legislation in force requires separate statements to be furnished for receipts and expenditure, policies issued and discontinued, &c, no such requirement exists in regard to balance-sheets. The figures presented below accordingly refer to both classes of insurance, and, as indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

The aggregate capital and liabilities at the end of 1935, as compared with the two preceding years, were as follows:—

 1933.1934.1935.
£££
Paid-up capital169,042163,692165,693
Life assurance and annuity funds37,888,55739,991,81441,930,357
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds606,869700,014703,939
Claims admitted but not paid237,473211,387219,045
Other liabilities914,5591,095,1071,162,684
Totals£39,816,500£42,162,014£44,181,768

The New Zealand assets at the end of each of the five years 1931–35 were as follows:—

Assets.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Mortgages on property7,575,3147,645,6627,652,0017,990,9288,491,518
Loans on policies5,343,6485,800,5315,979,7825,896,0595,861,438
New Zealand Government securities6,338,9746,949,9687,521,3806,657,1478,263,433
Securities of other Governments63,25569,74486,73091,608544,821
Municipal and local bodies securities13,299,07413,525,79014,082,99014,736,43715,626,049
Landed and house property1,441,3761,428,2251,444,3981,519,6321,650,918
Other investments106,091128,188237,749182,79390,929
Loans on personal security3,8543,3632,2871,2991,383
Agents' balances9,0377,0354,8476,11111,788
Outstanding premiums393,747366,180350,819346,258335,091
Interest accrued, &c.539,812546,609540,522507,352484,162
Cash312,066367,014562,204978,9201,388,107
Other assets1,228,4501,287,4531,350,7911,247,4701,432,131
Totals36,654,69838,125,76239,816,50042,162,01444,181,768

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.

The Life Insurance Department of the Government of New Zealand was founded in 1869, at a time when New-Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities for the insurance of their lives. Payment of all policies with the State Office is guaranteed by the Government. Industrial insurance is not transacted by the Department.

The following table gives a synopsis of the activities of the Department for the last ten years in so far as the amount of business transacted is concerned. The amount of new business transacted during 1935 (£2,005,995), establishes a new record for the Department, and is almost double the figure for 1932, in which year the effects of the depression were most felt in the insurance field.

Year.New Business.Policies in Force at End of Year.
Number of Policies.Premiums.Sum assured.Number of Policies.Premiums.Value of Business.
Sum assured.Bonuses.Total.
  ££ ££££
19265,71060,6091,883,70565,396575,42018,743,3971,475,00720,218,404
19275,57858,0061,791,84566,856595,78019,303,9161,973,43421,277,350
19285,80263,1381,915,46568,562617,64219,974,5812,109,89022,084,471
19295,73582,4141,918,60070,189642,14020,700,0692,265,53922,965,608
19305,78062,1371,946,32271,868665,44721,418,4132,426,62123,845,034
19314,03340,5291,506,44971,075660,39921,472,7612,580,58724,053,348
19322,97930,5201,088,44568,650638,42620,910,8112,708,94823,619,759
19333,57231,5791,295,65667,567625,90520,769,2922,805,17723,574,469
19344,68237,1071,661,48468,094625,08521,191,1682,893,45324,084,621
19355,67047,9442,005,99569,982638,37122,050,2763,001,01625,051,292

The total income of the Department for 1935 was £1,120,550—viz., premium income, £668,946; interest and rents (after payment of land and income tax), £399,338; annuity purchase money, £52,266. Corresponding figures for 1934 were: total income, £1,106,508; premium income, £667,488; interest, &c, £395,554; and annuity purchase money, £43,466.

During the year 1935 payments (including bonus additions) to the value of £306,102 were made on account of matured policies, and £185,372 was paid out to representatives of deceased policyholders. Commission totalled £39,543 and other expenses of management £57,040, making the total expenses £96,583, an increase of £13,547 compared with 1934. This additional expenditure is accounted for almost wholly by the increase in commission consequent upon the record amount of new business transacted and the inclusion of a non-recurring item of £3,788. The ratio of expenses to total income was 8·62 per cent., and to premium income 13·39 per cent.

The total assurance, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from special reserves of £466,712, amounted at the end of 1935 to £9,578,673, an increase of £336,909 during the year.

The Department's balance-sheet on the 31st December, 1935, showed that the total assets amounted to £10,107,731, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the four preceding years for purposes of comparison:—

Class of Investment.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* Mainly due and overdue premiums and interest, and interest accrued.
 £££££
Mortgages on freehold property3,777,1093,744,4043,702,3173,801,3693,818,060
Loans on policies1,198,9591,269,7061,302,7281,272,1751,257,692
Government securities2,235,4602,385,3602,526,8102,520,0602,517,260
Rural advances bonds85,56985,752168,909....
Local bodies' securities1,179,8641,201,4551,262,2041,284,3351,249,778
Landed and house property136,626147,727164,836158,294219,639
Miscellaneous assets*254,710240,172247,911243,301228,377
Cash in hand, on current account, and on deposit44,56177,69566,6289,225816,925
Totals8,912,8589,152,2719,442,3439,768,75910,107,731

The rate of interest realized on the mean funds of the Department, after deduction of land and income tax from interest, was as follows:—

 £s.d.
19265111
192751010
1928599
192951010
19305117
19315134
193241010
1933486
19344810
1935469

Chapter 46. SECTION XXIX.—INSURANCE—continued.

SUBSECTION B.—ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident-insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal contingencies for which policies may be issued are in respect of—

  1. Accident, disease, or mental or physical disability;

  2. Employers' liability under statutory or common law;

  3. Charges under the Workers' Compensation Act taking precedence of encumbrances, mortgages, or charges lawfully existing.

With the huge increase in motor traffic an important class of policy—viz., motor-car comprehensive, has come into existence, and has increased rapidly. Compulsory insurance to cover third-party risks was introduced in 1929, and is referred to later on in this subsection. Other important classes of accident-insurance policies are in respect of plate-glass insurance and fidelity-guarantee insurance.

Information relating cash deposits required from companies transacting accident-insurance business is contained in the next subsection, which deals with the cognate subject of fire insurance.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1935 was 58, the principal registered offices of the companies concerned being as follows: Great Britain, 22; Australia, 10; Hong Kong, 1; United States, 1; and New Zealand, 24.

Between the years 1930 and 1933 there was a decline in premium income to the extent of £456,725, or nearly 28 per cent. The figures for 1934 showed an increase of £122,819 over the year immediately preceding it, and this has been followed by a further increase during 1935 amounting to £119,300. The improvement in the 1935 premium income has been more than offset by an addition of £174,519 to the amount of claims paid, the 1934 increase over 1933 being £37,529 only.

The excess of income over expenditure during the three years 1933–35 amounted to £153,843, £191,580, and £108,597 respectively.

Year. Receipts.Expenditure.
Number of Offices.Premiums.Other Receipts.Total.Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other Expenses.Total.
  ££££££££
1926461,247,60183,0771,330,678674,133206,591139,502124,8911,145,117
1927471,279,31881,7351,361,053741,760199,743145,704136,4021,223,609
1928491,336,63386,4621,423,095810,277201,726155,400131 6081,299,011
1929511,560,241102,4791,662,720915,502222,260167,955143,4871,449,204
1930511,635,661109,7881,745,4491,008,493214,507174,461151,5141,548,975
1931521,417,855108,4151,526,270957,644181,099161,366156,3771,456,486
1932531,225,74293,3481,319,090741,105141,051154,554144,6271,181,417
1933571,178,93687,2451,266,181679,826135,052152,080145,3801,112,338
1934581,301,75590,8861,392,641717,355154,978164,658164,0701,201,061
1935581,421,05591,7821,512,837891,874160,747170,088181,5311,404,240

An interesting review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of ten years are shown in percentages of outgo to income under various heads.

Year.Ratio per Cent. of
Claims to Premiums.Commission to Premiums.Salaries to Premiums.Other Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses (other than Claims) to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Total Receipts.
192654·0316·5611·1810·0137·7501·7886·06
192757·9815·6111·3910·6637·6695·6489·90
192860·6215·0911·639·8536·5797·1991·28
192958·6814·2410·769·2034·2092·8887·16
193061·6613·1110·679·2633·0494·7088·74
193167·5412·7711·3811·0335·18102·7295·43
193260·4711·5012·6111·8035·9196·3889·56
193357·6611·4612·9012·3336·6994·3587·85
193455·1111·9112·6512·6037·1692·2686·24
193562·7611·3111·9712·7736·0698·8292·82

The downward movement in the ratio of claims to premiums which commenced in 1932 has been arrested, and a sharp rise of 7·65 is recorded by the figures for 1935. The management-expense ratio, which during the period of low premium income showed a rising tendency, had in 1935 fallen by 1·10. It is interesting to note that the ratio of salaries to premiums during the years 1931–35 is considerably above that of the pre-depression period, although the sudden rise in premium income in 1934 and 1935 has resulted in a slightly lower figure for those two years. The commission ratio, however, has, with the exception of a slight break in 1934, followed a steady downward trend since 1925, the difference in the ten years being 5·61.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.

In the following table, particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last five years. It will be noticed that there is an apparent discrepancy between the totals of premiums and claims as shown herein and the figures already quoted. This is accounted for by the fact that, in order to arrive at the net financial results of the year's operations, it is necessary to take into account reinsurance transactions, and up to this stage of the discussion premiums and claims have been taken at the net figure.

Year.Employers' Liability.Personal Accident.Motor-vehicle.Other Forms.Totals.
 £££££
Premiums.
1930629,099157,999890,71056,0411,733,849
1931522,018141,652751,75854,1641,469,592
1932446,086129,685649,44458,6111,283,826
1933427,376127,673614,20258,5201,227,771
1934485,931129,559661,72565,1391,342,354
1935533,087151,522716,73471,0921,472,435
Claims.
1930452,87285,512570,45513,2241,122,063
1931373,91076,979508,25417,359976,502
1932319,05364,069364,73119,830767,683
1933332,28560,120307,29516,432716,132
1934314,37657,160383,58215,473770,591
1935334,71462,155475,02718,282890,178

The gross premium income for 1935 is £130,081 in excess of the 1934 total and is higher than in any other year since 1930. Each of the classes listed above contributed to this increase, and an indication of the improvement in economic conditions will be found in the figures for employers' liability and motor-vehicle insurance. Claims show an increase of £119,579, motor-vehicle insurance being responsible for the major portion (£91,445).

Reducing the figures for the last three years to a percentage basis, the following results are arrived at:—

Class of Insurance.Claims to Premiums.Premiums to Total Premiums.Claims to Total Claims.
1933.1934.1935.1933.1934.1935.1933.1934.1935.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Employers' liability77·7564·7062·7934·8136·2036·2046·4040·7937·60
Personal accident47·0944·1241·0210·409·6510·298·407·42;6·98
Motor-vehicle50·0357·9766·2850·0249·3048·6842·9149·7853·36
Other forms28·0823·7525·724·774·854·832·292·012·06
Totals58·3357·4160·46100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

The claims experience for employers' liability and personal accident insurance shows a substantial improvement during the last two years, but particularly heavy claims in the third-party section of motor-vehicle insurance has resulted in the ratio of claims to premiums showing an increase of 16·25 since 1933.

MORTGAGEES' INDEMNITY INSURANCE.

The Mortgagees' Indemnity (Workers' Charges) Act, 1927, provides that when mortgages are presented for stamping an additional stamp duty of 1s. is to be paid, known as a mortgagee's indemnity fee. The indemnity fees are paid into the Consolidated Fund (up to 1930 they were paid into the now defunct Land Assurance Fund), from which losses incurred by mortgagees through the enforcement of charges under the Workers' Compensation Act are met. A section of the Act definitely absolves the mortgagor from any obligation to insure or keep insured the mortgagee against loss of this nature in respect of any mortgage under the Act.

MOTOR-VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS).

The Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act was passed in the session of 1928 for the purpose of compelling owners of motor-vehicles to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death of or bodily injury to another person.

The payment of the insurance premiums is made annually to Deputy Registrars of Motor-vehicles at the same time as the annual license fee is paid under the Motor-vehicles Act. Owners of motor-vehicles are required to nominate each year the insurance company with which the contract of insurance is to be made, and the contract is deemed to be complete on the payment of the premium.

Rates of premiums prescribed by regulations dated the 14th April, 1934, as amended by regulations dated the 10th April, 1935, include the following: Trailers, 6s.; tractors, traction-engines, 10s.; motor-cycles, £1; private motor-cars, 17s.; private motor-cars used wholly or in part for the purpose of trade or business, £2 1s.; motor-vehicles (other than trailers and motor-cycles) used by fire brigades, 18s,; hearses, ambulances, &c., 18s.; trade motors, £1 7s.; manufacturers' and dealers' motor-vehicles, £1 16s.; public motor-vehicles, £6, with a varying scale upwards according to seating-capacity.

The liability of any insurance company under any contract under this Act is limited to £2,000 in respect of any passenger in the motor-vehicle concerned, and to £20,000 for all claims made by or in respect of passengers. Otherwise there is no limit as to amount.

The following particulars give the experience of the last five years, with a summary covering the seven years since the inception of this class of insurance. It should be noted that the figures for claims do not represent the amount paid during each year, but refer to accidents happening during each particular period.

Registration Year ended 31st May 
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.Total for Seven Years (since inception).
 ££££££
Premiums received233,731229,133221,734211,709230,6961,604,874
Claims paid and estimated liability in respect of claims outstanding at 31st May, 1936161,217137,013168,342240,963320,6211,416,915
Ratio per cent. of claims paid and outstanding to premiums68·9859·8075·92113·82138·9888·29

The claims ratio in the first year, 1929–30, was 86·12 per cent., but this fell gradually during the next three years. In 1933–34 the amount paid out, although a substantial increase over the previous year, still showed a fairly favourable ratio. In the last two years, however, claims paid and estimated liability in respect of claims outstanding have exceeded premium income.

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

In the year 1901 the Government (Life) Insurance Department opened an Accident Branch. On the 1st January, 1925, the accident business was transferred to the control of the State Fire Insurance Office. Although general accident business was undertaken, the branch was opened more especially to conduct insurance under the Workers' Compensation Act. In recent years, however, other forms of accident insurance have contributed in an increasing scale to the premium income of the office. The main classes now transacted are employers' liability, personal accident, public risk, motor comprehensive, insurances under the Third-party Risks Act,. plate glass, and fidelity guarantee, each of which showed a premium increase in 1935.

A summary of income and expenditure is contained in the following table:—

 Income.Expenditure.
Year.Premiums.Other.Total.Claims.Other.Total.
 ££££££
192658,34010,19968,53933,85420,35254,206
192765,56010,89576,45538,97221,22860,200
192871,73112,36884,09943,80722,70066,507
192981,35313,34394,69649,85326,77676,629
1930104,93514,861119,79661,04134,22495,265
1931102,06216,316118,37882,56227,211109,773
193287,06815,734102,80263,76026,34390,103
193380,20715,23995,44648,59329,09977,692
193484,72715,328100,05562,03524,01586,050
193597,76617,041114,80766,17226,35192,523

The aggregate premium income for 1935 is greater than in any other year since 1931, and is £13,039 above the 1934 figure. Claims paid during the year did not show the same proportionate rise, the increase over 1934 being £4,137 only. The net surplus for each of the last three years amounted to—1933, £17,754; 1934, £14,005; and 1935, £22,284.

The ratio of claims to premiums for the year 1935 worked out at 67·68 per cent., as against the previous year's percentage of 73·22. The ratio of working-expenses to premiums for 1935 was 20·80 per cent., compared with 21·20 for 1934.

The total assets at the end of 1935 amounted to £446,620, compared with £411,715 at the end of 1934. New Zealand Government securities represent 40 per cent. of the total assets, and local-authority securities 31 per cent. Reserves and funds, which stood at £356,513 at the end of 1934, have been increased to £380,459.

Chapter 47. SECTION XXIX.—INSURANCE—continued

SUBSECTION C—FIRE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN the Dominion's legislation four separate classes of fire-insurance offices are distinguished, namely:—(1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) British offices similarly established; and (4) mutual fire-insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

Part XIV of the Companies Act, 1933, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum the company may not carry on insurance business except with unlimited liability. Insurance companies established or incorporated overseas require to have a like paid-up capital intact. The transaction of business by such companies is, however, subject also to special legislation as set out below. Mutual associations are referred to specially at a later stage in this subsection.

Statistics of fire insurance are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Office. For 1935, statistics were collected from 43 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: Great Britain, 22; New Zealand, 14; Australia, 5; Hong Kong, 1; United States of America, 1.

INSURANCE COMPANIES' DEPOSITS.

Since, the passing of the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act in 1922, and its amendment, also in 1922, deposits in cash must be made with the Public Trustee by fire and accident offices.

The actual amounts of the deposits under the principal Act were: British companies in respect of fire-insurance business, £15,000; employers' liability business, £15,000; and all other classes of business (except life and marine), £5,000. Foreign companies were required to deposit a sum of £35,000, which covered all classes of business (except life and marine). Overseas companies becoming established in New Zealand after the passing of the principal Act are required to make deposits on a somewhat higher scale than the foregoing—viz., British offices £22,500 on account of fire business, the same for employers' liability insurance business, and £5,000 in respect of all other classes (other than life and marine). A newly established foreign company must deposit the sum of £50,000, and this covers all classes of business other than life and marine.

A further amendment was passed in 1927 requiring agents operating in New Zealand on behalf of underwriters established abroad to make deposits on the same scale as that ruling for companies.

The Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2), further provided that a company which, was not already undertaking insurance business in terms of the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928, must deposit the sum of £10,000 before it could commence to do so.

Except for the provision contained in the preceding paragraph, no deposit is required from a company constituted in New Zealand under the New Zealand laws.

The amount held by the Public Trustee on the 31st March, 1935, under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act was £1,137,500, excluding interest accrued but not disbursed. These moneys are invested in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office, and interest is payable to the respective companies.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire-insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available to other phases of insurance transacted. The amount of funds (other than life) in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, in excess of £297,000,000.

Liabilities.Total Assets.
Overseas Companies.Local Offices.Mutual Associations.*
* These figures in the ease of mutual associations relate to premium-note capital.
 ££££
Paid-up capital29,055,2353,247,466217,79932,520,500
Reserves195,079,1305,857,03156,665200,992,826
Other liabilities63,199,560800,6612,76664,002,987
Totals287,333,9259,905,158277,230297,516,313
Life funds591,769,53721..591,769,558
Grand totals879,103,4629,905,179277,230889,285,871

In the following table the figures for the amount of assets in New Zealand under various heads are given as at the end of each of the last three years.

Assets in New Zealand.1933.1034.1935.
 £££
House and landed property1,035,8581,097,6711,103,029
New Zealand Government securities7,205,7296,906,6486,845,777
New Zealand local-authority securities2,053,6561,955,3762,004,828
Mortgages, &c.522,890400,089409,102
Outstanding premiums326,950320,258323,323
Cash and other assets in New Zealand2,878,4823,202,1973,127,232
Total New Zealand assets14,023,56513,882,23913,813,291

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.

The adverse trading conditions that existed during the years 1931–33, together with the action of insurance offices generally in reducing the cover on buildings, &c. in conformity with the fall in property-values, resulted in the volume of fire-insurance business transacted falling away to a considerable extent. In 1934, however, the amount underwritten showed an increase of £2,635,580 compared with the corresponding figure for 1933, and the improvement thus disclosed was more than maintained in 1935, a further rise of £7,696,472 being recorded.

1933.1934.1935.
* Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.
Offices in New Zealand.
Number of separate companies434343
Number of branches175165176
Number of agencies13,82014,26415,015
Amounts underwritten.
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£408,516,246£406,513,141£414,774,877
Number of policies representing the foregoing*707,630716,900722,416
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year*£442,783,288£445,418,868£453,115,340
Number of policies representing the foregoing*762,246774,179783,000
Premiums.
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year*£1,932,940£1,853,584£1,858,392
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten8s. 9d.8s. 4d.8s. 2d.
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£1,780,824£1,711,841£1,721,689
Losses.
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned5,3975,7036,230
Gross losses£591,225£546,936£528,858
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0·130·120·12
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)33·2031·9530·72
Average loss£110£96£85

Despite the increase in the amount underwritten during 1934 there was an actual decrease of £79,356 in the premiums charged, the average rate of premium per cent. being 5d. less than in 1933. A further reduction of 2d. in 1935 resulted in the premium increase of £4,808 only, despite the substantial improvement in the amount of business underwritten. The average rate of premium has fallen from 9s. 2d. per cent. to 8s. 2d. per cent. in the last five years.

The table set out below shows the premium income and the fire losses, together with the percentage of loss in each year.

Year.Premium Income.Fire Losses.Percentage of Loss.
 ££ 
19261,903,6751,127,14059·2
19271,950,7361,257,51564·5
19281,951,0691,343,23368·8
19291,980,2121,122,30556·7
19302,006,9131,077,95153·7
19311,985,3751,073,84254·1
19321,908,810814,55142·7
19331,780,824591,22533·2
19341,711,841546,93632·0
19351,721,689528,85830·7

The amount paid out during 1935 in respect of fire losses again shows a slight reduction when compared with the previous year. The loss ratio, which is less than one-half of that for the peak years 1927 and 1928, is the lowest recorded since 1920. The number of separate claims with which the several offices were concerned showed an increase of 527 during the year, while the average loss per fire was a little over £11 less than in 1934.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

A statement of the total income and outgo, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross reserve for unexpired risks, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

1933.1934.1935.
Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.
* The gross figures are inclusive of reinsurance premiums from other offices.
 ££££££
Income.
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at beginning of year957,001600,184891,707581,493832,808558,547
Amount of fire premiums receivable during year*2,028,0881,291,0361,955,9101,232,4201,976,0221,253,537
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c.113,718113,718113,330113,330101,437101,437
Rents21,81521,81523,06323,06319,87519,875
Other revenue1,8991,8993,8063,806473473
Totals3,122,5212,028,6522,987,8161,954,1122,930,6151,933,869
Outgo.
Amount of fire losses incurred during year, Including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage and amounts covered by reinsurance591,225440,913546,936402,898528,858387,471
Fire Board levies63,68651,27364,76051,49466,73552,508
New Zealand Government taxes78,20573,235103,23890,83780,72675,802
Local-authority rates3,3363,0743,1612,9013,0192,699
License fees6,9686,5706,6466,1216,5965,982
Rents24,82023,06723,82922,45023,91322,389
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, sub-agents, and others218,132105,487208,268102,747216,523101,102
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses260,779239,861254,427233,953252,919234,398
Other expenses of management142,377128,031144,063130,913140,974132,226
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year891,707581,655832,808558,360837,043565,181
Other expenditure7,3497,3495,3185,3184,6164,616
Totals2,288,5841,600,5152,193,4541,607,9922,161,9221,584,374

The result of the year's operations was a surplus of net income over expenditure to the extent of £356,129, compared with similar balances of £322,987 and £349,608 for 1934 and 1933 respectively. The ratio of claims to premiums in 1935 works out at 30·9 per cent., compared with 32·7 in 1934 and 53·3 five years earlier. Excluding fire losses, the net expenditure in 1935 was £15,012 less than in 1934, while the net income was greater to the extent of £2,703. It should be noted that these figures are exclusive of reserves to meet unexpired risks.

A summary of the net revenue and expenditure for 1935 of the three classes of offices operating in New Zealand is contained in the next table.

Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.*Claims.Salaries and Commissions.Total.*
* Excluding reserves to meet unexpired risks.
 £££££
Overseas companies687,071712,298193,008186,298555,732
Local companies547,462641,966183,643142,054441,937
Mutual associations19,00421,05810,8207,14821,524
Total1,253,5371,375,322387,471335,5001,019,193

Under the various heads below will be found the percentage ratio of working-expenses to premium income for the years 1931–35.

Items.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income40·7042·5043·1744·6743·98
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to net premium income36·9638·8939·2040·5039·79
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)32·9134·3335·5136·0535·97
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)30·0031·4632·3632·7432·59

The decline in premium income between 1930 and 1934 is clearly reflected in the figures, this being the factor responsible for the steady upward movement, actual expenditure having remained fairly constant during that period. A small increase in premiums, together with a slightly reduced expenditure, however, has resulted in an improvement in the 1935 ratio when compared with 1934.

It is contended in some quarters that Fire Board levies are not a working-expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and it is interesting to note that their exclusion from working-expenses reduces the 1935 ratio on the net figures from 43·98 to 39·79 per cent.

FIRES AND LOSSES.

The table following gives figures of fires and losses during each of the last ten years. It should be noted that these figures relate to calendar years, and the figures of losses thus differ somewhat from those shown elsewhere, which refer to varying periods covered by the accounts of the different offices.

The decrease of £377,227 in the amount of insured fire losses suffered during 1932 was outstanding, while further reductions of £198,162 and £68,928 in 1933 and 1934 disclosed a welcome improvement in the Dominion's fire-loss problem, which during the period 1924–1931 had attained unenviable proportions. A small increase over 1934 is disclosed by the figures for 1935, and in view of the rising trend in property values a further increase in this connection may be expected. It is worthy of note that the average loss for the last three years is only a little over one-third of the total for the peak year (1928). The figures quoted herein relate to insured losses only; and in order to arrive at the national property loss by fire some allowance must be made for the uninsured losses. On what is termed a conservative basis, the Annual Report of the Inspector of Fire Brigades uses the insured-loss figure, plus 12½ per cent., for this purpose, and on this assumption the Dominion's property loss through fire in 1935 amounted to £607,410.

Year.Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings, &c., affectedGross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.

* Included in previous column. For statistical purposes a conflagration is defined as a fire where three or more buildings are affected.

† On buildings affected.

 ££Per Cent.
19264,628415,0146,249,0241,129,25718·07
19275,029465,3666,555,9881,210,66118·47
19284,972445,2757,661,8931,454,32818·98
19295,064365,3127,060,1321,093,56815·49
19304,863545,1457,058,9181,013,05914·35
19314,820565,0865,732,2221,148,52820·04
19324,482294,6785,528,316771,30113·95
19334,352274,5085,738,218573,1399·99
19344,546164,6414,674,747504,21110·79
19355,147265,2864,863,179539,92011·10

A somewhat disturbing feature is the increase in the number of separate fires during the last two years despite the comparatively small amount of loss incurred, the 1935 total being the highest yet recorded since the information has been available.

The next table shows for each of the four principal urban areas and the remainder of the Dominion the fires and losses for 1935:—

Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings affected.Gross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.

* Included in previous column.

† On buildings affected.

 ££Per Cent.
North Island.
Auckland urban area5506573777,39271,2609·17
Wellington urban area7651772779,39821,8962·81
Secondary urban areas485..488507,58538,2817·54
Rest of North Island1,18371,225891,694242,67627·22
 Totals for North Island2,983143,0582,956,069374,11312·06
South Island.
Christchurch urban area5471555564,93613,8332·45
Dunedin urban area5571563605,82220,2153·34
Secondary urban areas265..266201,09215,7357·83
Rest of South Island75610805527,579114,58521·72
 Totals for South Island2,125122,1891,899,429164,3688·65
Anywhere in New Zealand39..397,6811,43918·73
 Totals for Dominion5,147265,2864,863,179539,92011·10

Compared with 1934, decreases amounting to £3,519, £14,735, and £5,812 are recorded for the Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin urban areas respectively, while for Auckland the figures have risen by £23,899.

Losses in the North Island during the year increased by £32,318 and in the South Island by £3,371.

The lower loss ratio in the cases of the principal urban areas as compared with the rest of the Dominion is to be expected in view of the greater fire-brigade facilities for handling fires in the larger centres. Companies usually allow this factor to influence the premium required.

Provision exists for coronial inquiries into fires of suspicious origin, but, as will be seen from page 143, the yearly number of such inquests has been small. In 1932, however, a system was instituted whereby extended inquiries are made by the Police Department into all fires where the possibility of incendiarism is not eliminated or where the cause is obscure. The results of such inquiries are considered by a committee consisting of the Commissioner of Police, the General Manager of the State Fire Office, and the Inspector of Fire Brigades, and should the circumstances warrant it a coroner's inquiry is then recommended.

The following table shows the amount of fire-insurance claims paid per head of population during the period 1931–35, separate figures being given for the various provincial districts and urban areas, and for the North and South Islands:—

NORTH ISLAND.
District.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1931–35.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.S.d.s.d.s.d.
Auckland Provincial District1761277107108101010
  Auckland urban area11073664369711
  Hamilton urban area3675210333040
  Gisborne urban area423131142107511173
  Remainder192184921161131310
Hawke's Bay Provincial District3881518811479163
  Napier urban area1759461146511810
  Hastings urban area11920433843093
  Remainder630158122166112239
Taranaki Provincial District151101110396112114
  New Plymouth urban area140110811462482
  Remainder1551010108113141125
Wellington Provincial District16699645151188
  Wellington urban area17762310353069
  Wanganui urban area707922157852
  Palmerston North urban area81099281119065
  Remainder19314101158989127
Totals, North Island187118777480107
  Urban areas15571155415477
  Remainder225162102112110141
SOUTH ISLAND.
District.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1931–35.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.S.d.s.d.s.d.
Marlborough Provincial District36102032041681552111
Nelson Provincial District1349466617185
  Nelson urban area910335113421150
  Remainder145112686118395
Westland Provincial District144131098111610111
Canterbury Provincial District1067580423167
  Christchurch urban area71181106442167
  Timaru urban area260311142001069
  Remainder10117157445167
Otago Provincial District7351151153411510
  Dunedin urban area66385851041154
  Remainder83810634741167
Southland Provincial District99128928813101010
  Invercargill urban area6335847010171
  Remainder118178989715101211
Totals, South Island1098671151151179
  Urban areas8859711433862
  Remainder1211113710838295
Grand totals, Dominion15910679697397
  Urban areas1317264424971
  Remainder18814393102911123

CAUSES OF FIRES.

From 1924 onwards particulars regarding causes of fires have been obtained from insurance offices, and the summarized results for the quinquennium 1931–35 are contained in the following table:—

Cause of Fire.Urban Areas.Remainder of Dominion.Total.
Number of Separate Fires.Loss.Number of Separate Fires.Loss.NumberNumber of Separate Fires.
* Included In various causes from which spread.
 £ £ £
Electricity2,01089,251638122,5042,648211,755
Gas57610,434582,94563413,379
Naked lights35311,43147025,70682337,137
Defective chimneys and kindred causes83884,0941,036368,4471,874432,541
Smoking, and careless use of matches1,54558,57862048,3672,165106,945
Sparks from fireplaces5,25584,5092,656220,9517,911305,460
Heating, boiling-down28315,04510210,33838525,383
Use and misuse of highly inflammable spirits and materials33441,74117722,39651164,137
Incendiarism and arson10332,48512022,97922355,464
Outside causes45020,95538644,63083665,585
Other causes652,112271,732923,844
  Totals, known causes11,812430,6356,290890,99518,1021,321,630
Fires spread from other buildings*29361,110333128,154626189,264
Floating, travelling, and transit risks........28116,346
Unknown causes2,038951,2532,9261,247,8694,9642,199,122
Totals13,8501,381,8889,2162,138,86423,3473,537,098

In all there were 23,347 separate fires during the period. This does not represent the number of buildings, &c, affected, as a fire spreading to other buildings has been counted as one only. Of the total, 281 were on account of floating risks such as motor-cars, &c, and have been excluded from the total of “known” causes. Of the remainder the cause was given in 18,102 leaving 4,964, or 21 per cent. of cases, in which the insurance offices knowledge as to the cause of fire. It should also be remembered that some instances, more especially where a total or semi-total loss was sustained, the actual cause was a matter of conjecture only. These cases, however are few in number, as the vast, majority of total losses are included in the total of unknown causes.

EXTENT OF LOSS.

The following table gives particulars of fire losses during the five years 1931–35, classified according to the amount of loss. No fewer than 18,485 fires, out of a total of 23,347, resulted in a loss of less than £100; while in 14,650 cases, or 63 per cent. of the total, the loss per fire was less than £10. The aggregate loss involved in these small fires is small—those under £10 accounting for only 1·19 per cent. of the total loss, and fires in which less than £100 was paid out, 4·65 per cent. On the other hand, only 2·63 per cent. of the total number of fires resulted in a loss of £1,000 or upwards: but the aggregate loss within this category constituted 46·84 per cent. of the total. Corresponding figures for fires in which the loss was £5,000 or over are 0·23 per cent. and 19·03 per cent. respectively.

Loss Category.Number of Separate Fires.Insurance Cover on Buildings, &c., affected.Amount of Loss.Average Amount of Loss per Fire.Proportion of Loss to Total Loss.
££ £££Per Cent.
   Under   1014,65011,041,50642,22931·19
   10 and under   252,0333,436,91430,828150·87
   25 and under   509751,530,52533,893350·96
   50 and under  1008271,637,48757,663701·63
  100 and under  200987908,630140,3281423·97
  200 and under  300746728,144182,5382455·16
  300 and under  400576515,194197,4663435·58
  400 and under  500544539,046241,7254446·84
  500 and under  7509571,234,700580,39560616·41
  750 and under1,000438677,583373,21485210·55
1,000 and under2,0004141,533,364556,8281,34515·74
2,000 and under3,00095692,201228,5342,4066·46
3,000 and under4.00033251,051112,5733,4113·18
4,000 and under5,00019134,88385,8654,5192·43
5,000 and over 531,675,454673,01912,69819·03
Totals 23,34726,536,6823,537,098152100·00

MUTUAL FIRE-INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

Mutual associations are dealt with by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows at least 100 owners of isolated or farm property to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Such associations effect insurance on the premium-note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

In addition to furnishing returns to the Census and Statistics Office, each mutual association (of which there are three in existence) is required to furnish to the Public Trustee a statement of the condition of the association as at the 31st March in each year. Policies in force as at 31st March, 1936, amounted in the aggregate to £6,836,978. Premiums collected during the year totalled £28,678, while the total income amounted to £31,637. Fire losses amounted to £14,904, and total expenditure to £32,316.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.

The New Zealand State Fire Office was the first competitive State fire-insurance office in the world, and first opened for business on 4th January, 1905, with a borrowed capital (long since repaid) of £2,000. The income of the office in its first year was £13,135, while in 1935 this figure had risen to £230,530. During the thirty-one years it has been in operation, the office has paid out in claims the sum of £1,667,000, and reserves and funds at 31st December, 1935, total £1,049,420.

Premium income in 1935 showed a small decrease of £683 when compared with 1934, while total income was less to the extent of £4,846.

Fire losses in 1935 were £1,600 less than in 1934, while the total expenditure was less to the extent of £12,976.

The ratio of net claims to net premium income gives a percentage of 26·59 compared with 27·30 in 1934, 24·34 in 1933, 33·79 in 1932, and 52·28 in 1931.

Year.Net Premium Income.Total Net Income.Net Losses.Accumulated Funds.Assets.
 £££££
1926197,471233,54579,062623,622661,519
1927207,611243,49698,135670,061707,826
1928211,634252,09481,585744,271771,959
1929217,991258,99575,317821,091862,285
1930221,910272,21390,001889,494931,577
1931216,007265,503112,932918,182977,477
1932208,493255,24270,444952,2991,000,009
1933201,351244,25749,005991,0871,060,513
1934200,581244,37654,7511,016,6881,069,127
1935199,898239,53053,1511,049,4201,138,948

Exclusive of Government taxes, which amounted to 11·83 per cent., the working-expense ratio to premium income in 1935 was 30·90 per cent., and without Fire Board contributions 26·90 per cent. Comparative figures for 1934 were 17·41, 30·42, and 26·46 per cent. respectively.

FIRE BRIGADES.

The following table gives particulars of fire brigades (including branches) in the Dominion for each of the last five years:—

Year.Stations.Officers.Men.Total Personnel.
19311734492,1132,562
19321714602,1022,562
19331724462,1212,567
19341714612,1502,611
19351714652,1252,590

Chapter 48. SECTION XXX.—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with a central Government officer entitled the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general oversight by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was introduced by the Finance Act, 1916, and is now embodied in the National Provident Fund Act, 1926. (Vide Section XXV.)

LODGES AND MEMBERS.

The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, &c, registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31st December.

Name of Order.Registrations.Lodge Members.
1933.1934.1935.1933.1934.1935.
* Membership figures relate to “actuarial” societies only 7 in 1935).
Manchester Unity Independent25625926133,87034,32135,471
 Order of Oddfellows
Independent Order of Odd-21321621812.34612,33712,771
 fellows
National Independent Order333202202209
 of Oddfellows
British United Order of Odd-111878380
 fellows
Ancient Order of Foresters16216216118,67818,63418,902
Ancient Order of Shepherds1....32....
United Ancient Order of Druids14714714821,01820,88621,260
Independent Order of 6868685,1535,1765,408
  Recharbites
Order of Sons of Temperance101010525532551
Sons and Daughters of 111156155149
 Temperance
Hibernian-Australasian7168833,7053,9284,239
 Catholic Benefit Society      
Protestant Alliance Friendly151615933937950
 Society of Australasia
Grand United Order of Odd-141414427424473
 fellows
Isolated friendly societies6868703,105*3,093*3,149*
Working-men's clubs131313......
International Order of Good111111......
 Templars
Specially authorized societies171615......
Totals1,0711,0731,092100,237100,708103,612

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c, of lodges are required by law. For the year 1935 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 936 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 103,612 at the end of the year, as compared with 929 lodges and 100,708 members for 1934. During the year 7,859 members were admitted by initiation, &c., and 1,091 by clearance: 887 died, 1,095 left by clearance, and 4,064 by arrears, &c. The aggregate membership of lodges increased year by year, reaching a peak in 1930, when the total was 107,167. The economic depression probably accounts for the subsequent fall, while an increase of 2,904 was recorded for 1935, the total in that year being the highest since 1931.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (936 in 1935) for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS.

In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence:—

Year.Deaths of Members.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.Deaths of Members' Wives.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.
19318748.183723.48
19328348.003933.77
19338528.393633.57
19349359.263263.23
19358878.643643.55

The number of members sick during 1935 was 21,763, representing 22 8 per cent, of members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1935 aggregated 259,811 six-day weeks, equal to 12 weeks per sick member, and 2 weeks 4 days for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

The total funds of the societies and branches as at the 31st December. 1935, amounted to £4,812,787, made up as follows:—

Funds.£Assets.£
Sick and Funeral Funds3,993,566Investments at interest. 4,095.632
Surplus Appropriation Funds, &c. 456,574Value of land and buildings527.842
Management Funds, goods,&c200,905Cash not bearing interest125,872
Widow and Orphans' Funds32,791Value of goods22,962
Distress, Benevolent Funds, &c.128,951Owing by Management Funds 34,423 
  Other assets6,056
£4,812,787 £4,812,787

Dividing the total funds by the number of members at the end of the year it is found that “the overage capital per member is £46 9s. There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last ten years amounting to 31 per cent., in spite of an increase in membership of 17–5 per cent.

 Average Capital per Member.Year.Total Funds.
 ££s.d.
19263,337,6833568
19273,526,717351711
19283,728,08736189
19293,927,4333770
19304,130,11738109
19314,277,7154099
19324,398,15843111
19334,538,0954556
19344,676,4274689
19354,812,7874690

The funds of friendly societies are held chiefly in the form of mortgages on freehold property, as shown in the next table.

Year.Total Funds.Funds invested at Interest.Proportion of Funds invested at Interest.
Mortgages on Freehold Property.Government and Municipal Debentures.Deposited with Banks.Other Investments.Total.
 ££££££Per Cent.
19314,277,715.3,275,007244,15989,83955,7713,769,99785.67
19324,398,158.3,350,709262,15592,97164,1623,769,99785.72
19334,538,095.3,424,616276,262114,34965,0743,880,30185.51
19344,676,427.3,350,709268,127148,59868,1983,986,15985.24
19354,812,787.3,643,412240,363135,82776,0304,095,63285.10

The figures of Sick and Funeral Funds and of interest earnings thereon during 1935 are given for each order in the following table:—

Order.Total Worth of Sick and Funeral Funds as atAverage Rate per Cent, of Interest earned.
1st January, 1935.31st December, 1035-1934.1935.
 ££££
M.U.I.O.O.F.1,356,5941,374,5864.464.59
I.O.O.F.349,679369,6774.434.59
N.I.O.O.F.5,2875,3592.983.75
B.U.O.O.F.6,3186,3505.025.20
A.O.F.724,775732,1284.374.18
U.A.O.D.996,4751,045,6624.444.49
I.O.R.190,918196.0394.493.51
O.S.T.29,84730,6615.114.14
S.D.T.11,91811,9964.514.45
H.A.C.B.S.103,429108,5514.184.00
P.A.F.S.A.51,34153,1284.394.44
G.U.O.O.F.3,7924,3364.223.10
Other societies53,18455,0935.295.O8
Totals3,883,5573,993,5664.444.41

Receipts and expenditure of Sick and Funeral Funds for 1935 are quoted below. A surplus of £110,009 is recorded for the year.

Receipts.£Expenditure. £ 
Members' contributions186,736Sick pay to own members160,012
Interest and rent170,117Funeral donations41,245
Repayments by central body72,192Contributions and levies to cen- 
Other receipts14,770 tral body79,957
  Other expenditure52,592
 £443,815 £333,806

Members' contributions averaged £1 16s. 7d. per member, and interest and rent receipts amounted to £1 13s. 4d. per member, reckoned on the mean number of members for the year. Sickness benefits paid averaged £7 7s. Id. per member sick, or £11s. 4d. when averaged over all members, while funeral benefits represented 8s. id. per member.

Chapter 49. SECTION XXXI.—BUILDING SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE law relating to building societies incorporated in the Dominion is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908, which is a consolidation of legislation most of which has been operative since 1880. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must before registration be certified to as conforming to legal requirements by a revising barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. No stamp duties are payable on any instruments or documents made under the Act.

Building societies are afforded all the powers of an ordinary mortgagee, and where a mortgagor makes default in payment of moneys the society may exercise the usual power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Office. The dates upon which the societies close their accounts vary considerably within the year, but the figures given below may be taken as corresponding approximately to the financial years ended on the 31st March.

Orders in Council of 7th June and 8th August, 1932, of 20th March, 1933, and of 31st July, 1934, made under section 51 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, fixed the maximum interest payable on deposits with building societies. A schedule of maximum rates payable on these and other deposits is given on pages 567–9.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES.

The number of societies in existence in 1935–36 was 98. Of these 57 were permanent and 41 terminating, the latter being comprised of 185 groups. Of recent years there has been considerable growth in permanent building societies, which numbered 44 in 1925–26. For some years the number of terminating societies manifested a decline, although, on the contrary, their activities as measured by the aggregate number of groups was increasing. In the last decade the number of terminating societies remained stationary, but the number of groups advanced from 166 to 185.

SHARES.

A synopsis of the extent to which investments have been made in building-society shares during the last five years is contained in the table next presented:—

 1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Investing Shares.
Number of shares290,562274,122253,547253,734278,255
Members holding50,61444,65543,64239,57939,612
Aggregate value£3,685.880£3,666,745£3,602,743£3,535,032£3,569,579
Capital Shares.
Number of shares575,014539,299534,155543,304558,068
Members holding5,0365,0485,1225,7835,198
Aggregate value£1,272.951£1,283,103£1,300,313£1,325,255£1,357,059

The average value in 1935–36 of each investing share paying periodic subscription was £12 16s. 7d., as compared with £11 8s. 11d.. in 1930–31, and of each capital share £2 8s.. 8d., as compared with £2 8s. 6d. five years earlier. The steady and substantial decrease in the number of investing shares and in the number of members holding such shares is a feature of building society statistics of the last quinquennium. A comparison (1935–36) of the distribution of share-money and the number of holders of shares between permanent and terminating societies yields the following results:—

 Permanent.Terminating.Total.
Investing Shares.
Number of shares184,32593,930278,255
Members holding13,32326,28939,612
Aggregate value£1,487,660£2,081,919£3,569,579
Capital Shares.
Number of shares558,068..558,068
Members holding5,198..5,198
Aggregate value£1,357,059..£1,357,059

Of the total aggregate value of both investing and capital shares, amounting to £4,926,638, 58 per cent. i3 held in permanent societies and 42 per cent, in terminating societies. On the other hand, the number of members holding shares in permanent societies is only 41 per cent, of the total, the terminating societies' shareholders representing 59 per cent. It should be pointed out, however, that one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

Improving conditions are reflected in a growing excess of deposits over deposits repaid (since 1932–33) and in rising advances (since 1933–34).

 1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
 £££££
Receipts.
Investors' subscriptions and capital shares668,672609,401548,082532,540556,378
Advances repaid973,267870,377921,317901,046927,595
Deposits1,824,0861,653,9631,414,3761,634,6041,949,620
Interest288,799273,669234,331238,506249,646
Other receipts139,245244,555235,156369,632299,274
Total receipts3,894,0693,651,9653,353,2023,676,3283,982,513
Payments.
Withdrawals561,367569,615592,889573,099490,262
Advances939,594848,539840,751909,6301,292,125
Expenses of management67,93867,34165,00766,57166,473
Deposits repaid1,850,2281,660,5611,368,5051,499,8491,769,811
Interest, dividends, &c.434,491463,685408,225578,53841S,946
Total payments3,853,6183,609,7413,275,3773,627,9874,037,617

LOANS.

The numbers and amounts of loans at the end of each of the last five years, both of permanent and of terminating societies, were as follows:—

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
 £ £ £
1931–329,9535,404,8927,7202,631,86117,6738,036,753
1932–339,9285,290,9027,9382,586,55817,8967,877,460
1933–349,9545,202,0167,9832,633,19417,9377,835,210
1934–3510,6065,238,8297,9612,678,28018,5677,917,109
1935–3611,5405,807,2787,8582,605,41319,3988,412,691

The increase since 1933–34 in loans outstanding is illustrative of renewed activity in borrowing after the depression years. The average amount per loan current at the end of each of the last five years was:—

Class.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£.s.d.
Permanent societies54301053218652212149319050347
Terminating societies34018432412532917033686331113
All societies4541504403743616442682433139

Particulars of loans granted during each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.
By Ballot.By Auction. 
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Premiums. 
 £ £ ££
1931–321,063480,354630225,200490201,53955,544
1932–339131 431,598429214,700297158,15443 589
1933–341,002417,564439213,783323155,81336,272
1934–351,394515,302421205,836311134,99628,584
1935–362,0701 940,362418209,259319138,02527,625

The premiums on loans auctioned gives an average of £20·0 per cent, for 1935–36, this—assuming the usual loan currency of twelve and a half years—being equivalent to a rate of interest of 2⅞ per cent. The average premium per cent, has declined progressively from £27·6 in 1931–32 in sympathy with the general downward trend in interest rates.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The liabilities and assets of building and investment societies for each of the last five years are as follows:—

LIABILITIES.

Year.To Shareholders (including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits).Deposits.Appropriations, not taken up or in Trust.To Bankers and other Creditors.Total Liabilities.
 £££££
1931–325,971,6862,273,972151,918206,1078,603,683
1932–335,959,9022,234,658181,578199,4168,575,554
1933–345,923,3512,285,874184,621190,3048,584,150
1934–355,907,1072,420,261200,249186,6218,714,238
1935–365,992,0832,655,114212,940309,9559,170,092
ASSETS.
Year.Advances on Mortgage.Other Investments and Assets.Cash in Hand and at Bank.Total Assets.
 ££££
1931–328,036,753330,589236,3418,603,683
1932–337,945,894356,324273,3368,575,554
1933–347,881,372429,619273,159of, 584,150
1934–357,917,538489,511307,1898,714,238
1935–368,412,691506,136251,2659,170,092

DEPOSITS.

From April, 1932, figures of deposits with building societies have become available under section 44 of the Building Societies Act, 190S, as amended by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Quarterly statements are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Investment societies are included with building societies in the following figures, as the two classes are not distinguished in the returns.

The average number of societies furnishing returns for the four quarters of the year ending 31st March, 1936, was 114. During the same fiscal year the amount borrowed (exclusive of renewals) was £1,532,516 and the amount repaid £1,281,132, the corresponding amounts for the previous year being £1,398,874 and £1,298,102 respectively.

The following were the deposits with building and investment societies at 31st March, 1936:—

Rate of Interest (Per Cent.).At Call.Three to Twelve Months (inclusive).Two Years or over.Total.
 ££££
Under 4615,226706,6611,291,7562,613,643
4 and under 4½7,4532,055719,204728,712
4½ and under 542,5951,125157,654201,374
5 and under 5½7,04992828,85936,836
5½ and under 62,7024001,7504,852
6 and under 6½3061,05019,58020,936
6½ and under 780....80
7 and under 109,188....9,188
Total684,599712,2192,218,8033,615,621
Average rate of interest2·842·893·733·40

Chapter 50. SECTION XXXII.—MORTGAGES..

INTRODUCTORY.

UNDER the Property Law Act a “mortgage” is defined as including a charge on any property for securing money or money′s worth; and″ mortgage-money″ means money or money′s worth secured by a mortgage.″Under the Land Transfer Act″mortgage" means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing—

  • The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt;

  • The repayment of future advances, or repayment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise;

  • The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge;

  • The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent-charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, vide p. 305, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act, and take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the ease of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property re-registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

PROPERTY THAT MAY BE MORTGAGED.

Any land covered by the definitions of #land″ in the Property-Law Act, 1908, and the Land Transfer Act, 1915, may be mortgaged. Where, however, property is subject to restrictions upon alienation, these restrictions usually apply to prevent such property being mortgaged. The following are the main instances in which mortgage of property is forbidden by law:—

  • Family homes registered under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Maintenance-moneys under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Inalienable life annuities (Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910).

  • Various pensions (Pensions Act. 1926).

  • Property subject to restraint upon anticipation, unless by consent of the Supreme Court.

  • Property subject to restraint upon alienation in accordance with section 24 of the Property Law Act, 1908. An infant′s

  • property, by the infant (Infants Act, 1908, sections 12 and 13).

REDEMPTION.

A memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage debt and operates as a deed of reconveyance of the estate and interest of the mortgagee in the mortgaged property″ to the person for the time being entitled to the equity of redemption″; but the mortgagee may execute a deed of reconveyance″ if he thinks fit and the mortgagor requires it." The Public Trustee is empowered to receive mortgage-moneys on account of absentee mortgagees, and in the case of a deed of mortgage to execute the necessary memorandum of discharge. A mortgagor may redeem in the following cases:—

  • Before the due date, on payment of interest for the unexpired term of the mortgage. A special provision in the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act extends the power of a mortgagor to redeem in certain cases before the due date (vide page 6ll).

  • At the due date, in accordance with the provisions of the mortgage.

  • After the due date, upon giving three months′ notice in writing or paying three months′ interest in lieu of notice, except where the mortgagee is or has been in possession or has taken steps to enforce his security, in which case the mortgagor may redeem at any time upon payment of all moneys due.

  • After default and before sale by the mortgagee. If the mortgagee has entered into possession of the mortgaged land or part of it, the mortgagor loses his right of redemption after twenty years from the date of the mortgagee′s entering into possession, or After twenty years from the last written acknowledgment of the mortgagors title or of his right to redeem.

The Property Law Act abolished what was formerly known as the doctrine of consolidation of mortgages. Where a mortgagor is liable under more than one mortgage, he may now pay off one mortgage without being called on to pay off an}′ mortgage or mortgages on property not comprised in the mortgage he is paying off.

RIGHTS OF MORTGAGEE.

Under New Zealand law a mortgagee has no power of foreclosure in respect of realty. The following, however, represent his principal rights:—

  • He is entitled to the custody of the title-deeds of the property mortgaged.

  • He may sue on the personal covenant contained in the mortgage-deed.

  • He may enter and take possession. This right is exercisable either by actually entering upon the land or a. part of it or by bringing an action for possession. If there is a tenant whose rights are binding on the mortgagee, the latter can give notice to the tenant to pay the rent to him, and this will be equivalent to taking possession.

  • He may assign his interest, either absolutely or by way of sub mortgage.

  • He may sell, either under the express powers (if any) in the mortgage-deed, or under powers implied by statute, if these have not been negatived in the deed.

  • Instead of selling, as above, a mortgagee entitled to exercise his power of sale may apply to the Registrar of the Supreme Court to conduct the sale. The mortgagee must state in hi? application the estimated value of the land, and the date of the sale must be not less than one month and not more than three months from the date of the application. He may bid at the sale and become the purchaser of the land, but in such case the amount paid for the land shall not be less than the value of the land as estimated. If it is, the mortgagor must be allowed in account the full amount of the estimate.

Under the mortgage-relief legislation referred to below these rights are not necessarily enforceable at present.

MORTGAGORS AND LESSEES REHABILITATION ACT, 1936.

INTRODUCTORY.

The economic conditions prevailing in New Zealand consequent upon the world-wide depression commencing in 1929 led to the enactment in the early months of 1931 of legislation designed for the relief of mortgagors. The complexity of the problem necessitated much further legislation, and a consolidating Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act was passed in December, 1933. The Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35, which was passed in April, 1935. represented a definite attempt on the part of the Government to effect a final clearing-up of the burden of rural indebtedness. Both these enactments, which are described in some detail in the 193(5 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 567–70), have been repealed by the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936, a description of which follows.

PURPOSE OF THE ACT.

Section 2 of the Act is quoted verbatim in order to afford an adequate understanding of the general objectives of the legislation.

  1. The general purpose of this Act in relation to farmer applicants is to retain them in the use and occupation of their farms as efficient producers, and to make such adjustments of their liabilities as will ensure that the liabilities secured on any property do not exceed the value of that property, that the rent of any leasehold property does not exceed the rental value of that property, and that the total amount and terms of payment of all their liabilities (whether secured or unsecured) are such that, after allowing for all normal current expenditure and providing for the maintenance of themselves and their families in a reasonable standard of comfort, the applicants may reasonably be expected to meet their liabilities as they become due, either out of their own moneys or by borrowing on reasonable terms.

  2. The general purpose of this Act in relation to home applicants is to retain them in the occupation of their homes, and to make such adjustments of their liabilities as will ensure that the liabilities secured on any property do not exceed the value of that property, that the rent of any leasehold property does not exceed the rental value of that property, and that the total amount and terms of payment of those of their liabilities that are secured by adjustable securities or are adjustable debts are such that the applicants may reasonably be expected to meet them as they become due. either out of their own moneys or by borrowing on reasonable terms.

  3. The general purpose of this Act in relation to applicants who are not farmer applicants or home applicants is to enable them to retain possession of their mortgaged or leasehold property, and to make such adjustments of their liabilities as will ensure that the liabilities secured on any property do not exceed the value of that property, that the rent of any leasehold property does not exceed the rental value of that property, and that the total amount and terms of payment of those of their liabilities that are secured by adjustable securities or are adjustable debts are such that the applicants may reasonably be expected to meet them as they become due, either out of their own moneys or by borrowing on reasonable terms.”

COVENANTS TO WHICH ACT APPLIES.

The Act applies to mortgages of the following classes:—

  1. Mortgages that were executed before the passing of the Act:

  2. Mortgages that were in fact operative; or designed to take effect before the date of the passing of the Act, though not executed before that date:

  3. Mortgages to which the Act has at any time applied and which have been varied by the parties thereto:

  4. Mortgages that have been executed in replacement or substantial replacement of mortgages to which the Act has at any time applied.

The Act also applies to all leases that were executed before its passage, and to all leases that have been executed in renewal of such leases.

The Governor-General may extend the provisions of the Act by Order in Council to apply to any of the following licenses and other instruments:—

  1. Any license or other instrument for the cutting and removal of timber or flax» or for the extraction of coal or fireclay:

  2. Any way-leave or other easement granted in relation to the rights conferred by any such license or instrument as aforesaid:

  3. Any contract or instrument by virtue of which any person entitled under any license or other instrument to cut timber or flax or extract coal or fireclay from any land is under an obligation to pay, whether periodically or otherwise, to any person any moneys calculated wholly or partially by reference to the quantity of timber or flax cut or to be cut, or to the quantity of coal or fireclay extracted or to be extracted, or fixed as minimum payments, whether or not the person entitled to receive payment under such contract or instrument has any right, title, estate, or interest in such timber, flax, coal, or fireclay, as the case may be, or in the land containing it.

Any specific mortgage or lease, or class of such, may be exempted from the operation of the Act by Order in Council.

ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY.

A Court of Record, entitled the Court of Review, is set up under the provisions of the Act, consisting of three members to be “appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one to be Judge of the Court. It is further provided that no person shall be eligible for the position of Judge unless he is eligible for appointment as a Judge of the Supreme Court. The Judge and one other member shall constitute a quorum.

Provision is also made for the appointment of Registrars, Deputy Registrars, and other Court officers.

The Governor-General in Council may, if he thinks fit. appoint not more than two additional Judges and not more than four additional members of the Court. to hold office during his pleasure.

For the purposes of the Act there is to be established such numbers of Adjustment Commissions as the Governor-General in Council thinks necessary. Every such Commission is to consist of not more than three members, one of whom (in cases where there are more than one) shall be Chairman. Orders made by the Commissions in adjustment of mortgages, &c., are to be registered with the Court of Review, to which Court (and to no other) there is a right of appeal against decisions of the Adjustment Commissions.

PROCEDURE.

Any mortgagor, lessee, or guarantor under a mortgage or lease to which the Act applies may make application for an adjustment of his liabilities. Every such application must contain a complete list of all the creditors and debtors of the applicant, together with a statement of his assets and liabilities and of the securities held by secured creditors. No such application may be filed after 31st January, 1937, although the Court may at its discretion accept applications in special circumstances to 28th February, 1937. Since the previously existing mortgage-relief legislation is repealed by this Act, the full rights of mortgagees are automatically restored in respect of properties in respect of which no application for adjustment has been made within the time allowed.

Where a mortgagor or lessee has made default in complying with his obligations under a mortgage or lease but has not filed any application for relief, the mortgagee or lessor or any guarantor in respect of the mortgage or lease may make application—on or before 31st January, 1937—for adjustment of the mortgagor′s or lessee′s liabilities.

As soon as possible after the filing of any application, the Registrar in whose office the application is made shall refer the matter to an Adjustment Commission. Mortgagors and lessees are protected from the exercise of rights of foreclosure, &c., in respect of mortgages or leases for which application for adjustment has been made, until such applications have been finally disposed of.

ADJUSTMENT OF LIABILITIES.

As a preliminary step towards the adjustment of the liabilities of an applicant, the Adjustment Commission shall first make an order determining—

  1. Whether the applicant is a farmer applicant, or is a home applicant, or is neither a farmer applicant nor a home applicant:

  2. The value of any property of the applicant other than his interest (if any) in any farm lands:

  3. The basic value of the applicant′s interest (if any) in any farm lands:

  4. The basic rent of any property held by the applicant as lessee under any lease:

  5. Whether or not the applicant is entitled to retain any property that is subject to an adjustable security or is comprised in an adjustable lease, or of any part of the property:

  6. The amount of principal and other moneys secured on any property of the applicant by any adjustable security, after allowing for any remissions made.

An adjustable security is defined by the Act as a mortgage to which the Act applies; and, in the case of a farmer applicant, includes any other mortgage and any statutory or other charge on any property belonging to him; and, in the case of any applicant who is not a farmer applicant, includes any other mortgage and any charge on any property belonging to him, if the property is subject to a mortgage to which the Act applies or is comprised in a lease to which the Act applies. In determining the amount secured by such a security the Commission shall take into account accrued interest, but it is empowered to remit the whole or any part of such accrued interest due before the date of the order.

Special provisions exist in the case of farm mortgages and leases which do not apply in the case of other mortgages, &c These provisions are described in Section XVIIIA of this Year-Book (pp. 337–38), to which reference should be made.

In determining the value of any property of any applicant other than his interest (if any) in any farm lands, the Adjustment Commission is enjoined to have regard to the values subsisting at the passing of the Act, but to make such increases or reductions in those values as it deems necessary in order to make them fair values to serve as a basis for the adjustment of the liabilities of the applicant.

If the value of any property of any applicant (other than his farm lands, if any) is less than the total amount of the principal and other moneys secured on that property by any adjustable securities, the amount so secured shall be reduced to an amount equal to the value of the property as determined above. The difference becomes an adjustable debt, which the Commission is required to deem discharged on a date to be fixed in that behalf by an order of the Commission. In certain circumstances the Commission may, however, order the payment of part or the whole of an adjustable debt, after taking into consideration such matters as the income of the applicant and possible hardship to the creditor if the order were not made.

The Commission may vary the terms of repayment of securities of an applicant in any manner which in its opinion would be equitable—e.g.. the substitution of a table mortgage for a flat mortgage, &c—having regard to the purpose of the legislation. The Governor-General may from time to time fix rates of interest—which shall be regarded as maxima—for the guidance of Adjustment Commissions in determining the rate of interest chargeable on any adjustable security or any new securities arranged by the Commissions.

Provision is also made for the adjustment of rent payable under leases. The Commission is empowered to determine a basic rent, having regard to the value of the property; the rent payable under an adjustable lease—i.e., one to which the Act applies—being reduced to the basic rent. Arrears of rent become an adjustable debt which is dealt with in the manner indicated above in respect of excess mortgage indebtedness—i.e., it is cancelled—with certain exceptions.

As indicated in a preceding paragraph, the Adjustment Commission may determine whether or not an applicant is entitled to retain farm lands, home premises, or other property. In determining whether or not any applicant is entitled to retain any property (not being farm lands), that is subject to an adjustable security or is comprised in an adjustable lease, or any part of the property, the Adjustment Commission must take into consideration the following matters, namely:—

  1. The conduct of the applicant in relation to the care of the property and the disbursement of his income:

  2. Whether any relief granted pursuant to this Act would be reasonably likely to enable the applicant to meet his future liabilities in respect of the property:

  3. Any other matters that it deems relevant.

The Adjustment Commission may make such orders as it thinks fit for the sale or offering for sale, on such terms and conditions as the Commission may fix in that behalf, either by public auction or public tender, with a right for any mortgagee to become the purchaser; or by private contract, whether to any specified mortgagee, creditor, or other person, or otherwise howsoever—

  1. Of any property′ of any applicant that is subject to an adjustable security or is comprised in an adjustable lease, if the Adjustment Commission has determined that the applicant shall not be entitled to retain the property, or if the applicant has elected not to retain the property or has abandoned the property:

  2. In the case of a farmer applicant, of any other property, if the Adjustment Commission considers that its sale is desirable for the purposes of the adjustment of the liabilities of the applicant.

If the proceeds of the sale of such property do not meet the commitments on it, the amount remaining unpaid is to be deemed an adjustable debt; while the whole amount of the applicant′s liability in respect of such property not offered for sale or of an abandoned property may be deemed an adjustable debt. The latter provision does not, however, release the property from the encumbrance. Provision is made for the adjustment of the liability of guarantors in respect of mortgages or leases coming within the scope of the Act on similar lines to those set out in respect of mortgagors or lessees.

MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS.

In respect of mortgages, &c, coming within the scope of the legislation, the Court may reopen transactions where creditors have already exercised their rights. but only in respect of actions taken subsequent to 25th August, 1936.

The Court may make orders to protect creditors from acts intended to delay or defeat their claims. An applicant is also restrained from disposing of property or obtaining credit without disclosure while his application is pending.

Notwithstanding anything to the contrary in any other Act. State lending departments and local authorities may agree to adjustment of the liabilities of any mortgagor, lessee., or guarantor in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

It is made lawful for any trustee to agree to an adjustment of the liabilities of any mortgagor, lessee, or guarantor in accordance with the provisions of the Act. No covenant or condition contained in any mortgage (whether executed before or after the passing of the Act) is to have any force o± effect to deprive any mortgagor, lessee, or guarantor of any benefits provided for by the Act.

Where the amount secured on any mortgage has been reduced, or where the rent of a property has been reduced or arrears of rent remitted by the operation of the Act. it shall not be lawful (except with the leave of the Court) for the owner of the land, or the owner of any interest in the land or any part thereof, to sell or otherwise dispose of it before 1st January, 1941.

The mortgagor under any mortgage to which the Act applies may at any time, not later than 31st January, 1937, serve a notice on the mortgagee requiring him to reduce the rate of interest to such rate as may be specified in the notice. If the mortgagee does not do so within one month after the service of the notice, the mortgagor may discharge his liability by payment of the principal sum plus interest up to the date of such repayment.

Saving provisions protect a mortgagor to whom relief has been granted under the pre-existing mortgagors′ relief legislation or the Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35, until review of the position of the mortgage by an Adjustment Commission.

REDUCTION OF INTEREST.

Part III of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act (passed 10th May, 1932) had as its purpose reductions in rates of interest payable by mortgagors, and in rents and certain other fixed charges, commensurate with reductions in salaries and wages made by Part I of the Act and by the Finance Act of 1931. An amending Act, passed 9th December, 1932, made certain modifications and enacted some necessary changes in the machinery of the legislation.

The term″ mortgage″ for the purpose of the Act has a wider meaning than in ordinary usage. It″ means any deed, memorandum of mortgage, instrument, or agreement whereby security for the payment of moneys or for the performance of any contract is granted over land or chattels or any interest therein respectively″; and includes company debentures, mortgages of life-insurance policies, agreements for the sale and purchase of land, and customary hire-purchase agreements within the meaning of the Chattels Transfer Act, 1924.

The Act does not apply to mortgages (not being for a fixed terra, expired or unexpired) securing the repayment of principal moneys repayable on demand, nor to mortgages execute! after 1st April, 1932. Under the amending Act a policy for securing a life insurance, endowment, or annuity is not a chattel within the Act, and is, therefore, not subject to its provisions.

The reduction in the rate of interest is 20 per centum, and it applies to all such interest accruing on or after 1st April, 1932, and before 1st April, 1935. The operation of the reduction was extended to 1st April. 1937, by the Finance Act, 1934, and made permanent by a section of the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act. 1930. There is provision, however, that the rate of interest shall not be reduced below 01 per cent, in the case of chattel-mortgages, nor 5 per cent, in the case of other mortgages except in the case of income-tax-free company debentures to which section 171 of the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923, is applicable, where the minimum is 4½ per cent.

Provision is made for an appeal for relief by an aggrieved mortgagee to the Supreme Court or to a Stipendiary}′ Magistrate (if the annual interest does not exceed £300) on the ground that the existing rate of interest was fair in the circumstances, or that adequate concessions had already been given, or that the reduction would cause undue hardship. The Governor-General may from time to time transfer to the Court of Review set up under the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act. 1930. all the functions of the Supreme Court or of a Stipendiary Magistrate under the above provision.

MORTGAGE CORPORATION.

The functions of the Mortgage Corporation set up under the Mortgage Corporation Act, 1934–35. have been transferred to the newly created State Advances Corporation (vide Section XXIVn, State Advances).

Following is a brief risumi-′ of the affairs of the Corporation as at 31st March, 1936 (the transfer to the State Advances Corporation dated from 1st July, 1936). The net value of assets transferred from the State Advances Office to the Corporation was £38,6S3,795. A classification or mortgages transferred to the Corporation showed that 20,736 mortgagors were in arrear, the balance of principal outstanding being £17.932,589; while 30,148 mortgagors were paid up to date, the balance of principal outstanding in this instance amounting to £18,498,801.

In consideration of the mortgages transferred to the Corporation, stock to the value of £29,800,000 was issued to the Minister of Finance, the balance between the value of the assets transferred and the value of the stock totalling £8,883,795. This amount was carried to the Contingent Liability Account of the Corporation. The interest on the stock issued to the Minister of Finance was at the same rate (3⅜ per cent.) a* the first issue of stock and debentures to the public, while the Corporation showed a return to the Crown up to 31st March, 1936, of 2½ per cent. on the Contingent Liability Account.

Loans authorized by the Board of Management of the Corporation from the inception of lending operations up to 31st March, 1936, were as follows:—

 Number.Amount.
Residential— £
Erection of dwellings373238,585
Refinancing, &c662520,630
Farms8241,576,065
Total authorizations1,859£2,635,280

Applications declined by the Board totalled £726,055 in respect of 518 applicants. made up as follows:—

 Number.Amount.
 £
Residential229142,060
Farms289583,995

The interest due in respect of mortgage securities (excluding local-authority securities) for the period from 1st August, 1935, to 31st March, 1936, as compared with the years ended 31st March, 1934 and 1935, and the cash received for these periods is shown hereunder:—

Interest due.Net Interest received.Shortage.Percentage of Receipts to Interest due.
 £££ 
1933–341,966,1271,562,707403,42079.48
1934–351,913,6111,711,446202,16589.43
Eight months, 1st August1,200,8791,142,94757,93295.16
1935, to 31st March, 1936

The position showed a marked improvement during the three years.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.

A table is given showing the amount represented by mortgages registered and discharged during each of the last twenty years.

Year ended 31st March.Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.Year ended 31st March.Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
 ££ ££
191721,056,87412,994,003192739,979,68129,233,329
191818,126,92411,614,517192833,190,51923,998,840
191919,007,28611,040,897192933,559,93225,269,613
192048,442,90023,086,746193038,869,14428,328,993
192166,960,43429,464,132193130,208,44720,056,691
192234,789,32413,234,365193213,410,58110,036,385
192326,031,59614,579,76719339,161,6638,149,355
192437,862,41922,246,51219347,802,8539,086,847
192541,123,96629,733,883193511,845,63413,732,853
192647,093,78033,958,144193616,227,05817,553,233

Although affording a valuable index of the movement over the period, the figures cannot be accepted as recording the amount of indebtedness incurred by way of mortgage. Duplicate registrations are included prior to 1929–30; from 1929–30 the extent of duplication has been available and the net figures inserted after necessary deductions on that account. Furthermore, the figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness. On the other hand no amount is shown as secured in a proportion of cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances, &c In addition there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not registered; and stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the statistics.

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. Moreover, in the case of table mortgages, the whole amount remains on the register till the last installment of principal is repaid.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.

The total amount for which mortgages were registered, both under the deeds-registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the last five years is given in the next table.

In addition to a total of 16,421 mortgages which represent the net aggregate of £16,227,058 for 1935–36, there were 2,697 mortgages in which no amount was shown as secured.

All of the eleven registration districts show increases in the value of mortgages registered during 1935–36, as compared with the previous year, the aggregate increase in the net registrations for the whole Dominion being £4,381,424.

District.1981–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–30.
 £££££
Auckland3,834,2042,905,8722,397,7812,923,3094,097,884
Gisborne406,614189,826136,475203,791722,025
Hawke′s Bay989,3411,048,971649,2301,143,9731,288,455
Taranaki638,822486,253430,757580,168684,932
Wellington3,356,8322,150,1861,542,4792,750,8064,180,954
Nelson322,408179,419195,112224,598328,739
Marlborough218,170102,87386,044126,472524,462
Canterbury1,967,2371,143,0961,303,7821,987,4612,810.252
Otago1,133,394673,796783,4991,334,1701,762,749
Southland507,889476,871473,139696,997834,419
Westland88,71792,25940,42986,945116,787
Gross totals13,463,6289,449,4228,038,72712,058,69017,351,658
Duplications53,047287,759235,874213,0561,124,600
Net totals13,410,5819,161,0637,802,85311,845,63416,227,058

Of the gross total of £17,351,658 registered in 1935–36, £17,057,223, or 98 per cent., came under the Land Transfer Act. The proportion is now approaching 100 per cent., owing to the operation of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924 (vide Section XVIIA).

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.—CLASSIFIED BY AMOUNT.

Of the net total of £16,227,058 registered for the financial year 1935–36 mortgages up to £500 in value represented 14 per cent, of the total value registered; from £501 to £1,000, 21 per cent.,; from £1,001 to £5,000, 35 per cent.,; and above £5,000, 30 per cent. The following table gives the number and amount in each registration district according to the sum secured:—

District.£500 and under.£501 to £1,000.£1,001 to £5,000.Over £5,000.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £ £
Auckland2,355679,6471,225896,4308521,658,49690863,311
Gisborne11733,8225640,91562146,73127500,557
Hawke′s Bay395112,392265195,736166396,43562583,892
Taranaki31285,639157111,918142316,18022171,195
Wellington1,593432,1821,129830,7645731,282,3551341,635,653
Nelson33588,58511481,4734277,481881,200
Marlborough10128,9983524,4254291,1918379,848
Canterbury1,418383,959699492,279389891,468741,042,546
Otago1,408349,195578413,188217468,95725531,409
Southland487122.765361254,823189398,793958,037
Westland13133,3713021,6661940,950320,800
Gross totals8,6522,350,5564,6493,363,6172,6935,769,0374625,868,448
Duplications72,17515601541,560121,080,305
Net totals8,6452,348,38l4,6483,363, 0572,6785,727,4774504,788,143

In addition to the foregoing, there were 2,697 mortgages registered for which no amount was shown. Excluding these, the average advance for each mortgage registered was £988, as compared with £948 in 1934–35.

MORTGAGES ON URBAN AND RURAL SECURITIES.

Figures are available in the case of Land Transfer registrations showing for each registration district the amount advanced on urban and rural properties. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages registered under the deeds system, but, bearing in mind that the latter constituted in 1935–36 only 2 per cent, of the total, it will be evident that the figures given approximately indicate the character of the securities. The distinction is between″ town and suburban″ and″ country “holdings, but information is not always available to enable a strictly accurate classification to be made. Generally, however, town and suburban mortgages are regarded as such if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs, and include also mortgages secured on small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. Mortgages classified as town and suburban are secured on areas averaging a little less than two-fifths of an acre in extent, as compared with an average area in 1935–36 of some 388 acres in the case of″ country″ securities.

The value of mortgages on town and suburban property′ registered in 1935–36 was £1,593,733 less than that on country property. In point of numbers 65 per cent, of the mortgages referred to town and suburban areas, and 35 per cent, to country properties. The average amount secured per acre on rural holdings was £3 12s. l1d., as against £1,680 in the case of town and suburban properties. The average amount of each mortgage on country property was £1,413, as compared with £640 on town and suburban holdings. The following table gives mortgages registered during the year 1935–36 under the Land Transfer Act.

District.Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount secured.Number.Area.Amount secured.
 Acres.£ Acres.£
Auckland2,8811,4291,693,8972,305499,2462,213,119
Gisborne1668182,065143307,556638,660
Hawke′s Bay696320368,376387220,124920,079
Taranaki366198196,383416110,002488,549
Wellington2,8968132,124,9991.020365,2102,055,955
Nelson357172161,98723345,268169,990
Marlborough11495354,038112157,264170,424
Canterbury1.9284801,185,043899353,9281,625,209
Otago1,7715581,133,584553320,457524,560
Southland744390350,829481163,542483,590
Westland1616580,5445016,05735,343
Totals12,0804,6017,731,7456,5992,558,6549,325,478

A decennial summary upon similar lines is also given. The low figures of the years 1932–34 evidence the force of the depression, the decline being approximately equally marked in urban and in rural districts. A measure of recovery is indicated by the 1935 and 1930 statistics.

Year ended 31st March.Number.Area.Amount secured.
Town and Suburban.Country.Total.Town and Suburban.Country.Total.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.£££
192738,5577,9854,004,8564,012,84117,475,12717,290,50334,765,630
192834,3027,3413,626,9373,634,27815,633,14213,773,80529,406,947
192934,7967,4364,303,8584,311,29415,432,01115,026,60430,458,615
193038,8628,0524,206,5984,214,65018,936,21917,681,48836,617,707
193132,3296,6693,689,5113,696,18014,262,91914,203,28728,466,206
193217,7934,0462,276,9592,281,0055,771,3646,814,78312,586,147
193313,2573,2311,784,78111,788,0124,133,5074,806,4188,939,925
193412,1922,7491,433,8921,436,6413,873,0763,779,9177,652,993
193514,7753,4251,988,17411,991,5995,087,5346,608,10711,695,641
193618,6794,6012,558,6542,563,2557,731,7459,325,47817,057,223

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED.

Of the net total (i.e., deducting duplications) of mortgages released in 1935–36, £17,183,623 was under the Land Transfer Act and £309,610 under the deeds-registration system. The corresponding figures for the previous year were £13,401,501 and £331,352 respectively.

The total amount of mortgages discharged for the last three years is as follows:—

District.1933–34.1931–35.1935–30.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
 £ £ £
Auckland3,5583,502,8544,2883,570,7205,6734,556,394
Gisborne1971,317,093229278,987369979,852
Hawke′a Bay503464,3988781,286,0131,0901.544,774
Taranaki583407,313759786,943839845,665
Wellington2,4462,959,2373,0693,296,5744,2084,579,246
Nelson337183,501401178,956515316,308
Marlborough135154,187184231,153201197,474
Canterbury1,4851,997,7072,1752,251,0812,5072.334,996
Otago1,2401,616,1281,7611,088,4252,1401,417,083
Southland543451,424841730,981891785,218
Westland7733,00514362,702149123,303
Gross totals11,10413,086,84714,72813,762,53518,58217,680,313
Duplications44,000,000429,6824127,080
Not totals11,1009,086,84714,72413,732,85318,57817,553,233

The unusually large figure of duplications in 1933–34 is due to the discharge of a mortgage of £1,000,000 having been registered in each of five districts.

MONTHLY REGISTRATIONS AND DISCHARGES.

Monthly figures of registrations and discharges are regularly published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. The gross totals for each of recent months are as follows:—

Month.Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
 £ £
1935–36.
April1,2841,027,1861,1821,200,510
May1,6141,318,1221,5251,526,147
June1,4761,259,0841,4771,449,223
July1,8111,936,1381,8441,807,177
August1,7362,131,4801,6711,601,908
September1,5761,218,4761,5671,337,154
October1,7671,574,6621,7111,799,213
November1,5751,302,2031,5261,331,028
December1,8351,591,2901,7071,783,352
January9951,089,133999988,972
February1,5001.213,4281,4841,208,102
March1,9841,690,4561,8891,647,527
1936–37.
April1,5101,502,2331,5231,530,476
May2.0221,813,2192,0341,809,663
June2,0251,737,8001,9751,670,589
July2.2582,193,6532,2411,990,587
August1,9961,874,8041,8961,961,965
September2,0251,894,7431,9311,796,199

RATES OF INTEREST.

Classified according to the various rates of interest, and including duplicate registrations (to the extent of £213,056 in 1934–35 and £1,124,600 in 1935–36) the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered were—

Rate per Cent.1934–35.1935–36.
 ££
1238211
22,9384,540
200..
7,43212,598
..450
319,85769,391
4,10923,492
..150
4960,4811,644,037
4⅛..997,104
270,1642,051,993
4⅓..100
4⅜501,750
1,964.0003,616,377
4⅗750..
4⅝..2,275
52,77557,310
53,477.9443,039,177
5⅕3.1756,200
44,906181,823
901,478820,555
5⅗1,8756,540
17.3594,750
Rate per Cent.1934–35.1935–36.
* Including State Advances and Rural Intermediate Credits.
 ££
5⅘..1,000
61,046,176847,767
35,84035,895
6⅖..430
244,356151.356
4502,640
7174,920167,271
7⅖250..
24,83416,825
..335
866,01256,498
6,228460
93.7091,618
700150
1035,54720,972
10½4,000..
11..230
12½68..
15..195
Unspecified*2,685,8693,507,193
Totals12,058,69017,351,658

Exclusive of cases where the rate of interest was not specified, 61 per cent. of the money raised by way of mortgage during 1935–36 was at rates below 5 per cent.; 29 per cent, was at the rate of 5” and under 6 per cent.; 8 per cent, was at 6 and under 7 per cent.; and 2 per cent, was at rates of 7 per cent, or over. The average rate of interest on mortgages registered has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Average Rate par Cent.
19135.76
19145.82
19155.76
19165.74
19175.80
19185.84
19195.84
19205.75
19215.89
19226.42
19236.57
19246.38
Year ended 31st March.Average Rate par Cent.
19256.30
19266.22
19276.47
19286.46
19296.46
19306.25
19316.25
19326.28
19335.88
19345.56
19355.06
19364.73

The year 1921–22 witnessed a sharp increase from 5.S9 per cent, to 6–42 per cent., coinciding with the financial stringency associated with the post-war trade depression. The peak of 6-57 per cent, was reached in the following year, after which there was a gradual downward trend to 1925–26. The rise after 1925–20 is more apparent than real, and is probably due mainly to the fact that commencing with 1926–27 State Advances mortgages are all treated as unspecified (the rate of interest is generally not shown in the mortgage registration), whereas formerly in some districts they were included as unspecified and in others according to “the known interest rate.

A further classification, showing the downward trend of interest during recent years, is as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Not exceeding 4 per Cent.Exceeding 4 per Cent but not exceeding 5 per Cent.Exceeding 5 per Cent but not exceeding 6 per Cent.Exceeding 6 per Cent.
Amount.
 ££££
193142,8711,274,61810,458,04611,396,829
193247,6451,015,8384,808,2674,478,563
1933135,6141,883,9383,456,6371,848,899
1934203,0702,458,7442,450,773861,925
1935995,2555,765,6832,014,969596,914
19361,754,8699,766,0861,868,635454,875
Percentage of Total.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19310.25.545.149.2
19320.49.846.543.3
19331.925.747.225.2
19343.441.241.014.4
193510.661.521.56.4
193612.770.513.53.3

An interest rate of 5 per cent, or less applied to 83 per cent, of the specified amount registered in 1935–36, only 5–7 per cent, of the corresponding amount registered in 1930–31 bearing interest at a rate of o per cent, or less.

ESTIMATE OF MORTGAGE INDEBTEDNESS.

The following estimates of aggregate nominal value of mortgages relate solely to mortgages of real estate. Mortgages on stock or chattel securities are not included in the figures given hereunder.

Statistics of the registrations of mortgages on land and of the discharges of such mortgages date back to 1S73. The amount of mortgages now in force, however, cannot be ascertained directly from the registration figures, for the following reasons:—

  • No amount is shown as secured in many cases where a mortgage is given in

  • anticipation of advances. Many privately-arranged advances are not registered. The figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing

  • money indebtedness. Duplicate registrations are included. Many discharges are not registered. In the case of table mortgages, the whole amount remains on the register till the last instalment is paid.

The factors leading to overstatement of the amount remaining are much more important than those tending to understatement, and the main source of weakness of the figures, for the purpose of ascertaining the amount in force, is undoubtedly the failure to register many discharges.

In connection with the compilation of the now discontinued statistics of land holdings, from the returns furnished annually to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purposes of land-tax assessment, supplementary statistics of mortgages in force on lands subject to land-tax were compiled as at 31st March, 1928, and 31st March, 1929. At the latter date mortgages on the lands coming within the scope of the i investigation—i.e., practically all holdings of an unimproved value of £500 andover—aggregated £160,000,000, of which some £120,000,000 was secured on country lands and £40,000,000 on town lands or business-sites.

From a consideration of other data, principally the 1926 census statistics of dwellings and the nature of their occupancy, it would appear that the total mortgage indebtedness on land at 31st March, 1929, was in the vicinity of £225,000,000, of which £125,000,000 would be on country lands and £100,000,000 on town lands and business and residential sites.

If the figure of £225,000,000 be accepted as roughly correct for 1929, it affords a basis for estimating the amount of mortgages on land in force in earlier and later years. Up to 1900 registrations of mortgages under the Land Transfer Act had exceeded registrations of discharges by only £35,000,000, while the somewhat scanty figures of mortgages under the Deeds Registration Act showed small annual totals, with discharges practically balancing registrations of mortgages. It appears reasonable, therefore, to reckon the total mortgages on land which were in force at 31st March, 1900, at £35,000,000.

Interpolating between this figure of £35,000,000 in 1900 and that of £225,000,000 in 1929, it is possible to estimate figures for intervening years from a consideration of the annual registrations of mortgages and discharges. Allowance must be made for the widening degree of divergence between the mortgages nominally remaining on the register and the amount really in force, due to a number of factors, including the increased use of the table type of mortgage.

The calculation., on a similar basis, can be extended to cover years subsequent to 1929, though it is necessary to point out that in the figures for recent years in the following statement no attempt has been made to allow for unregistered reductions (temporary or permanent) in principal amounts that may have been made by arrangement between mortgagor and mortgagee. The allocation between country and town lands has been made on the basis of separate registration statistics for these two classes from 1916 onward, and arbitrarily, though with some regard to the figures of Government valuation of land in boroughs and counties, for earlier years.

As at 31st March.On Town and Suburban Lands.On Country Lands.Total
 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)
1900152035
1901162137
1902182240
1903182442
1904202545
1905222648
1906242852
1907253257
1908283462
1909303868
1910324072
1911334275
1912354580
1913374885
1914405090
1915425395
19164555100
19174560105
19184565110
19194867115
19205580135
19216090150
19226798165
192370105175
192475110185
19258O115195
192685120205
192790120210
192898122220
1929100125225
1930105130235
1931107133240
1932110135245
1933110135245
1934105135240
1935105135240
1936105135240

From the nature of the question and the shortcomings of the statistical data, it will be realized that no close degree of accuracy can be claimed for the foregoing figures, and it will be noticed that movements in recent years are shown only in units of £5,000,000. The figures are presented merely with a view to throwing some light on one aspect of an important question of the day.

MORTGAGES AND LAND VALUES.

In the returns of land, which are required by law to be furnished annually to the Commissioner of Taxes by all owners of land of an aggregate unimproved value in excess of £500, provision is made for showing (for mortgage-exemption purposes) particulars of amounts owing by the taxpayer at noon on the 31st March, secured on the land either by registered mortgage or by agreement to purchase. Although this source of information does not cover all mortgages (owing to exemptions and to neglect to furnish returns in certain cases), nevertheless most informative figures on the question of the incidence of mortgages in conjunction with such matters as area, unimproved value, and location (i.e., urban or rural) are disclosed.

Statistics derived from these tax returns were last compiled for the tax-year 1929–30, since when compilation has not been practicable. A brief summary of the statistics appears in the 1935 Year-Book. More detailed figures will be found in the 1932 Year-Book.

Chapter 51. SECTION XXXIII.—BANKRUPTCY.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Bankruptcy Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of previous enactments), and the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the Liabilities do not exceed £300.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court. A petition may he filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of £G being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in the ease of a debtor's petition. Not less than £.'50 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

Immediately on a debtor's petition being filed or a creditor's petition being adjudicated on. the Registrar of the Court gives notice to the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy, in whom all the property of the bankrupt thereupon vests. The bankrupt must hand over his books to the Official Assignee, make out balance-sheets, give inventories of his property and debts, and generally assist in the realization of his property. The Assignee may summon the bankrupt before himself, or before a Magistrate, to be examined on oath. The Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, forbids (save with the consent of the Court, on the application of the Official Assignee) the publication of a report of any examination of a bankrupt before the Assignee or of any matter arising in the course of such an examination.

The Official Assignee empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding-up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application, which must he made within four months after adjudication, may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee or a creditor.

Under the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1930, a mortgagee, creditor, or other person on whom notice has been served under the Act may not, while an application for relief is pending or an order for relief is in force, file or proceed with (without leave of Court) a bankruptcy or winding-up petition against the mortgagor or lessee. This provision was also included in the pre-existing Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1933.

By the Trustee Amendment Act, 1933, protection is afforded to a trustee who pays trust-moneys to a bankrupt in good faith and without knowledge of the bankruptcy.

UNDISCHARGED BANKRUPTS.

Section 14 of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act. 1927, provides for the annual gazetting of the names, occupations, and other particulars of all persons who were adjudged bankrupt since 31st March, 1927, and who have not obtained an order of discharge, or whose order of discharge was suspended for a term, or was subject to conditions remaining unfulfilled. The number of undischarged bankrupts under this section at 31st March in each of the eight years 1928–35 has been—

1928728
19291,236
19301,648
19312,272
19322,818
19333,082
19343,210
19353,283

TRANSACTIONS IN BANKRUPTCY.

The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last five years is given below. A fifty-year record of curtain principal figures will be found in the Statistical Summary, near the end of this volume.

Year.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by Creditors.Cases in which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Orders of Discharge were suspended.
1931723125226740
1932539122127960
193337179..21124
193427551215621
193521839121425

The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover private assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by Official Assignees. Certain statistics of private assignments: are now available, and details of these appear at the end of this section.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities and assets, but there is usually a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realized by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors. During the last decade the amounts actually realized by Official Assignees averaged 34 per cent, of assets according to debtors' statements, and 14 per cent, of debts proved.

It should be understood that in the following table the figures in each column refer to all transactions under the respective heads during the year, the amounts realized by Assignees and paid in dividends and preferential claims relating partly to the current year's bankruptcies (many of which, however, are not disposed of during the year) and partly to previous bankruptcies.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
 ££££
1926752236,915102,899585,68771,515
1927867331,383108,850679,47372,388
1928806236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,65591,180502,11254,759
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657624,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884
193432672,57244,533258,92033,788
193525768,21641,037225,50823,142

A similar classification by districts for the year 1935 is given below:—

District or Sub-district.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid In Dividends and Preferential Claims.
 ££££
Whangarei113437643,578108
Auckland396,5086,94081,8751,849
Hamilton3210,8914,98317,7002,456
Gisborne88328331,992435
Wairoa41,0551,2111,550479
Napier143,0981,5158,5491,007
Dannevirke24101401,042247
New Plymouth141,0089876,283674
Hawera104887251,784286
Wanganui95481,5552,1911,495
Taihape53021,2871,0971,304
Palmerston North136,3271,0951,927600
Pahiatua1290455458303
Masterton55949392,681435
Wellington235,7052,05722,2261,271
Blenheim41,1001,59014,879648
Nelson285535651118
Westport215125230322
Reefton125..174..
Greymouth46471111,629..
Hokitika1251,900241559
Christchurch2014,2358,32023,4205,930
Timaru109,03270810,909530
Oamaru22021111,03785
Dunedin152,1901,75312,0411,458
Invercargill63893384,638471
Totals25768,21641,037225,50S23,142

The table following shows for each of the last ten years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the average dividend paid.

Year.Average Debts proved Per Estate.Proportion Dividends to Debts.
 £Per Cent.
192677912·21
192778410·65
19289528·96
192973110·91
19301,0618·29
19311,2296·06
19329458·95
19331,0899·77
193479413·05
193587810·26

The total payments in 1935 made from assets realized were—

 £
Dividends to creditors (excluding preferential and secured claims)18,923
Preferential claims (rents, wages, &c.)4,219
Secured claims3,981
Government commission3,184
Costs of actions, solicitors' and supervisors' fees2,647
Expenses incurred in carrying on estates3,324
Other charges2,010
Total£38,288

Balances in bank to the credit of estates aggregated £17,439 on 31st December, 1935, an increase of £2,749 during the year.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the number of bankruptcies with various amounts of liabilities:—

Liabilities.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Under £502136161616
£50 and under £1005543353119
£100 and under £2501851471007767
£250 and under £500195166957260
£500 and under £1,000176136986750
£1,000 and under £2,00012269532922
£2,000 and under £5,0007045352320
£5,000 and over241918113
Totals848661450326257

Liabilities in the bulk of failures do not exceed £1,000, the number under this amount in 1935 being 212, representing 82 per cent, of the total.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS.

The following table shows in summarized form the occupations of those adjudged bankrupt in the last five years:—

 1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* Excluding partnerships (two for 1934 and four for 1935), the occupations of the partners only being shown.
Fishing and trapping434..2
Agricultural and pastoral100128995345
Forestry95545
Mining and quarrying44311
Processes relating to minerals....5....
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products4261..
Processes relating to metals, tools, jewellery, &c.2415867
Makers of ships, boats, conveyances, &c.2014867
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress129953
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco15259163
Processes relating to wood, &c., n.e.i.513166
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography61311
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals12381363629
Transport and communication5949302821
Commerce and finance109150957968
Public administration, clerical, and professional2820161913
Entertainment, sport, and recreation78352
Personal or domestic service4151322110
Dependent on public or private support22201879
Indefinite occupations10657603021
Totals848661450324*253*

Of the 1935 total. 70 were employers of labour, 108 were working on their own account but not employing labour, and 75 were working for wages.

PRIVATE ASSIGNMENTS.

Official bankruptcies, as explained earlier, do not comprise all financial failures. In order to present a more complete picture of this phase of economic life, the bankruptcy statistics have been supplemented since 1928 by the collection of data relating to private assignments. The statistics cover all operations arising out of deeds of assignment made under section 167 (2) of the Stamp Duties Act, 1923.

If private assignments be added to bankruptcies, the total number of failures in 1935 was 363, made up of 257 bankruptcies and 106 assignments. The corresponding total for 1934 was 425.

The number of bankruptcies in 1935 was the lowest since 1920, and the number of assignments only seven more than the low record of the previous year.

The table following shows private assignments during 1935. The column for assets realized covers only the proceeds of realization in respect of 1935 assignments fully realized.

District or Sub-district.Number.Assets.Liabilities. 
Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Assets realized (Completed Estates).
* Includes eleven estates for which no returns received.
 £££££
Whangarei232,55S1,3393,8S91,9711,135
Auckland8123,3016,0215,0056,0002,282
Hamilton173468,25353810,723110
Gisborne1130015,2361,22017,300119
Napier121713,0002683,893171
Dannevirke..1..1,748..1,242..
New Plymouth314,8091505,9121022,049
Hawera211,709..1,242..347
Wanganui213,5591,0853,3721,6802,375
Palmerston North..1..1,772..1,677..
Masterton1..1,232..1,247..1,008
Wellington541,4089023,0882,043648
Blenheim22781..1.434..404
Nelson4290812,1831,54410,308584
Christchurch6121,65411,0003,50811,9301,097
Ashburton1..400..370..300
Timaru..4..6,700..7,664..
Oamaru..1..1,945..2,108..
Dunedin261,36616,4211,65718,007895
Invercargill..4..27,399..23,507..
Totals4165*..115,82034,954120,29313,590

Assets of the ninety-five estates for which returns were received were valued at £143,562, and the liabilities were estimated at £155.247. Assets realized in completed estates represented 39 per cent, of liabilities.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.

The following table classifies estates assigned during the last five years according to the amount of liabilities:—

Liabilities.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Under £100 ..111....
£100 and under £25015111166
£250 and under £5003839271825
£500 and under £1,0006853381822
£1,000 and under £2,0007849382924
£2,000 and under £5,000684730910
£5,000 and over2717695
Unspecified2319151014
Totals31823616699106

Exactly 50 per cent, of the specified estates m 1935 show Labilities below £1,000. In the case of official bankruptcies the corresponding figure was 82 per cent.

OCCUPATIONS OF ASSIGNORS.

The occupations of assignors in broad classes during the last five years were as follows:—

 1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Agricultural and pastoral16101634
Forestry321....
Processes relating to minerals1........
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products333....
Processes relating to metals, tools, jewellery, &c.82431
Makers of ships, boats, conveyances, &c.651..1
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress1321825
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco96334
Processes relating to wood, &c, n.e.i.610131
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography2..2..1
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals482314913
Transport and communication10101063
Commerce and finance164131905762
Public administration, clerical, and professional124634
Entertainment, sport, and recreation3....1..
Personal or domestic service96663
Dependent on public or private support..2....1
Indefinite occupations51133
Totals31823616699106

No fewer than 80 of the assignors in 1935 were employers of labour, 22 were working on their own account, and 4 only were working for wages.

Particular occupations most affected in 1935 were: Storekeepers (20), drapers (12), grocers (10), and builders (8).

Chapter 52. SECTION XXXIV.—WEALTH.

STATE ASSETS.

INCLUDED in the Financial Statement of the 4th August. 1936, is a State balance-sheet which is compiled by the Treasury from details recorded in departmental balance-sheets, and from which the following statement of assets and liabilities as at the 31st March, 1935, has been extracted:—

 £
* Total shown for public debt differs from figure shown in Section XXIVc by £3,850 000 representing hypothecation of securities of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account. Of the amount shown as public debt, £1,193,442 is held by investments within the Public Account. Interest in respect of this sum is also shown in both assets and liabilities
Assets.
Land and buildings, including Crown, settlement, and endowment land, departmental land and buildings40,283,406
State forests, nurseries, and plantations38,473,759
Railways, including permanent-way and works, rolling-stock, and unopened lines59,176,274:
Telegraphs, telephones, and wireless systems11,021,636
Electrical schemes12,992,305
Drainage and irrigation schemes4,164,245
Collieries, sawmills, quarries, &c.388,633
Armament and military stores, aviation equipment2,785,708
Oyster-beds, fish-hatcheries, equipment, &c.122,346
Wharves, bridges, harbour-works, lighthouses, &c.726,493
Plant, material, and furniture2,985,316
Libraries, books, museum exhibits, stationery, stamps, &c.219,971
Live and dead stock, farm crops, &c.252,915
Government steamers, launches, motor-cars, &c.495,506
Advances on loan or mortgage55,731,966
Debtors—
Sundry2,058,347
Unpaid purchase-price of land and buildings and interest thereon2,157,948
Postponed rents, &c.433,304
Interest and rent, due and unpaid, and due and accrued*3,579,598
Special investments—
Nauru phosphate rights565,040
Bank of New Zealand shares2,109,375
Reserve Bank of New Zealand1,000,000
Public Trust Office (Public Debt Redemption Fund, &c.)7,966,689
Special assets of various accounts—
Native land schemes, &c.950,416
Unallocated loan charges627,663
Payments in advance251,219
Properties acquired by Crown and properties in course of realization1,122,024
Investments—
Reserve Fund324,907
Sinking funds657,140
Miscellaneous, including investment of Treasury accounts5,138,418
National Development Account—
Expenditure on—
Main highways, roads, &c.29,943,425
Development of mining867,468
Education8,238,834
Immigration3,319,158
Harbour-works1,045,082
Land-development783,799
Cost of raising loans76,475
Other loan expenditure—
War expenditure65,142,599
Naval defence1,389,656
Local bodies3,037,230
Maori-land settlement247,050
Miscellaneous6,163,497
Cash—
Public Account5,666,606
Receiver-General23,724
State Advances Office Account980,158
Post Office or Post Office Savings-bank508,386
Deposit accounts34,335
In hand and in transit37,173
Deposit with Bank of International Settlements36,023
Public Trust Office185,602
Miscellaneous assets42,224
 £386,531,071
Liabilities.
Capital—
Public debt*284,431,216
Rural Advances bonds4,213,050
Public Debt Redemption Fund17,225,645
Creditors—
Sundry2,144,586
Interest on debentures and stock due and unpaid*17,413
Interest on public debt accrued but not due*2,333,271
Wages and other payments accrued7,246
Payments in advance, &c457,359
Reserves—
General3,767,466
Sinking fund and reserves for loan redemption3,272,682
Depreciation6,424,618
Fire, accident, and marine insurance, bad debts, &c.1,156,095
Amount held on deposit570,376
Suspense298,611
Post Office investment and war-loan certificates1,147,086
Miscellaneous liabilities53,893
 £327,520,613
Excess of assets over liabilities£50,010,458

For contingent liabilities in addition to the above, reference should be made to Section XXlVc.

In connection with the above balance-sheet, it is to be remembered that many of the assets and liabilities of a State cannot be expressed financially in the manner in which the goodwill of a business concern is assessed, and a State balance-sheet, or even in many cases a departmental balance-sheet, on strictly commercial lines is a practical impossibility.

It is necessary to note that, in order that the public debt may be fully accounted for, nominal assets have been inserted by the Treasury for outstanding loan expenditure on war and other purposes in respect of which no material asset now exists. These are grouped under the heading of “Other loan expenditure.” Again, the National Development Account appearing in the assets statement represents the total expenditure of loan-money on the items enumerated therein, and these are not wholly represented by tangible assets. Even in those cases where items are represented in whole or in part by tangible assets the valuation is more or less arbitrary, and it is doubtful whether such valuations could be sustained at the present day. For instance, the item “Main highways, roads, &c.,” represents the total expenditure on roads, and includes in many eases improvements, &c., of the same road on more than one occasion. The same remark applies to the asset “Harbour-works.” Similar considerations apply to other assets shown, such as land and buildings, State forests, railways, &c., the values of which have probably depreciated owing to the economic conditions ruling. In an occasional instance—e.g., Bank of New Zealand shares—the market-value represents an appreciation on the figure shown.

Partly for the reasons just indicated, and partly because certain State expenditure is already reflected in the value of property (public or private), it is necessary to make certain deductions from the “assets” total in order to obtain a figure-to be used as a component unit of an estimate of the value of property or wealth in New Zealand. The following items have been omitted: Drainage and irrigation schemes; main highways, roads, &c.; development of mining; immigration; harbour-works; land-development; cost of raising loans; and “other loan expenditure.” Amounts due to “creditors,” as shown under liabilities, have also been regarded as a deduction from cash assets. From the residue after these omissions and deductions a further arbitrary deduction of 5 per cent. has been made by way of allowance for depreciation. The result is a figure of £253,000,000, which may be accepted as a rough approximation of the value of State property at the 31st March, 1935.

ASSETS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The form of return in use for the collection of statistics of local governing authorities Provides for particulars of cash assets and an estimate of other assets being supplied. The figures in respect of the latter are far from complete, no assets apart from cash assets being included by some local authorities, while in other cases no value is assigned to reserves. Nevertheless the following total as at 31st March, 1935, may be taken as an approximate though somewhat conservative estimate of the position:—

 £
Cash assets11,875,268
Other assets (estimated)67,324,158
Total£79,199,426

The distribution of assets among the various classes of local authorities will be found in Section XXVI.

It may be stated that, although much of the expenditure of counties, boroughs, town districts, and road districts has been in respect of the construction of streets, roads, and bridges, these items are not included as assets of the respective bodies.

The foregoing figures are exclusive of sinking funds, which at 31st March, 1935, amounted to £10,509,405. The inclusion of sinking funds, as in the following table, which shows the nature of the assets, brings the total assets of these classes of local authorities to £89,709,000.

 £
Cash assets11,875,000
Sinking funds10,509,000
Halls, libraries, offices, sundry premises, furniture, &c.3,798,000
Electrical-works17,855,000
Gasworks1,412,000
Tramway-works5,604,000
Railway-works146,000
Wharves, quays, slips, docks, dredges, boats, tugs, sheds, &c.9,868,000
Drainage, sewerage, and water-supply systems12,343,000
Reserves, parks, gardens, recreation-grounds, cemeteries, &c.3,122,000
Endowments3,691,000
Reclaimed land4,064,000
Workers' dwellings, roadmen's cottages, &c.487,000
Sundry plant, tools, stocks, and materials1,633,000
Other and unspecified3,302,000
Total£89,709,000

Hospital Hoards, which are not included in the foregoing figures, had assets (excluding outstanding fees and subsidies) of a little under £5,000,000 at 31st March, 1935, bringing the total for all local bodies to £95,000,000

PUBLIC WEALTH.

In arriving at the aggregate public wealth of the Dominion, as distinct from private wealth, it is necessary to take into account the fact that of the total indebtedness of local bodies at the 31st March, 1935, £6,000,000 was owing to the General Government. The approximate public wealth of the Dominion based on the foregoing statements of assets would thus be £253,000,000, plus £95,000,000, minus £6,000,000, making a net total of £342,000,000.

PRIVATE WEALTH.

Estimates of the private wealth of the Dominion are arrived at on the assumption that the wealth per head of the living is approximately equal to that left by the average person dying. The fact that the younger and more numerous members of the population do not possess as much accumulated wealth as the older members, taken in conjunction with the fact that the death-rate varies with age, renders it necessary for this purpose to divide the population into age-groups. The average wealth of persons dying within any one age-group being known, the average wealth of living persons belonging to that age-group is assumed to be identical, and an estimate of the total private wealth of the Dominion is arrived at by weighting the average wealth of persons in each quinquennial age-group by the number of persons in that group.

The average wealth of deceased persons is obtained by a consideration of the estates certified for stamp duty. The number of estates dealt with in any period, however, is usually equal to about one-third only of the total deaths registered during that period; and as most persons leave some estate, however small, it is necessary to make some allowance for estates which have not passed through the Stamp Duties Office. It should be noted in this connection that estates under £1,000 escape estate duty, and if under £500, succession duty, though many estates of a lower value than the figures indicated are passed for probate or letters of administration. An arbitrary allowance is made for unrecorded estates of persons aged fifteen years or over. No allowance at all is made for estates of persons under fifteen.

To obviate fictitious results due to the infrequency of very large estates in the returns, combined with the lapse of time between death and the certification of the estate, it is necessary to base the estimate on the experience of a series of years. On the other hand, movements in values render it undesirable to take a very long period, and the New Zealand estimate is usually based on the average of the last five years available. In a time of rapidly moving values, even a five-year uncorrected average will give incorrect results. The present figures have accordingly been based upon a triennial average. As the effects of the depression have been felt over the whole period, conclusions should not be seriously jeopardized by movements in values.

Based, then on the estate and death figures for the triennium 1933–35, the aggregate private wealth estimate for the Dominion at the end of 1935 is £673,000,000, of which £468,000,000 represents the wealth of men and £205,000,000 that of women. The total is equal to £451 per head of all population, excluding Maoris, and £706 per head of adult population (aged twenty-one and over).

It is obvious that estimates of private wealth based on the probate system are approximate only, owing to the various factors involved. For example, part of the wealth of deceased estates consists of insurance policies. In the probate returns the maturity value of the policy is taken, whereas among the living the average surrender value of policies in force is much below the maturity value. Against this, however, is the fact that pensions and annuities enjoyed by the living do not enter into deceased estates, while there is also a pronounced tendency towards conservatism in the valuation of personal property for death duty purposes. Further, a not inconsiderable amount of property is disposed of before death by way of gift and does not appear in the probate returns.

It should be explained that the computation of private wealth relates to the population exclusive of Maoris. The inclusion of Maoris would not affect the per caput rate to any extent, but would involve an addition of loss than 5 per cent. to the total. An addition for Maoris of 4 per cent. to the aggregate figure previously given for 1935 would bring the estimated private wealth of the Dominion to £700,000,000.

ESTATES PASSED FOR PROBATE.

A table is now given showing the number of estates finally passed during 1934 and 1935, classified according to amount. Estates of Maoris are here included.

Amount.Number of Estates.Aggregate Net Value of Estates.
1934.1935.1934.1935.
££  ££
Under5001,8861,975392,050408,386
500 and under1,000980986719,789719,062
1,0002,0008238651,196,3431,248,077
2,0003,0004214001,038,861992,820
3,0004,000258222887,716766,819
4,0005,000168145759,380649,011
5,0007,5002142261,276,2461,377,017
7,50010,0001301121,127,468959,955
10,00015,0001071161,303,2621,447,767
15,00020,00059471,029,400809,475
20,000 and over..1111295,993,0196,933,043
Totals5,1575,22315,723,53416,311,432 

The table below shows for the period 1931 to 1935 the total number of estates, classified according to age of deceased and amount of estate.

Age.under £500.£500 to £999.£1,000 to £1,999.£2,000 to £2,999.£3,000 to £3,999.£4,000 to £4,999.£5,000 to £7,499.£7,5000 to £9,999.£10,000 to £14,999.£15,000 to £19,999.£20,000 and over.Totals.
Under 541..................5
5 and under 1042..................6
10 and under15102..................12
15 and under 204943..1....1......58
20 and under 25170411553....11....236
25 and under 30198633732..222..3312
30 and under 352207746945211..1366
35 and under 40250117752487751..4498
40 and under 45331153120491613209332719
45 and under 50505257239883526281011571,211
50 and under 5561436028111768465624187151,606
55 and under 60743428400157936274504018292,094
60 and under 6582252349124112379132575222542,596
65 and under 70876619509312153128154817136602,999
70 and under 759376565732952021231551009141833,256
75 and under 809666345912851831101591199143993,280
80 and under 8569948440822515087141766739832,459
85 and under 90386261240126764379474423481,373
90 and under 9514778986126232925141017528
95 and over331625711282813116
Unspecified24912583382320281314618617
Totals.8,2134,9014,2342,0421,1777741,07462352925452624,347
Per cent.33·720·117·48·44·83·24·42·62·21·02·2100·0

AN ESTIMATE OF NATIONAL WEALTH.

The public wealth of the Dominion has been estimated (supra) at approximately £342,000,000, and the private wealth, including that of Maoris, at approximately £700.000,000. In the probate figures used as the basis of computation of private wealth, deductions are made on account of debts, mortgages, and other charges against property. As, however, these in general will rank as assets when estates to which the charges are owing are in their turn passed for probate, the general effect is negligible, except in so far as such items as State advances and debts owing overseas are concerned. The State advances outstanding are included in the public-wealth figure.

In the case of the public wealth the figure given practically represents gross assets, no deduction having, of course, been made on account of indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing bodies. Were the whole of this indebtedness owing outside the Dominion, no deduction on this account would be necessary for the purpose of the present computation, which is merely to ascertain an approximation of the wealth of the Dominion, without taking account of the fact that there are external charges against that wealth. In arriving at the sum of public and private wealth, however, it is necessary to make allowance for the indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing bodies within the Dominion, this being included in the private-wealth estimate.

Of the gross public debt at the 31st March, 1935, £117,000,000 was domiciled in New Zealand, and of the gross debt of local governing bodies (other than Hospital Boards), at the same date, £46,000,000 was domiciled in the Dominion, exclusive of the £6,000,000 borrowed from the General Government, allowance for which has already been made in the estimation of the approximate public wealth. The Hospital Boards' debt of £1,225,000 (less £201,000 accrued sinking funds) may be assumed to be mainly domiciled in New Zealand. The debt of the General Government and all local bodies domiciled in New Zealand thus aggregates £164,000,000. which requires to be deducted from the aggregate of public and private wealth in order to arrive at an estimate of the national wealth. The figures, in round numbers, are:—

 £
Approximate public wealth340,000,000
Estimated private wealth700,000,000
Total1,040,000,000
Less public and local-body debt domiciled in Dominion160,000,000
Estimated national wealth, 1935£880,000,000

It appears scarcely necessary to recapitulate reasons why the estimate given can be regarded at best as a rough approximation only. No practicable system has yet been devised that will permit of a reliably close estimation of national wealth being arrived at, and the difficulties in this respect are enormously increased during a period of changing values, such as have been experienced during recent years.

VALUE OF LAND HOLDINGS.

The bulk of the wealth of the Dominion is represented by land and improvements thereon, particulars of the valuation of which are given in Section XXVI of this book. Further information concerning the value of land, with particular reference to its utilization and its relative distribution among the population, is obtainable from the annual returns of land which are furnished to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of land-tax assessment. Statistics compiled from these returns are available for the five years 1924–25, 1925–26, 1926–27, 1928–29, and 1929–30, and afford valuable information not only as to the distribution of land on a value basis, but also as to the incidence of land taxation. For a detailed discussion of the statistics compiled from the land-tax returns reference should be made to the 1932 Year-Book; it is possible to repeat here only three concise tables.

It should be explained that in the statistical tabulation it was not found possible to cover each year the whole of the returns for that year, returns under query or not to hand at the time of tabulation being of necessity omitted. Apart from the fact that the actual totals would be somewhat in excess of those shown, the omission of a small percentage does not impair the statistical value of the tables or invalidate conclusions drawn from the figures.

The following table summarizes the principal heads of information from the 1929–30 tabulation. In connection with the division into country, town, and mixed lands, it should be noted that the last-mentioned includes only those cases where less than 75 per cent. (on an unimproved-value basis) is urban or rural respectively. In cases where 75 per cent. or over is urban or rural, as the case may be, the whole has been so classed.

Country or Farming Lands.Town Lands or Business Sites.Partly Country and partly Town Lands.Total.
Number of returns..47,93227,9271,11876,977
Number of taxpayers..30,44820,10883551,391
AreaAcres26,058,681342,942466,02126,867,644
Unimproved value of land£166,895,25567,192,7684,968,450239,056,473
Total mortgages£116,841,60338,117,5452,457,145157,416,293
Exemptions—     
Ordinary£6,303,9696,949,499178,68413,432,152
Mortgage£62,770,79215,918,7671,057,68179,747,240
Hardship£151,417111,6386,237269,292
Total exemptions£69,226,17822,979,9041,242,60293,448,684
Taxable balance£97,669,07744,212,8643,725,848145,607,789
Tax assessed£700,804440,82137,3401,178,965

The following table shows the distribution of holdings according to unimproved value for 1928–29 and 1929–30. The insignificant totals for holdings under £500 are due to the fact that, with few exceptions, such are entirely exempt from land-tax. It should be understood that the classification by amount is on the basis of the unimproved value of the land, and not, in the case of taxpayers, on the basis of taxable balance.

Amount.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Unimproved Value.
1928–29.1929–30.1928–29.1929–30.1928–29.1929–30.
£ £    ££
Under 5007801,17232378175,306294,772
500-99923,73226,10615,06717,37917,016,70818,869,506
1,000-2,49925,66927,20415,54817,04239,756,31942,324,231
2,500-4,99911,94511,8217,4817,41441,727,35342,548,770
5,000-7,4996,3764,4474,3293,03944,045,31027,059,748
7,500-9,9996,3762,1444,3292,05644,045,31018,455,089
10,000–14,9991,8271,9041,8181,90422,060,93423,071,659
15,000–19,99978881378781313,552,30413,946,956
20,000–29,99966171465971416,007,53317,244,468
30,000–39,9992632772632778,992,1049,482,113
40,000–49,9991111391111394,890,1006,109,294
50,000–99,99915619515619510,250,62312,936,622
100,000 and over254125413,799,6066,713,245
Totals72,33376,97746,27651,391222,274,200239,056,473

Area figures are of little value in the case of urban and mixed lands, on account of eighth- and quarter-acre sections being treated in the statistics as having no area at all. The following summary (1929–30), which gives valuable information as to area and value in conjunction, accordingly relates only to lands classified as rural:—

Area, In Acres.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Area.Unimproved Value
Total.Per Return.Per Acre.
 Acres.££s.d.£s.d.
Under 57784801,4211,029,3591,32318724710
5 and under 101,0426897,1391,008,1069679514143
10 and under 201,8301,22525,4331,955,6271,008130761710
20 and under 504,2752,818144,6795,455,9481,27641137143
50 and under 1006,9744,013503,97811,487,8661,647410221511
100 and under 2009,8875,7771,393,75022,166,1412,24119015181
200 and under 3206,6114,0711,661,89318.884,5992,85610101178
320 and under 6107,8045,1283,551,88029,762,7813,813159877
640 and under 1,0003,2952,1772,626,10616,996,4775,15853695
1,000 and under 2,0003,1002,1734,274,39922,943,9807,40158574
2,000 and under 5,0001,5601,2054,663,06619,374,24512,41979431
5,000 and under 10,0003683332,502,7987,961,89621,635119337
10,000 and under 30,0001871642,924,1515,869,76431,38923202
30,000 and under 50,0002119783,158573,54327,3111150148
50,000 and under 100,00088604,582124,31315,53926041
100,000 and over33390,24861,29520,431134032
Not stated189159..1,239,3156,55745..
Totals47,93230,44826,058,681100,895,2553,881184681

Chapter 53. SECTION XXXV.—INCOMES.

INTRODUCTORY.

No complete statistics of annual income are available for New Zealand, but valuable data exist in regard to incomes of those furnishing returns to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of income-tax assessment. In 1923 a system of annual statistics from the particulars on the income-tax returns was inaugurated, and was continued up to and including the tax-year 1931–32, but was then discontinued for reasons of economy. The compilation has now been resumed, and detailed statistics for the tax-year 1934–35 were published in an appendix to the “Miscellaneous” Statistical Report (Prices, Wage-rates, &c.) for 1934.

Information concerning the system of income-tax in New Zealand is given earlier under the heading of “Taxation” (vide pp. 476–88). To permit of a proper understanding of the statistics given in the present section, it is advisable to peruse the observations under the reference given. The statistical information relating to income-tax given in this section more properly belongs to the Taxation Section referred to, but it is considered preferable to treat the figures relating to the incidence of tax with those showing the distribution of the incomes on which the tax is assessed.

It should be explained that the incomes returned in any tax-year are those for the preceding income-year; thus, the statistics for the tax-year 1934–35 relate to incomes received during the year 1933–34. which, in general, may be taken as the twelve months ended 31st March, 1934.

The comparability of the statistics of one year with another has been affected by changes in the law and by other factors. In particular, the personal exemption (formerly £300) was reduced to £260 in 1931 and £210 in 1933; up to 1932–33 returns of income were in general not required from “individual:;” with incomes under £250, whereas only those who both have incomes under £200 and are not assessable for tax are now exempted from furnishing returns. Many persons not required to furnish returns actually do so, and in 1931–32 and previous years such persons and their incomes were included in the statistics; for 1934–35, however, the tabulation was limited to those (1) who had assessable incomes of £200 or over, or (2) who had assessable incomes under £200 but were assessable for tax. The net effect of these changes, and of other changes in the law, should be (other things being equal) to increase substantially the aggregate number and amounts of incomes covered by the statistics for the 1934–35 tax-year as compared with earlier years. The figures for 1934–35, however, not only fail to show an increase, but, particularly in aggregate amount of income, show a decided fall, and thus furnish eloquent testimony to the severity of the depression.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX.

The following table briefly summarizes the main items of information for each of the last five years available:—

Item.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1934–35.

* Five per cent, of unimproved value.

† Abolished in 1931–32.

Number of returns108,286113,838118,757130,704125,662
Number of taxpayers52,84655,23558,99480,24563,950
 £££££
Earned income36,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,80235,097,398
Assessable income61,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,39253,194,170
Exemptions—
5 per cent, of capital value3,042,3443,464,4232,378,960*..
Personal24,739,01625,631,88126,879,17223,322,33720,235,036
Children, &c.2,686,7592,798,5782,938,1983,889,5845,164,699
Life-insurance premiums, &c.1,022,4041,140,7751,221,6011,473,3201,271,486
Unemployment-relief tax, interest-tax, &c.........1,169,552
Taxable balance29,535,98432,344,56032,800,13131,483,15125,353,397
Tax assessed3,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,7573,648,599

As stated above, the figures for the tax-year 1934–35 are not properly comparable with those for earlier years, and the position is complicated by the generally reduced level of incomes, many persons in the £300-£400 group in the 1930–31 income-year being in the £200-£300 group in 1933–34. Sufficient data exist, however, from which to give an approximate comparison of incomes in 1930–31 and 1933–34, other than those of persons and firms (Class I) under £250. The comparison is as follows:—

Class.Number of Returns.Assessable Income.
1931–32.1934–35.1931–32.1934–35.
 ££
I. Individuals (£250 and over)92,35066,76946,650,00033,950,000
II. Companies3,2873,8119,960,7999,518,369
III. Agents for debenture-holders2343148,556165,348
IV. Non-resident traders1,4201,124447,481176,634
Totals97,10071,74757,200,00043.800,000

INCOMES BY CLASSES.

Of the four classes into which taxpayers are divided. Classes III (agents for debenture-holders) and IV (non-resident traders) are insignificant in point of assessable income. Class I (individuals) includes partnerships and firms other than companies, and also includes absentee individuals other than non-resident traders. The foregoing table gives the actual figures in regard to the number of returns and assessable income for Classes II, III, and IV; but the information for Class I is, as stated above, confined to incomes of £250 and over. The total number of returns for Class I in 1934–35 was 120,684, with an assessable income amounting to £43,333,819.

Class I is responsible for thirty-two times as many returns, and contains fifteen times as many taxpayers as Class II. Its aggregate assessable income is four and a half times as much as that of Class II, and its taxable balance nearly two-thirds greater. Owing partly to exemptions and partly to the much lower average income in Class I, however, income-tax assessed for this class is only two-thirds as much as for Class II.

SOURCES OF INCOME.

In the compilation of the statistics a distinction is made as to the source from which the assessable income is derived, incomes being divided into the ten source groups shown in the table below.

Actual figures as to the amount of assessable income derived from the various sources are not available on account of the fact that in a considerable proportion of cases income is obtained from more than one source. The rule followed in such cases in compiling the statistics is to include the whole income under the principal source from which it is derived. As an indication of the extent to which the figures are affected, source “0” (salary or wages) includes £875.000 unearned income, while £450.000 earned income is included in the total for source “8” (investments and the like).

The following table summarizes for the tax-year 1934–35 the principal items from the point of view of source from which income was derived:—

Source.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Earned Income.Assessable Income.Exemptions.Taxable Balance.
 ££££
0. Salary or wages88,72632,84127,260,65S28.135,59622,255,7425,879,854
1. Following professional occupation on own account2,5262,1191,577,3441,690,051629,9751,060,076
2. Commerce, trade, or business8,4916,4362,329,4328,448,8391,351,8867,096,953
3. Industry or manufacture91084995,3932,464,75147,0662,417,685
4. Farming4,4243,5683,049,6373,420,090897,0872,523,003
5. Provision of transport or communication576391156,985690,924107,624583,300
6. Building or construction338220106,608129,49070,81458,676
7. Mining or extraction16613755,964320,09228,087292,005
8. Investments and the like19,36017,251448,7427,780,9692,445,0725,335,897
9. Provision of or engaging in entertainment14513816,635113,3687,420105,948
Totals125,66263,95035,097,39853,194,17027,840,77325,353,397

Whether in Class I alone or in the total of all classes, source 0 is the most important as regards number of incomes, number of taxpayers, and amount of earned and of assessable income. This source also leads in the matter of exemptions—so much so. in fact, that its total of £28,135,596 assessable income shrank to a comparatively low taxable, balance of £5,879,854. which was assessed for only £425,037 of tax.

Source 2 (commerce, trade, or business) ranks second in point of assessable income, and comes easily first as regards taxable balance and the amount of tax assessed. Of the totals for this source, 5,621 returns with an assessable income of £2,504,098 come within Class I, and 1,774 returns showing an assessable income of £5,772,178 in Class II (companies). Companies which derived their income from source 2 are represented by nearly half of the total company taxpayers, and well over half of the aggregate assessable income and of the tax assessed. This source ranked only fourth in point of assessable income, taxable balance, and tax assessed in Class I, being exceeded by source 8 (18,319 returns and £7,202,491 assessable income) and source 4 (4,381 returns and £3,342,180 assessable income) in addition to source 0, the figures for which are quoted above. Industry or manufacture (708 returns, £2,361,873 assessable income), second among companies, occupies a very minor position in Class I, the figures being 202 returns for an assessable income of £102,878.

The next table deals with percentages and averages, and discloses some interesting results.

Source.Percentages.Averages.
Taxpayers to Returns.Earned Income to Assessable Income.Taxable Balance to Assessable Income.Earned Income per Return.Assessable Income per Return.Exemption per Return.Taxable Balance per Taxpayer.
    ££££
0379721307317251179
1849363624669249500
27628842749951591,103
3934981052,709522,848
4818974689773203707
56823842731,2001871,492
6658245315383210267
78317913371,9281692,131
88966923402126309
995159311578251768
Totals516648279423222396

A wide range is shown between the different groups, the percentage of taxpayers to incomes varying from 37 for source 0 to 95 for source 9, of earned, income from 4 for source 3 to 97 for source 0, and of taxable balance to assessable income from 21 for source 0 to 98 for source 3.

SIZE OF INCOMES.

 Size of Assessable Income.Number of Returns.Assessable Income.Average Assessable Income.Number of Taxpayers.Percentage of Taxpayers to Returns.
££ ££  
Under2007,331446,243617,331100
200-29967,00316,272,27424313,84621
300-39924,0168,173,80634016,19867
400-49910,0474,444,1734429,50395
500-5995,3482,899,8285425,26198
600-6993,0381,958,9246453,01399
700-7991,8381,366,5117431,81799
800-8991,2681,069,6598441,25399
900-999985931,64794697599
1,000-1,9993,3824,524,3171,3383,35499
2,000-2,9997071,704,4952,41170399
3,000-3,999251859,0333,422250100
4,000-4,999137607,0524,43113599
5,000-5,99965352,3975,42165100
6,000-6,99926166,4746,40326100
7,000-7,99922167,7347,62422100
8,000-8,99919162,0428,52919100
9,000-9,99922209,2339,51122100
10,000-19,99964930,45014,53864100
20,000-29,99929719,50724,81129100
30,000-39,99914479,93534,28114100
40,000-49,9999398,55744,2849100
50,000and over414,349,879106,09541100
Totals125,66253,194,17042363,95051

A word of warning is desirable in regard to the table above classifying incomes, &c., according to size of assessable income. The forty-one incomes of £50,000 and over or the 157 of £10,000 or over do not purport to be incomes of individual persons and should not be so read. The highest income of an individual was under £30,000, and only seven individuals had assessable incomes of £10,000 or over. aggregating £101,507 and being assessed for £26,002 of tax.

Of the 120,684 “individuals” covered by the statistics, no fewer than 71,417 (59 per cent.) had assessable incomes of under £300, their incomes aggregating £16,469,843—38 per cent, of the total for the class. Only one-fourth of these individuals had any taxable balance left after the statutory exemptions had been applied, their aggregate taxable balance being only £840,363, or a little over one-twentieth of the aggregate assessable income of individuals under the £300 mark. A further 33,520, or 28 per cent, of individuals, returned assessable incomes ranging from £300 to under £500, with an aggregate assessable income of £12,414,456 (29 per cent.).

Of the 3,811 companies covered, 1,912 (just over half) had assessable income under £300. The combined incomes of these 1,912 totalled only £187,833, or less than 2 per cent, of income returned by all companies. A further 961 companies returned assessable income between £300 and £1,000, their aggregate assessable income being £531,626. Thus there were 2,873 companies (75 per cent.) with incomes of less than £1,000, and whose total assessable income amounted to £719,459. At the other end of the table are found 147 companies with incomes of £10,000 or over; these represented less than 4 per cent, of all companies, but had nearly 70 per cent. (£6.644,439) of the aggregate income for Class II.

EARNED INCOME.

Of the gross assessable income of £53,194.170, £35,097,398 (66 per cent.) ranked as earned income, and as such was exempted from the special emergency surtax of 33⅓ per cent, on standard rates payable on unearned income of individuals, but not of companies. Earned income is, of course, practically confined to Class 1 (where it represented 81 per cent, of all assessable income), no part of the income of companies and of agents for debenture-holders, and only a very small proportion of that of non-resident traders, coming within the definition of earned income. In an earlier table the amount of earned income for each source is given, and, with the exception of £4,071 in Class III (source 9—provision of or engaging in entertainment), the whole of it comes within Class I (individuals). Among the various source groups for Class I. earned income expressed as a proportion of assessable income ranges from 97 per cent, for source 0 (salary or wages) to only 6 per cent, for source 8 (investments and the like).

Generally speaking, the proportion of earned income falls as the income category increases, though exceptions to the rule are observed. Only £12,516 of the £284,148 assessable income of the 4,769 “individual” taxpayers who had less than £200 income was “earned” income.

EXEMPTIONS.

The exemptions are applied in the order shown in the following table, reading from left to right. For instance, a married man with two dependent children and an income of £250 is entitled to a personal exemption of £210, an exemption of £150 for his wife and his two children, plus, say, £12 for superannuation, contributions and £13 for payments by way of unemployment-relief taxation. The application of the personal exemption of £210 and of £40 for wife and children reduces his taxable balance to “nil,” so that only £40 is included in the second of the exemption columns, and nothing at all in the third and fourth. If the personal exemption were £100, the exemption counted for wife and children in this case would be raised to £150, and the taxable balance would still be “nil” without the superannuation contributions and the unemployment-relief taxation having to be taken into account.

The various exemptions in 1934–35 applied only to incomes in Class I (individuals), and it is only this class which need he considered in a study of the exemptions and their relative incidence according to size of income. The following table gives particulars for the tax-year 1934–35 of the amounts of the various exemptions according to size of assessable income:—

Size of Assessable come.Personal.Children, Wife, &c.Life-assurance Premiums, Ac.Unemployment-relief Tax, Interest-tax, &c.Total.
£££££££
Under20026,2415691822,98329,975
200-29913,701,3671,537,583182,545178,01015,599,505
300-3994,269,2081,757,117279,896251,6976,557,918
400-4991,421,132822,800207,615177,4462,628,993
500-599564,891410,688130,253114,8401,220,672
600-699144,664240,90089,50178,226553,291
700-79921,825120,33359,26652,172253,596
800-89912,93854,92143,63738,334149,830
900-99911,41645,21539,94333,014129,588
1,000-1,99936,336139,481161,861155,711493,389
2,000-2,99911,54423,94339,19045,842120,519
3,000-3,9993,8946,60817,19617,61845,316
4,000-4,9998,7802,70912,72010,62134,830
5,000-5,999..9992,9565,0949,049
6,000-6,9998001507762,8804,606
7,000-7,999..5831,6357883,006
8,000-8,999....162779941
9,000-9,999....8089671,775
10,000-29,999..1001,3442,5303,974
Totals20,235,0365,164,6991,271,4861,169,55227,840,773

The personal exemption in force in 1934–35 was reduced on incomes above £260, and did not apply at all to those over £725. The fact that amounts are shown under this head for incomes well above the £700-£800 group is due to the inclusion in large trust returns of small individual amounts, the recipients of which come within the provisions of the personal exemption.

The next table gives some interesting averages for the tax-year 1934–35:—

Size of Assessable Income.Per £100 of Assessable Income.Per £100 of Total Exemptions.
Personal.Children, Wife, &c.Life assurance premiums, &c.Relief Tax, &c.Total.Personal.Children, Wife, &c.Life assurance Premiums,&cRelief Tax, &c.
£££££££££££
Under2009·20·20·11·010·587·51·90·610·0
200-29984·79·51·11·196·487·89·91·21·1
300-39952·921·83·53·181·365·126·84·33·8
400-49932·618·94·84·160·454·131·37·96·7
500-59920·114·64·74·143·546·333·610·79·4
600-6997·712·84·84·229·526·243·516·214·1
700-7991·79·24·54·019·48·647·423·420·6
800-8991·35·54·43·815·08·636·729·125·6
900-9991·35·34·73·915·28·834·930·825·5
1,000-1,9990·93·64·13·912·57·428·332·831·5
2,000-2,9990·91·83·03·59·29·619·932·538·0
3,000-3,9990·71·33·33·38·68·614·637·938·9
4,000-4,9992·40·73·52·99·525·27·836·530·5
5,000-5,999..0·72·93·86·7..11·032·756·3
6,000-6,9991·00·20·03·55·617·53·316·862·5
7,000-7,999..1·3..1·76·6..19·454·426·2
8,000-8,999....0·41·82·2....17·282·8
9,000-9,999....1·41·73·1....45·554·5
10,000-29,999..0·11·32·53·9..2·533·863·7
Totals, Class I46·711·92·92·764·272·718·54·64·2 

TAXABLE BALANCE.

Exemptions being limited to Class I (individuals), this is the only class in which the assessable income and taxable balance were not identical. The nexttable gives for Class I particulars of taxable balance in relation to assessable income for the various income categories in 1934–35:—

Size of Assessable Income.Number of Returns.Numbers of Taxpayers.Assessable Income.Taxable Balance.Taxable Balance per £100 of Assessable Income.
££  £££
Under2004,7694,769284,148254,17389·5
200-29966,64813,49116,185,695586,1903·6
300-39923,08715,8698,061,5671,503,64918·7
400-4999,8429,2984,352,8891,723,89639·6
500-5995,1765,0892,805,7751,585,10356·5
600-6992,9112,8861,876,1261,322,83570·5
700-7991,7591,7381,306,8901,053,29480·6
800-8991,1831,168997,342847,51285·0
900-999901891852,283722,69584·0
1,000-1,9992,9642,9363,946,0343,452,64587·5
2,000-2,9995465421,309,8781,189,35990·8
3,000-3,999153152524,512479,19691·4
4,000-4,9998381366,935332,10590·5
5,000-5,9992525134,243125,19493·3
6,000-6,999131382,61278,00694·4
7,000-7,9996645,79242,78693·4
8,000-8,9995542,62641,68597·8
9,000-9,9996656,96555,19096·9
10,000-29,99977101,50797,53396·1
Totals120,68458,97243,333,81915,493,04635·8

The taxable balance, which represents £35·8 per £100 of assessable income for Class I, rises to £47·7 per £100 if all classes are taken into account.

Size of Taxable Balance.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Assessable Income.Taxable Balance.Taxable Balance per £100 of Assessable Income.
££  £££
Nil..60,966..15,422,580....
Under104,1803,443914,82122,0722·4
10-194,4724,4691,054,18863,9656·1
20-293,8403,845972,94893,5109·6
30-393,1393,139843,680108,21212·8
40-492,6842,684748,907118,88915·9
50-999,9459,9453,088,051711,96323·1
100-19911,24311,2434,154,8821,591,70938·3
200-2995,8225,8212,624,4231,415,97554·0
300-3993,4883.4881,830,5451,198,25465·5
400-4992,2542,2541,354,9671,002,73174·0
500-5991,6931,6931,152,605923,91280·2
600-6991,3131,3131,005,811851,48384·7
700-7991,1701,168998,131872,35187·4
800-899880879838,969743,77988·7
900-999664664710,928628,71988·4
1,000-1,9992,2422,2413,303,6842,982,42790·3
2,000-2,9994394391,135,6661,052,41392·7
3,000-3,999135135502,471465,85692·7
4,000-4,9995858269,262255,31794·8
5,000-5,9992020113,954108,70695·4
6,000-6,9999960,47657,10694·4
7,000-7,9995539,04837,20295·3
8,000-8,9997761,87259,84596·7
9,000-9,9993329,38329,11199·1
10,000and over77101,50797,53396·1
Totals, Class I120,68458,97243,333,81915,493,04635·8

While the first (able on the preceding page shows the taxable balance of the individuals in receipt of the various sizes of assessable income, it does not indicate the number of individuals with taxable balances of different amounts. This lack in previous tabulations has been remedied for the 1934–35 statistics by a special tabulation for Class I according to the amount of taxable balance. Particulars are contained in the second table on the same page.

No fewer than 60,966 individuals (slightly over half of those furnishing returns; had no taxable balance after the various exemptions had been applied. The aggregate assessable income in these cases amounted to 35½ per cent, of the total for Class I. Including the 60,966 with no taxable balance, 100,475 (88 per cent.) had under £200 taxable balance, their aggregate assessable income (£27,200,117) representing 63 per cent, of the total for the class. Their taxable balance (£2,710,326) was only 10 per cent, of their assessable income and 17½ per cent. of the total taxable balance for the class, while the tax for which they were assessed (£116,388) represented the still lower percentage of 8 to the total tax assessed for Class I.

TAX ASSESSED.

The total income-tax assessed for the tax-year 1934–35 was £3,648,599. equal to Is. 4½d. in the pound of assessable income and 2s. 10½d. in the pound of taxable balance. The amount of tax assessed and the average rates of tax for the various classes were—

Class.Tax assessed.Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable Balance.
 £s.d.s.d.
I. Individuals1,443,13208110
II. Companies2,175,0694747
III. Agents for debenture-holders13,2151717
IV. Non-resident traders17.18311111
Totals3,648,5991210½

The low figure of tax assessed per £1 of assessable income for Class I, by comparison with Class II, is not due to a lower scale of rates of taxation. As a matter of fact, for equal amounts of taxable balance the individual paid on the average a slightly higher tax than the company, having to pay an additional 33J- per cent, on unearned income and a flat rate of 4d. in the pound on taxable balance in excess of £500. and, in addition, having dividend income taken into account in the assessment of his rate of taxation, though not in arriving at the amount on which tax is paid. The special emergency tax (33⅓ per cent.) assessment for the year totalled £103,207 and the flat-rate, tax (4d. in the pound) assessment £108,591, out of a total assessment of £1,443,132 for individuals.

The explanation of the lower average tax assessed in Class I lies partly in the large exemptions in this class and partly to the generally lower incomes. The relative effect of the two factors can be fairly well gauged by comparisons of (1) the tax per £1 of assessable income as between Classes I and IV. and (2) the tax per £1 of taxable balance as between Classes I and II.

The following table gives particulars of the total tax assessed according to size of income, together with the average amount of tax assessed per return. The roman numerals at the head of the columns relate to the class numbers:—

Size of Assessable Income.Total Tax assessed.Tax assessed per Return.
Class I.Class II.Classes I-IV.Class I.Class II.Classes I-IV.
££££££££
Under20013,2884,74419,8742·82·92·7
200-29926,8762,88730,4470·410·00·5
300-30965,3813,06870,1602·814·42·9
400-49976,4424,11381,0357·822·58·1
500-59970,1844,73384,24715·320·815·8
600-69970,7371,36384,04527·437·928·0
700-70073,7003,68177,48341047·842·2
800-89965,6944,64070,85055·558·755·9
900-99960,5135,22466,48467·271·667·5
1,000-1,999302,05155,005451,521132·5130·4133·5
2,000-2,999200,62055,337258,307367·4357·0365·5
3,000-3,999102,78858,787164,107671·8625·4653·8
4,000-4,99986,11546,549135,7451,037·5912·7990·8
5,000-5,99931,61649,11385,1571,264·61,335·51,310·1
6,000-6,99921,57022,21243,7821,659·21,708·61,683·9
7,000-7,99911,56134,23145,7021,926·82,130·42,081·5
8,000-8,99912,41534,67747,0022,483·02,476·02,478·5
9,000-9,99916,06444,53861,5022,827·32,783·02,705·5
10,000-19,99926,002231,477257,4703,714·64,061·04,023·1
20,000-20,99926,002190,142192,2413,714·66,790·86,629·0
30,000-39,999..139,797139,797..9,985·59,985·5
40,000-49,999..94,53597,363..11,816·910,818·1
50,000-99,999..471,686474,820..18.141·817,585·9
100,000and over..608,270608,270..43,447·943,447·0
Totals1,443,1322,175,0693,648,59912·0570·729·0 

The next table gives another series of average tax assessed according to the size of assessable income, and further illustrates the position.

Size of Assessable Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £100 of Assessable Income.Per £100 of Taxable Balance.
I.I-IV.I.II.I-IV.1.I-IV.
£££££££££
Under2002·82·74·74·04·55·24·8
200-2992·02·20·24·10·24·64·5
300-3994·14·30·84·20·94·34·3
400-4998·28·51·85·01·84·44·5
500-59015·610·02·85·42·95·05·0
600-69927·628·24·35·84·36·06·0
700-79942·442·65·66·35·77·07·0
800-89956·256·56·66·96·67·87·7
900-99967·968·27·17·67·18·48·3
1,000-1,999133·7134·610·010·010·011·411·2
2,000-2,999370·2367·615·314·615·216·916·3
3,000-3,999676·2656·419·618·319·121·520·2
4,000-4,9991,063·11,005·523·520·522·425·923·7
5,000-5,9991,264·61,310·123·624·524·225·824·8
6,000-69991,650·21,683·026·126·526·327·727·0
7,000-7,9991,926·82,081·525·228·127·327·027·8
8,000-8,9992,483·02,478·529·129·029·129·329·2
9,000-9,9992,827·32,705·529·829·229·430·729·6
10,000-10,9993,714·64,023·125·627·027·726·727·8
20,000-29,9993,714·66,629·025·629·026·726·726·7
30,000-39,999..9,985·5..29·129·1..29·1
40,000-49,999..10,818·1..26·424·4..24·4
50,000-99,999..17,585·0..27·026·3..26·3
100,000and over..43,447·9..23·023·0..23·9
Totals24·557·13·322·96·99·314·4 

A new tabulation introduced for 1934–35 gives similar information for incomes grouped according to the amount of tax assessed, and particulars, together with various averages, are contained in the table following.

Amount of Tax assessed.Total Tax assessed.Per £100 of Assessable Income.Per £100 of Taxable Balance.
III.I-1V.I.II.I-IV.I.I-IV
££££££££££
 Nil..................
Under15,0052165,4280·23·70·23·33·3
1 and under211,62843912,3040·53·90·63·83·8
2 and under313,02454614,4420·83·80·94·04·0
3 and under415,99873016,9461·13·81·13·93·9
4 and under514,87163115,7371·33·81·34·04·9
5 and under616,44071617,4041·53·81·64·14·0
6 and under714,88367815,7011·73·81·84·14·1
7 and under815,87093916,9821·93·92·04·14·1
8 and under914,25756914,9962·03·92·14·24·2
9 and under1013,15274114,0182·13·92·24·24·2
10 and under1553,1423,26357,0422·63·92·54·44·4
15 and under2037,1983,03340,8153·34·43·45·04·9
20 and under3065,5695,20271,3404·15·04·25·65·6
30 and under4054,5314,67659,6315·15·45·16·46·3
40 and under5053,0043,59557,3716·06·26·07·17·0
50 and under6050,1244,26754,7756·66·86·77·77·6
60 and under7047,1454,36952,0427·27·27·28·28·1
70 and under8041,1104,19245,5947·77·87·78·78·6
80 and under9039,4734,41444,1418·27·98·29·39·2
90 and under10031,4243,50835,1238·68·48·69·79·6
100 and under12573,30510,58584,8999·38·99·210·410·2
125 and under15060,0695,72266,26310·49·910·311·511·3
150 and under20082,12117,501100,02710·910·710·912·211·9
200 and under300129,08423,417154,11213·312·113·214·614·2
300 and under40079,69923,542104,97715·214·415·016·516·0
400 and under50064,70820,75486,39517·616·117·218·918·1
500 and under60044,28425,55870,40218·617·218·120·519·1
600 and under70038,04514,07753,67720·818·420·222·521·3
700 and under80026,95515,84012,79521·419·920·823·121·8
800 and under90023,95517,81942,53721·618·019·923·720·9
900 and under1,00022,87514,37437,24923·921·623·026·024·1
1,000 and under2,000114,50496,793218,69127·122·324·728·825·4
2,000 and under3,00039,000116,563160,49131·527·926·232·926·4
3,000 and under4,00016,09797,975117,20632·023·121·833·121·9
4,000 and under5,00019,28178,29291,80830·029·229·431·426·6
5000 and under600019,28160,46466,22930·029·129·131·429·3
6,000 and under7.000..72,50772,507..29·229·2..29·2
7,000 and under8,000..74,38374.383..26·226·2..26·2
8,000 and under9,000..50,87950.870..29·229·2..29·2
9,000 and under10,000..66,14966,149..29·029·0..29·0
10,000 and over....1,225,0911,225,091..26·126·1..26·1
Totals1,443,1322,175,0693,048,5903·322·96·99·314·4

It is of interest to note that of the 120,681 individuals covered by the statistics, 61,712, with assessable income aggregating £15,625,335 (over a third of the total for Class I), were not assessed for tax. Of the 58,972 assessed for tax. 30,860 (52 per cent.), with incomes aggregating £8,699,357 (31½ per cent.), were assessed for under £5 of tax. At the other end of the scale, 114 individuals were each assessed for over £1,000 of tax. their average assessment being £1,657.

Even among the companies, 1,307 (34 per cent.) hail an assessment of under £5. The aggregate income of these companies was only £(17.528—well under 1 per cent, of the assessable income for all companies. Companies which were assessed for over £1,000 of tax numbered 259. under 7 per cent, of the total; their aggregate assessable income, however, was £7,384,829 (77A per cent, of the Class 11 total), and their aggregate tax assessment was £1,939,096 (89 per cent. of company tax). Some fifty-one companies, with a total assessable income of £4.698.893, were each assessed for over £10,000 of tax (an aggregate of £1,225,091), which constituted 56 per cent, of company tax and 33A per cent, of the total tax-assessed for all classes.

AGGREGATE PRIVATE INCOME.

It is advisable at the outset to stress the point that the figures given hereunder relate to aggregate private income and that their use as figures of “National Income” is an illegitimate one. Concepts of “national” income are both numerous and widely divergent, but the term “national” is hero inapplicable, if only for the reason that all forms of public income are excluded.

The concept of “aggregate private income” is also by no means devoid of divergent interpretations. However, as used here, a definition roughly correct isthat it comprises the sum total of the incomes of all the individuals of the population, plus the undistributed portion (inclusive of State taxation) of company profits. Under “incomes” are included monetary payments from all sources, such as salaries, wages, revenue from investments, gratuities, pensions, superannuation, &c. In the later estimates, although not in that derived chiefly from the 1926 census records, certain non-monetary emoluments—e.g., free housing, free fuel and lighting, &c, where such are in reality part-payments for services—are given a monetary equivalent and treated as income. Where an individual owns and occupies a dwelling the rental value is not assessed as income. Net receipts (gross receipts, less expenditure incurred in earning them) of business houses, farmers, professional men, landlords, employers of labour, &c, are taken. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayments of debts, &c.—are excluded. It is probable that the estimates tend to understate the aggregate private income, owing to the inclusion in some eases of domestic expenditure or living-costs among expenditure incurred in earning income. No allowance is made on this account in the statistical computation, and the estimates should be regarded as on the conservative side.

As estimates at a given date the data quoted possess recognized limitations, but when derived from the same sources the movement from year to year is of serviceable accuracy.

From the 1926 census statistics of income categories, taken in conjunction with the statistics compiled from the income-tax returns for the income-year ended 31st March, 1926, an approximate estimate of the aggregate income of individual members of the community was compiled for the year 1925–26. Allowing for the effect of approximations and arbitrary allocations, the estimated sum Total of the income of all individuals for 1925–26 may be set down conservatively as lying between £130m. and £140m. In such a computation certain weaknesses exist. reducing any estimate to a rough approximation only. The compilation is discussed at greater length in the 1932 Year-Book. Results are given in detail in Vol. XI of the 1926 census results.

The basis for the estimates of aggregate private income quoted in the table below is provided by the figures of receipts from the emergency employment charge imposed for the raising of funds for the relief of unemployment.

The charge on income other than salaries or wages is necessarily made on the income of the preceding year, so that the figure from which to estimate “other” income is that of taxation receipts from this source in the succeeding year. In other instances it has been necessary to make allowances and adjustments, chiefly of a minor character.

But certain types of income were not subject to the charge, particulars of these exemptions being given on page 486. For these classes estimates have been prepared—in part upon a more or less arbitrary basis. Amendments to the exemptions are responsible for the movement in some of the items for the year 1934–35.

 1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934·35.
* Four and a half months.
 £ m.£ m.£ m.£ m.
Subject to emergency charge—
  Wages60·555·057·361·2
  Other income25·022·329·027·4
Wages of persons under twenty......1·1*
Wages of exempt relief workers2·02·92·82·5
Wages of domestic servants1·01·01·00·9
“Other” exempt income of women3·13·13·13·5
“Other” exempt income of Maoris1·01·01·0..
Undistributed company income (including income-tax payments)3·02·53·53·5
Pensions under Pensions Act1·71·71·81·8
Other exempt income0·50·50·51·2
 £97·8£90·0£100·0£103·1

It need scarcely be stressed that the estimates are merely fairly rough approximations.

There is no fixed relationship between the aggregate private income and the value of production (given in Section XLV). It is necessary to make this observation since there appears to be misconception upon the point.

Chapter 54. SECTION XXXVI—PRICES.

PRICE FIXATION.

IN New Zealand, as in other countries, increased regulation of prices by Governmental control has been a feature of economic policy in recent years. Nation-wide control of prices of essential commodities was resorted to during the Great War. the motives behind legislation and regulations towards that end being the necessity of purchasing at reasonable prices commodities required for war purposes, and the protection of the consumer from the full force of the abnormal rises in prices caused by the scarcity of many necessary commodities. The success of tin-legislation in so far as the New Zealand consumer is concerned is to be found in the relatively low war and post-war peaks of price-levels in the Dominion.

The administration of these price-fixing measures was in the hands of the Board of Trade, set up under the provisions of the Cost of Living Act, 1915. regulations being issued from time to time fixing maximum prices for various commodities—e.g., sugar, timber, wheat, &c. The Board of Trade Act. 1919 (in consolidation and amendment of the pre-existing legislation) contained provisions for the establishment of the Department of Industries and Commerce and for a Board of Trade, the Board to consist of the Minister of Industries and Commerce (President) and not more than four other members. By an amendment in 1923 the Board was abolished, its functions being taken over by the Minister. Authority was also taken under the Act “for the establishment of fixed minimum or maximum prices or rates for any classes of goods or services or otherwise for the regulation or control of such prices or rates.” The Act also includes provisions especially aimed at the prevention of profiteering.

The control of prices initiated during the war years continued in some instances well into the post-war period, the dates of cessation of control in certain important individual cases being: Bacon and ham, February, 1920; butter. August. 1921; sugar, August, 1923. Control of prices of building-materials was resorted to in 1920 and 1921, during the period of acute shortage of these materials.

Control of wheat prices was made necessary shortly after the outbreak of the Great War; fixation of prices of wheat and flour, with Government subsidies on Hour and guaranteed prices of wheat, continuing until February, 1923, while control of imports—which was a necessary part of the policy—and “agreed” prices continued until February, 1923. Maximum prices of bread, flour, bran, and pollard were fixed by Orders in Council until 24th February, 1925, when free-market conditions were again resumed. In order to protect wheat-growers from world competition, a sliding scale of import duties was introduced in 1927 designed to maintain a payable price within the Dominion. From time to time the sliding scale has been altered; but the system remains in operation. On 11th March. 1936, regulations were issued prohibiting the import of wheat or flour, except with the consent of the Department of Industries and Commerce. In 1933 a Wheat-purchase Board was set up, with representatives of the wheat-growers and flour-millers, and under the chairmanship of the Secretary of Industries and Commerce. to control the purchase and distribution of milling-wheat of the 1933 season. All purchases and sales of milling-wheat were to be conducted through the agency of the Board, which fixed its buying and selling prices of milling-wheat. The growers received interim payments during the season, a final distribution being made at the close of the season. The system has operated in each successive season since 1932–33; while, in regulations gazetted on 1st April, 1930, the Board is also required to fix minimum prices of flour, and, if it thinks fit, wheaten by-products. Authority for the control of output of flour-mills is taken by the same regulations.

Maximum prices of bread in the Dominion are now fixed by regulations under the Board of Trade Act. 1919. An Order in Council dated 12th February, 1936, fixed a maximum price in the four urban areas and in certain localities contiguous thereto; the Order applied also in the City of Invercargill and the Boroughs of Ashburton, Temuka, Timaru, and Oamaru. This represents the first Governmental fixation of bread prices since the expiry in 1925 of the war and post-war regulations to the same end. Amended regulations came into force on 28th August, 1936. applying maximum prices to the whole Dominion.

The maximum prices at which superphosphates can be sold have been fixed by regulations since October, 1931, as a measure towards the assistance of the farming industry. A lowering of prices was achieved by the payment of a subsidy to the companies, but payment of the subsidy has now been abolished (without a ..... raising of prices).

Prices of woolpacks are fixed by regulations dated 13th May, 1936.

The Motor-spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act, 1933, gives power to fix maximum and minimum prices of motor-spirit; the administration of the Act being a function of the Industries and Commerce Department. Prices of motor-spirit are still fixed by regulations under this Act-Extensive regulation of fares has for some years past existed in the realm of transport. In order to control chaotic and uneconomic competition in road services, schedules of fares and freight rates have been fixed for services along specified routes by various regulations under the Transport Licensing Act, 1931; while competition between tramways and bus services has led to the fixation of minimum bus fares in certain localities where these services enter into competition with the tramway services.

The fares chargeable by aircraft services are also the subject of Governmental regulations. Maximum and minimum taxi fares may be fixed by municipalities under the authority of the Municipal Corporations Act, 1933.

Following is a table of regulated prices operative at present (October, 1936) in respect of certain important commodities:—

Commodity.Unit.Price.Remarks.
  £s.d. 
Wheat (milling)—
TuscanBushel05Price to South Island mills.
HuntersBushel05Price to South Island mills.
PearlBushel05Price to South Island mills.
FlourTon387At store main centres or f.o.r. for country delivery.
Bread (retail)2 lb. loaf00Main centres and certain boroughs, &c. Cash; delivery, ½d. extra (maximum). Rest of Dominion, (6d. cash: up to ½d. extra allowed for delivery.
Superphosphates—
44/46 per cent.Ton3160Ex works or ex trucks, North Island.
44/46 per cent.Ton420Ex works or ex trucks, South Island.
Motor-spiritsGallon (imp).0110Is. 10d. in some localities, Is. 11d. in others.
  and 
  0111 
WoolpacksEach03442 in. by 27 in. by 27 in., ex store, main ports.
WoolpacksEach03748 in. by 27 in. by 27 in., ex store, main ports.
WoolpacksEach031054 in. by 27 in. by 27 in., ex store, main ports.

Prices of wheat shown above are present prices (October). The schedule varies according to the time of the year. The prices shown are those charged to South Island mills; those to North Island being lid. lower, to enable price equalization throughout the Dominion.

The Prevention of Profiteering Act, 1936, was passed to prevent profiteering by prohibiting the making of unreasonable increases in prices (vide Section XXXVIII—Labour Laws and Allied Legislation). The Primary Products Marketing Act, 1936, in addition to making provision for the declaration of guaranteed prices in respect of exported butter and cheese, contains provision for the fixation by Order in Council of prices of dairy-produce for consumption in New Zealand. As yet no Orders have been issued under this authority, which is not mandatory. Control of prices of milk in Wellington is in the hands of the Wellington City Council, which was granted a monopoly (with certain minor exceptions) of the sale of milk in Wellington by a local Act passed in 1919. The Auckland Metropolitan Milk Act, 1933, authorizes the Auckland City Council to fix prices for milk sold in Auckland City and suburbs, although in this instance a monopoly has not been created.

RETAIL PRICES.—INTRODUCTORY.

Retail-price quotations, from which index numbers are regularly calculated, are collected each month in twenty-five towns of the Dominion, selected as being representative of New Zealand as a whole. These twenty-five towns are distributed over both Islands, from Whangarei in the North to Invercargill in the South, and are representative of both coastal and inland districts, and of both large and small centres. Returns of prices are collected by local Inspectors of Factories, for the most part from representative retailers, and from these data index numbers are computed in the Census and Statistics Department, Wellington. These index numbers are published each month in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The commodities for which monthly index numbers are compiled are foodstuffs and fuel and lighting, foodstuffs being divided into three groups—groceries, dairy-produce, and meat. House-rents have been collected at six-monthly intervals since the inauguration of price statistics in 1914, and later the inquiry was extended to cover clothing and miscellaneous items, figures for which are collected at quarterly intervals.

Separate series of index numbers of retail prices are compiled and published for the following groups:—

  1. Group I.—Groceries.

  2. Group II.—Dairy-produce.

  3. Group III.—Meat.

  4. Group IV.—Housing.

  5. Group VII.—Miscellaneous items.

  6. Group V.—Fuel and light.

  7. Group VI.—Clothing (including drapery and footwear).

  8. Group VII.—Miscellaneous items.

In addition, index numbers are compiled and published for the food (that is, the first there) groups combined, and also for all groups combined.

Prior to the year 1931 the retail-price index numbers were compiled on a pre-war base; but during 1931 a series of index numbers was initiated based on the average of prices ruling during the five years 1926–30. In order to permit of the revision being carried out, a collection of household budgets was made in 1930, so that an estimate of the proportionate distribution of expenditure in the various main groups of household expenditure might be made. These data are used in combining the group index numbers in order to arrive at a single figure representing all groups combined. The results of the budget collection were published in some detail in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 793–795).

In the compilation of the index numbers for the food groups, rent, and fuel and light, the aggregate expenditure method is used—that is, the retail price of each individual item in these groups is “weighted” according to its average annual consumption in the Dominion during the years 1926 to 1930. In the clothing and drapery and miscellaneous groups the unweighted geometric average of price ratios is used for most subgroups, no reliable data being available as to the consumption of individual items in these groups, except in the case of two subgroups in the miscellaneous group (fares and cleaning supplies), where the aggregate expenditure method is adopted.

RETAIL FOOD-PRICES.

The following table shows the annual average index numbers for the three food groups combined, for each of the four chief centres and for the Dominion as a whole during the last ten years. In the compilation of these indexes each item and separate group (groceries, dairy-produce, and meat) is accorded its proper relative importance in the combined food-groups index number. The average of annual Dominion index numbers for the years 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

THREE FOOD GROUPS.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1926102710151010104710251026
1927976978982986981983
1928100998099010069961004
19291030984995100910051013
1930983959946966964974
1931848827843829837845
1932773761770751764775
1933724719732700719732
1934781760765743762774
1935863811814811825835

The index numbers in the table are comparable both horizontally and vertically, since each column has the same base.

To obtain a general estimate of the course of prices for the whole Dominion it has been necessary to obtain a weighted average of the index numbers for each of the twenty-five representative towns. Price-indexes for each town have been weighted in accordance with the number of people in the respective centres, and a composite index number has been obtained, which, though necessarily artificial, represents accurately enough the average level of retail prices in the Dominion.

The twenty-five towns considered have a total population of approximately half that of New Zealand, and they can therefore be regarded as reasonably representative of the Dominion. The four chief centres, which include nearly 40 per cent, of the Dominion's population, account for over 70 per cent, of the population of the twenty-five towns, so that their influence in the Dominion index number is naturally predominating. However, the chief centres not only comprise a great part of the people of the Dominion, but also set the standard which is generally followed throughout the county.

The 1933 index numbers for each of the four cities and the Dominion are the lowest recorded during the last decade, a substantial fall occurring between 1929 and 1933. The Dominion annual average index (732) for 1933 was only 4·1 per cent, above July. 1914. prices. The figures for 1934 and 1935, however, generally indicate a restoration of prices almost to the 1931 level. For the most recent index numbers refer to “Latest Statistical Information” in the forefront of this volume.

Attention may be drawn in passing to the comparatively small differences recorded between the average figures for the four chief centres and the Dominion weighted averages. In this respect, as will be shown later on in this section, the average of the three food groups combined stands in marked contrast to the rent group.

RETAIL PRICES OF GROCERIES.

Index numbers of retail prices of groceries in each of the four chief centres are given in the following table, which also shows the unweighted average of the four centres and the Dominion weighted average. The average of the Dominion annual index numbers for 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1926103810331021106510391047
1926103810331021106510391047
19271021995989100610031015
192810421007989102010151033
1929985953932958957973
1930928922883924914932
1931899876842887876891
1932856837804863840857
1933813780787832803819
1934815837817850830845
1935884904858900887899

Prices in the groceries group fell steadily, though slowly, during the decade ending with 1933, the Dominion index number for that year being the lowest recorded during the period. Prices generally have risen during 1934 and 1935, in most cases to beyond the 1931 level.

The factors underlying the fluctuations in the groceries group will be more clearly understood when it is remembered that the items comprising the group are varied in nature, and may be treated in three subgroups as shown below. The fundamental distinction is that the items comprising Group 1a are almost wholly imported from overseas, while those in Group lb are almost wholly produced in the country. Sugar is not wholly a product of New Zealand, the raw material being imported and refined at Auckland. The Dominion weighted average index number, 1920–30, equals 1000 in each case.

GROCERIES SUBGROUPS.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
Group la.—General Groceries.
1931901847815865857
1932872786787841822
1933842782777849813
1934870871857934883
1935887881809910888
Group lb.—Bread, Flour, Oatmeal, Potatoes, and Onions.
1931941940839846892
1932833853783845829
1933734709725760732
1934731773740755750
1935845878807853846
Group Ic.—Sugar.
1931779772796779782
1932896890907918903
193311131108111411231115
193410781082108710931085
193510021084107110811075

It is noteworthy that, despite the further depreciation of New Zealand currency on sterling in January, 1933, the average index number for Group lA (which is comprised almost wholly of imported foodstuffs) was slightly lower in 1933 than in 1932. The 1934 figure, however, showed a substantial increase, and the upward movement continued during 1935.

The very considerable advance in Group In is due to higher prices for all items in the group, but principally in the ease of potatoes.

The retail prices index numbers for Group lc (sugar) fell considerably for some years prior to 1932, when a sharp rise was recorded, the effect of the imposition of an increased duty on sugar. The further rise in 1933 synchronized with the raising of the exchange rate.

RETAIL PRICES OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The next table shows annual average retail price index numbers for the dairy-produce group. The Dominion weighted average index number for 1926–1930 equals 1000.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1926106510721009106210521045
192710361032968102210151010
192810321025958102510101006
19291005103194310241001999
1930942954905954939939
1931819836766778800807
1932742761667680713 
1933652708617625651 
1934680704612651662666
1935761787698744748749

Between 1922 and 1929 dairy-produce prices did not fluctuate to any marked extent, the lowest Dominion annual index number during that period being 985 (in 1922) and the highest 1053 (in 1924). Between 1929 and 1933 a marked downward trend in dairy-produce prices is apparent. The 1933 annual average index (661) is considerably below that for any year during the preceding decade, while the 1934 figure shows a rise of five points only as compared with 1933. For 1935, however, each of the indexes given in the above table shows an increase of over eighty points since the previous year.

RETAIL PRICES OF MEAT.

Between the years 1922 and 1929 the general trend of meat prices was upward, the lowest Dominion index number recorded during that period being 813 (in 1922) and the highest 1052 (in 1929). A slight falling-off in meat prices in 1930 was followed by a collapse in 1931, the index number for the latter year (834) representing a fall of 199 points, or 19·3 per cent., as compared with the 1930 figure. Retail prices of meat in 1931 were still slightly higher than in the year 1922; but during 1932 and 1933 prices fell to a lower level than was recorded during the slump of 1922, the annual average index number for 1933 (714) representing a considerable decrease on the 1922 annual average index number. Although the 1934 figure advanced eighty-two points as compared with the previous year, and 1935 a further fifty points, this index is still lower than at any time from 1923 to 1930, and is only 11-5 per cent, above the 1914 level.

MEAT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average. (1926–30 = 1,000.)
192699095910011021993994
1927896924985941937937
19289669261012980971979
192910809731079103610421052
193010529901023100510181033
1931829781897815831834
1932729702817714741747
1933705678769650701714
1934827740838725783796
1935919756863789832846

FOOD-PRICES.—COMPARISON WITH JULY, 1914.

For purposes of all the foregoing tables the base period has been taken as the average of the years 1926–30. For some purposes, however, interest centres on the comparison between present prices and those prevailing immediately prior to the outbreak of the Great War. One of the advantages of the aggregate expenditure method is that it enables index numbers computed on one base to be converted by a simple application of the rule of proportion to another base regarded as desirable for some special purpose. The following table relates to the Dominion weighted average for the respective groups:—

Group.First Quarter, 1935.Second Quarter, 1935.Third Quarter, 1935.Fourth Quarter, 1935.Average for Year 1935.
Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*
* Over July, 1914.
Groceries (index number, July, 1914: 624)87740·587339·988441·796154·089944·1
Dairy-produce (index number, July, 1914: 719)7190·07727·47544·97534·77494·2
Meat, (index number, July, 1914: 759)8299·283810·484411·287515·384611·5
Three food groups (index number, July, 1914: 703)81315·683018·183018·186823·583518·8

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL FOOD-PRICES.

Using the weights used in the compilation of the New Zealand food price-index, attempts have been made to determine the relation between food-prices in New Zealand and in other countries, experiments having shown that the use of the weights employed in the computation of the index numbers of the other countries respectively does not greatly affect the result in the case of comparisons between countries with not essentially dissimilar standards of living. The commodities included, though comparatively few, cover the most important foodstuffs. The percentages shown in the second column of figures in the table following are the results, taking food-prices in New Zealand (Dominion weighted average) in February, 1936, as 100.

Country.Percentage of Food Prices to New Zealand Food Prices.
July, 1914.February, 1936.
South Africa141123
United States129129
Canada125114
Australia105½112

HOUSE-RENT.

In investigating changes in the cost of housing the Census and Statistics Department has traced the movements of house-rent over a series of years. Such normally provide a reasonably accurate indication (and, in effect, the only practical means available) of movements in housing-costs in general, not only for those paying rent, but also for those who own or partially own the dwellings they occupy. It is probable that this latter assumption is less valid in the abnormal conditions existing since 1930.

By reason of the fact that leases, infrequent changes of residence, and the difficulty of departing from customary rents all tend to make the movement of the general level of rents comparatively slow, it has not been deemed necessary to attempt to measure the changes over short periods. The data from which the rent figures are compiled are therefore collected semi-annually only, in the months of February and August. Annual index numbers for rent are computed on the assumption that the February index number represents conditions prevailing during the first four and a half months of the year, the August number conditions prevailing during the next six months, and the number for February of the following year conditions prevailing during the last one and a half months of the year.

HOUSE-RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

YearAucklandWellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average (1926–30 = 1000).
19269901111977808972962
192710191191101088010251000
192810041261100490910451014
1929985133699093710621019
1930953132697395810531007
19318761241926936995953
19327631063823846874844
1933693937748799794766
1934696929747792791758
1935719964755802801774

It is advisable to stress that the index numbers in respect of rent indicate the-movement in the average rentals of a large number of houses already let, in many cases for some time, and that they do not purport to convey any statement as to the price at which housing accommodation has been obtainable from time to time by would-be occupants of houses then being relet.

The index numbers for each of the twenty-five towns at each of the last five collections are appended, together with yearly index numbers for 1934 and 1935.

HOUSE-RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS FOR TWENTY-FIVE TOWNS.

Town.Yearly Average, 1934.Yearly Average 1935.August, 1934.February, 1935.August, 1935.February, 1936.August, 1936.
Auckland696719700704725738791
Wellington929964923958961993996
Christchurch747755743749756771780
Dunedin792802789797803810825
Whangarei697696709702694687710
Hamilton761754761756751763774
Rotorua776778753760778832827
Waihi483497485488501511551
Gisborne701688689710675676706
Napier778780770767791776749
Dannevirke571593559557612628633
New Plymouth8008017938OO808779840
Wanganui588595589585599607617
Taihape643633648634628651639
Palmerston North780794773771808806829
Masterton774772766767776707770
Blenheim597606599591614621642
Nelson769755770771748736740
Greymouth680659639654655692715
Ashburton720698718706694691706
Timaru689706694694709730735
Oamaru694714692713714719724
Alexandra564585586560604583582
Gore627635620664623598592
lnvercargill666674659666677685701
Dominion weighted average (1926–30 = 1000)758774756766776789812

House-rents reached a peak level in 102!). since which year the Dominion rent-index number fell at each successive collection up to and inclusive of 1934. Subsequent figures, however, exhibit a definite upward trend. Although population increase has been slow, building also fell off during the depression. With internal movement of population affecting the position, there appears to be a shortage of houses in some localities. Rent and interest charges were compulsorily reduced by 20 per cent, by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. The reduction was at first temporary, but has since been made permanent, in cases to which it still applies, by the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1930. The Fair Rents Act, passed in 1936, is a temporary measure designed to prevent undue increases in rents. A comprehensive housing policy, including the building of houses by the Government and local authorities for letting at low rentals, is being put into effect (see Section XXXVIII).

FOOD AND RENT.

Generally speaking, apart from the consideration of different rates of population-increase, the chief centres have higher rentals than the minor centres. As, however, the four largest centres have lower indexes for food than the majority of the smaller towns, the combination of these two groups presents quite a different picture from that displayed by either group individually. The following figures represent yearly averages for 1935:—

Group.Weighted Average of Four Chief Centres. (a.)Weighted Average of Twenty-one Smaller Centres. (b.)Excess of (b) over (a).Dominion Weighted Average.
* Excess of (a) over (b).
Groceries88093044899
Dairy-produce7517405*749
Meat846840..840
Three food groups83184413835
House-rent80171091*774

The following table shows the index numbers for the various groups for each of the twenty-five towns on the base: Dominion weighted average expenditure, 1926–30, equals 1000:—

FOOD GROUPS AND RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS FOR TWENTY-FIVE TOWNS,1935.

Town.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.
Auckland884701919863719
Wellington904787750811904
Christchurch858698863814755
Dunedin9007447S9811802
Whangarei94272089185S696
Hamilton977702892881754
Rotorua1034788912915778
Waihi959710801848497
Gisborne974763753825688
Napier891748742790780
Dannevirke922751788819593
New Plymouth900698808830801
Wanganui958738849851595
Taihape1011789775853633
Palmerston North929724870847794
Masterton971772831858772
Blenheim937720938877606
Nelson920793920885755
Greymouth880817842848659
Ashburton835748843813698
Timaru803728855821700
Oamaru893758797810714
Alexandra905780843803585
Gore924792868804635
Invercargill932734857845674
Weighted average for Dominion899749840835774

Ashburton, Christchurch. and Timaru are the cheapest in respect of prices of groceries, while Rotorua has the highest index for this group. Greymouth, Nelson, and Gore are dearest in respect of prices of dairy-produce; while the Blenheim index for meat is highest, followed by Nelson and Auckland. Christ-church and New Plymouth show the lowest prices for dairy-produce, while meat is cheapest in Napier, Gisborne. and Wellington.

RETAIL PRICES OF FUEL AND LIGHT.

For the purpose of tracing the course of prices in the fuel and light group, a small group of seven items—coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas, electricity, and candles—is taken into account for the four chief centres. It is not feasible to extend this index to the remaining twenty-one centres covered by the food and rent indexes.

FUEL AND LIGHT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Period.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres (1926–30 = 1000.)
Year.
1926107797710578971002
1927107897910619011005
1928111597410548991011
19291114968986898992
19301112968988897991
19311108951995892987
19321020925993894958
1933860931987781890
1934807880976695841
1935900873974713865
Quarter.
First, 1935847865974683842
Second, 1935914873975711868
Third, 1935913877974730874
Fourth, 1935919877974730875
First, 1936922881954737874
Second, 1936931878954737875
Third, 193699287S955787903

The average index number for this group for the four chief centres fell sharply between 1922 and 1923, remained practically stationary between 1923 and 1931, and fell in 1932, 1933. and 1934, since when an upward tendency is again in evidence. Fuel and lighting prices are, on the average, substantially lower in Dunedin than in any other centre.

RETAIL PRICES OF CLOTHING AND OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS.

In regard to the method of treatment of the clothing and miscellaneous groups, it is to be explained that, as in the case of fuel and light, the inquiry is in general restricted to the four chief centres; further, except as regards fares, in respect of which accurate weights based on usage in the base period are available, enabling the aggregate-expenditure method to be employed, no satisfactory information is available or procurable which would enable individual weights to be allotted to each item. For this reason the same measure of precision is not possible in the treatment of these groups, but by selective balancing of representative items and arranging them in representative subgroups a measure of weighting is secured, each subgroup being treated as a separate unit. Price ratios are computed, geometric averages of which are compiled for the subgroups and for the complete groups. In order to facilitate the dropping of obsolete items and the inclusion of new items (particularly in the clothing groups), the initial computations of price ratios are based on prices in the immediately preceding collection of the data, the group averages being linked to the 1926–30 base. The movement of prices of clothing and miscellaneous items from year to year may be traced in the table under the next heading.

RETAIL PRICES.—ALL GROUPS.

From the collection of household budgets in 1930, the average household expenditure under various heads was found to be as follows:—

 Per Cent.
Food29·52
Housing21·93
Clothing, drapery, and footwear12·61
Fuel and light6·17
Miscellaneous29·77
 100·00

These weights are applied to the index numbers of the different groups in the process of arriving at the “all groups” retail price-index, with the exception that the weight applied to the miscellaneous group is 11·08 and not 29·77. Thus 81 per cent, of household expenditure is covered by the index number. The remaining 19 per cent, represents miscellaneous items for which it has been found impossible to obtain reliable price-quotations. Their omission has the effect of giving them the same general average price-movement as the 81 per cent, covered.

The following table shows the index numbers for all groups for each of the last ten years. It should be noted that the annual index numbers given represent the average price-level during each year, not at any of the particular points during the year at which the prices for the respective groups were collected:—

ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS.

(Base: Dominion weighted average of prices in 1926–30 in twenty-five centres in case of Groups I to IV, and average of prices in 1926–30 in four chief centres in case of Groups V, VI, and VII = 1000.)

Year.Food Groups.Rent. (IV.)Fuel and Light. (V.)Clothing, Drapery, and Footwear. (VI.)Miscellaneous. (VII.)All Groups combined. (I-VII.)Increase per Cent. over July, 1914.
Groceries. (I.)Dairy-produce. (II.)Meat. (III.)Three Food Groups (I-III.)
* Month of July.
1914*624718759703535585686601628..
1926104710459941020962100210601013101060·8
1927101510109379831000100510171033100159·4
1928103310069791004101410119951002100660·2
1929973999105210131019992980986100459·9
19309329391033974100799194798698156·2
193189180783484595398786998690644·3
193285772274777584495881497383833·4
193381966171473276689081697679526·6
193484566679677475884183297380828·7
193589974984683577486582897583733·3

The index numbers for all groups combined had not fluctuated to any great extent between 1923 and 1930, but after the latter year a considerable fall took place. In 1934 and 1935 an upward tendency is again in evidence, the 1935 annual average index number (837) showing an increase of 5·2 per cent, over 1933, or 3·6 per cent, over 1934.

WHOLESALE PRICES.

In most countries index numbers of wholesale prices are compiled from the price data available in trade journals or from the published reports of wholesale markets. in New Zealand wholesale markets scarcely exist, and consequently price data for the wholesale-prices investigation have been collected from wholesale merchants and traders, who from the volume of the business they transact care able to supply representative information.

Since 1917 such wholesale-price quotations have been collected monthly, the inquiry being for the most part confined to the four chief centres. In the case of a few commodities (e.g., newsprint), of which there is a local consumption so large that the article can scarcely be omitted from the price-index, yet for which no actual local market exists, the inclusion of the commodity in the index number has been rendered possible by ascertaining movements of prices from the import statistics. Statistics of imports and exports as a source of price data have, however, been avoided as far as possible, on the ground that where quotations are obtained from traders care can be taken to ensure that the grade, &c, quoted for is kept constant. A considerable volume of data as to wholesale price3 was secured from merchants and traders (and in a few cases from import figures) by moans of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information was secured to permit of the compilation for each year from 1891 onwards of a “general” wholesale-price index number based on the prices of 106 commodities.

During 1926 a revision of the wholesale price-index was effected, specially designed, inter alia, to permit of the inclusion in the index number of several commodities such as motor-spirit, &c., the importance of which had increased enormously since the index was originally instituted. The list of commodities represents a wide range, covering articles of home production and of foreign production, of farm, mine, marine, factory, &c, origin, and representing all stages of production.

The base adopted for purposes of the wholesale-price inquiry is the average of the wholesale prices in the four chief centres during 1909 to 1913, the price quotations from the various merchants being so combined that each return from any given town has the same weight in the averaging process as any other return from that town, while in obtaining Dominion average prices for any given commodity each of the four centres is given the same weight.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Index Number.
1891975
1892953
1893954
1894909
1895902
1896925
1897924
1898953
1899876
1900899
1901913
1902956
1903936
1904904
1905975
1906996
1907996
1908987
1909931
1910964
1811975
10121021
19131012
19141053
19151184
19161273
19171449
19181705
19191782
19202092
19211942
19221665
19231598
19241634
19251627
19261553
19271478
19281492
19291488
19301449
19311346
19321297
19331308
19341330
19351385

The wholesale-price index is purely a commodity index, no attempt having been made to cover the wholesale prices of services such as the supply of electric power, transportation, &c. The index relates only to commodities consumed locally, and is based on production, plus imports, less exports.

For purposes of the wholesale inquiry recourse is had to a modification of the method of the retail-prices investigation—the aggregate expenditure method.

The following table shows annual wholesale-price index numbers by groups.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS BY GROUPS.

Group.1913.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
1. Foodstuffs, &c., of vegetable origin—
A. Agricultural produce967153712751336108011711485
B. Fresh fruit and vegetables10311215110491410508791172
C. Milled agricultural products982171816451436134113211282
D. Other vegetable foodstuffs and groceries1010162310701783189318881851
A-D. Four subgroups combined991157614791504145114661583
2. Textile manufactures1020186216811560154315971608
3. Wood and wood products1072199818981843185818701909
4. Animal products—
A. Meats11111449103781594110961186
B. Raw animal products (not foods)1085840649596760950865
C, Leather1126150212441269133413601341
D. Manufactured foodstuffs and groceries of animal origin10301282111210169469031094
A-D. Four subgroups combined10881353103587795010471142
5. Metals and their products93298910011008109910741049
6. Non-metallic minerals and their products—
A. Mineral oils1004802785834903854875
B. Coals1037186818481824170117171766
C. Other non-metallic minerals and their products1026167216611666171717051684
A-C. Three subgroups combined1022140113841395138013641390
7. Chemicals and manures1030115511011063104710601061
All groups combined10121449134612971308133013S5

In the next table index numbers are given by classes from 1926 to 1935. The table also shows the separate index number for such imported items as are included in the wholesale-price investigation; alongside which, for purposes of convenience of comparison, is set the index number of locally produced items included in the wholesale-price series. The export price index number is also included for purposes of comparison, but it should be noted that this index is computed by a different method from that adopted in connection with the computing of the wholesale-price index.

These index numbers should be taken for no more than they purport to represent—viz., the movement in wholesale prices of those commodities covered by the wholesale prices inquiry which belong to the respective classes. The figure for Class 111, for instance, does not purport to show the movement in building costs, nor should that for imported items be confused with the index number of import prices.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS BY CLASSES.

Year.Consumers' Goods.Producers' Materials, Ac.    
Class I: Foodstuffs.Class II: Non-Foods.Class III: Materials for Building and ConstructionClass IV: Materials for other Industries.Imported Commodities.Locally-Produced Commodities.All Classes Combined.Index Number of Export Prices.
Average 1909–1310001000100010001000100010001000
192614961550187715351437164915531540
192714591489179514281376156214781525
192S15151466174414441346161314921683
192915191456175114351342160814881623
193014301433176414121332154514491283
19311243140816911322132913591346984
19321180137916551273129612981297892
19331221139017181253136112651308896
193412681394172512731345131913301109
193515221410174612881322143713851102

Of the total base aggregate expenditure, Class I represented 30·1 per cent., Class II 20·5 per cent., Class III 7·4: per cent., and Class IV 42·0 per cent., while the imported items aggregated 42·8 per cent, of the total.

The all-groups index fell in each successive year from 1928 to 1932. In 1933 a slight rise was recorded, caused by an increase in prices of imported commodities of sufficient magnitude to more than counteract a further fall in the index number for locally produced commodities. In 1934 and in 1935 all classes (with the exception of that for imported commodities) showed increases in varying degree, but the whole of the increase was due to higher prices of locally produced commodities,. prices of imported goods falling slightly.

EXPORT PRICES.

For some years past index numbers have been compiled and published at monthly intervals, indicating the direction and extent of fluctuation in the level of prices in New Zealand produce exported. These index numbers are based on the declared values (in New Zealand currency) for export as recorded by the Customs Department.

Formerly each commodity included in the compilation was accorded an importance corresponding to the quantity of that commodity exported during the particular month or year under investigation. For example, the annual index number for the year 1931 indicated the relationship between the total value in that year of exports of items included in the index numbers and the value of the quantities of the various commodities exported in 1931 at the average prices ruling during the years 1909–13, the base period of the investigation. Thus the “weight” or importance of each item in the regimen of the index number varied according to fluctuations in the quantities exported from month to month and from year to year.

Movements in prices, however, are not distributed evenly over the whole field of commodities exported. As a consequence, material fluctuations were caused in the former monthly index numbers, which were not due to price-movements alone, but rather to fluctuations in the relative quantities of commodities exported from month to month.

In order to remedy this weakness in the index number, the system of compilation was modified; the “weight” allotted to each item included in the new series being the average quantity of that item exported during the previous five exporting seasons—i.e. years ended 30th June. In the revision of the export-price index numbers also the opportunity was taken of revising the grouping of commodities somewhat in order to permit of a closer analysis of the effect of price-movements on different sections of the producing community.

The revised index numbers are shown in the next table, compiled for each group on the base: 1909–13 = 1000.

EXPORT PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Calendar Year.Group I Dairy-produce.Group II Meat.Group III: Wool.Group IV: Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I-1V: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural Produce.Group VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I-VI1 All Groups combined.
191410311196109911001095988100010091089
1915120613921222114712511042102310391239
1916136414341725138014781238109010631460
1917153616571773196516031943118710951655
1918155216731777217116911875160211621681
1919171616651802247117871797192811991776
192018191696180023181S241418225213381806
192122731909835129717251329243713911713
192214951615924124013521451233313711363
1923164820091274142916191338213913301610
1924106120151902159518061377238313041788
1925152022182234195119141476247212501893
1926140918551427164315411449251511821540
1927137517631526161715291417240911291525
1928147618011924180517001350233810811683
1929145718271710170316341424238010781623
1930120617121003124312791267244710621283
19319891301679767965115521911177984
19329341109625622870110220731162892
19338391165671755867115721101416896
19347671518127388810891200218015541109
1935913157682296710721260216917051102

Export prices collapsed in the later months of 1930, the annual average index number for that year (1283) representing a fall of 310 points as compared with the 1929 figure. This rapid downward movement in export prices continued during 1931 and 1932, the annual average figure for the latter year reaching the extremely low level of 892—10·8 per cent, below 1909–13 export prices. Each individual group shared in this collapse with the exception of the minerals group; while the index numbers for wool (625) and “other” pastoral produce (622) were considerably lower than those recorded for any of the other groups. Although the 1933 annual average index was only 4 points above the low figure recorded in 1932, a definite and sustained improvement in the monthly index numbers took place during the latter half of the year. This recovery was maintained during 1934 in a greater or less degree in every group with the exception of that for dairy-produce. In 1935 all groups showed appreciable increases, with the notable exception of wool and a minor exception in the case of timber. The wool index was at its highest point in recent years during the first quarter of 1934, steadily declining from then until the end of the year, and reaching 750 in December. During 1935 the general tendency was upward, the December index for wool (955) being only forty-eight points below the 1930 annual index.

EXPORT PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS (JUNE YEARS).

Year ended 30th JuneGroup I Dairy-produce.Group II Meat.Group III: Wool.Group IV: Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I-1V: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural Produce.Group VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I-VI1 All Groups combined.
1927131817791566155215151439256311691514
1928145217681873169516601400237310831647
1929149918331779182516811449240910821668
1930134117681120147113971353245710641397
19311029141972692110351219244110651052
19329741189641671914115821661107934
19338571093621598831115020781375861
193481014151218911107O1183215714851089
1935806157781484410141228216516821046
193699315731049113711791311209617321205

As previously observed, the calendar year does not coincide at all closely with the farm-production year. This is especially significant in New Zealand. since the great bulk of export goods are farm-produce. For a number of purposes the preceding table giving annual average export-prices index numbers for years ended 30th June will be more useful. Index numbers are based upon prices in New Zealand currency.

The recovery in wool prices during the 1933–34 selling season is reflected in an increase in the June-year index number for this group, the index number rising from 621 in 1933 to 1218 in 1934. The recession in wool values in 1934–35 caused a fall to 814 in the 1935 index; but, since the close of the 1934–35 New Zealand selling season, a material increase in wool prices has taken place and the index for 1935–36 has advanced 235 points.

The dairy-produce index for the 1935 June year (806) is the lowest during the ten-yearly period under review: but a substantial increase in dairy-produce prices—particularly of butter—on the London market has since occurred, and the 1936 index is the highest recorded since 1931.

IMPORT PRICES.

The import-prices index, like other series of New Zealand price-index numbers, is compiled by the aggregate expenditure method, the weight allotted to each individual item in the regimen of the import-prices series representing the average quantity of that commodity imported during the calendar years 1926 to 1930. Owing to the relative rapidity of the changes in the nature of import trade, a series of import-price index numbers tends to lose its representative virtue more speedily than is the case with most other series. The present series was continued back to 1926 only, since sufficient data uniformly comparable with that collected in respect of more recent years were not available beyond that year. While the export-prices index is compiled for monthly as well as for annual periods, only annual index numbers have been compiled in the case of import prices.

In order to avoid any possible confusion between the import-prices index number and the wholesale-prices index number for imported commodities, it seems desirable to draw attention to the fact that the price quotations on which the import-prices index is based are: (a) Declared value of commodities for import—i.e., prices in the exporting country plus 10 per cent, to cover freight, &c.; or (b) wholesale-price quotations (plus allowance for freight, &c.) of suitable representative items in Great Britain and other overseas countries in cases where no data are available as to declared values. These price quotations are converted to a New-Zealand-currency basis, so that the index numbers will be comparable with other series.

The wholesale-price index number for imported commodities, which is based on wholesale-price quotations in the four chief centres, has been substantially higher than the import-prices index since 1929. Increases in Customs duties and the relative stability of handling-costs, overhead charges, and other expenses of marketing imported goods have contributed to this widening of the gap between import prices and wholesale prices of imported commodities. It is desirable to draw attention to the fact that the number of items included in the import-prices index (220) is considerably greater than the number included in the wholesale-prices index for imported commodities (112).

Notwithstanding the comparatively large number and wide range of commodities-covered by the import-prices index the relatively high degree of accuracy in an export-prices or a wholesale-prices index cannot be hoped for in the case of import prices, index numbers of which are for this reason compiled on a three-figure base (100).

The import-prices index has moved in fairly close sympathy with wholesale-prices index numbers for similar groups of commodities in Great Britain. A gradual fall between 1926 and 1930 was followed by a sharp drop between 1930 and 1931. Since the import-prices index number is expressed in New Zealand currency, the fall in overseas wholesale prices has been recently counteracted to a large extent in its effect on this index by the decline of New Zealand currency in relation to sterling.

Between 1926 and 1929 the per-unit purchasing-power of New Zealand's exports in terms of imported commodities rose considerably, the export-prices index increasing by 6 per cent, during that period, while the import-prices index fell by 14 per cent. This relatively favourable situation was reversed in 1930, a sharp-drop in export prices being accompanied by a lesser fall in import prices. Although import prices fell considerably between 1930 and 1933, the fall in export prices was even greater, so that the gap between the import-prices index and the export-prices index widened considerably during that period. In 1934 the import index fell a further two points, while the export index rose fourteen points, the purchasing-power of exports in terms of imports being much greater in 1934 than in any of the three years immediately preceding. In 1935 there was no movement in the export index and a fall of one point only in the import index.

The following table shows index numbers of import, export, wholesale, and retail prices on base 1926 = 100. Each series of index numbers is compiled on a New-Zealand-currency basis. Index numbers are, of course, comparable vertically, but not horizontally.

Year.Import Prices.Export Prices.Wholesale Prices.Retail Prices (All Groups).
Pastoral and Dairy Produce.All Groups.Imported Commodities.Locally produced Commodities.All Groups.
1926100100100100100100100
192794999995969599
192890110109989496100
19298610610598939699
193084838394939397
193177636482938790
193275585879908483
193378565877958479
193476717280948680
193575707292878983

EFFECT OF PRICE MOVEMENTS ON FARM EXPENDITURE.

Prices of a large selection of farm-products are included in the official wholesale and export price index numbers. Many of the principal items of farm expenditure, however, are not covered by the wholesale price index; which is purely a commodity index. A special index number is now constructed in which such items as interest-payments, rates and taxes, wages, freight, and commission are included in addition to the material commodities which are bought for use in farm production. Statistics of prices of farm-implements, saddlery, harness, and sundry other commodities not covered by the wholesale prices inquiry are also obtained from merchants and manufacturers of farm machinery, and included in this index, so that practically the whole of the working-expenses of the average farm are now represented. A full description of the method of compilation of this index number is contained in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book.

While the farm-expenditure index indicates the effect of price movements on farm expenditure generally, it is not intended to apply to particular types of farming or to particular localities. Again, the weights used in compiling the index are fixed, the purpose of the index being to measure movements in costs of a standard regimen of commodities and services.

Indexes for the years 1926 to 1935 (on base 1914 = 1000) are given below* For purposes of comparison the general indexes of wholesale and retail prices, and the export index number for all pastoral and dairy produce combined, are also included on the same base year.

Year.Farm Expenditure Index.Pastoral and Dairy Produce Export Price Index.General Wholesale Price Index.All Groups Retail Price Index.
* Approximate. Recent changes in certain items are incapable of exact measurement.
19141000100010001000
19261555140714751608
19271574139614041594
19281642155314171602
19291636149214131599
19301628116813761562
1931149088112781447
19321250*79512321334
19331150*79212421266
19341150*99512631287
19351150*97913151331

The peak year for the farm-expenditure and wholesale-price index numbers ?was the year 1920; for retail prices, the year 1921; and for export prices, the year 1925. Although the farm-expenditure index had a relatively low peak-level (1661) this index did not fall to the same extent as the other indexes, the 1933, 1934, and 1935 figure (1150) being still above the 1914 level of costs—in marked contrast to the export-price index number for pastoral and dairy produce, which was, in 1933, 20·8 per cent, below the corresponding figure for the year 1914. The export-price index made a marked recovery during 1934, almost reaching the 1914 level. The fall of sixteen points in 1935 is due to considerably lower prices for wool than those ruling in 1934, particularly in the early months of that year.

From 1015 to 1921 the export-price index was higher than the farm-expenditure index—the difference being 235 points in 1917. In 1921 the position was reversed, the farm-expenditure index in that year being 31 points above the export price-level. By the year 1922 the export index had dropped to 1235, the farm-expenditure index for this year (1543) being 308 points above that figure. A recovery in export prices during the two succeeding years once more brought this index to a higher level than the farm-expenditure index, the 1924 index being 63 points and the 1925 index 166 points higher. Export prices again fell away; and since 1925 the export index has remained below the farm-expenditure index, the difference in 1933 being 358 points, in 1934 155 points, and in 1935 171 points.

For a fuller discussion on the effect of price movements on the relationship between farm costs and returns see Subsection A of the Agricultural and Pastoral Production Section.

SHARE PRICES.

The fluctuations in the market value of shares listed on the Stock Exchange form a very sensitive indication of changes in business conditions generally, and an index number of ordinary share prices is thus a valuable complement to other business indicators—such as trade and production statistics, wholesale and export price index numbers, &c. Index numbers of share prices, based on the market prices of forty-nine leading shares on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges, are now compiled by the Census and Statistics Department. The selection of the shares for inclusion in the index number was made with the object of reflecting New Zealand economic conditions; and, consequently, only companies whose business is conducted largely or wholly in New Zealand are included. Again, only ordinary shares—the return on which varies directly with the profits of the company in which shares are taken—are considered; preference shares and other investments normally bearing a fixed return being excluded.

The market prices on which the index numbers are based have been extracted from Stock Exchange lists of individual exchanges prior to September, 1929, and from the list of share prices included in the Stock Exchange Gazette and its successor, the Official Record of the Stock Exchanges of New Zealand, since that month. The prices quoted relate to the last trading day in each month; so that the “monthly” index numbers compiled from these data relate to that day only, while the annual averages represent the average of the monthly index number The base adopted is the average price ruling during the year 1926 (= 1000). For further observations on the methods employed, refer to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for August, 1932.

Following are annual index numbers for various groups and all groups combined.

SHARE-PRICK INDEX NUMBERS, INDIVIDUAL GROUPS.

Group.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Banks883718677742779776
Insurance.1023921919119014501579
Loan and agency763517470545660583
Frozen meat835646701835868816
Woollens97779277892311591272
Breweries12017736027539891148
Gas10601008969105312351308
Timber480323348411547623
Minerals9918597007538831077
Miscellaneous85567871588910831213
All groups combined9137397038229571023

NOTE.—These index numbers are comparable horizontally but not vertically.

In the following table index numbers of market prices of ordinary shares on the last trading-day of each month are shown. This index indicates the average movement in prices of forty-nine ordinary shares in companies operating in New Zealand; each individual share and group of shares included being “weighted” according to its importance in the investment market of the Dominion.

SHARE-PRICE INDEX NUMBERS, ALL GROUPS COMBINED.

 1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
* No list issued for this month.
January95774871572292210271028
February9647516807309151O101023
March9567796717539211006981
April94578166677393310361004
May95075566979596210281000
June9487426748219361032982
July9167387088499351046975
August8926977388629521028958
September8346867648859851013951
October85872874587910041014957
November83073479589310091021..
December*72968390010171016..
Annual average9137397038229571023..

International comparisons of price indexes can he made only with considerable caution; but, in the case of the indexes of share prices selected for inclusion in the table following, many of the difficulties attendant on such comparisons are lessened by the facts that all series are compiled on the same base year (1926) and that the method of compilation of each of the indexes is substantially comparable in each case. Naturally enough, the indexes for England, United States, and Canada are based on a much wider selection of shares than the Now Zealand or the Australian figures; and, moreover, the volume of transactions on the exchanges in these countries is such that a finer market price can be arrived at than is possible in the Dominion.

The following table shows the highest and lowest monthly indexes for each year from 1929 to 1935, and for the month of May 1936—

Month.New Zealand (Official).Australia* (Melbourne Stock Exchange Record).England (Bankers' Magazine).Canada (Official).United States (Standard Statistics Company).
* May,1926 = 100.
1929—Highest109110124209225
Lowest10192110157151
1930—Highest.9685111167181
Lowest835489103109
1931—Highest786590112122
Lowest6950676558
1932—Highest7681736558
Lowest6762594334
1933—Highest9095858780
Lowest7280724943
1934—Highest102106889181
Lowest9296848167
1935—Highest1051169010795
Lowest101102838464
1936—May (latest available)10012194113101

While the index numbers in the above table show the movement in ordinary share prices in each country covered, comparisons of recent index numbers for one country with those for another country should not be made without taking into account the relative exchange value of the various local currencies. For example, the index numbers quoted for New Zealand express the movement in share prices in New Zealand currency, the exchange value of which has depreciated since the beginning of 1930—a factor which should be borne in mind when comparing New Zealand indexes with figures for countries with currencies of higher or lower exchange value than the New Zealand pound. The following table is interesting in this connection, in that it shows the relative values in May, 1936, of an investment of £100 sterling made in 1926 in representative shares on the different stock exchanges.

Country.Index Number of Share Prices (1926 = 100)Month of May, 1936 (latest available).
Average Rate of Exchange on London.Present Value of Shares bought in 1926 for £100 Sterling.
In Local Currency.In Sterling.
* Per £100 sterling.
 £
England94..£9494
Canada113$4·98$550110
Australia121£125·00*£12197
New Zealand100£124·25*£10080
United States101$4·98$49198

Chapter 55. SECTION XXXVII—WAGE-RATES AND HOURS OF LABOUR.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE material used in the compilation of statistics of wage-rates in New Zealand is, with certain exceptions, taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court. It is recognized that the rates specified in such awards are minimum rates, and that wages may in some cases be above the prescribed minima, so that a rise or fall in the award rates does not necessarily connote an immediate change in the wage-rates of those workers who are being paid more than these rates. Nevertheless, for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage-rates over any considerable space of time, the award rates form a more reliable basis than any information which could be collected directly from employers or trade-union secretaries as to the ruling or predominant rates in any industry. In the ease of two important classes of workers—agricultural and pastoral employees and railway employees—no awards exist. Information is obtained from the Labour Department as to the ruling rates of wages in the former case, and from the Railways Department in the latter case.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, contained) inter alia, a provision that, in the event of parties to an industrial dispute being unable to come to agreement before the Conciliation Council, the award lapses. In cases where district awards have lapsed under this provision figures have been interpolated, based on fluctuations in corresponding rates in other districts. The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full powers of the Court (see next section).

The award rates for the four principal districts—Northern, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland—are in general taken as representative of the ruling wages throughout the Dominion. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in cases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts the award rates for that centre are used. For instance, the rates used for coal-mining and sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

The system of compilation of wage-rate index numbers has recently been revised, and the index numbers appearing in the following pages are on a new base—viz., the average of the five years 1929–30, which is the same as that at present in use in the ease of the retail-price indexes. The industrial grouping has also undergone some modification, which consists principally of the dispersal of the old groups “Other Manufactures” and Miscellaneous” amongst existing groups and three which have been introduced (“ Provision of Power, Heat, and Light”; “Working in Stone, Clay, Glass, and Chemicals” and “Working in Skins, Leather, &c.”) while the old group “Textiles and Weaving” has been combined with “Clothing and Footwear.”

WAGE-RATES OF MALE EMPLOYEES.

METHOD OF WEIGHTING.

The weights used in the computation of the indexes have been derived mainly from three sources—viz., (1) the occupations statistics of the 1926 census, (2) the annual factory production statistics, and (3) the membership rolls of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. Weights have been allocated to the individual occupations included in these computations, and although in some few cases absolute accuracy in weighting cannot be hoped for, the data are sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view, since minor differences in weighting do not affect the accuracy of the index number. Occupations are grouped into industries, with an appropriate weight for each occupation and each industry; while industries are grouped into fourteen principal industrial groups. The weights for the individual occupations and industries have been devised from the census or the factory production statistics; while the industrial-group weighting has been taken partly from these sources and partly from the membership of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. In the case of workers on the land, use was also made of information obtained by means of the annual collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics. It is proposed to give full details of weighting in the “Statistical Report on Prices. Wage-rates. &c.” for the year 1035. shortly to be published.

NOMINAL WAGE-RATE INDEX NUMBERS.

The following table shows the index numbers of nominal wage-rates of males for each industrial group and all groups combined. The base is the Dominion weighted average wage-rate for all groups combined, 1926–30 = 1000.

Industrial Group.1914.19261927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Provision of—
   Food, drink, &c.665108411051111111311141054995963967991
   Clothing, footwear, and textiles60710011010102610271027969923921924927
   Housing (construction)65710251035104010421044984927910915937
   Power, heat, and light656108110961099109710961038990973973975
   Transport by water65410931097109711061135107310259919981045
   Transport by land61710241050105710571057988926899920940
   Accommodation, meals, and personal service660959972975975976917868828824849
Working in or on—
   Wood, wicker, sea-grass, and fibre634105010691087108910871006957913899916
   Metal717107911141114111411141050987938936952
   Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals58410071018101810351036973935911893880
   Paper, printing, &c.7571187118911891189118911261058102610191051
   Skins, leather, &c.60010341044104810481049980938919905896
   Mines and quarries66410401048104010401040984937928938965
   The land (farming pursuits)519684705821822809701550516528541
   All groups combined628966985101610171017942864833839858

NOTE.—The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally. Where board and (or) lodging is a usual perquisite attached to any occupation, an allowance estimated to cover the value of such has been added to the money wage-rate.

The highest index numbers are recorded in the group “paper printing, &c,” the 1935 index in this industry being 1051 and representing an increase of 5 per cent, over the “all groups” level in 1926–30;. It is worthy of note that this group is consistently high, due, no doubt, to the preponderance of highly skilled tradesmen.

The lowest index for 1935 is that for the group “working on the land” (541), followed by “accommodation, meals, and personal service” (849). In the latter group, as also in the “transport by water “and “working on the land “groups, the estimated value of board and lodging is added to the money wage-rate in order to make a legitimate comparison with other industries. In the case of waterside workers (an important subgroup of the “water transport” group) this allowance is, of course, omitted.

Wage-rates rose steadily and in fairly regular gradations from year to year from 1914 to 1918. When the provisions of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act providing for the regulation of wages in accordance with movements in the cost of living came into effect the lag between prices and wage-rates was partially eliminated, and consequently sharp increases took place. The effect of the post-war slump subsequently became apparent, and decreases were then recorded. Following the recovery from the slump, the index number rose year by year until in 1929 and in 1930 it reached 1017, the highest level yet recorded. A general order of the Arbitration Court, dated 29th May, 1931, reduced all rates of pay and allowances prescribed by awards and industrial agreements by 10 per cent. The rates of remuneration of apprentices were exempted from this order; and, in addition, flax-mill employees in the Wellington Industrial District, who had already suffered a substantial cut in wages, were exempted. The average rates of pay of agricultural and pastoral workers, although not subject to the Court's order, were considerably below those ruling during previous years. As a consequence of these reductions, a substantial fall occurred in the 1931 annual average index numbers for all groups. This reduction in wage-rates, being on a strictly percentage basis, caused a levelling-up in the group indexes, the relatively higher-paid groups of workers suffering the largest reduction in rates.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, made provision for the review of existing awards. During 1932 and 1933 the rates of pay-prescribed in several awards were reduced in new awards; and, again, wage-rates of two classes of labour not covered by awards (railway employees and permanent farm hands) suffered further reductions—in 1932 in the former case and in 1932 and 1933 in the latter case. Also in most instances the ruling rates of pay in cases where previously existing awards have been cancelled were below the former award rates. Consequently the general index number of wage-rates fell substantially, the 1933 index (833, on the base: 1926–30; = 1000) being 3·6 percent. below the 1932 figure, and 18·1 per cent, below the peak level of 1017 recorded in 1929 and 1930. The 1933 index is the lowest annual average index since 1919: but. slight increases were recorded in 1934 and 1935.

Complete restoration to the pre-depression level of award (and other) rates of wages and salaries has been effected by the Finance Act, 1936, which was passed early in August. A further measure of importance is the Agricultural Workers Act passed in September, 1935. Both these Acts are discussed in the next section (Labour Laws and Allied Legislation). The effect of the restoration in wages cuts and the provision, for the first time in the history of the Dominion. of standard rates of pay in respect of certain classes of permanent farm labour is reflected in the index numbers of wages-rates for September, 1936. The all groups index rose from 888 in March to 1010 in September, an increase of 13·7 per cent.; while that for the farming pursuits group rose from 605 in March to 788 in September (1926–30; = 1000 in each case).

With the inauguration of the new series of wage indexes, the computation of separate indexes for the four principal industrial districts has been discontinued. since they have lost a good deal of their original significance with the increasing tendency towards Dominion awards.

EFFECTIVE WAGE-RATES.

The index numbers quoted in the foregoing discussion relate to nominal wage-rates—that is, they are based on actual money rates without any allowance being made for changes in prices during the period under review. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance; for a rise in wage-rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing-power of money. Changes in the index numbers of retail prices are inversely proportional to changes in the purchasing-power of the pound; and index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage-rates can be arrived at by dividing the index numbers for nominal wage-rates by the corresponding index numbers for retail, prices covering all groups of domestic expenditure.

The following table compares nominal and effective wage-rates of male workers in each of the last ten years. The base of the index numbers is in each case the average of the five years 1926–30; = 1000:—

Year.Retail Prices.Nominal Wage-rates.Effective Wage-rates.
19261010966956
19271001985984
1928100610161010
1929100410171013
193098110171037
19319069421040
19328388641031
19337958331048
19348088391038
19358378581025

These index numbers afford a measure of the fluctuations in the “real” wage-rates of those in full-time employment; and in normal times this is a reasonably accurate basis of comparison of the relative earning-power from year to year of wage-earners covered by these index numbers.

In considering these figures, it should not be overlooked that the index number of effective wage-rates (in common, of course, with that of nominal wage-rates) is applicable only to wage-earners in full-time employment on standard rates of pay, and not to the average of all wage-earners, inclusive of those unemployed or working short time.

It should be noted that an unemployment-relief wages-tax (Id. for every Os. 8d. of wages from August, 1931, to April. 1032, Id for every Is. 8d. from May, 1932, to September, 1934, Id. for every 2s. from October, l934, to September, 1935, and Id. for every 2s. 6d. from October, 1935) is now in operation. This has not been taken into account in the compilation of index numbers of effective wage-rates.

The index number of effective wage-rates for September, 1936, was 1162, an increase of 1304 per cent, over the 1935 level.

MOVEMENT IN INDIVIDUAL GROUPS.

The index numbers in the preceding tables being all on a common base, comparisons between movements in the various groups cannot be readily made; an increase of (say) 10 per cent, in the group “clothing, footwear, and textiles,” in which the index numbers are consistently low, being considerably smaller numerically than an increase of the same percentage in (say) the printing trade, where the index numbers are higher. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly. The bases are the Dominion average wage-rates for each industrial group respectively. 1920–30; = 1000.

NOMINAL WAGE-BATE INDEX NUMBERS (MALES).

Industrial Group.1926–30;.1914.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Provision of—
   Food, drink, &c.1000601953900871875896
   Clothing, footwear, and textiles..1000596951906904907910
   Housing (construction)1000633948893877882903
   Power, heat, and light1000600948904889889891
   Transport by water1000592971928896903945
   Transport by land1000588942882857877896
   Accommodation, meals, and personal service1000680945894853849875
Working in or on—
   Wood, wicker, sea grass, and fiberJ 000588934889849830851
   Metal1000647948891847845860
   Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals1000576951914891873866
   Paper, printing, &c1000637947890863857884
   Skins, leather, &c1000574939898880867858
   Mines and quarries1000637945900892901927
   The land (farming pursuits)1000675912716672687705
All groups combined1000623942864833839858

NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are Indicative merely of the relative variations in wage-rates in the different industrial groups since the base period not of the actual relative levels of wage-rates in the different industries.

Care must be exercised in drawing inferences from this table, for, while horizontal comparisons are quite, valid, the vertical comparison between the various groups is valid only in so far as it shows in which groups the greater or the smaller increases have been observed since the base period. For example, the 1935 index for the “paper, printing. &c” group is 43 points below that for “mines and quarries,” the reason being that wages of workers in the former group have increased in a lesser degree than have those in the latter, although the actual rates of wages are considerably higher, as may be seen by reference to the previous table on the “all groups” base.

WAGE-RATES OF WOMEN WORKERS.

Index numbers showing movements in the wage-rates paid to women workers are compiled, using the award rates of the Arbitration Court as representative of the ruling rates of wages. A much smaller list of occupations is used than is the case in computing index numbers of wage-movements for male workers.. Although only fifteen occupations are taken into consideration in the case of women workers, however, these occupations cover a large proportion of the total. women in industry—more than sufficient to he a representative sample for measuring movements in wages. The weights used have been computed from data as to occupations from the 1926 census results.

The table following shows index numbers for women divided into the principal industries in which women workers are engaged. It should be remembered that domestic servants (numerically a very important branch of women workers) are not represented in the compilation of these indexes.

The highest index numbers are recorded in the “accommodation, meals, and personal service” group. The comparatively high figure for this industry is, no doubt, accounted for by the fact that board and lodging is a usual perquisite of hotel workers, while meals are usually provided for restaurant employees. The value of these additions has been added to the money wage-rates in this industry. Women, in general, receive lower money wages than men. so that the addition of board and lodging has the effect of raising wage-rates for women in a much greater proportion than the addition of the same perquisite does in the case of men. Indeed, wages for men in this group are low as compared with most other industries.

In the table following the base is the Dominion “all groups” weighted average of wage-rates, 1926–30; = 1000.

NOMINAL WAGE-RATE INDEX NUMBERS (WOMEN).

Industrial Group.1914.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Provision of—
   Food, drink, &c.390803767767767767
   Clothing, footwear, and textiles534879838835835851
   Accommodation, meals, and personal service83611711103105310581074
Working in paper, printing, &c487994945874872892
All groups combined602952905887887903

The all-groups index for 1935 shows a decrease of 10·6 per cent, from the peak level recorded in 1929 and 1930 (1010) each group having shared in this downward movement. The greatest decrease since 1930 (from 1244, or by 13·7 per cent.) is recorded in the case of the “accommodation, meals, and personal service” group, while the lowest decrease (from 932, or by 8·7 per cent.) is observed in the “clothing, footwear, and textiles” group.

THE BASIC WAGE.

A general order fixing basic rates of wages for adult male and female workers was issued by the Arbitration Court on 2nd November, 1936. The rates are fixed at £3 16s. for adult male workers and at £1 16s. for adult female workers. The basic wage applies to all workers twenty-one years of age or over (excepting casual workers and those working under apprenticeship contracts), the conditions of whose employment are fixed by any award or industrial agreement. The subject is treated in greater detail in the next section (Labour Laws and Allied Legislation).

AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES.

The following table shows the unweighted averages of award rates for the four principal districts. In cases where awards have been allowed to lapse under the provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, the ruling rates of wages are quoted. The rates shown throughout this table are money rates, and do not include any allowance for the value of board and lodging, which is a usual perquisite of employment in some occupations—e.g., seamen and hotel workers.

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY ADULT WAGE-RATES.

Occupation.Average Wage-rate (Four Principal Districts).
At 31st March.
1914.1932.1933.1934.1935.1930.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Bakers—Journeymen5509008610894889882
     Labourers4807267110744745739
Butchers—First shopmen72610521052104110411058
     Second shopmen626946946940940950
  Butter-factory employees—
  Churning and buttermaking—
   General hands526739729727727705
Flour-milling—Kilnmen480865865865865865
      Assistant smuttermen480792792792792792
      Rollermen560900900900900900
Meat-freezing—
  Slaughtermen (per 100 sheep)276360300306336350
  General hands540826799799799871
Meat-preserving—
  Boners620923909909909954
  Meat-preservers—Second men5968510826826826844
Sausage-casing making—General hands58885108268268268910
Aerated-waters and cordial making—
  Cordial-makers589839839839839839
  Bottle-washers450748748748748748
Brewing—Labourers47774874117411758820
Tailors—Journeymen539856860860860885
     Factory hands560789789789808808
Tailoresses (factory)—Journey women276406406406420420
Boot operatives—
   Male5268O0799799799799
   Female journey women276450440440440440
Woollen-mills —
   Males—Spinners510845845845845845
      General hands466745745745745745
   Females—Adults263406406406406406
Building and construction—
   Bricklayers685941931931931941
   Carpenters643917880880880918
   Joiners (outside work)643917880880880918
   Plasterers679938927927913908
   Plumbers (registered)660891893893893913
   Builders' labourers526743743743743771
Sawmilling, bush—
   Engine-drivers, first class540941822822868868
   Sawyers53093084118411865883
   Tailers-out4398011749749763782
   Yardmen5589028248248310860
   General hands510781706706729748
Boatbuilding—Shipwrights628941880880880936
Metal-works, &c—
   Blacksmiths, floormen6178918238238238811
   Boilermaking—Journeymen628891823823823859
   Iron and brass moulders6478918238238238811
   Tinsmiths—Journeymen628891891856856862
Engineering—
   Fitters, &c.6478918238238238811
   Electrical workers6110891852852843880
   Motor mechanics6411891808808844844
Skin and leather workers—s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
   Curriers580919919900891908
   General hands496771771754746750
Mineral and stone workers—
   Brickmakers5311939939939913923
   General hands469787787787773783
Mining (coal)—
   Surface—Tippers5377810746733733781
      Labourers54378107567337337511
      Engine-drivers, first class676105910209909901015
   Miners on day wages633952908891891898
   Truckers5511842816802802851
Mining (gold)—
   Miners in rises or winzes with machines646849809809886892
Quarrymen528769769761176118011
Agricultural and pastoral workers—
   General farm hands (agricultural)2641971761952011263
   Threshing-mill hands600970840840840880
   Ploughmen3042211213239263358
   Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)200210180180226196
   Shepherds312247239263295376
   Wool-pressers300550440450550460
   Dairy-farm hands230176176195213263
Railways—
   Engine-drivers (average grade 1 and grade 2)7501011901190119561028
   Firemen (average grade 1 and grade 2)60084117667668098610
   Guards (average grade 1 and grade 2)6309908928929371008
Tramways—Motormen536856860874901924
      Conductors477816816829850873
Shipping and cargo-working—
   Assistant stewards, first class25859956115611602602
Assistant stewards, second class1885735410541057115711
   Chief cooks608861186086091109110
   Second cooks374701695695741741
   A.B. seamen3747026306010655655
   Ordinary seamen, first class280484436422454454
   Waterside workers—Ordinary cargo524925880880954954
Hotel workers—Chefs (male)9009110870870870946
      Waiters (male)311514489489489526
      Cooks (female)295447423423423460
      Housemaids172293279279279300
      Waitresses225293279279279300
Miscellaneous—
   Soft-goods assistants (male)550856856852852863
   Grocers' assistants500856847847847849
   Warehouse store men489766729729729786

The wage-rates published above are, with certain exceptions, minimum rates of pay as prescribed in awards of the Arbitration Court. No awards exist for general farm hands, information as to wage-rates for these wage-earners being collected from Inspectors of Factories in the principal industrial districts. The Agricultural Workers Act (September. 1936), inter alia, fixes minimum wage-rates of dairy-farm employees; the rate for adult workers prescribed in the Act being £2 2s. 6d. per week, plus 17s. 6d. a week in cases where board and lodging are not supplied. These rates apply to the year ending 31st July, 1937. A special inquiry as to rates of pay in this industry was made by the Census and Statistics Department in 1929 to ascertain how closely the wage-rates offered for labour engaged through the Employment Bureau corresponded with the actual ruling rates for farm labour. The results of this inquiry are contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 813–815;). The rates of wages quoted for railway employees are also actual ruling rates, and not award minima.

Award rates of wages, which suffered a cut of 10 per cent, in June, 1931, have been restored to the pre-existing level as from 1st July, 1930; and similar provision has been made in respect of workers not covered by awards (see next section).

HOURS OF LABOUR.

Index numbers of hours of labour on the new base (1926–30;) and with the new industrial classification are in course of preparation; but they will not be completed in time to permit of their inclusion in this volume, and the matter which follows is, with the exception of the last paragraph, reproduced as it appeared in the 1936 Year-Book.

The following table shows index numbers of the number of hours constituting a full week's work in the various industrial groups for 1914 and for each year from 1930 to 1934. The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court in most cases; but where hours are not prescribed in the awards reference has been made to the Factories Act and the Shops and Offices Act. The agricultural and pastoral workers group has been omitted from the computations, which distinguish between male and female employees. For each sex, the base is the Dominion weighted average for all industrial groups combined, 1909–13; = 1000.

Industrial Group.1914.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Males.
Food, drink, and tobacco1037942942942915945
Clothing, boots, &c .935894894894894894
Textiles and weaving976915915915915915
Building and construction909897897897897897
Wood-manufacture942926926926924920
Printing, &c.895869869869869869
Metal-working and engineering954901901901901901
Other manufactures1011971971971971971
Mining907888888888888888
Land transport983958958958958958
Shipping and cargo-working114911131113111311131113
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1214976976976976976
Miscellaneous976952952952952952
All industrial groups combined994944944944945944
Female.
Clothing, boots, &c.872852852852852852
Textiles and weaving930872872872872872
Printing, &c.880852852852852852
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1066930930930930930
Miscellaneous1007930930930930930
All industrial groups combined970893893893893893

NOTE.—The index numbers in each section of the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

The index numbers in the above table being all on a common base, comparisons between movements in the different groups cannot be readily made. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly, the 1909–13; average in the case of each group being taken as the base = 1000 in each case for that group.

Industrial Group.1909–13;.1914.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Males.
Food, drink, and tobacco1000986896896896899899
Clothing, boots, &c.10001000957957957957957
Textiles and weaving10001000937937937937937
Building and construction1000991977977977977977
Wood-manufacture1000998981981981979975
Printing, &c.10001000971971971971971
Metal-working and engineering1000997941941941941941
Other manufactures10001000961961961961961
Mining10001000979979979979979
Land transport1000998973973973973973
Shipping and cargo working10001000969969969969969
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1000995800800800800800
Miscellaneous1000985961961961961961
All industrial groups combined1000994944944944945944
Females.
Clothing, boots, &c.10001000978978978978978
Textiles and weaving10001000938938938938938
Printing, &c.10001000968968968968968
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1000938819819819819819
Miscellaneous10001000923923923923923
All industrial groups combined1000970893893893893893

NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative percentage changes in the length of the working week in the different industries since the base period, not of the actual respective number of hours of the different industrial groups.

The following table shows the index numbers for the various districts. In spite of the fact that certain industries are more or less confined to certain districts and that, consequently, fluctuations arise from this fact alone, the index numbers show remarkably little variation as between district and district. As in the previous tables, each sex is treated separately, the base in each case being the Dominion weighted average for all industrial groups combined, 1909–13; 1000.

Year.Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Dominion.
Males.
191410031006970986994
1930947951936941944
1931947951936941944
1932947951936941944
1933948950936941945
1934948950935941944
Females.
1914976976978939970
1930896896897880893
1931896896897880893
1932896896897880893
1933896896897880893
1934896896897880893

NOTE.—The index numbers in each section of the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

As indicated by the foregoing tables, changes in the length of the full working week were relatively few in the last few years shown in the table. The greatest number of hours in the normal working week is found in the case of workers aboard ship, the hours prescribed by award for cooks and stewards while at sea being 9 hours per day for a seven-day working week. In butter and cheese factories also a seven-day week was usually worked until recently, the working week in butter-factories being 36 hours for six months of the year and 44 hours for the remainder of the year. In the case of cheese-factories some awards specify 60 hours per week at the height of the season, 48 hours for another portion of the year, and 38 hours in the slack season. A provision in the Factories Amendment Act, 1936, fixes the number of days in a working week at six, with certain specified exceptions.

The hours of labour prescribed by awards for hotel and restaurant workers and shop-assistants are 48 per week, while in the engineering, building, and clothing trades a 44-hour week is normal. In coal-mines an 8-hour day is usual, with no work on alternate Saturdays.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, reference to which is made in the next section, contains, inter alia, provisions aimed at the establishment of a 40-hour week, without reduction in the weekly wage-rate. New awards will contain a provision to this effect, except that the Court may fix longer hours; but in such eases the Court is required to state its reasons for so doing. Existing awards may be reviewed on application of the unions concerned with a view to the fixing of a 40-hour week. The Factories Amendment Act, 1936, requires the fixing of a 40-hour week in factories, applications for exemption from this provision being heard by the Arbitration Court. The hearing of applications is still proceeding, and among important industrial occupations where a 40-hour week has already been brought into operation the following may be cited: Boot operatives, biscuit and confectionery workers, woollen-mill workers, hotel workers, timber-yards and sawmill workers, and certain of the building trades. The above list is by no means exhaustive, and many applications are still (November, 1936) to be dealt with.

Chapter 56. SECTION XXXVIII.—LABOUR LAWS AND ALLIED LEGISLATION.

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

SOCIAL and labour legislation was enacted early in New Zealand's history as a British country, and it is worthy of notice that, as in Britain, it was the deplorable condition of apprentices that first excited popular support for labour legislation, so the first important New Zealand measures of this nature were the Master and Apprentices Act of 1865 and the apprentice-protection sections of the Offences against the Person Act of 1867. But in what was an essentially agricultural and pioneer country, conditions demanding labour legislation were not present, so that there was but little early progress in labour legislation. Initially, labour administration was interpreted in the light of English statutes, but such interpretations were largely ineffective, owing to the vast difference between English and New Zealand conditions.

The Trade-unions Act was passed in 1878, affording unions protection from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that they were in restraint of trade. A considerable portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act of 1877 regulated conditions of life aboard ship, payment of wages, &c. The Inspection of Machinery Act, 1882, provided for the inspection of machinery in factories, &c., and required that persons in charge of boilers be properly qualified. An Employers' Liability Act was passed in 1882, legislating in the matter of industrial accidents with the object of mitigating the consequences to the worker without recourse to expensive litigation at common law.

Legislation specifically governing the conditions of employment of females—particularly in respect of hours of labour—was introduced in 1873, there being several amendments to the Act in later years, while the legislation was amended and consolidated in 1881. Regulation of the hours of labour of children was also provided for. With the existence of slump conditions in the “eighties” allegations of “sweating” arose; and, since such complaints became increasingly numerous, a Commission was set up in 1889 to inquire into this evil. The Commission found that the Employment of Females Act was ineffective owing to the lack of the necessary powers of enforcement. The Commission declared that actual sweating conditions were not present, though a minority report differed from this view. and pointed out that with increasing industrialization such conditions would rapidly become prevalent if no attempt wore made to check them. The Commission made recommendations for future labour legislation, and, as the result of its findings, the Factories Act of 1891 was passed.

Depression, discontent, and a growing labour force—despite depression, the number of hands employed in factories increased approximately 16½ per cent. between 1885 and 1890—formed an economic background favourable to social legislation. Meanwhile the maritime strike of 1890, which caused even further distress throughout the country, proved to the trade-unions that they were not sufficiently strong to obtain their demands by direct action, and diverted their activities to the political field. The strike also aroused public opinion to the necessity for preventing such industrial strife. Political opportunity was still further opened by Sir George Grey, who in 1889 obtained Parliamentary approval for the abolition of the last remnant of plural voting. The extension of the franchise to women followed four years later.

In January, 1891, the Liberal Government came into power under the leadership of Ballance, with Reeves (Labour) and Seddon (Public Works) in the portfolios directly concerned with labour matters. As indicated above, the economic and political back-ground demanded social change, and the change came to such a degree that New Zealand—still in the pioneer stage of economic development—acquired world fame as the land of advanced social legislation. The labour code enacted in the “nineties” was not so much socialistic as a correction of the more manifest injustices of an individualist system. There was not so much State control as an improved framework within which laissez faire could operate. This policy is most clearly seen in the realms of housing and farming, in which the Government aimed at making it easier for the worker to build or to settle on land, by the provision of finance through the State Advances Department (established in 1894). The Family Homes Protection Act, 1895, provided protection for homes from the legal processes resulting from bankruptcy proceedings, &c. The only encroachment on laissez faire principles was the fostering of co-operation on public works from 1891 onwards.

Working-conditions were improved by legislative regulation in four types of industry (factory work, shipping, shops and offices, and coal-mining), wages being also safeguarded though not directly increased.

The great achievement of this administration, however, was the evolution of machinery—the Conciliation Councils, the Arbitration Court, and the Labour Department, which not only administered the labour code efficiently, but could also modify it rapidly to suit the changing economic background. This dynamic machinery was far more effective than the all too soon antiquated improvements by the more normal procedure of static legislative enactment. An adjustable labour code was of special advantage to a primary-produce exporting country which is, of all countries, most open to the fluctuations of economic progress, and it is another example of the British empiricism that delights in suiting action to the conditions of the moment.

This code, and the resulting constant political intervention in labour conditions, profoundly modified labour organization. Since resort to judicial rather than militant action became the accepted means of settling industrial disputes, much of the bitterness usually associated with the struggle for improved wages and working-conditions was lost. Moreover, the close association with the Courts led to the growth of a strong political bias in the aims of unionism. This was but natural, for, since the legislative code ensured to the workers many benefits for which they would otherwise have had to fight keenly, it was felt that the further amelioration of living-conditions would best be attained by legislation rather than by direct action.

Subsequent progress has been determined largely by this code, although the swing visible in the development of English labour legislation from Salisbury's Factory Acts to Lloyd George's pension schemes—from concrete intervention in working-conditions to attempts at equalizing the distribution of the national income—is also evident in New Zealand. For example, the rate of the old-age pension has been increased considerably—from £18 per annum (1898) to £45 10s. (1925), to £62 (July, 1936), and to £58 10s. (December, 1936). [There was a reduction to £40 19s. in 1932, and a restoration to £45 10s. in 1935.] Again, more favourable provisions exist in regard to loans under the State Advances legislation in respect of persons earning under £300 per annum than those that apply generally; while the present Government's housing plans include provision for the erection of homes to be let to workers at a low rental.

It must he admitted, however, that in respect of social legislation generally the initial pre-eminence of New Zealand has been largely lost. The National Provident Fund (established 1911) represents the only governmental provision towards sickness insurance. The scheme is a voluntary one, State aid being in the direction of administration, together with a subsidy. Compulsory health insurance has been in operation for many years past in several other countries—e.g., Germany (1883), Great Britain (1911). As yet legislation on these lines does not exist in New Zealand. The 1936 extension of the invalidity pensions provisions of the Pensions Act is a step in the direction of liberalizing the New Zealand legislation in regard to provision for sickness; while the Government is at present considering plans for a comprehensive scheme of universal health insurance. including provision for medical attention and sick-pay. Universal superannuation is yet another governmental plan under consideration.

The New Zealand Workers' Compensation Act, 1922 (as amended in 1926), in some respects falls considerably behind the law of several other countries, particularly in regard to payment of medical expenses; while, again, national provision for the relief of unemployment did not become law in this country until 1930, whereas in Great Britain legislation dealing with this subject has been in force since 1911, the years of initiation of unemployment insurance in certain other countries being as follows: Austria (1920), Queensland (1922), Italy (1923), Germany (1924). A Workers' Compensation Amendment Act was passed in October, 1930, liberalizing the scale of payments in respect of accidents, while changes in the administration of the unemployment legislation in the direction of granting greater benefits have already been made.

Up to 1936 progress in other spheres was limited to technical improvements on the original Ballance-Seddon code, except perhaps in the case of the fluctuating fate of the Arbitration Court. During the twenty-six years of prosperity from 1895 to 1921 (there was but a slight setback in 1909–1910) the scope of the Court's awards was gradually expanded, the most important step being the power conferred in 1898 of prescribing minimum rates of wages. Whereas the Court was originally more concerned with conditions of work, and not at first with wages, there has been a gradual transformation, till in recent years the attention of the Court has been focussed almost entirely on the wages question. As the Court is progressive, or at least not static, its influence expanded at the cost of stationary measures, such as Factories Acts, which, in practice, became a dead-letter as affecting workers under the jurisdiction of the Court. During the depressed years from 1921 to 1927 wages were reduced, to the dissatisfaction of the workers, yet not fast enough for employers, so that the value of the Court was increasingly questioned till a National industrial Conference was summoned in 1928 to discuss, inter alia, compulsory arbitration. In the boom years between 1927 and 1930 no action was taken; but in 1932, under stress of depressed conditions, amendments were made to the Act which in effect abolished the system of compulsory arbitration. The Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full powers of the Court.

Though no great inroads have been made on the wages system, there has been definite governmental and legislative encouragement of co-operation. In 1891 much public-works construction, such as road and railway formation, was first organized on this principle. The plant, explosives, &c, were supplied to the men by the State at cost-price or on low hire terms. A modified form of the system then adopted is still followed, and the Minister of Public Works has recently increased its scope. Similarly, the Companies Empowering Act of 1924 attempted to encourage the principle of profit-sharing among workers. Any company registered under the Companies Act was empowered to issue to its employees labour shares, which are not transferable, have no nominal value, and do not form part of the ordinary capital of the company. Except as otherwise provided, these shares entitle the holders to the same privileges as the ordinary shareholders. In the event of an employee leaving his employment or dying, the shares must be surrendered in cash or in capital shares to him or to his heirs. The Act of 1924 required the Arbitration Court to inquire into the merits of each scheme before such scheme could be validated, but this requirement was repealed in 1931. Another Act in the early “twenties” aimed at fostering co-operation among farmers, but it became, in practice, a dead-letter.

There was in the original labour code a definite policy of ensuring greater opportunities for the masses by financing farming and house-building projects, through the State Advances Department. This provision of easy credit to put workers on the land was the rural aspect of the labour code, for, apart from some provision for the inspection of housing, there were no other measures designed for the agricultural labourer. Even the Arbitration Court in 1908, 1919, and 1925 refused to make any award covering permanent farm labour. This policy of social lending survived the years of prosperity, and was employed to cope with part of the post-war demobilization; but the policy was reversed in the ensuing depression, and the Rural Advances Act of 1926 was a definite attempt to put State Advances loans on a more economic basis, eliminating much of the social background. This tendency was completed by the creation of the Mortgage Corporation in 1935, which definitely marked the subordination of social to economic ends. The agricultural bias and the workers' loans of up to 95 per cent, of their security were both eliminated, in theory at least. At the same time loans for housing were reintroduced for Maoris late in 1935, and further activity in this sphere was foreshadowed by the Housing Survey Act of 1935. The Government was also empowered to lend to farmers, through the Lands Department, by the Dairy Industry (Emergency Powers) Act.

The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, marks a definite reversal of the previous Government's recent policy in regard to State Advances loans. The Mortgage Corporation is abolished, its powers being taken over by the newly created State Advances Corporation (see Section XXIVD), while the general purpose of the 1936 Act is definitely in the direction of a liberalization of the lending policy of the State.

During the recent depression there was a cessation of the move towards better working-conditions; and on the grounds of economic circumstances and the danger of inconveniencing still further already bankrupt employers, the various inspecting duties that usually preserve the labour code were curtailed. The rates of pensions and public servants' salaries and wages were reduced, while award rates of wages were also compulsorily reduced. At the same time heavy unemployment liabilities were undertaken and immigration control made more rigid. Steps were also taken to reduce farmers' mortgage liabilities and to maintain farmers on their land.

In no case do the provisions laid down by any particular labour law cancel the worker's rights at common law; but since, naturally enough, better conditions are laid down by statute than the worker is entitled to at common law it is unusual to find in these days litigation under the common law affecting master and servant. It sometimes happens, however, notably in workers' compensation cases, that appeal is made at common law instead of under the Act, there being no statutory limits to the damages which may be obtained at common law. Since, with the exception of such of the labour statutes as are of general application, no labour legislation exists affecting certain classes of workers—e.g., domestic servants—their relations with their employers are still governed mainly by the common law affecting master and servant.

New Zealand has been relatively backward in protection for permanent farm labour, for while seasonal labour is in general covered—awards existing both for shearers and shed hands and for threshing-mill workers—the Arbitration Court has made no awards in respect of permanent farm hands. In general, conditions of work on farms were not covered by any specific legislation, except as regards inspection of housing-accommodation—until, in 1936, the Agricultural Workers Act (described in some detail later) was passed, containing definite provision as to wages of permanent dairy workers and better provision for the housing of agricultural workers. Similar legislation has existed in many of the older countries for years past. In the following pages labour legislation, as it has developed in its principal provinces, is discussed in some detail.

Extensive amendments to pre-existing labour laws have been made by the Labour Government (elected in November, 1935) towards the formation of a more liberal code of social legislation. Legislative provisions novel to New Zealand have been made with the same object in view—e.g., the Agricultural Workers Act, the provision for the declaration of a basic wage contained in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act. &c. Following is a list of Acts dealing directly with labour questions, passed during the 1936 session of Parliament:—

Employment Promotion Act. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act. Factories Amendment Act. Shops and Offices Amendment Act. Agricultural Workers Act. Workers' Compensation Amendment Act. Coal-mines Amendment Act.

A machinery measure (the Labour Department Amendment Act) brings certain functions of the Department under the control of the Minister of Labour, and defines more clearly the scope of the Department's activities. In addition to the Acts mentioned above, provisions in several other Acts of the 1936 session deal with matters which can be properly regarded as coming within the subject-matter of this section. The following Acts, or provisions in Acts, may be referred to in this connection. In some instances detailed reference is made later in this section, while in others reference is made in the sections indicated.

Certain provisions in the Finance Act dealing with restoration of wages and salaries. The Distress and Replevin Amendment Act. Fair Rents Act. Family Allowances Amendment Act. (See Section XXV.) Pensions Amendment Act. (See Section XXV.) Prevention of Profiteering Act. (Sec Section XXXVI.) Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act. (See Section XXXII.) State Advances Corporation Act. (See Section XXIVD.)

Various enactments and amendments to previous Acts introduced in the 1936 session modifying the code of labour legislation and social legislation generally have been briefly referred to. More detailed reference is given in each instance under the appropriate heading in the following pages, where the legislation as it stands at present is discussed, with appropriate historical comment. A short résumé of the present Government's policy in relation to public works as it affects working-conditions, &c, on such works is also appended, as being highly relevant to the subject-matter of this section.

WAGES AND WORKING-CONDITIONS.

Working-conditions of females in factories were the subject of legislation as early as 1873; but the first legislation of this nature applying to all factory workers was the Inspection of Machinery Act of 1882, which provided for the inspection of machinery in factories, &c, and required that persons in charge of boilers should be properly qualified; while three years later an ineffective Factory Act was passed. But it was the Ballance and Seddon Governments which really initiated legislation in this sphere with four main Acts that have served as a basis for all subsequent legislation on this subject, and determined the lines along which progress was to be made—the Factories Act, 1891; the Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1892; the Coal-mines Act, 1891; and the Shipping and Seamen Act, 1894. The Agricultural Workers Act. 1936, represents a definite extension of the scope of this legislation.

FACTORIES ACT.

The original Factories Act, which was passed in 1891, provided for the registration as a factory of any office, building, or place in which three or more persons were engaged in working for hire or reward in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing articles for trade or sale, and for the inspection of such factories. Other provisions dealt with sanitation in factories, the protection of women and children as regards hours of employment, and the notification of accidents in factories. No boy under thirteen years of age, or girl under fourteen, was permitted to be employed in any factory. This Act was repealed in 1894, the Act of that year containing several new features, notably provision for the labelling of work sent out from the factory and manufactured in private houses. A forty-eight-hour week was prescribed for women and boys, who were further protected by a provision that they were not to be employed between the hours of 6 p.m. and 7.45 a.m. without the written consent of an Inspector of Factories, who was empowered to permit a limited amount of overtime. The definition of a factory was widened to include establishments where two people were employed. In one respect the Act of 1894 compared unfavourably with the previous enactment. Under the 1891 Act women and youths had worked an eight-hour day, with a weekly-half-holiday; but the 1894 Act, by merely prescribing a forty-eight-hour week, meant that they had by law to take a half-holiday at their own expense. Under the 1901 Act this fault was rectified; and, in addition, cognizance was taken of the working-hours of men—the hours being fixed at forty-eight hours per week for men, with a maximum of eight and three-quarter hours per day; and forty-five per week for women and youths, with a maximum of eight and one-quarter hours per day. Overtime was permitted with extra payment; but in the case of women and girls the number of hours per day and the number of days per year were limited. Boys and girls could not be employed without payment or at a lower wage than 5s. per week. There were no major amendments between 1901 and 193G, although the law was consolidated in 1908 and in 1921–22. The statutory half-holiday for women and girls, which was fixed for Saturday, may be altered to any day other than Saturday fixed for the closing of shops and offices in the district. Before a boy or girl under sixteen may be employed in a factory a certificate of fitness must be obtained, which may be granted by the Inspector, having regard to age, standard of education, and general fitness for employment.

Important amendments to the law are contained in the Factories Amendment Act, 1936. The definition of a factory is widened to include all establishments where one person is employed (two persons being the minimum previously, with certain specified exceptions—viz., bakeries, laundries, all places where mechanical power is employed, gasworks, electric generating-plants, and places where Asiatics are employed in laundry-work, manufacture, or handicrafts).

A forty-hour week is prescribed as the legal maximum for an ordinary working-week in place of the pre-existing maximum of forty-eight hours (women and boys, forty-five hours). The number of hours per clay is reduced to eight, while work may not be continued for more than four hours and one-quarter (previously five hours) without an intermission of at least three-quarters of an hour. Certain industries which were previously exempt from the forty-eight-hour maximum—meat-freezing works, dairy factories, fellmongery, fish-curing, jam-making, bacon-curing—are also exempted from the operation of these provisions. On application by any occupier of a factory, the Court of Arbitration may by order extend in respect of the factory for any specified period the limits on working-hours indicated above, but not to more than forty-four hours per week. Special provisions are made in the case of dairy factories, limiting, with certain exceptions, to six per week the number of days on which any worker may be employed.

The minimum rate of pay is raised from 10s. per week to 15s., rising by half-yearly increments of 4s. until the end of the third year, when the minimum rate of £2 per week operates. Overtime is permitted (as before) upon obtaining a permit from an Inspector of Factories; but Sunday work for women or boys is definitely prohibited.

Overtime rates of pay are raised to a minimum of Is. 6d. per hour (preexisting minima 6d. and 9d., according to ordinary rate of pay), while the standard overtime rate is one and one-half times the ordinary rate (previously one and one-quarter times). The number of statutory holidays granted to workers has been increased from six to eight, while special provisions have been made requiring extra payment to be made for work on Sundays or holidays. Generally speaking, treble time is counted for work done on statutory whole holidays (where the worker would be paid ordinary time if not working), double time on Sundays or other holidays, and time and one-half on half-holidays.

No deduction from the pre-existing weekly wage is to be made on account of any reduction in working-hours made in consequence of the coming into force of the 1936 amending Act. The reduced hours came into operation on 1st September, 1936. Individual applications for variation of hours beyond the forty-hour week prescribed by the Act are still (November, 1936) being heard.

In addition to the provisions described in the previous paragraphs, there are. inter alia, sections extending the application of rules for the prevention of accidents in factories; while, where better conditions are prescribed in any respect by the amended Factories Act than exist in any award or agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, such award or agreement is to be read subject to the provisions of the Factories Act.

Provision was made in 1906 for protecting workers employed on any building work, and these provisions were later superseded by the Scaffolding and Excavation Act, 1922. This Act covers all persons engaged in erecting, demolishing, or altering any building, making the necessary excavations, or operating cranes and other gear. Notice of intention to commence building work that may involve a fall of 12 ft. or more, or to make an excavation, or to set up a crane, must be given to one of the Inspectors appointed by the Act. The Inspector is empowered to order work to cease, to brand or destroy unsafe gear, and generally to see that the life and health of workers are safeguarded.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT.

Much legislation followed the original Shops and Shop-assistants Act of 1892, and the whole was consolidated in 1922 into the Shops and Offices Act, which is substantially amended by an Act passed in 1936.

The Act regulates the hours of assistants in shops and offices, and provides for the fixing of the hours of closing of shops and offices. Except in certain exempted trades and in small towns for which later hours are prescribed, work must cease at 6 p.m. on four nights of the week, at 9 p.m. on one night, and at noon on the day of the weekly half-holiday. The hours must not in any case exceed forty-four per week or eight per day, with the exception of eleven on one day in the week. Limited overtime (to be paid for) may, however, be worked for stocktaking and special occasions. A break of not less than one hour for a meal must be allowed after four and one-quarter hours' continuous work, except that an extension to five hours may be made if ten minutes' rest is allowed at the end of a working-period of three hours. Prior to the 1936 amendment the weekly minimum was forty-eight hours, and the closing-hour on the half-holiday was 1 p.m.

In regard to the closing of shops, a weekly half-holiday from noon is compulsory with a few exceptions—e.g., fishmongers and fruiterers. The closing-day is fixed in each district by the local authority, except where it is decided by a poll of the electors taken on petition of a certain number. Even in the exempted trades, a half-holiday must be given to each assistant on a day to be fixed by the occupier.

The closing-hours of shops in any district on the other days of the week have for many years been fixed pursuant to the Act by “requisition” of a majority of the shopkeepers if desired either in the whole of the local district or in any trade in the local district. The hours of closing have been thus determined in very many trades and districts.

In 1920 an amendment of the Act prescribed compulsory closing-hours at 6 p.m. on four days of the week and 9 p.m. on one day in the well-populated areas, except in certain exempted trades, thus incorporating by statute the closing-hours as already determined by “requisition” in many cases. The Court of Arbitration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is also now-empowered, when making an award in any trade, to fix not only reduced hours of employment of assistants (which has been done in many trades), but also earlier closing-hours of all shops in that trade in the locality whether or not assistants are employed therein, with authority to make exemptions in cases of hardship, and this provision has also been acted upon.

Each trade in any district may also, by a majority vote, obtain an order of the Minister of Labour prohibiting the sale in such district, during the time the shops in such trade are required to be closed, of the goods the sale of which is comprised in such trade. This provision is inserted to meet those cases where the trades of various shopkeepers overlap one another, only some of whom are required to close at a certain hour. The provision enabling a majority of the shopkeepers in any trade to fix the closing-hours for that trade applies only to those who are principally engaged therein; if the latter are desirous that other shopkeepers carrying on the trade as a minor portion of their business should cease selling the same goods at the closing-hours fixed, they may apply to the Minister for an order prohibiting such sales.

The Act fixes a minimum wage of 15s. per week, with half-yearly increments of 4s. per week until the end of the third year, and thereafter a wage of not less than £2 per week. (Prior to the 1936 amendment, 10s. minimum; annual increases of 5s. until £1 10s. per week was reached.) As in the case of factories, higher rates of wages arc, in the case of many shop-assistants, fixed by awards or industrial agreements under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

All assistants employed in hotels and restaurants are brought under special provisions as to holidays, hours (which must not exceed forty-four per week nor eight per day), overtime, &c. As in the case of shop-assistants, hotel and restaurant employees must be allowed an interval of an hour for a meal after four and one-quarter hours' continuous work.

The Act also makes provision for the comfort, health, and safety of assistants—viz., in regard to seating-accommodation, ventilation, heating, sanitation, and hygiene.

The hour of commencing work must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except in certain specified instances—e.g., bakers (4 a.m.), butchers (6 a.m.). Persons engaged in delivering milk may be required to start work at 3 a.m. or in accordance with conditions approved by the Minister, but not otherwise, earlier than 3 a.m. The above exceptions do not apply in the case of boys or girls under sixteen years of age. The latest hour on which a male shop-assistant may be employed in any trade is 10.30 p.m., or 11 p.m. on one day in the week in certain instances; while boys under eighteen or females may be employed until 9.30 p.m., but there are exceptions on certain days—e.g., Christmas Eve. Extension to 10.30 p.m. is permissible in the case of women, girls, or boys under eighteen employed in restaurants. There is no limit under the Act to the time at which adult male hotel and restaurant employees may be required to commence or cease work.

No premium may be received by the occupier of any shop in respect of the employment of any shop-assistant or in respect of the teaching or training of any person in any trade or business carried on in the shop unless the shop is approved by the Chief Inspector appointed under the Factories Act, 1921–22, as a school for learners in a trade or business, and the payment is made pursuant to a written agreement that is approved by the Chief Inspector. The Chief Inspector cannot approve of any shop as a school for learners in any trade or business unless he is satisfied that reasonable facilities are provided for learning the trade or business, and he may at any time withdraw his approval if he ceases to be so satisfied. The Chief Inspector must not approve of any agreement under this section unless he is satisfied that the terms of the agreement are reasonable.

Offices are required to close at noon on the statutory half-holiday and at five o'clock on every other working-day, certain exceptions—e.g., shipping offices, railway offices, and newspaper offices—being allowed. The list of exemptions from this provision has been substantially amended by the 1936 Act, banks and insurance offices being important cases previously exempt. Limited employment after office-hours is permitted for such purposes as making up balances, &c, payment for overtime at the rate of time and a half (minimum Is. 6d.. per hour) and meal-allowance at the rate of Is. 6d. per meal being mandatory in respect of such overtime.

The minimum wage-rates applying to shop-assistants set out in a preceding paragraph apply also to office assistants. Prior to the 1936 amendment office assistants did not come within the scope of the provisions for minimum wages. This particular provision applies to solicitors' offices and mining offices, which do not come within the definition of the term “office” in respect of other provisions of the Act.

No person who was employed in any shop or office at the time the 1936 amendment came into operation may he dismissed, nor have his wages reduced, by reason merely of any reduction or alteration made in his working-hours pursuant to the amendment. Where any such person is dismissed or his wages are reduced after the commencement of the Act, the onus of proving that the dismissal or reduction, as the case may be, was not a breach of the provisions of that Act is on the employer.

Awards and industrial agreements covering shop and office workers are to be read subject to the provisions of the Shops and Offices Act—i.e., the conditions, &c, laid down in such awards and agreements must be at least equal to those prescribed in the Shops and Offices Act.

Provision is made for the keeping of a time-table of hours of duty of fruiterers' assistants; and. under certain conditions, shops which sell smoking-requisites in addition to carrying on other business may be compelled to close early in the evenings. Vendors of motor spirit or oil are not compelled to observe the limitations as to closing-hours, provided that this is the sole business conducted on the premises.

MINING ACTS.

Since the passing of the original Coal-mines Act of 1891 legislation relating to coal-mines has always been set out separately from that regulating all other mines. The Mining Act of 1926, which consolidates no fewer than fifteen previous enactments on the subject, lays down in considerable detail regulations governing all mines except coal-mines. Inspectors of Mines are appointed with wide powers.

The Act requires that a person acting in the capacity of mine-manager of any mine where there are more than twelve men employed at any one time above ground, or more than six underground, must hold a certificate granted after examination by a Board of Examiners empowered under the Act to grant such certificates. Provision is made for proper ventilation in mines, special care is required to be taken in handling explosives, dangerous places must be properly timbered, special regulations are made as to hauling-machinery, &c. No female and no male person under the age of fourteen years may be employed in or about a mine, except in a clerical capacity. The employment of manual labour on Sundays without the previous written consent of an Inspector of Mines is prohibited. Overtime must be paid for any time worked in excess of eight hours a day, counting from the time the miner enters the underground workings until he leaves them. Time worked on Sundays and holidays must be paid for at time-and-a-half rates. All machinery used to supply motive power is subject to the provisions of the Inspection of Machinery Act, 1908, as far as these provisions apply. A sufficient supply of water must be supplied where it is necessary for the laying of dust in a mine. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than eight hours per day or forty-eight hours per week except in cases of emergency.

The Mining Amendment Act, 1927, provides, inter alia, that a mine where twenty men or over are employed on one shift must have two outlets.

Conditions of employment in coal-mines are dealt with in the Coal-mines Act, 1925. In general the provisions of this Act resemble those of the Mining Act, though, of course, to combat the special risks of coal-mining additional regulation is necessary. For every coal-mine there must be a duly qualified manager, who must be either the owner of the mine or some person appointed by the owner, and who is responsible for the control, management, and direction of the mine. Inspectors of Coal-mines are appointed, who must hold certificates as first-class mine-managers under the Act. Certain sections of the Act deal with the prevention of coal-dust, the use of safety-lamps, the prohibition of work in places where the presence of gas is suspected, and the inspection of the mine before the commencement of work, &c. Suitable housing-accommodation must be supplied for workers if required by notice of the Minister of Mines.

A levy of ½d. per ton on every ton of marketable coal raised from mines is made under the terms of the Act, such moneys forming a fund for the relief of miners injured in the course of employment and of their dependants in the case of death. Information as to miners' pensions, provided for originally by the Miner's Phthisis Act of 1915, is contained in Section XXV of this book.

By an amending Act passed in 1927 wages for a period not exceeding six months, payable by the owner of a coal-mine in respect of mining operations, constitute an equitable charge on plant and machinery, with priority over mortgages, &c. Proceedings for the enforcement of the charge must be commenced within twelve months.

An amending Act passed in 1936 provided further measures for the safety of miners. Stricter precautions are to be taken to ensure that unlawful lights, &c, are not taken into mines. Additional safeguards are made to alleviate the danger to the health of miners from the presence of dust in mines, while the Minister may establish central rescue stations in coal-mining areas.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN ACT.

The first statute relating to this subject was passed in 1877, and the present law is embodied in the Shipping and Seamen Act, 1908, which, with subsequent amendments, contains many provisions designed for the safety of passengers and crew, and for the amelioration of working-conditions on board ship. A vast amount of regulation is contained in the Act dealing with matters which do not come under these headings, so that this résumé of its contents by no means covers the whole ground covered by the Act.

Adequate provision is made to ensure competence on the part of the controlling officers of ships. Home-trade steamships of 60 tons register and upwards and home-trade sailing-ships of 100 tons register must carry certificated mates, and such ships of 100 tons register and upwards trading more than three hundred miles between terminal ports must have second mates. A foreign-going ship is required to carry two certificated mates. Foreign-going certificated mates are entitled to ship as mates in the home trade. It is an offence for a master or owner to engage a certificated officer for the purpose only of enabling the ship to clear, and not for the purpose of making the voyage.

Provision is made for issuing certificates of competency to second mates of home-trade ships, and for recognizing as valid in the Dominion certificates of masters, mates, and engineers granted in any part of the British Dominions.

Any master or mate may, at any time, be required by the shipowner or the Minister of Marine to be examined in the sight tests by the Government Examiners.

Further sections dealing with the safety of the ship require the adjustment of compasses to be carried out under regulations; and power is given to the Minister to define restricted limits for steamers and for vessels propelled by oil, gas, &c. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to make regulations as to the loading and stowage of ballast and the loading of grain cargo in bulk. It is an offence to ship wool, flax, tow, or skins in such a condition as to be liable to spontaneous combustion.

Since 1909 there has been a gradual extension of the type of ship ordered by law to carry wireless. The regulations now define the nature of the installations and service and the number and grade of operators in different classes of vessels, and provide for inspection.

The provisions regarding working-conditions on vessels require, inter alia, proper sanitary, hospital, and lavatory accommodation, including bathrooms, to be provided for the crew, together with an adequate supply of hot water for those employed in connection with the engines, and a minimum of space to be provided in the seamen's quarters is laid down. Masters and officers who assault seamen on the high seas are liable to imprisonment or fine.

Intercolonial, in addition to home-trade, ships are made liable to pay the wages, maintenance, and medical expenses of seamen taken ill in the service of the ship for the remainder of the agreement, not exceeding three months; and, in the case of intercolonial ships, if the agreement expires within one month from the commencement of the illness, payment is to be made for one month after the expiry. The illness which entitles a man to the benefits provided for is one which requires medical treatment for fourteen days.

The clearances of foreign-going ships which are required to pay the coastal rate of wages are to be withheld until such wages are paid.

Desertion is defined, and deserters who cannot be dealt with before their ship sails can afterwards be prosecuted by the owner or agent, and copies of the agreement and the entries in the log-book are to be accepted by Courts as evidence. Forfeited wages are to be paid into the Public Account.

It is unlawful for any person other than the owner, master, mate, or engineer of a ship, or a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, to engage or supply seamen for ships, and only such seamen as have a knowledge of the English language are allowed to ship.

The law as to inquiries into shipping casualties is on the lines of the Imperial Merchant Shipping Act, and provision is made for rehearings, for Superintendents of Mercantile Marine to take part in such inquiries, and for Magistrates to order a change of venue. Inquiries are not to be held in Police Courts unless other suitable buildings are not available; and in cases where there has been loss of life, but no damage to the ship, the inquiries may be held by Coroners.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT, 1936.

The purpose of this Act is to make better provision for the accommodation of agricultural workers, and to make special provisions for the remuneration of workers on dairy farms and for the conditions of their employment. The administration of the Act is in the hands of the Labour Department, which also administered the Agricultural Labourers' Accommodation Act, 1908 (repealed by the present Act).

The sections of the Act in relation to the accommodation of agricultural workers lay clown definite requirements for the comfort of such workers. Inter alia, sleeping-quarters separate from the dining-quarters must be provided where two or more workers are accommodated; a sufficient supply of furniture and utensils must be provided by the employer; provision for the storing of perishable foodstuffs and for drying clothes must be available; while first-aid appliances must be provided. Inspectors of Factories have power to inspect the accommodation and to require that improvements be made where necessary. Inspectors have discretionary power in cases where special circumstances exist, provided that the accommodation conforms approximately to the requirements of the Act. The employer has a right of appeal to a Magistrate's Court against the decision of an Inspector. The provisions of the Act are not intended to apply to cases where workers can conveniently sleep in their own homes; but special provision may be made by regulations under the Act to cover cases where a married worker and his family are occupying a house owned or leased by his employer.

No child under the age of fifteen years may be employed for hire on a dairy-farm (excepting those in such employment at the date of the passing of the Act). The following minimum rates of pay of workers on dairy-farms operate between the commencement of the Act (September, 1936) and 31st July, 1937:—

  1. For workers under the age of seventeen years, 17s. 6d. a week:

  2. For workers of the age of seventeen years but under the age of eighteen years, £1 2s. 6d. a week:

  3. For workers of the age of eighteen years but under the age of nineteen years, £1 7s. 6d. a week:

  4. For workers of the age of nineteen years but under the age of twenty years, £1 12s. 6d. a week:

  5. For workers of the age of twenty years but under the age of twenty-one years, £1 17s. 6d. a week:

  6. For workers of the age of twenty-one years and upwards, £2 2s. 6d. a week:

After 31st July, 1937, the minimum rates of wages are to be fixed by Order in Council; and, in fixing such rates, the guaranteed prices fixed in respect of primary produce under the Primary Products Marketing Act, 1936 (see page 336), will be taken into account. Future rates must not, however, be lower than those specified above.

No charge may be made by an employer for board and lodging of his dairy-farm employees; and in the case of a worker not being supplied with board and lodging the rates of wage specified above must be increased by 17s. 6d. per week.

Every agricultural worker who is employed on a dairy-farm for not less than four weeks continuously is to be allowed a holiday on full pay plus an amount not less than one-half the lodging-allowance rate. The duration of the holiday is to be not less than seven days in the aggregate for every twelve weeks of employment, and a proportionate period for every broken period of employment. If a regular weekly half-holiday commencing at noon is allowed, a holiday of fourteen days a year (or proportionate duration for a lesser period of employment) will be regarded as sufficient compliance with the Act.

Among the miscellaneous provisions relating to dairy-farms are the following: Wages and allowances must be paid in full at least once a month; a wages and holiday book must be kept; an Inspector of Factories may take proceedings for the recovery of arrears of wages.

The special provisions of the Act relating to workers on dairy-farms may be extended by Order in Council to apply to any other class or classes of agricultural workers.

Provision exists for the employment of “under-rate” workers, with the consent of the Inspector of Factories. An amendment to the Act made by a section in the Statutes Revision Act, 1936, permits the Inspector to apply the under-rate provisions in respect both of money wages and of amount (if any) payable in lieu of board and lodging in cases of female workers employed on dairy-farms. This amendment is of considerable import; since the employment of women workers for short periods of the day—notably at milking-time—is common on dairy-farms.

THE BASIC WAGE AND LEGISLATIVE CHANGES IN WAGE-RATES.

The amounts of wage-rates generally have always been influenced largely by the rates specified for individual industries and occupations in awards and industrial agreements registered under the Arbitration Act. As mentioned previously, certain classes of workers—e.g., permanent farm hands—have hitherto had no legal protection in the matter of wage-rates; while, again, until the passing of the Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1936, many classes of office workers were in a similar position.

The New Zealand Arbitration Court functioned for many years before the question of a basic wage was specifically dealt with by the Court. Under the War Legislation and Statute Amendment Act, 1918, the Court was required to review on application existing awards and industrial agreements, taking into consideration, inter alia, changes in the cost of living. The Court in April, 1919, made a pronouncement fixing basic rates of wages for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers. [It is of interest at this point to mention that a basic wage was brought into operation by the Federal Arbitration Court in Australia in 1907.] No definite family unit was stated as the basis on which the basic rate was calculated, the minimum pre-war award rates for unskilled labour, with appropriate adjustment, being apparently used as a standard. A cost-of-living bonus, varied at half-yearly intervals in sympathy with movements in the cost of living, was added to the basic rates. In September, 1925, a further pronouncement on the basic wage was made by the Court, standard minimum rates being fixed as follows:—

Unskilled workersIs. 10d. per hour.
Semi-skilled workersIs. 11d. to 2s. l½d. per hour.
Skilled workers2s. 3d. per hour.

The legislation by which the Court was empowered to make general orders having expired, the new rates—which represented an increase on those obtaining before—were brought into operation as individual awards expired. As in the 1919 pronouncement, no definite family unit was taken as the basis of assessment of the standard rates, which were in general stated to be somewhat in excess of 60 per cent, higher than the rates ruling in 1914. It is of interest to observe in the light of recent legislation that the standard rate of Is. 10d. per hour works out at £4 0s. 8d.. per week of forty-four hours, the ruling working-week at that time in many industries.

No further pronouncements directly relevant to the subject of the basic wage were made until 1931. The Finance Act of that year empowered the Arbitration Court to amend, by general order, awards or industrial agreements with respect to rates of remuneration. Rates of remuneration under awards or industrial agreements were reduced by 10 per cent, as from 1st June, 1931, with certain minor exceptions.

Full or partial restoration of this cut was effected in the case of several individual awards made in 1934 and 1935, while complete restoration was effected in respect of all awards by a section in the Finance Act, 1936. This Act went further; it required the restoration as from 1st July, 1936, of all cuts in wages and salaries imposed during the depression period, whether the workers concerned were working under an Arbitration Court award or not.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, inter alia, requires the Arbitration Court to fix basic rates of wages for adult male and female workers. Orders of the Court made to this end may be amended at not less than six-monthly intervals by a subsequent general order. The basic rate of wages for adult male workers is required to be fixed at a rate which would, in the opinion of the Court, be sufficient to maintain a man, wife, and three children in a fair and reasonable standard of comfort. A general order fixing basic rates of wages-for adult male and female workers was issued by the Arbitration Court on 2nd November, 1936. The weekly rates are fixed at £3 16s. for adult male workers and at £1 16s. for adult female workers. The basic wage applies to all workers twenty-one years of age or over (excepting casual workers and those working under apprenticeship contracts) the conditions of whose employment are fixed by any award or industrial agreement.

Rates of salaries and wages of public servants have been adjusted from time to time by legislative action. Cost-of-living bonuses were granted in the late war years and in the immediate post-war years; while, at the general regrading of classified officers normally held every five years, the subject of salary scales comes up for review. Statutory reductions were made in 1922, 1931, and 1932, the two latter reductions having since been restored—partially in 1934 and 1935 and completely in 1936.

An interesting innovation made by the Arbitration Court in 1928 was the award of that year whereby the wages of shearers and other wool-shed hands were fixed at a rate fluctuating with the movement of wool prices as determined by the Government Statistician's index number for export prices of wool. The system did not operate between 1931 and 1933, workers and employers being unable to agree as to rates, though both parties expressed approval of the principle. The award of 1933 contained provision for the resumption of the sliding-scale system, which is still in operation.

In referring to the general question of wage rates it is relevant to draw attention to the provisions made under the Family Allowances Act for supplementing the incomes of necessitous families; while the Pensions Acts are of significance also in this connection (see Section XXV).

PROTECTION OF WAGES.

Workers' wages were first safeguarded by the Truck Act of 1891, which ensured them the payment of their wages in full, in coin of the realm. This was followed by a series of Acts—the Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act, 1892; the Workmen's Wages Act, 1893; the Threshing-machine Owners' Lien Act, 1895; the Wages Attachment Act, 1895; and the Wages Protection Act, 1899—all aimed at making the payment of wages more certain and secure, and at limiting creditors' rights to attach future earnings.

This code was consolidated into the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act of 1908, which aims principally at securing the regular payment of wages. In cases of contracts between employers and contractors who employ wages-men, or between contractors and sub-contractors who likewise employ wages-men, the Act permits the attachment of moneys in the hands of the employers for the payment of wages in arrear. The person for whom the contract is being performed is deemed to be the employer.

The attachment of a worker's wages for debt is prohibited, except in the case of any surplus exceeding £2 per week. (This, however, has been affected by section 20 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1908, under which, in the case of a penalty for a breach of that Act, the surplus above £1 per week earned by unmarried men may be attached by judgment in a Magistrate's Court.)

The Act prohibits payment for wages being made in goods (truck), or in any other way than in money or by approved cheque; and also prohibits any stipulation as to how the wages-money is to be expended. The truck provisions do not, however, apply where the employer supplies house-accommodation, board and lodging, fuel, medical assistance, materials, tools, and the like required for the work, nor to seamen or farm workers.

A contractor, sub-contractor, and any worker is entitled to obtain liens on the lands or chattels of the employer upon giving due notice, and the employer must then retain in his hands sufficient of the contract-moneys to satisfy and guarantee payment of the claimant's dues. This is subject to the limitations stated. For example, the worker's earnings are limited to thirty days' pay, and so long as the employer retains 25 per cent. of the contract-money for the purpose till the expiration of thirty-one days after the completion of the contract the employer is not liable for any further payment; but if any additional amount has not been paid by him to the contractor when a lien is lodged the employer must retain enough of such amount to meet the lien. When any part of the contract-money has been duly withheld by the employer pursuant to the Act the contractor has no claim on the employer for that money, except so far as that amount is not required for the purposes of the Act. Liens are given priority in the order of workers, sub-contractors, and contractors. There are exemptions made in favour of mortgages on the employer's land if registered prior to the lodging of the lien, unless the mortgagee is a party to the contract. In the case of the death of a lien-holder the right passes to his personal representative.

If wages in respect of threshing operations are not paid to the workers concerned the amount of such wages can be made a charge on the proceeds of the realization of the crop threshed.

No deduction from workers' wages may be made for purposes of insurance against compensation for accident.

Liens to be imposed as security for miners' wages or earnings are dealt with under the Mining Act, 1926, and the Coal-mines Act, 1925.

Wages are further safeguarded by certain sections of the Bankruptcy Act, which give priority of payment for wages or salaries of workers (with certain limitations as to amount and period) in preference to certain other debts, and since the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, wages take precedence over rents. Similarly under the Companies Act wages (with the same limitations as under the Bankruptcy Act) are a first claim on the assets of a company being wound up. Under the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1936, compensation payments rank with wages as a first charge on the assets of a bankrupt.

Various individual labour laws contain provisions with the special intent of protecting the payment of wages of the workers to whom such legislation applies.

HOUSING.

The first legal provision in connection with housing was contained in the Family Homes Protection Act, 1895, consolidated in the Family Protection Act, 1908. According to this provision it is possible, on certain conditions, to register any piece of land as a family home, so that the estate and interest of the settler and his family in it continue absolute and unaffected by any bankruptcy, assignment, judgment, &c. In 1898 inspection of shearers' accommodation was provided for and was subsequently carried out till the passing of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act in 1932, when it was temporarily discontinued. Inspection of the housing of agricultural labourers and of flax-mill and sawmill hands was established by the Agricultural Labourers' Accommodation Act of 1908, and is continued under the Agricultural Workers Act, 193G, which supersedes the former enactment.

A Workers' Dwellings Act was passed in 1905, authorizing the Minister of Labour to erect dwellings to be let to bona fide workers at a rental of 5 per cent. per annum of the capital value of such dwellings; and, in the following year, a system of advances to workers for the purpose of acquiring homes was instituted, through which they could borrow, after 1923, up to 95 per cent. of the value of their security. To cope with the post-war demobilization, the Housing Act of 1919 provided for the erection of dwellings not only by the State, but also by local authorities, employers, associations of public servants, and public-utility societies, the State advancing the money. The administration of this Act was later transferred to the State Advances Department, now State Advances Corporation. Local Bodies are also empowered to obtain special loans from the State Advances Corporation to erect workers' dwellings for letting, and are granted certain concessions in carrying out this activity by the Municipal Corporations Act, 1933. There is much incidental legislation, as in the Coal-mines Act and the Government Railways Act, where provision is made for the suitable housing of employees.

Housing regulations are contained in the Municipal Corporations Act, where definite measurements are laid down to prevent overcrowding, and provision is made for the appointment of Inspectors to reduce fire-risk and other dangers. Similarly the Health Act of 1920, which replaced the Public Health Act of 1908, provides for medical inspection and for sanitation minima; an owner may be ordered to cleanse or demolish his building, or to close it till certain alterations are made. The Town Planning Acts of 1926 and 1929 aim to develop and reconstruct areas in such a way as to promote their healthfulness and convenience. Activity in this direction was curtailed during the depression, but during 1934–35 one town-planning scheme was formally approved by the Board appointed under the Act and progress was made towards finalizing two more schemes.

In 1935, as a preliminary to measures for remedying the existing position in regard to housing, a Housing Survey Act was passed, instructing local authorities to ascertain as far as possible the extent to which the existing housing-accommodation in their districts falls short of reasonable requirements. At the same time a Native Housing Act empowered the Board of Native Affairs to make advances to Maoris for the purchase, erection, or repair of dwellings. Advances must be secured upon first mortgages of land or other securities approved by the Board, and the rate of interest may not exceed that charged by the State Advances Corporation.

The provision of housing-facilities for workers is a very important part of the policy of the present Government. Apart from the facilities for the building of homes provided for in the State Advances Corporation Act (see Section XXIVD), the Government has already launched a comprehensive housing-plan whereby the legislative machinery provided in the Housing Act, 1919, is being used to build homes to be let to workers at a low rental. Operations have already started, and the Government plans to expend £5,000,000 for this purpose during the twelve months following the announcement of the scheme in September, 1936. Of this amount, £3,500,000 will be expended directly in Government building operations, and £1,500,000 lent to local authorities. Charged at a low rate of interest (3 per cent.), the latter amount is to be applied to the building of municipally-owned workers' dwellings for letting at low rentals. Slum-clearance is an important part of this programme.

Reference should also be made to the provisions of the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936, which is designed to lighten the burden of excessive mortgage indebtedness (see Section XXXII).

RENTS.

Certain sections of the War Legislation Amendment Act of 1916 dealt with house-rents, the maximum rent being fixed at 8 per cent. per annum of the capital value of the dwelling. Material alterations in the law were made by the Rent Restriction Act, 1926. Rent-restriction provisions have since been kept in force by annual continuing statutes, the legislation expiring on 31st October. 1936.

Provisions for statutory reductions in rent and interest payments were contained in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act of 1932, continued by the Finance Act, 1934, and made permanent in 1936; while Courts were given power to reduce rents and mortgage interest by the mortgage-relief legislation of the depression that was consolidated in the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1932. The Fair Rents Act, 1936, replacing various measures referred to above, is briefly described in the following paragraph.

The Fair Rents Act, 1936, makes temporary provision for the restriction of increases in the rent of certain classes of dwellinghouses, and for the determination of fair rents in respect of such houses. The Act applies, generally speaking, to dwellings actually let at the time the Act was passed (June, 1936) or let at any time between 27th November, 1935. and the date of the passing of the Act. It does not apply to other dwellings or to any dwelling let at a rent exceeding £156 per annum. The rent of a dwelling coming within the scope of the Act may not be raised beyond the rent payable on 1st May, 1936; or, in the case of dwellings not let on that date, the rent last payable before that date. On application of either the landlord or the tenant, a Stipendiary Magistrate may declare a fair rent in respect of any dwelling to which the Act applies, having regard to various specified conditions—e.g., the relative circumstances of landlord and tenant. The fair rent is not to exceed the rent payable on 1st May. 1936. or the rent (if any) payable on 27th November, 1935. The grounds for the recovery of possession are limited by the Act, while restrictions are imposed on the right of the landlord to distrain. The Act expires on 30th September, 1937.

The Distress and Replevin Amendment Act, 1936, protects personal effects. furniture, &c, to the value of £50 from seizure under a distress order for rent. The pre-existing legislation on this subject did not protect such effects from seizure.

LABOUR DISPUTES.

Trade-unionists were early protected by the Trade-unions Act of 1878 from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that they were in restraint of trade. They were further protected by the Conspiracy Law Amendment Act of 1894, which laid down that any act by a union in furtherance of a trade dispute should not be deemed unlawful so as to render such persons liable to criminal prosecution for conspiracy if such act committed by one person would not be deemed unlawful. This removed a very serious handicap under which unionists up to that time had suffered.

INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION ACT.

The original Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act was placed on the New Zealand statute-book in 1894. Its object was to encourage the formation of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. It provided for the registration as “industrial unions” of societies of workers or employers in the various industrial districts, and as “industrial associations” of any council or other body representing any number of such unions; for the making of industrial agreements pursuant to the Act, and the filing of such in the Supreme Court; for the formation of industrial districts, the election of Boards of Conciliation, and the setting-up of a Court of Arbitration.

In 1898 an amendment was passed empowering the Court in its awards to prescribe minimum rates of wages, with special provision for a lower rate being paid in the case of workers unable to earn the prescribed minimum. An important amendment was passed in 1903 prohibiting any employer, worker, union of workers, or union of employers from taking proceedings to defeat any of the provisions of an award during its currency. It forbade an employer to dismiss any employee merely because he happened to be entitled to the benefit of an award or merely because he was a member of a union.

In 1905 an amendment was passed providing for the punishment by fine of any worker or employer bound by an award or industrial agreement affecting an industry who takes part in a strike or lockout in that industry. In 1908 an additional penalty was added in the case of certain “public utility” industries, such as gas-manufacture, the supply of milk or meat, tramway services, &c. By this amendment the constitution of Conciliation Boards was altered to provide for the appointment of four Conciliation Commissioners, whose duty it is to call together representatives of employers and employees in the event of a dispute arising, and to sit with these representatives as a Conciliation Council to endeavour to effect a settlement. The decision of the Council is not binding, but disputes must be referred to a Council before they may be referred to the Arbitration Court.

A further amendment in 1911 empowered the Court to make an industrial agreement into an award, provided such agreement does not conflict with an existing award or is not contrary to the public interest. It also provided that recommendations of Conciliation Councils become in effect industrial agreements if none of the parties to a dispute disagrees with such recommendations.

Section 18 of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918, empowered the Court to amend during the term of an award or industrial agreement the provisions of the award or agreement, in so far as they related to rates of remuneration or hours of employment. In varying the conditions, the Court was to take into account the movement in the cost of living and any changes in the special conditions affecting the industry concerned. This measure, which was designed to meet the abnormal conditions caused by the Great War, remained in force till 1923.

The law as it existed in 1925 was consolidated in that year, previous consolidations having been effected in 1900, 1905, and 1908.

In 1927 a Bill was introduced into Parliament to exclude from the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court the farming industry and certain associated industries. The Bill met with considerable opposition and was not proceeded with. An amending Act was, however, passed providing that no award relating to any agricultural, pastoral, or dairying operations, or to any other work effected on a farm, or to the manufacture or production of butter, cheese, or other milk products should be made before 1st September, 1928. In the meantime it was arranged that a National Industrial Conference, representative of all interests concerned, should be held to go fully into this and other questions affecting labour and the relationships between employers and employees.

The conference duly met during the parliamentary recess, and after full discussion came to unanimous agreement on a number of matters, other being left over for further consideration. The provisions of the amendment of 1927 were re-enacted in 1928, another amendment extending for twelve months the period during which awards in the industries mentioned were not to be made, and also providing that no awards in these industries were to be altered or amended in the meantime without the consent of all parties concerned. The provisions referred to lapsed on 1st September, 1929.

A second amendment passed in 1928 permits of industrial agreements and (with the consent of the parties concerned) awards being made for or extended to a term of five years. This amendment also allows of an award or industrial agreement, in lieu of prescribing minimum rates of wages, prescribing a method or basis for calculating minimum rates.

As a result of depression conditions the Court was empowered by the Finance Act, 1931, to amend by general order awards or industrial agreements in respect of rates of wages, though power was given for the exclusion of any class or section of workers from the operation of a general order. In the next year compulsory arbitration was abolished; conciliation was still compulsory, but disputes could be referred to the Court only by mutual consent. Provision was also made for the review of existing awards.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court, and also made several other amendments, the more important of which are summarized below:—

  • The Court is required to fix basic wages for adult male workers based on the needs of a man, wife, and three children, and also a basic wage for adult female workers. It must make general orders prescribing the basic wages, which will apply to all awards, &c, in force. (See previous heading—Basic Wage, &c.)

  • Restrictions are imposed on the formation of new unions in districts where a union in respect of the same industry exists; in fact, no such new union may be registered unless with the concurrence of the Minister of Labour.

  • Provision is made for the registration of New Zealand unions covering all existing workers or employees, if all or the majority of district unions concur. In cases where no district union exists at present a New Zealand union may be formed, subject to compliance with the requirements of the principal Act in respect of registration of unions.

  • All workers who are subject to any award or industrial agreement registered under the Act must become members of a union. (This applies also in respect of awards or agreements in force at the time of the passing of the amending Act.) It is not lawful for an employer to employ or continue in employment in any position or employment subject to an award or industrial agreement any adult person who is not a member. Non-members may, however, be employed in cases where union membership is limited, and there are no union members available.

  • The Court may confer on union officials the right of entry on employers' premises.

  • Where it is deemed practicable the Court must fix the maximum hours of work per week (exclusive of overtime) at forty; while the Court may review existing awards to this end on application. The hours in such a review are to be fixed at forty, unless in the opinion of the Court such hours are impracticable. No reduction in weekly pay is to be made in consequence of reduced hours—i.e., the hourly rates are to be increased proportionately. The provisions stated in this paragraph came into operation on 1st September, 1936.

  • By the principal Act the maximum weekly union subscription was fixed at Is. per week. This limitation is now removed.

The administration of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is in the hands of the Labour Department, and Inspectors of Factories are charged with the duty of seeing that the provisions of awards and agreements are carried out. The following paragraphs indicate the procedure followed in regard to industrial disputes under the Act:—

  • An industrial union (or association of unions) of workers registered under the Act may cite a union or association of unions of employers, or an employer, or a number of employers, before a Council of Conciliation for the hearing of an industrial dispute before a Commissioner and assessors appointed from either side.

  • An industrial union (or association of unions) of employers registered under the Act, or an individual employer, or employers, may cite a union of workers in a similar manner. The workers may compel any of their employers to come under the Act; but the employers cannot compel their workers to come under it, unless the latter have registered as an industrial union or association thereunder; registration is voluntary.

  • If a settlement of a dispute is arrived at by the parties in the course of an inquiry held before a Council of Conciliation, the terms of the settlement are set forth as an industrial agreement. Applications for exemption from the terms of the agreement must be made within one month after it has been filed. The Court is empowered to grant or refuse such applications. Where an agreement applies to the employers employing the majority of workers in the industry to which it relates, the agreement may be made binding on all employers, whether parties or not.

  • Every such agreement shall be executed on behalf of the parties by the assessors representing the parties. If settlement cannot be arrived at before the Conciliation Council the matter is referred to the Court. The Council may at the same time submit a recommendation for the settlement of the dispute; whereupon the parties are notified of such recommendation, and if acceptable to them, the recommendation is made an industrial agreement; failing agreement the matter is referred to the Court.

  • If a dispute comes before the Court, argument is heard upon the matters in debate, and the Court then makes its award, which becomes binding upon the employers specified in the award, upon any employers commencing business in the district subsequently to the date of the award, and upon all persons working for such employers. In all cases where an industrial agreement or accepted recommendation or award is filed, it becomes binding on all the parties. When an award or industrial agreement has been filed, a strike or lockout becomes unlawful.

In addition to the powers mentioned above, the administration of the Apprentices Act, 1923, is placed in the hands of the Court, which also deals with workers' compensation cases.

LABOUR DISPUTES INVESTIGATION ACT.

For all disputes to which the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act does not relate, there was passed in 1913 the Labour Disputes Investigation Act.

Under this Act, if a dispute concerning wages or other conditions of employment arises between a society (or societies) of workers, whether registered or not, that is not bound by any award or industrial agreement, and its employers, the society must, before it may strike, give to the Minister of Labour formal notice of the dispute, setting forth the names of the parties to the dispute and the claims made by the society. The Minister then refers the dispute to a Conciliation Commissioner to call a conference, or to a “Labour Disputes Committee” for investigation and recommendation. Such a committee consists of from one to three members chosen from each side, with an independent chairman. In the event of no settlement being arrived at a secret ballot is taken by the Registrar of Industrial Unions among the members of the society as to whether, in the case of no recommendation having been made, a strike should eventuate; or, in the case of a recommendation having been made, as to whether the recommendation should be adopted. Seven days' notice must be given to the employers should a strike be decided upon.

Similar provisions apply with reference to the filing of a dispute and to a lockout by the employers.

In the event of an agreement being arrived at it may be filed with the Clerk of Awards. It is then enforceable in the same manner as an industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

By this Act the principle of settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration is extended to workers outside the scope of the Arbitration Court, so that definite restrictions on the right to strike or to lockout exist over the whole field of industry in New Zealand. The powers under this Act are not, of course, as far-reaching as those under the Arbitration Act, its main object being that workers or employers should take time for consideration of the points at issue and not precipitate themselves into industrial strife.

APPRENTICES.

This subject was the earliest one dealt with by labour legislation. Following the Master and Apprentices Act of 1865, came section 23 of the Offences against the Person Act, 1867, which protected servants and apprentices from ill-treatment by their employers. The original Master and Apprentices Act soon became out of date, and most of the conditions of employment of apprentices were for many years fixed by awards and industrial agreements under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. As a result of the feeling that the fixing of the conditions of employment of apprentices should not be the subject of an industrial dispute between employers and unions of workers, and that the shortage of apprentices and skilled workers necessitated special attention, the Apprentices Act was passed in 1923. The employment of apprentices is accordingly now controlled by special orders of the Court of Arbitration, acting independently of its powers under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and by Apprenticeship Committees, the setting-up of which in the various industries and localities is provided for. The Court may delegate many of its powers to these Committees, but aggrieved persons have the right of appeal to the Court, whose decision is final. An amending Act in 1930, inter alia, authorizes an Apprenticeship Committee to refer to the Court for decision any matter on which the Committee cannot come to a decision. Also the Court may, hi certain circumstances, authorize the District Registrars appointed under the principal Act to exercise the powers of Apprenticeship Committees.

Power is given by the Apprentices Act to compel employers to take and teach a minimum number of apprentices, in order to ensure as far as possible that the future requirements of the industries may be met. The Act of 1923 restricted employers to a maximum proportion of apprentices to journeymen, but this section of the Act was repealed in 1927.

Full power is given by the Apprentices Act to ensure that both the employers and the apprentices carry out their obligations. These powers include cancellation of apprenticeships, transfer, examination, and technical-school attendance of apprentices, also power to prohibit certain employers from taking apprentices. All contracts of apprenticeship and all voluntary transfers and cancellations of apprenticeships must now be registered, and it is the duty of the District Registrars to see before registering apprenticeships that the conditions are in accordance with the Act and orders thereunder, and are otherwise just to both parties. There is, however a right of appeal from their decisions to the Court. The Registrar and District Registrars are also charged with the duty of seeing that the Act and decisions thereunder are generally complied with. By the 1930 amendment of the Act, the Court is empowered, on the bankruptcy of an employer, to order payment of an amount not exceeding three months' wages from the estate in respect of the period intervening between the time the apprentice is deprived of employment and the time when he receives other employment as an apprentice in the same industry.

Provision is made to enable employers in intermittent trades, such as building, who perhaps cannot continuously employ apprentices, to take them jointly, in which case the employers are jointly liable; also to enable adults and others already possessing a knowledge of an industry to enter into apprenticeship under such conditions. other than those generally provided for apprentices, as the Committee or Court may approve.

In order to encourage young persons to enter the skilled trades and avoid “blind-alley” occupations, the Act provides for collaboration with the head teachers in the various schools, who are required to watch the progress of the children under their care, and to report to the District Registrars of Apprentices as to the character. aptitude, and attainments of the various children leaving the schools. On receipt of such reports it is the duty of the District Registrars to give such advice as may be in their power to assist the children or their parents or guardians to decide on the most suitable employments. Juvenile employment bureaux also operate free of charge to all parties concerned.

With a view to assisting the Director of Education in shaping the courses of education so that the labour requirements of the various industries of the Dominion may be met so far as possible the Act also provides that the Director shall be apprised from time to time of the number of persons employed in skilled industries, with information as to the prospects of future employment therein.

By the Finance Act, 1931, the Arbitration Court was empowered to amend by general order the rates of remuneration fixed by apprenticeship orders. A year later the Finance Act, 1932, made provision for the amendment, suspension, or cancellation of contracts of apprenticeship on application to a Stipendiary Magistrate, who was empowered to vary or cancel apprenticeship contracts if satisfied that the employer could not be reasonably expected to carry out the terms of the contract. This provision was repealed by a section in the Finance Act, 1936; the repeal does not, however, revive contracts already cancelled or apply to orders made before the passing of the Act. Rates of remuneration were restored to the 1931 level by the Finance Act, 1936.

WORKERS' COMPENSATION.

Common law rights of the worker in this respect were early increased by the Employers Liability Act of 1882: while the Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act, 1908, gives a right of action which did not exist at common law to certain of the relatives of a person killed by a wrongful act.

The Law Reform Act of 1936 contains several provisions of particular relevance to the subject of workers' compensation. The Act, inter alia, creates a charge on all insurance-moneys payable as indemnity for compensation, and makes the charge apply immediately on the happening of the event giving rise to the claim. Similar provisions (now repealed) existed in the Workers' Compensation Act, but under that Act no charge was created unless the insured was insolvent or became bankrupt. Another provision of particular interest in the Law Reform Act is the abolition of the defence of “common employment”: which defence depended on a rule that damages could not be recovered from an employer in respect of the negligence of a fellow servant. A similar provision in the Workers' Compensation Act (but with a limit of £1,000 damages) is consequentially repealed.

The Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, with its amendments of 1922 and 1926, represents the existing law on workers' compensation—subject to the provisions briefly outlined in the preceding paragraph. The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1936, winch comes into force on 1st January, 1937, is briefly described at the end of the letterpress under this heading.

“Worker,” for purposes of the Workers' Compensation Act, means any person who has entered into, or works under, a contract of service or apprenticeship with an employer, whether by way of manual labour, clerical work, or otherwise, and whether remunerated by wages, salary, or otherwise; but does not include any person employed otherwise than by way of manual labour whose remuneration exceeds £400 per annum. The Act applies only to the employment of a worker under a contract of service or apprenticeship either in and for the purposes of any trade or business carried on by the employer, or in any of the following occupations, irrespective of whether or not carried on for purposes of the employer's trade: mining, quarrying, excavation, cutting of standing timber and scrub, clearing land. erection or demolition of buildings and other structures, manufacture and use of explosives, handling power machinery in motion, driving vehicles, domestic service (engagement for not less than three days), and any occupation in which a worker incurs a risk of falling any distance exceeding 12 ft., if the injury to, or death of, the worker results from such a fall. For purposes of this provision, an employer may have more than one trade or business. In general, persons working as independent contractors are not under contracts of service or apprenticeship, and are consequently not “workers.” But by way of exception persons who have contracted to perform any work in a gold- or a coal-mine, or to cut standing timber or scrub, or to clear land of stumps or logs, and who do not sublet the contract or employ labour (or who, if they do employ labour, actually perform part of the work themselves), though not “workers,” are yet covered by the Act.

The worker is not entitled to compensation unless he sustains by accident arising out of and in the course of his employment, and happening within New Zealand or on a New Zealand ship, personal injury incapacitating him from carrying on his occupation. No compensation is payable in respect of any accident as above defined which is attributable to the serious and wilful misconduct of the worker injured, unless the injury results in death or serious and permanent disablement. No compensation is payable in respect of the death of a worker following on, or incapacity resulting from, or aggravated by, unreasonable refusal to submit to medical or surgical treatment. Except under certain safeguarding restrictions, “contracting out” is forbidden.

Certain defined diseases are deemed to be personal injuries by accident if they arose within twelve months previous to the date of disablement and are due to the nature of the employment. There is power under the Act for the list of such diseases to be added to from time to time by regulation, as circumstances warrant the adoption of such a course.

Generally speaking, the employer is the person liable to pay compensation; and for this purpose “employer” includes any body of persons, corporate or unincorporate, the Crown (with certain minor exceptions), and the representatives of a deceased employer. Where a person (the principal), in the course of and for the purposes of his trade or business, contracts with another (the contractor) for the execution by the latter of work undertaken by the former, a workman employed by the contractor on meeting with an accident, may claim compensation from either the principal or the contractor, except in certain cases. If the principal pays, he may. however (with certain minor exceptions), recover the amount from the contractor. The principal is not liable unless the accident occurs on or about his land, premises, or ship; or on or about land, premises, or ship on or in which the principal has contracted to do the work in connection with which the accident happens. Where the injury for which compensation is payable has resulted under circumstances creating a legal liability in some person other than the employer to pay damages in respect thereof, the person by whom the compensation is paid or payable is entitled to indemnification by the person so liable.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1926, amended the Act of 1922 in the direction of raising the limits of compensation. The compensation payable is at present as follows:—

  1. In case of death: Reasonable expenses of medical or surgical attendance, including first aid, and of funeral (maximum, £50), less any sums paid by way of compensation for the accident prior to the death of the person injured; but plus—

  1. Where he leaves total dependants, a sum equal to 208 times his average weekly earnings, or the sum of £300, whichever is the larger, but not exceeding £1,000; or

  2. Where he leaves partial dependants only, a sum reasonable and proportionate to the injury to those dependants, but not exceeding the sums specified in (a).

  1. In case of injury: At the discretion of the Court, either—

  1. During total incapacity, weekly payments amounting to 66⅔ per cent. of the worker's average weekly earnings at the time of the accident (maximum £4 per week; minimum in cases where ordinary rate of pay was not less than £1 10s. per week, £1); during partial incapacity, weekly payments amounting to 66⅔ per cent. of the difference between the amount of the average weekly earnings before the accident and the average weekly amount which the worker is earning or able to earn in suitable employment or business after the accident, but not exceeding £4 per week; or

  2. A lump sum equal to the present value at 5 per cent. per annum compound interest of the aggregate weekly payments which, in the opinion of the Court, would probably become payable to the worker under (a).

Weekly payments are not to extend over a longer aggregate period than six years, and the aggregate amount is not to exceed £1,000.

In addition to 2 (a) and 2 (b) above, a sum not exceeding £1 is payable in respect of medical and surgical attendance and first aid to the worker in respect of his injury. No compensation is payable if incapacity lasts less than three days. In the case of certain injuries involving permanent disability (e.g., dismemberment or loss of use), compensation is assessed according to a special scheme representing a proportion (varying according to the nature of the dismemberment) of the compensation payable in the case of total incapacity. In the case of injury to workers whose earnings at the date of the accident are low by reason of their being at the time under twenty-one, or of their being apprenticed to a trade, &c. and in certain other specified cases, special provisions exist in order to prevent hardship.

Proceedings under the Act in respect of compensation for injuries are not maintainable by a worker unless written notice of the accident has been given to the employer as soon as possible after its occurrence: though the Court has power to excuse failure, due to reasonable causes, to give that notice, on the part of the person injured, or if it is clear that the absence of such notice has not prejudiced the employer's position. Except where the Court excuses delay resulting from mistake or other reasonable cause, proceedings must be taken within six months of the date of the accident or the date of the last payment of compensation in respect of injury, or the date of the death of the person injured, whichever is the later. Such proceedings are taken in the Arbitration Court; though in certain cases they will be heard in a Magistrate's Court. The Court may accept, admit, and call for such evidence as in equity and in good conscience it thinks fit, irrespective of whether strictly legal evidence or not. Costs lie in the discretion of the Court. There is no right of appeal; but for good cause orders or agreements in respect of compensation may be reviewed and even set aside by the Court at any time.

The right of a dependant who survives a worker to receive compensation for the death of that worker survives the dependant; and compensation can be recovered by the representative of that dependant.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1936 (which comes into force on 1st January, 1937), contains several important amendments to the present legislation. The definition of “worker” is extended to include share-farmers, and drivers of vehicles who receive a share in the takings as payment for their services, or who pay a fixed sum for the hire of the vehicle (other than under the terms of a hire-purchase agreement). While a share-farmer now comes within the provisions of the Act he is still regarded as the employer in respect of persons employed by him.

The minimum amount of compensation payable in respect of the death of a worker is increased from £300 to £500, the maximum payment remaining at £1,000. The minimum weekly payment in respect of the incapacity of an adult worker is increased from £1 to £2; while the maximum weekly payment is raised from £4 to £4 10s. The special provisions in relation to workers under twenty-one years of age or indentured apprentices are broadened by the inclusion of a subsection covering cases of temporary incapacity.

The method of computing the basis of compensation has been changed. Previously the amount of compensation was based on the worker's average weekly earnings at the time of the accident; by the amending Act the term “weekly earnings” is defined as a full working-week's earnings at the ordinary rate of pay for the work in which the worker was employed at the time of the accident, notwithstanding that he may not have actually worked, or the employment may not have actually continued, for a full week.

The amending Act contains a provision whereby claims for compensation rank equally with wages in the distribution of the assets of a bankrupt.

UNEMPLOYMENT.

Prior to the recent depression there was little permanent effective legislation to cope with the problem of unemployment. In 1895 a Servants Registry Act provided for the inspection of servants registry-offices and regulated the fees charged therein. The Labour Department was founded in 1891 and attempted, particularly through its Employment Bureaux, to cope with the problem. In 1928 a Committee was set up to examine this matter, which was becoming increasingly more serious; and, following on the presentation of its report, an Unemployment Act was placed on the statute-book during the 1930 session of Parliament.

An Unemployment Board was established to assist in the administration of the Act. The Board, as reconstituted in 1931, consisted of the Minister charged with the administration of the Act (Chairman), the Commissioner of Unemployment, and three members appointed by the Governor-General. The main functions of the Board as set out in the Act were: (1) To make arrangements with employers or prospective employers for the employment of unemployed persons; (2) to take such steps in accordance with the provisions of the Act as it considered necessary to promote the growth of primary and secondary industries in New Zealand, so that an increasing number of workers would be required for the efficient carrying-on of such industries; (3) to make recommendations for the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund.

The Act of 1930 authorized the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund, but the activities of the Board were directed towards the placing of men in employment in preference to the payment of sustenance, the funds being mainly devoted to the subsidizing (or refunding in full) of wages of men for whom work was prodded under various relief schemes. A 1934 amendment to the Act, inter alia, repealed a subsection of the original Act, which, in effect, had limited to a maximum of thirteen weeks the unbroken period during which sustenance might be paid to any one individual.

The Employment Promotion Act, 1936, replaced the Unemployment Act, 1930, and other legislation relating to unemployment, the earlier legislation being consequentially repealed. The Unemployment Board is abolished, the new Act being administered by the Department of Labour. An Employment Promotion Fund is established (deemed to be the same fund as the Unemployment Fund established under the Unemployment Act, 1930), the revenue of the Fund being derived from the employment tax, fees and penalties under the Act, and any other moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purpose. The main purposes for which the moneys in the Fund are to be utilized are defined as follows:—

  1. The development of primary and secondary industries in New Zealand, and the establishment of new industries, so that an increasing number of workers will be required for the efficient carrying-on of such industries:

  2. The making of arrangements with employers or prospective employers for the employment of persons who are out of employment:

  3. The assistance, in accordance with the provisions of the Act, of persons who are out of employment or are otherwise in need of assistance.

General power is conferred on* the Minister to do such things as he considers necessary to carry out the purpose of the Act, the following being specifically mentioned:—

  1. To take such steps as he deems necessary in relief of unemployment to ensure proper co-operation between Departments* of State, local authorities, public bodies, and other persons and authorities engaged in carrying out public works or relief works:

  2. To assist unskilled or other persons, by means of grants or loans, to pursue courses of vocational training or study; and to provide instructors, establish and equip classes or training-camps, and do any other things necessary to qualify any persons to undertake suitable employment:

  3. Generally to do such things as he thinks fit for the benefit of unskilled or other workers:

  4. To make grants or loans to any persons or authorities to enable them to under-take or to continue to carry on works calculated to relieve unemployment:

  5. To make such inquiries as he thinks proper, for the purpose of obtaining information in relation to any of the purposes for which moneys may be expended from the Fund, into any matter whatsoever with reference to any industry which in the opinion of the Minister could under favourable conditions be profitably carried on in New Zealand, or to any industry—wherever carried on—which in the opinion of the Minister may affect the industries of New Zealand and the employment of workers therein:

  6. To appoint such number of local committees as he thinks fit, and, subject to any regulations under the Act, to define the powers of such committees.

The taxation provisions of the Act are summarized in Section XXIVB (Taxation—p. 486); while a synopsis of the various employment schemes administered by the Labour Department under the provisions of the Employment Promotion Act is given in Section XL (Employment and Unemployment).

The Immigration Restriction Act of 1931, which empowers the Governor-General to make regulations restricting the number of immigrants entering the country aimed, inter alia, at preventing an unwanted inflow increasing the number of those unemployed. Its operation has subsequently been extended in 1933 and 1935, and it is due to expire on 31st December, 1936.

PUBLIC WORKS PROGRAMME.

The development of New Zealand to its present stage in less than a century has involved the prosecution of a vigorous public-works policy. In the circumstances, public works afford an avenue of employment for a large body of wage-earners; and, consequently, a résumé of the conditions obtaining on such works forms an essential part of the subject-matter of this section. The Minister of Public Works in a statement of public-works policy laid before the House in May, 193C. outlined the Government's policy in relation to public works employees. A planned programme of public works is to be undertaken covering the next three years, and involving the expenditure of approximately £17,500,000 on such works as reading, bridging, irrigation, &c. An agreement with the workers has been drawn up dating from 1st June, 1936, and to remain in force for three years. Following is a summary of the main provisions of the agreement:—

The hours of work are to be forty per week—five days of eight hours.

All works are to be standard works—i.e., no such works will be classed as relief works, and the basic rate of pay is to be 16s. per day. A regulated scale of hourly rates is drawn up ranging from the basic rate of 2s. per hour to a maximum of 2s. 10d. according to the degree of skill and danger involved in the various occupations.

The system of co-operative works is to be adopted as a principle, the scales of piecework payment to be designed so that a worker of average ability can earn the basic rates of wage.

Workers will be paid for seven statutory holidays in the year; and, in addition, those with one year's service will receive one week's annual leave on full pay; and after two years' service, two weeks' annual leave on full pay.

Improvements in accommodation on works are provided for in the agreement, with recreation facilities on large works.

Chapter 57. SECTION XXXIX.—TRADE-UNIONS.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN New Zealand dual provision for the registration and protection of unions of workers and employers exists in the Trade-unions Act and the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and further provision has been made in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, reference to which is made elsewhere in this volume (Section XXXVIII).

Provision was made under section 7, subsection (17), of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1900 (now section 17 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925), for the furnishing of an annual return showing the number and membership of unions registered under the Act. It is from this return (vide Parliamentary Paper H.-ll) that the tables in this section have been compiled. Very little data are available as to registration of unions under the Trade-unions Act, which is now practically inoperative. Several of the few unions still registered under this Act are also registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS.

The numbers and membership of industrial unions of employers registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act as at the end of each of the last five years are shown in the following table.

As at 31st DecemberIndustrial District.Totals.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.
Number of Unions.
1931303229287221131
1932283129277221127
1933283230277231130
1934273229267331128
1935293529247331131
Membership.
19311,1301,0571,1591,268176751234,880
19329679411,239840172801234,254
19331,0028031,116764159842833,959
19349858641,140854156772834,107
19351,0379761,109945157902554,344

The number of unions of employers and their membership rose gradually to 149 unions, with 5,819 members, in 1914, the year following that of the prolonged waterside workers' strike. Since that year there have been many slight variations, and considerable decreases in membership were recorded in 1931, 1932, and 1933.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF WORKERS.

Industrial unions of workers and their membership are shown in the following table as at the end of each of the last five years. It should be noted that the statistics cover only unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and that all unions are not so registered.

In drawing inferences from the table allowance must be made for the fact that, since these figures represent the numbers on the rolls of the various unions, a certain amount of duplication takes place, as it is possible for a worker to be a member of two or more unions at the one time, especially in the case of a casual occupation such as waterside working. It is impossible to form any idea as to the extent to which such duplication takes place; but it is very unlikely that it occurs to such an extent as to affect materially the total figures.

The membership of workers' unions rose year by year, without exception, from 17,989 in 1900 to 73,991 in 1914. It fell off during the war years, but a phenomenal rise was recorded in 1919, the year immediately following the cessationof hostilities. The total for 1928 (103,980) is the highest so far recorded. Decreases the membership were recorded annually from 1928 to 1933, a slight recovery being apparent in 1934, and a further considerable increase in 1935.

As at 31st DecemberIndustrial District.Totals.*
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.
* Including unions of railway employees—not included in figures for any district.
Number of Unions.
19311007769961991715405
1932977767962071815400
19331008170961771815407
19341008068951781815404
19351018367951991815410
Membership.
193123,23822,48415,65112,4731,7955757621,94690,526
193219,80019,06813,24711,9891,6844676241,62779,283
193318,75216,50911,86310,5641,2794965841,79071,888
193419,43416,73812,14010,8511,2405226151,89774,391
193521,66119,06613,14011,3621,1796066691,90080,929

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership:—

Year.Under 50.50 and under 100.100 and under 200.200 and under 300.300 and under 500.500 and under 1,000.1,000 and under 2,000.2,000 and under 3,000.3,000 and over.Totals.
Number of Unions.
1901994330195411..202
193116277583130291431405
193216974583129251121400
19331688552412824711407
193416880563728231011404
193516586523140191511410
Membership.
19012,7593,0184,0324,8152,0732,5201,6512,900..23,768
19314,3045,6657,9667,57811,24420,60218,5666,7447,85790,526
19324,2645,2107,7497,62211,14316,84814,2874,6607,50079,283
19334,1885,9706,7689,97710,20616,2779,6432,0866,77371,888
19344,2505,5387,6258,90010,48315,94212,8642,2006,58974,391
19354,2286,0366,8037,34014,44212,29319,3352,4528,00080,929
Percentage of Total Membership.
190111·6112·7016·9620·268·7210·606·9512·20..100·00
19314·756·268·808·3712·4222·7620·517·458·68100·00
19325·386·579·779·6114·0521·2518·025·889·47100·00
19335·838·309·4113·8814·2022·6413·412·909·43100·00
19345·717·4510·2511·9614·0921·4317·292·968·86100·00
19355·227·468·419·0717·8415·1923·893·039·89100·00

The steady growth in the average size of industrial unions of workers is brought out in the above table. It is noteworthy that while the actual number of unions has increased from 202 in 1901 to 410 in 1935, an increase of 103 per cent., the membership has increased from 23,768 to 80,929, an increase of 245 per cent. The increase in membership in unions containing 300 members and over is particularly marked. It will be noticed that between 1932 and 1933 a decrease of 4,644 is shown in the membership of unions containing one thousand to two thousand members, the number of such unions falling from eleven to seven. This decrease is accounted for by the cancellation of registration by certain large unions. Several new unions were registered in individual localities covering workers previously included in the wider organizations, and this is reflected in the increase n membership of unions containing between two hundred and three hundred members.

INDUSTRIAL AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

In the next table industrial unions of employers as at the end of 1935 are shown according to industry, and membership according to industry and district.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Totals.
Provision of—
Food, drink, &c.27331918834839......1,16720
Clothing, footwear, and textiles3269321012..7..16211
Housing (construction)11320517620419......71727
Power, heat, and light....................
Transport by water132726129146511213
Transport by land753713......12..1374
Accommodation, meals, and personal service160..158..119....3385
Working in or on—
Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre703139..........1409
Metal41112827........1075
Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals....................
Paper, printing, &c.694527408......18913
Skins, leather, &c.....................
Mines and quarries1....9........103
Land (farming pursuits)1902284222955967....1,26111
Miscellaneous..4............44
Totals1,0379761,109945157902554,344131

The most noteworthy feature of this table is the extremely high membership of unions of agricultural and pastoral employers. As will he seen from the table immediately following, this is in marked contrast to the position respecting unions of workers, a position due no doubt to the fact that many small farmers belong to the employers' unions. The workers, on the other band, are almost entirely seasonal workers, especially in the case of the majority of those unionized—viz., the shearers and the threshing-mill employees. In these cases the workers travel round and work for several employers in the one season.

Similar information to that given for industrial unions of employers is now given for workers' unions, as at the end of 1935.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Totals.
* Including three unions of railway employees, with a total membership of 11,346.† Including some unions whose membership embraces workers in more than one of the specified groups.
Provision of—
Food, drink, &c.3,9583,2241,3911,3584267878..10,51378
Clothing, footwear, and textiles1,6271,5651,6681,429......116,30020
Housing (construction)1,9193,1261,6031,1219752163298,11056
Power, heat, and light2956388680........1,0997
Transport by water2,4153,3958151,145229501552598,46343
Transport by land1,3201,257889554824043..15,531*25*
Accommodation, meals, and personal service2,5221,4821,150672907893706,15713
Working in or on—
Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre1,03052743483531..201,0103,88731
Metal63066697366074..38433,08423
Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals264663217136..36..60513
Paper, printing, &c.726953485581....15202,78017
Skins, leather, &c.17195042........2728
Mines and quarries1,690....25435....3382,31718
Land (farming pursuits)1,1871,0753,0861,370..288....7,00610
Miscellaneous1,9071,0834781,0907920281204,80548
Totals21,66119,06613,14011,3621,1796066691,90080,929410

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS.

At 31st December, 1935, there were 12 industrial associations of employers and 33 of workers, the former having 65 affiliated unions and the latter 224. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case.

Industrial Group.Employers.Workers.
Associations.Affiliated Unions.Associations.Affiliated Unions.
1934.1935.1934.1935.1934.1935.1934.1935.
Provision of—
Food, drink, &c.112223619
Clothing, footwear, and textiles1133331716
Housing (construction)332125544842
Transport by water111010453842
Transport by land........1199
Accommodation, meals, and personal service........1199
Working in or on—
Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre2174221110
Metal1144432015
Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals..........2..7
Paper, printing, &c.221212221212
Mines and quarries........1122
Land (farming pursuits)1143........
Miscellaneous1122663541
Totals131265653133207224

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an analysis of the proportion of workers belonging to unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to the total number of wage-earners in the country (from Census returns). The percentages at five-yearly intervals 1900–25 were: 8, 11, 19, 24, 26, 24. Considering the proportions at the end of 1925, the lowest ratio of unionists was amongst agricultural and pastoral workers (6 per cent.), and the highest, water transport (67 per cent.), housing and construction (65 per cent.), and food and drink, &c. (61 per cent.).

Chapter 58. SECTION XL.—EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT.

INTRODUCTORY.

EXCEPT for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available.

Unemployment was well known to have been acute in the middle and late “sixties,” owing to the paralysing effect of the Maori wars in the North Island and to the collapse of the alluvial-gold booms in Otago and Westland. At no time, however, during the depression of the late “sixties” does there appear to have been any unemployment among women. With the inauguration at the beginning of the “seventies” of the Vogel policy of public works and assisted immigration, employment was available for large numbers of new arrivals. At the beginning of the “eighties” scarcity of funds for the prosecution of public works necessitated, along with other considerations, the checking for a space of the stream of assisted immigrants. By 1883 the position had materially improved; but unemployment once more became serious in the late “eighties” and early “nineties,” mainly owing to the fall in the prices that New Zealand's products (notably wool) were fetching in the World's markets, and to a further slackening of the rate of prosecution of public works. During both of those periods the unemployment position was so acute as to be responsible for a considerable exodus of male population to Australia and elsewhere.

Direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand is available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Labour Department (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade-unionists (from trade-union secretaries), and of monthly employment in factories and works, have been collected in recent years by the Census and Statistics Office—the former from 1925 to 1930 and the latter from 1926.

CENSUS DATA ON UNEMPLOYMENT.

The great disadvantage of the Census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only.

Census.Number of Males Unemployed.Proportion per Thousand Male Wage-earners.
12 April, 189614,759100
31 March, 19018,46748
12 April, 19068,18939
2 April, 19117,15230
15 October, 19165,92026
17 April, 192111,06139
20 April, 192610,69434

A more comprehensive survey of unemployment than had previously been attempted was made at the 1926 census: a concise description of the results is contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 850–56), while full statistics are published in Volume X of the results of the 1926 census. Information on this subject was also obtained on the occasion of the census of 24th March, 1936, but the results are not yet available for publication.

EMPLOYMENT BUREAUX OF LABOUR DEPARTMENT.

The creation of the Labour Department in 1891 has not only assisted to deal directly with the problem of unemployment, but has been the means of useful statistical data being obtained and recorded. The figures relating to the activities of the employment bureaux of the Department do not show the full volume of unemployment, but they may safely be regarded as roughly symptomatic of the general situation.

The following table shows the numbers of unemployed assisted to employment from year to year by the Labour Department. The figures exclude the operations of the Women's Employment Branch of the Department, which was twice created (not under identical names) on occasions when there was a dearth of employment for women, and twice discontinued as urgency passed:—

year ended 31st March.Number assisted.

* Excluding those engaged under Unemployment Board's No. 6 scheme.

† Period ending 19th October, 1935, since when comparable information not available.

18922,593
18933,874
18943,371
18953,030
18962,871
18971,718
18982,035
18992,115
19002,147
19013,124
19021,830
19033,704
19042,860
19053,130
19066,712
19077,393
19086,305
190910,391
19108,506
19117,102
19125,735
19135,848
19145,645
19157,515
19165,978
19172,966
19182,952
19193,199
19204,205
19213,304
19224,989
19233,987
19243,877
19253,890
19263,397
192710,268
192815,246
192916,363
193021,890
193130,223
1932*18,328
1933*29,942
1934*24,343
1935*16,256
1936*7,559

UNEMPLOYMENT IN RECENT YEARS.

Commencing with 1926, unemployment, particularly during the winter months, assumed substantial proportions, in spite of steps taken by the Government, local bodies, and private organizations to provide work. In 1929 and 1930 matters reached a stage which led to the passing of the Unemployment Act, 1930, which has now been replaced by the Employment Promotion Act, 1936, to which reference is made elsewhere in this volume.

The slackness in industry and trade already evident when the Unemployment Act came into force intensified greatly during 1931, 1932, and the earlier portion of 1933. During 1931, indeed, the number of applicants on the registers totally unprovided for increased steadily, despite the fact that increasing numbers were being engaged under the various relief schemes which had been inaugurated. In 1932 and 1933 the placements of men on relief work more than offset the number of new registrations, so that the number of men unprovided for fell considerably. The improvement in business conditions commencing late in 1933 is reflected in the table hereunder, showing the numbers of unemployed at quarterly intervals. The maximum for each year is indicated by heavy type. It should be noted that these figures are not comparable with those appearing in the 1936 issue of the Year-Book, since they include men who have been placed in full-time employment with the aid of subsidies from the Employment Promotion Fund, and do not, therefore, appear on unemployment registers.

Date.Number of Unemployed (Males).
1932.
26th November69,311
1933. 
18th February65,782
13th May70,502
5th August78,091
28th October79,587
25th November76,137
1934.
20th January69,921
17th February68,618
12th May65,540
4th August66,291
24th November59,349
1935.
16th February53,321
11th May54,908
3rd August60,377
31st August60,806
23rd November57,246
1936.
lath February54,654
9th May51,208
1st August54,003

It should be noted that men who were receiving relief under Scheme 5—the major individual scheme in point of numbers engaged—still remained on the unemployment registers, and are included in the figures shown.

In the compilation of the statistics care is taken to exclude from the figures of applications remaining on the books all cases of applicants for employment from whom the Department of Labour has not heard for fourteen days, on the assumption that such applicants have obtained employment through other means.

The seasonal variation in unemployment is illustrated below. The average number of men remaining on the registers—i.e., excluding those in full-time employment—during the years 1930 to 1935 is expressed as a percentage of the average number so registered during the five years 1930–34.

Mouth.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
January633114132120112
February654113127114110
March782113127113109
April995120131113112
May1199132138115115
June13112136141119120
July14119139144125126
August14124142144127128
September15129141142127128
October15128139138123126
November17123134130118114
December24116132122113113
Average for year13102132135119115

The normal seasonal fluctuation was obscured in 1930 owing to the large increase in registrations consequent on the inauguration of the various relief schemes, but in the following years it again emerged, the maxima for the respective years occurring in the July-September period. The year 1933 was the first since 1929 in which the number was less at the end than at the beginning, and the latter part of 1933 may be taken as the beginning of a definite downward trend in unemployment registrations.

Considerable interest attaches to the relative extent of unemployment in the major centres of population. In view of the fact that the areas served by the city bureaux vary considerably as between the four chief centres, the next table has been compiled on an urban-area basis, the figures quoted representing in each case the numbers on the unemployment registers at all bureaux or post-offices within the boundaries of the urban area.

NUMBERS OF REGISTERED UNEMPLOYED.

Period fuelingUrban Areas.Remainder of Dominion.Total.
Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.
1934.
24th Nov.8,0645,7935,6632,06816,36137,949
22nd Dec.7,9845,6085,6881,98815,08936,357
1935.
19th Jan.8,5835,5635,6991,85714,48936,191
16th Feb.8,2795,3565,4631,73414,23935,071
16th Mar.8,3335,4445,4661,64814,67735,568
13th April8,3465,7425,4391,77815,48736,792
11th May8,3125,8535,7521,91016,27338,100
8th June8,4145,7596,0792,03017,04839,330
6th July8,6205,7936,5042,10118,48141,499
3rd Aug.9,0105,8096,5832,23818,99142,631
31st Aug.8,8755,7926,5152,30819,25542,745
28th Sept.8,8335,6856,4782,39918,80542,200
26th Oct.8,4405,2026,2952,25917,48539,681
23rd Nov.7,6124,8206,1092,20915,22935,979
21st Dec.7,8104,8776,1172,20614,64335,653
1936.
18th Jan.8,0684,7185,8122,22213,95734,777
15th Feb.7,8234,4265,4642,02712,64432,384
14th Mar.7,7514,2915,3352,03312,60932,019
11th April8,2254,0955,4972,04713,41333,277
9th May8,4994,3665,5322,20714,66635,270
6th June8,7914,7915,9892,36817,09939,038
4th July9,3844,8336,5082,47319,74142,939
1st Aug.9,8964,7766,7452,64920,97945,045
26th Sept.9,2224,4066,1252,68119,47441,908

On the basis of numbers on the unemployment registers, the peak level of unemployment was reached in Auckland on 30th September, 1933: in Wellington on 11th January, 1932; in Dunedin on 16th May, 1931; while Christchurch had two peaks approximately equal—viz.. 5th August, 1933, and 6th October, 1934.

In making comparisons between individual centres, it is necessary to take cognizance of relative populations. The following table is of interest in this connection:—

Urban Area.Population, Census 1988.Numbers on Unemployment Registers as at 1st August, 1936.
Number.Per Thousand Inhabitants.
Auckland211,9139,89647
Wellington149,8164,77632
Christchurch132,5306,74551
Dunedin81,9832,64932

It should be remembered that only males are registered at the Employment Bureaux of the Labour Department, so that the figures quoted in this section do not take account of unemployment among women. Although no recent data are available as to the number of women and girls unemployed, this aspect of the unemployment problem was also serious, and numerous grants have been made from the Employment Promotion Fund for the relief of unemployment among women.

NUMBERS OF UNEMPLOYED MALES.

Date.Remaining on Registers but Unplaced or Ineligible for various Reasons.In Receipt Part-time Relief Work or Sustenance.Working Full Time in Industry with Assistance from Unemployment Fund.Total on Register and wholly or partly a Charge on the Unemployment Fund.
Scheme No.5. (Rationed Work)Sustenance without Work.
1931.
30th June6,70038,000. .6,40051,100
30th September7,60043,000. .3,99954,590
31st December48,00039,300. .7,98552,085
1932.
31st March7,000. .37,00010,52054,520
30th June7,45043,85017,35022,01068,650
30th September6,54045,100. .22,01073,650
24th December5,19943,106. .20,97669,281
1933.
18th March.5,58539,874. .21,19366,652
10th June5,80243,837. .23,27972,918
30th September4,30144,743. .30,39179,435
23rd December2,53336,90696429,87070,273
1934
20th January3,63535,9331,08727,83668,491
17th February3,20833,2161,57329,19167,188
17th March3,27332,5551,79327,76665,387
14th April3,37732,1732,04627,58365,179
12th May3,65632,6132,35026,92165,540
9th June3,40733,1262,71823,38662,637
7th July4,17833,5233,62823,48264,811
4th August3,84033,3204,97424,15766,291
1st September3,50433,1675,74824,09766,516
29th September3,27232,7315,56923,18964,761
27th October2,73530,5726,43122,32462,062
24th November2,91028,9766,06321,40059,349
22nd December2,13128,3035,92320,48156,838
1935
19th January3,28026,7756,13619,17555,366
16th February3,18724,9366,94818,25053,321
16th March3,15324,2048,21117,93053,498
13th April3,29224,6348,86617,24354,035
11th May2,84725,3799,87416,80854,908
8th June3,02525,04311,26216,93656,266
6th July3,41425,24312,84217,48358,982
3rd July2,80625,38714,43817,74660,377
31st August2,58124,81715,34718,06160,806
28th September2,50024,18315,51718,14460,344
26th October2,04322,26015,37818,80058,481
23rd November1,82519,61014,54421,26757,246
21st December1,73718,84415,07221,62857,281
1936
18th January2,23317,36515,17921,72556,502
15th February2,01215,92214,45022,27054,654
14th March1,87215,70414,44322,51054,529
11th April2,01315,51415,75016,54249,819
9th May2,64215,52817,10015,93851,208
6th June3,20015,48620,35213,99653,034
4th July3,18915,28024,47011,29954,238
1st August2,80415,94526,2968,95854,003
29th August2,70015,56925,9946,58450,847
26th September2,20913,95525,7447,51149,419

The major relief scheme—in point of numbers engaged—has been the provision of part-time work by the payment of wages of men employed on relief works by local bodies (Scheme 5). Men provided with relief work under this scheme remain on the unemployment registers of the Labour Department, while men engaged in other employment subsidized from the Employment Promotion Fund are removed from the registers. Considerable attention has been devoted to the transfer of men from relatively unproductive part-time relief to more directly productive subsidized employment schemes.

The official statistics of the number of unemployed include, in addition to Unregistered unemployed, all those working in industry with the assistance of a subsidy from the Employment Promotion Fund. The latter class was excluded from the statistics published between October, 193o, and September, 1936, but is included in the totals given on the preceding page.

UNEMPLOYMENT RELIEF.

Immediately unemployment began to be seriously felt in the winter of 1926, steps were taken by the State and by local authorities to absorb as much labour as possible on ordinary public works and on relief works. One of the first enactments of the 1926 session of Parliament was the Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment) Act (repealed in 1932) which empowered local authorities, without taking a poll of the ratepayers, to borrow moneys for the purpose of providing relief works for unemployed men.

In addition to providing direct employment as far as possible, the State further assisted by subsidizing expenditure by local authorities. In spite of the efforts of the general and local governments, however unemployment continued in evidence; and, with a view to remedying the situation, the Government undertook, in September, 1929, to find employment within a specified time for all genuinely unemployed men, provided that they registered at the Government labour bureaux and were willing and able to accept the work offered.

The question of providing some permanent solution of the problem received a good deal of attention; and in 1928, arising out of a recommendation of the National Industrial Conference of that year, a committee was set up to go fully into the matter. Following on the report of this committee, the Unemployment Act was passed in the 1930 session of Parliament. This Act and its subsequent amendments have now been repealed by the Employment Promotion Act, 1936, reference to which is contained elsewhere in this volume.

SUSTENANCE.

For nearly three years after the passing of the Unemployment Act all applicants for relief were obliged ±o perform some kind of work in return for relief pay. While endeavours were made as far as possible to provide full-time employment for unemployed—on a subsidized basis, if necessary, there was a large residuum of applicants for relief for whom part-time employment had to be found, with the co-operation of local authorities. Towards the end of 1933 it became evident that local employing authorities, particularly in the main urban areas, where over 50 per cent, of relief workers on a rationed basis were domiciled, were reaching the end of their resources, both from a financial point of view in meeting supervision and other costs and by reason of difficulty in finding suitable work.

One of the main difficulties arose in the continued provision of suitable light work for those of the unemployed who were unfit for heavy manual labour. Many local bodies were also faced with the position that all their useful works of a nature applicable to the absorption of relief labour were rapidly Hearing completion. From this state of affairs it was only a short step to the employment of relief workers on essential jobs in the nature of ordinary maintenance. These difficulties led to a modification of the former policy; and. although for obvious reasons sustenance payments could not be granted on the same scale as relief pay, those workers whom it was impossible to place on approved relief works were granted sustenance in proportion to the ration of relief they would have been eligible for, but on a slightly lower scale. Even effort was made to rotate work and sustenance so that the men should not be penalized by circumstances over which they had no control. In other words, the available work was distributed as evenly as possible amongst the eligible and most deserving applicants for relief.

Later on it became evident that the position was still not being met satisfactorily, mainly because of the high proportion of men who were not fitted by age, physique, or previous experience for the class of work offering.

In August, 1934, it was decided that the time had arrived for the application of the sustenance principle upon a revised and more permanent basis. This decision was impelled by increasing difficulties in the larger centres of population where the provision of suitable and useful work under Scheme No. 5 was becoming a real problem.

The weekly sustenance rates as from 1st June, 1936, are as follows:—

Classification.Weekly Kate
 £S.d.
Single man0170
Married man with wife only190
Married man with wife and one child1130
Married man with wife and two children1170
Married man with wife and three children210
Married man with wife and four children210
Married man with wife and live children290
Married man with wife and six children2130
Married man with wife and seven or more children2170

The number of men in receipt of sustenance on 26th September, 1930, was 25,744.

SUBSIDIZED EMPLOYMENT.

Information as to the various scheme of subsidized employment which have been introduced is briefly set out below.

Scheme No. 4A.—Farmers willing to employ labour for developmental work additional to the labour usually or necessarily employed in routine operations may apply to any labour bureau for a man or men, who receive a subsidy at the rate of 10s. per week per man if single, or, if married, 15s. per week, plus an additional 2s. 6d. per week for each dependent child under sixteen years up to a maximum subsidy of £1 5s. per week. The employment of youths of eighteen or nineteen years of age may also be approved if there are no eligible men on the register, but in such cases the subsidy is not more than 5s. per week. The farmer is also required to find board and lodging for the employee and means or cost of transport to the job, and to supplement the subsidy from the Employment Promotion Fund by at least 5s. per week according to his means.

The scheme operates under certain restrictions, which aim to eliminate interference with normal seasonal employment. Farmers may, under certain conditions, be employed on their own farms if circumstances are such that otherwise there would be no alternative to abandonment.

Payments from the Employment Promotion Fund on account of this scheme have been as follows: 1930–31, £1,050; 1931–32, £115,165; 1932–33, £217,047; 1933–34, £145,915; 1934–35, £81,834; 1935–30, £19,852.

Scheme No. 4B.—This provides for a subsidy of 50 per cent, of labour cost of co-operative contracts for work of a developmental character on farms, such as scrub-cutting, drainage, gorse-grubbing, fencing, eradication of noxious weeds, &c, in cases where the financial circumstances are such that the work could not otherwise be undertaken. Applications for subsidies are reported on by Fields Inspectors of the Department of Lands and Survey or by supervising officers appointed for the purpose, who again report at the conclusion of the work. Workers, who must be genuinely unemployed and registered as such, must be obtained through a labour bureau, and after completion of a contract, if its duration exceeds three months, must re-register and stand down for fourteen days before they are again deemed to be eligible for relief.

Payments: 1931–32, £10,706; 1932–33, £23,403; 1933–34, £65,330; 1934–35, £113,327; 1935–36, £90,247.

Scheme No. 4c.—This was instituted for the purpose of rehabilitating abandoned farms, and provided for the selection of an occupier, who would be granted an allowance of £1 15s. per week for a period, together with assistance in the shape of unemployed labour necessary to bring the farm back to a state of production. Half of the subsidy under this scheme is recoverable from the Lands Development Board. Only a very few farms, however, have been found suitable for reoccupation.

Payments: 1931–32, £222; 1932–33, £1,257; 1933–34 (credit), £115; 1934–35, £476; 1935–36, £1,521.

Farm Camp Scheme.—This scheme was an offshoot of 4A, and provided that if not less than four single men were employed, and circumstances justified it, a subsidy of 10s. per man per week was paid, and, in addition, an allowance not exceeding 7s. 6d. per man per week might be paid to the farmer towards the cost of such food provided as was not obtained from the farm.

The main conditions of employment of subsidized labour on farms were that the labour should be additional to that necessary for the routine operation of the farm, and that the work should be developmental. No further commitments were entered into under this scheme after December, 1935.

Payments: 1931–32, £8; 1932–33, £16,452; 1933–34, £19,665; 1934–35. £6,619; 1935–36, £3,860.

Scheme No. 5.—Under this scheme local bodies may employ men (obtained through labour bureaux) on a rationed basis on work other than that which would ordinarily be performed by the usual employees, and the whole amount of wages, not exceeding certain rates, is refunded from the Employment Promotion Fund. Men placed under Scheme No. 5 are required to work an allotted time ration (varying according to the number of dependants) for which payment was up to 1st October, 1935, at the rate of 10s. 6d. per day, being increased to 12s. per day as from that date and to 16s. per day a3 from 1st June, 1936. Following are the maximum weekly payments to various classes of men under this scheme, an endeavour being made to induce local authorities operating under the scheme to give additional work sufficient to bring the ration to the nearest half-day above that represented by the amounts shown.

Classification.Weekly Payment.
 £s.d.
Single man110
Married man with wife only1186
Married man with wife and one child226
Married man with wife and two children266
Married man with wife and three children2106
Married man with wife and four children2146
Married man with wife and five children2186
Married man with wife and six children326
Married man with wife and seven or more children366

Work under the scheme was originally limited to work on roads, reserves, and other public areas; but later, and up to 31st May, 1936, work “over the fence”—that is, on private property—was permitted on condition that the work was of a developmental nature and the relief labour was additional to and not displacing labour ordinarily employed. A condition pertaining to the placement of relief labour on private property was that the property-owner undertook to contribute at least 25 per cent, of the relief-wages cost. Section 26 of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4) authorized local bodies to employ relief labour in this manner.

Payments: 1930–31, £241,618; 1931–32, £2,002,874; 1932–33, £2,937,991; 1933–34, £2,889,837; 1934–35, £2,481,951; 1935–36, £2,470,878.

Camp Schemes.—Under No. 6A camps of single men were formed to undertake roadwork on secondary highways under the Public Works Department. The cost of transport, accommodation, food, and allowance for pocket-money (given on the basis of work performed, and approximating 15s. per week) was borne by the Employment Promotion Fund.

Payments: 1931–32, £11,094; 1932–33, £54,514; 1933–34, £35,609; 1934–35, £18,416; 1935–36, £10,702.

Scheme 6B was similar to Scheme 6A, but the employing authority was a local body.

Payments: 1931–32, £291; 1932–33, £4,773; 1933–34, £10,410; 1934–35, £5,022; 1935–36, nil.

Scheme 6c also was a camp scheme for development by clearing, drainage, afforestation, &c, of (principally) Crown lands. It was availed of to some extent by private individuals and companies, but most of the men employed were under the control of either Government Departments or local authorities.

Payments: 1931–32, £1,159; 1932–33, £121,196; 1933–34, £185,628; 1934–35, £154,736; 1935–36, £161,045.

In some districts, principally in Auckland Province, camps were set up through local bodies on a wages basis of £1 5s. per week for single men, £2 2s. 6d. per week ten married men with not more than two children, and £2 15s. per week for married men with three or more children; but, as a matter of convenience of arrangement, these camps were a ?charge on Scheme No. 5. Generally speaking, the cost of accommodation was met by the local bodies, and the men were required to provide themselves with food out of the weekly wages quoted. These camps were closed down as the various works were completed.

Practically all existing camps under these schemes are now full-time Public Works camps, some being subsidized from the Employment Promotion Fund at the rate of £1 10s. per man per week and some at £2 10s

Scheme No. 7.—Youths aged sixteen to twenty years were placed on large stations or runs for training in farm-work. Farmers were required to take two or more youths and to undertake to give them a thorough training. Although required to conform to the discipline of the farm, the youths were not to be regarded as ordinary farm labourers. They were provided with pocket-money at the rate of 2s. 6d. per week. This scheme was closed from 1st August, 1936.

Payments: 1931–32, £7; 1932–33, £388; 1933–34, £533; 1934–35, £344; 1935–36, £129.

Gold-prospecting Schemes 8A and 5 (Special).—Subsidies of £1 per week for single men and £2 per week for married men are paid to unemployed relief workers prospecting in approved areas in parties of two or more. At least one of the party must be an experienced miner or prospector. Provision is made for advancing tho cost of fares and equipment in certain cases, this cost to be deducted from the value of gold sold. In Central Otago, Thames, and Coromandel districts, and on the West Coast of the South Island, prospecting is carried out under a special division of Scheme No. 5, although payment to the men is on the same basis as subsidies under Scheme No. 8A—viz., 17s. 6d. and £1 12s. 6d. from 28th October, 1935, and £1 and £2 from 1st June, 1936. County Councils act as the nominal employing authorities, and with the co-operation of specially appointed Mining Executive Committees (fifteen in number) they are empowered to advance certain equipment, tools, clothing, &c., to unemployed men desirous of taking on this work with the object of ultimately making themselves independent of unemployment relief. The cost of such advances is recoverable from the men if and when they reach the gold-winning stage. The cost of expert supervision by mining engineers and other experienced men is also met from the Employment Promotion Fund.

In specially selected areas where intensive effort will possibly lead to important new discoveries, parties of men under proper supervision and with suitable equipment are sent out to improve access to auriferous areas and to prospect for new reefs. With the co-operation of the Mines Department and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, arrangements have been made for the testing by geophysical survey, boring, &c, of areas where extensive alluvial deposits may be profitably worked, and thus absorb large numbers of men in ordinary industry.

Payments (Scheme No. 8A): 1931–32, £12; 1932–33, £69,800; 1933–34, £191,041; 1934–35, £184,520; 1935–36, £171,098.

Scheme No. 8B.—This scheme provides for a subsidy from the Employment Promotion Fund towards the wages cost of registered unemployed men engaged by a company or syndicate in gold-prospecting operations, and paid a definite savage by the company or syndicate.

The subsidy offered is usually on a basis of 15s. and £1 10s. per week for single and married men respectively.

The main conditions are that 10 per cent, of the gold won by the company from the date subsidies are granted must be refunded up to the full amount of the subsidy and that no dividends shall be paid to the shareholders until the full subsidy is repaid.

Payments: 1932–33, £406; 1933–34, £7,293; 1934–35, £3,169; 1935–36, £7,794.

Scheme No. 11.—With the co-operation of the Departments of Lands and Survey and Agriculture, this scheme was introduced to provide for the utilization of unemployed labour to combat the rabbit pest. In some districts committees are set up for the purpose, and to these committees subsidies are paid at the rate of £2 to £2 12s. per week for married men and £1 10s. per week for single men so employed. These payments cover, in addition to the men's wages, any necessary expenditure on equipment. Where committees were not operating, owners or occupiers of rabbit-infested lands could obtain men direct from employment bureaux, and when this was done subsidies were paid amounting to £1 10s. per week for married men and 15s. per week for single men, the employer being required to find food and lodgings. This division of the scheme was discontinued after 31st March, 1936. In the case of unoccupied Crown lands, men were similarly engaged by the Stock Inspector for the district, the rates of pay being £2 per week for married men and £1 5s. per week for single men (of which 10s. per week was contributed by the Department of Lands and Survey), out of which the men were required to keep themselves in food. This division of the scheme ceased to operate from 7th October. 1935. All skins were the property of the workers, and the scheme was suspended from time to time when the market for skins was good.

Payments: 1932–33. £12.391; 1933–34. £22,965; 1934–35, £8.S37; 1935–36, £13,037.

Building Schemes.—Scheme No. 10 was in operation from June to December, 1932, and again a modified form, from June to September, 1933. Under it, persons putting in having. erection, repair, alteration, &c, of buildings were given the opportunity of obtained a subsidy on the wages of the labour employed.

Payments: 1932–33. £49,627; 1933–34, £229,460; 1934–35. £144,649; 1935–36, £43,50.

Under Scheme No. 12, persons considering the erection of new dwellings (not exceeding £100 in cost) or additions to existing dwellings were encouraged to proceed with the work immediately by the offer of a subsidy not exceeding 8 per cent. of the contract price, with a maximum of £56 for a single dwelling. The method of apportioning the subsidy differed from that adopted under Scheme No. 10, being based on the rate of Is. per square foot of all new and totally enclosed floor-space, computed on over-all measurement including external walls. One of the conditions of this scheme ensured the use of New Zealand materials wherever practicable; and, following the procedure adopted under the previous scheme, the approved subsidy could subsequently be reduced or even cancelled if certain imported materials were used. This and other building subsidy schemes terminated on 1st October, 1936.

Payments: 1934–35, £38,544; 1935–36, £204,339.

Scheme No. 12A, inaugurated in September, 1934, and terminating in March, 1936, aimed at the accomplishment of building programmes in contemplation by religions organizations, agricultural and pastoral associations, public or semi-public social or charitable institutions, or others working on a non-profit-earning basis. Many such organizations became active in raising building-funds or adding to funds already in existence, and during the operation of the scheme work of an estimated value of nearly £400.000 was put in hand at an estimated cost in subsidies of £43,815.

Payments: 1935–36, £7,047.

Scheme No. 12B (commenced in April, 1935, and terminated in March, 1936) offered inducements to various Departments of State to increase their annual building activities. The result was the putting in hand of work of an approximate cost of £189,000, involving the payement of subsidies amounting to an estimated total of nearly £63,000.

Payments: 1935–36. £52,190.

Scheme B1 was also introduced, providing for subsidies on work, such as alterations, painting and papering, repairs, and—in certain cases where structural work was carried out—the installation of electric power and light, gas and electric cooking, and water-heating appliances. The scheme was mainly restricted to dwellinghouses and residential fiats, but consideration was given to applications in respect of non-profit-earning buildings of other types. The rate of subsidy was, in the case of dwellings, the sum of £3 on the first £15 of cost and Is. 2d. on each additional £1 up to £100. This scheme was discontinued from 2nd March, 1936.

Payments: 1935–36, £18,304.

Scheme B2 (operating from July. 1935. to April, 1936) had for its object the stimulation of employment in metal-working industries, and offered financial inducements to dairy-companies and farmers to instal machinery or other equipment of New Zealand manufacture, or to erect new or improve existing buildings. Building operations to a total value of £342,000 were carried out under the scheme, while machinery and equipment were installed of an approximate value of £334,000. The estimated subsidy cost was nearly £62,000.

Payments: 1935–36, £16,981.

NUMBERS ON RELIEF SCHEMES.

The following analysis shows the numbers of men in receipt of relief under the various relief schemes are the dates specified:—

Nature of Relief.Dec., 1932.March, 1933.June, 1933.Sept., 1933.Dec., 1933.March, 1934.June, 1934.Sept., 1934.Dec., 1934.Mar., 1935.June., 1935.Aug., 1935.Nov., 1935.

* Excluding men engaged in gold-prospecting.

† Not available.

*Exclusive of men under building schemes.

Scheme 5* (see letterpress, ante)46,15143,37447,33748,62641,74736,85837,83737,64733,01828,86329,40529,96727,694
Sustenance without work. .. .. .. .. .. .. .5,5095,9238,21111,26215,34714,544
Farm schemes9,2098,4509,97710,1109,6939,6457,4267,5515,6883,5793,2873,7253,735
Land improvement and development, &c.3,8094,8483,5103,8533,0982,7913,0822,9082,5742,2492,2102,3731,813
Gold-prospecting1,5062,2173,5953,9083,7603,5723,6083,6713,4043,3103,3423,2532,879
Building-subsidy schemes3,2431,8084776,3607,4285,8922,2721,3901,005685395305
Subsidized employment by Public Works Department. .. .2,1252,0632,8703,4402,9372,5242,9223,2853,1843,0864,604
Miscellaneous16437095971477072139173163156169152
Totals64,08261,06767,11675,01768,74362,26857,23461,48954,70750,34553,24158,22555,421

SMALL-FARMS SETTLEMENT.

The original Small-farms Scheme had for its object the placing of unemployed workers on small rural holdings of about 5 or 10 acres as a means of affording a partial livelihood which could be supplemented by seasonal and other work obtained from neighbouring farmers. Up to the 31st March, 1933, 488 individual settlers had been placed, together with 265 share-milkers. The total expenditure to that date was £142,000.

In 1933–34 the administration was taken over by the Small-farms Board, constituted under the Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act of March, 1933. The Small-farms Board operates through the Department of Lands and Survey, and, where circumstances justify it, sustenance payments are made at rates tip to £1 per week for thirteen weeks, when the position is reviewed.

The Small-farms Board initiated a wider policy of rural settlement, and decided to combine the actual settlement of unemployed men with the provision of work for as many more men as possible. To carry out this policy it was necessary that properties should be acquired which called for a large amount of developmental work of a manual nature. Crown land capable of economic development was not available in many districts, and private lands had to be purchased or leased. At the 31st March, 1936, there were 1,246 men engaged on development blocks, totalling 48,688 acres, and estimated to provide 583 farms. The principal line adopted has been dairying, as it is endeavoured to keep the establishment-cost below £1,400 per settler, and this would have been insufficient, for example, to establish a settler as a sheep-farmer upon a self-supporting scale. No actual restriction is put upon the settlers, who are free to develop side-lines. In other cases mixed farming or lamb-fattening upon a small scale, but under intensive conditions, has been encouraged, and also small holdings of about 5 acres in localities where settlers can grow fruit or vegetables, or keep poultry, &c, and in other districts where seasonal work is procurable.

At the 31st March 1936, the Small-farms Board had been in operation for-approximately three years, and had issued authorities totalling £596,840. In addition to the development blocks noted above, 363 holdings of a total of 24,964 acres have been settled, and sixty-five share-milkers established.

Where necessary, cottages are erected by the Public Works Department.

PLACEMENT SCHEME.

In nineteen of the principal centres, officers (known as Placement Officers) have recently been appointed, whose duty it is to exploit avenues for the reabsorption of unemployed workers in the trades or callings for which their training and experience best fits them. These officers obtain and verify particulars of each man's capabilities, and by keeping in touch with each other, with the various labour bureaux in the smaller centres, and with employers throughout the Dominion, have achieved a considerable measure of success. Up to the end of the first week in August, 1936, approximately two thousand permanent and almost an equal number of temporary and casual engagements of unemployed workers have been effected by these Means.

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT.

The growth of unemployment throughout the world in recent years has-prompted in most countries statistical examination of the fluctuations or periodicity of employment. Until recent years the statistics available on this phenomenon in New Zealand have been somewhat scanty, being restricted to employment on public works. Data are now available on some of the avenues of industrial employment (including building and construction, but excluding transport and mining) as well. as that contracted with local authorities.

FACTORY AND BUILDING INDUSTRIES.

In previous issues of the Year-Book tables have been given illustrating the fluctuation of employment under this heading, month by month. Considerations-of space preclude their reproduction, but full details may be found in successive issues of the Annual Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production. During 1934, of the twenty-three industrial groups which are of sufficient importance to justify consideration, seven had maximum employment in December, three each in August and November, and two each in February, March, and June. In the case of twelve groups, minimum employment occurred in January, and in the case of five groups, in August, The principal group (animal food) had the maximum in January and the minimum in August, while for all industries in combination the maximum was in December and the minimum in July.

PUBLIC WORKS.

Seasonal unemployment has to a certain extent been coped with by the^ institution of relief works by the Public Works Department, which has tended to-swell the numbers engaged on public works. This employment on public works-may be classified according to the authority meeting the cost of the works:—

  1. Public Works Department.

  2. Public Works Department and local authorities.

  3. Local authorities only.

  4. Employment Promotion Fund.

Until recently, complete statistics covering all phases of this employment were not available. Those for past years relate to class (a), and part of class (b) to the extent to which the cost is met by the Public Works Department; furthermore, they do not include the employees of contractors. The following statistics are entirely exclusive of workmen engaged by local authorities, and are calculated by dividing the total amount paid as wages during each month by the sum which would represent the full-time earnings of one worker during each particular period. They cover those workers who are employed on “time” as well as “piece” rates. Class (d) from 1932–33 to 1935–36 represents several thousand men, all of whom are also included in the figures relating to unemployment relief.

The following figures show the yearly average number of men employed as indicated above:—

Year ended 31st March.Roads.Other Works.Total.
19001,8251,2433,068
19051,4072,1193,526
19101,7623,9295,691
19152,4942,2344,728
19201,4952,4983,993
19251,6145,1516,765
19294,6434,1098,752
19305,3805,48710,867
19316,3656,05712,422
19325,2554,1829,437
19333,2133,5206,733
19343,9684,6138,581
19354,0944,8218,915
19364,1595,6059,764

There are now more comprehensive figures available, including, in addition to workers in the direct employ of the Public Works Department, those employed by contractors for public works and those employed by local authorities on (a) works which are financed wholly or partly by the Public Works Department, and (b) highway or road construction and maintenance. Such information is available only since the beginning of 1935, and is as follows:—

Month.1935.1936.
January11,17913,791
February11,71514,942
March12,12715,831
April12,19916,026
May12,21215,946
June11,84015,551
July11,56915,542
August11,55315,905
September11,560. .
October12,067. .
November13,234. .
December13,870. .

Figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics showing each month tho numbers engaged on the various public works throughout the Dominion.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

Employment by local authorities comprises principally the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, and the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric supply, and tramways) and social services.

Particulars relating to wage-earning employees engaged by the various classes of local authorities during the local-body year ended March, 1935, are presented in the following table. The statistics do not cover Hospital Boards, Fire Boards, or Electric-power Boards. Employees of Electric-power Boards are included in the figures for manufacturing industries, published in the Annual Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.

Class of Local District.Maximum for Year.Minimum for Year.Average of Twelve Months.
Number.Month.Number.Month.
Boroughs22,848Aug.19,448March21,649
Counties17,061Aug.14,237Feb.15,739
Harbour districts2,702April2,273June2,456
Urban transport districts1,554June1,530Nov.1,541
Town districts1,053Aug.899June957
Urban drainage districts439June366Feb.397
River districts1,072Aug.863Feb.991
Road districts529Jan., Dec.408Feb.490
Rabbit districts201Jan.143Aug.175
Land-drainage districts592April377Feb.461
Gas-lighting district51Dec.36April41
Railway district14Dec, Jan.11Various12
 Feb. 
Water-supply districts53July30Feb. March45
All districts48,613Aug.42,377March45,947

The figures in the above table include, besides permanent, temporary, and casual employees, a very large number of relief workers (vide earlier portion of this section). The inclusion of relief workers has somewhat obscured the normal characteristics of local-body employment, as exemplified in this way.

Chapter 59. SECTION XLI.—INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE collection of information regarding industrial disputes was initiated by the Census and Statistics Office at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year was obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department.

Under the system originated in 1920 returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories from inquiries made in each district form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the statistics based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if parties to the dispute or other private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to demand information from the parties concerned in the dispute, and by exercising this power when necessary they can obtain complete information.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute” refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout, or where organized “go slow” or other passive resistance tactics are clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course. settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

It frequently occurs that there are strikes in different centres with the same or similar objects and with a certain degree of contemporaneity; in such cases the several disturbances have been treated as one strike if the available evidence is sufficient to justify such a course, while the duration of the strike has been taken as its maximum duration in any centre.

Reference to enactments framed to mitigate the severity of industrial disputes will be found in the section on labour laws and allied legislation.

NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE.

Although for years prior to 1920 (in which the present system of reporting was instituted) it has been possible to extract from the records of the Labour Department certain information regarding industrial disputes, it is by no means complete, and has therefore been omitted from the following comparative table.

Year.Number ofFinns affected.Workers involved.Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Strikes.Lockouts.Total Disputes.
 £
192077. .77. .11,138. .. .
192177. .7711210,433119,20890,477
192258. .58676,41493,45660,782
192349. .49797,102201,812111,074
192434. .345814,81589,10562,732
192581283939,90574,55249,149
192059. .59676,20447,81132,355
192738. .38404,47012,48511,819
192837239569,25821,99722,304
192946147697,15125,88926,940
193038. .38445,40731,66937,299
193123124376,35048,48644,544
193223. .23679,355108,605105,715
193315. .15433,55865,09959,334
193424. .24373,77310,3937,121
193512. .12652,32318,56315,266

The total number of working-days lost is calculated by multiplying the number of workers involved in each dispute by the number of days lost (exclusive of Sundays and public holidays). It is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place, and no allowance is made for loss of work from unemployment or other causes which might have occurred even if there had been no dispute. In some eases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of it, but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of eases they represent a real loss.

From the passing of the Industry Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 till the end of 1905 there were no industrial disputes between employers and workers coming within the scope of the Act; indeed, New Zealand may be said to have been almost entirely free from industrial disputes during that period. The greatest number of disputes in any one year since 1894 was recorded in 1925, when there were eighty-three disputes—mostly, however, of trivial importance. The number of workers concerned was greatest in 1920, when 15,138 workers were involved in industrial disputes, chiefly in the mining industry and in the railways. From the point of view of lost time the maximum was reached in 1923, when there were serious disputes in the coal-mining and shipping industries. Next in order come 1921 (marked by strikes of waterside workers) and 1932 (chiefly strikes of waterside workers and coal-miners).

PRINCIPAL DISPUTES IN 1935.

Although both the number of disputes and the number of workers involved were lower in 1935 than in any of the previous years, owing to the fact that some of them were of comparatively considerable duration, the number of working-days lost was greater than in the previous year or in 1927. During the year there were four disputes each involving more than two hundred workers, two of these being in the coal-mining industry on the West Coast, one in the printing trade in Wellington, and one in gold-mining at Waihi. The last mentioned was the principal dispute of the year, involving over six hundred workers and resulting in a loss of wages estimated at over £4.000. The workers did not entirely achieve their objects in any one of these four strikes, but in two of them the employers made some concessions.

NATURE AND DURATION.

The next table shows the nature of disputes and the number of workers involved during the last ten years.

Year.Nature of Dispute.
Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.*Lockout.Total.
* I.e., where no actual cessation of work, but a “go slow” or other policy of protest adopted.
19264991. .59
192735. .3. .38
19283241239
19294024147
19303413. .38
19311931124
1932185. .. .23
1933132. .. .15
19342211. .24
193512. .. .. .12
 Number of Workers Involved.
 4,4371,78839. .6,264
 4,389. .87. .4,476
 4,4473,864859889,258
 5,1141,837185157,151
 5,170140157. .5,467
 5,42935057256,356
 7,9451,410. .. .9,355
 2,728830. .. .3,558
 3,62011538. .3,773
 2,323. .. .. .2,323

It will be seen that the vast majority of disputes are in the nature of direct strikes, although in some years “sympathetic” strikes (when the workers go on strike in sympathy with the claims of other workers, and not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions; attain serious proportions. The table following illustrates the duration of disputes during 1935:—

Duration.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £
1 day and less4282278485
Over 1 day but not over 21163236
Over 2 days and less than 1 week24021,9281,780
1 week and less than 2 weeks21,21410,1077,591
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks34096,2185,374
Totals122,32318,56315,266

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

The following table shows the number of disputes in each industrial district for the last five years and also the number of workers involved; from this it will be seen that the Northern District is noteworthy as having in the last two years produced the greatest number both of strikes and of workers involved, a position formerly held by Westland.

Year.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.West-land.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
* Include strikes which Involved workers in more than one district.
Number of Disputes.
19314. .4. .. .131124*
19325. .4. .. .82223*
1933414. .. .21215*
19346. .6. .. .36124*
19357. .1. .. .4. .. .12
Number of Workers involved
19311,798. .739. .. .3,54127356,356
19321,70878855. .. .5,8153045959,355
19331,085601,032. .. .3132887803,558
193485621828. .. .6331,351843,773
19351,062. .550. .. .711. .. .2,323

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISPUTES.

In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industries in which disputes took place. The classification into industrial groups is the same as that used in the compilation of wage and trade-union statistics. In seven of the fourteen groups of the classification there were no disputes, and such groups have been omitted. The strike recorded in 1934 under the heading “Miscellaneous “was one of general labourers.

Industrial Group.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Number of Disputes.
Provision of food, drink. &c12. .1. .
Provision transport by water668185
Working in wood. &c.. .. .1. .1
Working metal. .2. .. .. .
Working paper. &c.. .. .. .. .1
Working mines and quarries1613645
Working on the land1. .. .. .. .
Miscellaneous. .. .. .1. .
Totals2423152412
Number of Workers involved.
Provision of food, drink. &c.481260. .204. .
Provision transport by water7261,0801,9072,777298
Working in wood, &c.. .. .33. .100
Working metal. .182. .. .. .
Working paper. &c.. .. .. .. .550
Working mines and quarries5,1447,8331,6187621,375
Working on the land5. .. .. .. .
Miscellaneous. .. .. .30. .
Totals6, 3569,3553,5583,7732,323

Out of a total of 98 disputes during the five years, 44 occurred in the mining industry; while of the 25,365 workers involved in disputes during the period, 16,732 were engaged in this industry. The great majority of these disputes were, however, of short duration. The number of disturbances in coal-mines have latterly shown a marked diminution, leaving the shipping industry decisively in the lead. The five strikes in the latter industry during 1935 were all of very short duration and involved comparatively few workers. A more detailed analysis of disputes occurring during 1935 is given below.

Industrial Group.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Directly.Indirectly.Total.
 £
Provision of transport by water55298. .298310521
Working in wood. &c.115100. .1002,2001,664
Working paper, &c.1404301205505,1273,415
Working mines and quarries551,375. .1,37510,9209,666
Totals12652,2031202,32318,56315,266

CAUSES OF DISPUTES.

In the next table the causes of disputes occurring during the last five years are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included disputes concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piecework.

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment.” This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs—the employment of non-unionists, or the dismissal of men allegedly due solely or mainly to the fact that they are prominent in union activities.

“ Other working conditions” are of diverse nature, but some may be mentioned as follows: Distribution of work in coal-mines and on wharves, reinstatement of individual workers after voluntary absence, conveyance to and from work, atmospheric, conditions in coal-mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, method of loading cargo.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all disputes caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance with their own particular employer, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

Cause.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Number of Disputes.
Wages610574
Hours. .. .. .21
Employment22544
Other working-conditions115191
Sympathy3521. .
Other causes21242
Number of Workers involved.
Wages1,4826,1301,8331,2741,345
Hours. .. .. .4009
Employment573406372637401
Other working-conditions3,4911,393861,297320
Sympathy3501,410830115. .
Other causes4601643750248

The following table gives further details for the year 1935:—

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £
Wages41,34512,9899,800
Hours195. .
Employment44013,7213,606
Other working-conditions13201,6001,400
Sympathy. .. .. .. .
Other causes2248248460
Totals122,32318,56315,266

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT.

Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes during the last five years. “Negotiations under Act” covers negotiations under both the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act.

Method of Settlement.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under Act121. .3
Private negotiations between parties5127155
Substitution21. .5. .
Otherwise168744
Number of Workers involved.
Negotiations under Act1,12027986. .780
Private negotiations between parties1,4927,0302,0433,1961,008
Substitution1415. .185. .
Otherwise3,7302,0311,429392535

Further information for the year 1935 is given in the next table.

Method of Settlement.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working-days lostEstimated Loss in Wages.
 £
Negotiations under Act37807,2125,876
Private negotiations between parties51,0087,7625,765
Otherwise45353,5893,625
Totals122,32318,56315,266

RESULTS OF DISPUTES.

In compiling the table which follows, no dispute has been included as ending in favour of either employers or workers unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or where a strike is merely a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

RESULTS OF DISPUTES.

Result.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers34133
In favour of employers1046133
Compromise39222
Indeterminate86664
Number of Workers involved
In favour of workers1,18664831680156
In favour of employers2,2688988961,778910
Compromise7406,3681,077645984
Indeterminate2,1621,4411,554670273

RESULTS OF DISPUTES.—continued.

Result.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Number of Working-days lost.
In favour of workers8,5662,914935492,907
In favour of employers21,42146,93045,5482,9878,791
Compromise12,84352,6179,4044,4126,580
Indeterminate5,0566,14410,0542,445285

Of disputes ending definitely in favour of one party or the other during the five years, workers won in fourteen instances and employers in thirty-six. In the previous five years (1926–30) workers were successful in sixty-three instances and employers in fifty-two.

In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1935 are shown in conjunction:—

Result.Cause.
ResultWages.Hours.Employment.Other Working conditions.Other Causes.Total.
Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers2. .1. .. . 3
In favour of employers. .1. .2. .. .3
Compromise. .1. .. .1. .2
Indeterminate. . 11. .24
Number of Workers invoiced.
In favour of workers. .131. .25. .. .156
In favour of employers. .550. .360. .. .910
Compromise. .664. .. .320. .984
Indeterminate. . 916. .248273
Number of Working-days lost.
In favour of workers2,882. .25. . . .2,907
In favour of employers5,127. .3,664. . . .8,791
Compromise4,980. .. .1,600  6,580
Indeterminate. .532. . 248285

Chapter 60. SECTION XLII.—INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

As a result of an international conference of official statisticians held at Geneva in 1923, under the auspices of the International Labour Office set up by the League of Nations, the collection and compilation of statistics of industrial accidents on substantially uniform lines is now being undertaken in virtually all of the principal countries. From the administrative standpoint, the principal types of industrial accidents occurring in New Zealand may be classified as follows:—

Factory Accidents.—Section 41 of the Factories Act requires the reporting to Inspectors of Factories of all accidents likely to incapacitate the injured person for at least forty-eight hours. Reports are compiled by Inspectors of Factories in connection with each such accident causing loss of work amounting to three days or upwards. These are ultimately forwarded to the Census and Statistics Office for statistical analysis.

Scaffolding Accidents.—The procedure adopted in connection with the compilation of statistics of scaffolding accidents is identical with that in connection with factory accidents.

Accidents to Railway, Public Works, and Post and Telegraph Employees.—Individual reports of all accidents involving loss of work for three days or upwards are supplied by the respective Departments to the Census and Statistics Office for detailed analysis and tabulation.

Accidents to Employees in Mines and Quarries.—Certain particulars of accidents to employees in metalliferous mines, in coal-mines, and in quarries and other places under the Stone-quarries Act, are given in successive numbers of the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C.-2.

Other Industrial Accidents.—There are numerous types of industrial accidents for which it has not as yet been found practicable to collect and compile statistics. The principal classes of such accidents are those occurring to persons engaged in land transport (other than railway operation), in “watersiding,” in bushfelling, and in marine navigation. Accidents of the last-mentioned type are reportable to the Marine Department under the Shipping and Seamen Act.

HAWKE'S BAY EARTHQUAKE ACCIDENTS.

The statistics of industrial accidents for the year 1931 do not include accidents caused by the Hawke's Bay earthquake to employees working at the time the earthquake took place. The total number of these accidents is not known; but in twenty-nine cases an appeal was made to the Court to decide whether there was any liability on the part of the employers to pay compensation in respect of such accidents. Ultimately, a decision of the Privy Council favoured the workers' claims, and compensation amounting to £2,902 was paid in respect of the twenty-nine cases cited. Of these twenty-nine accidents, twenty-seven were caused by the collapse of walls, two cases resulting in death and two cases in permanent partial disablement of the victims.

FREQUENCY RATES.

For the purpose of computing frequency rates in respect of industrial accidents in New Zealand, data as to the number of employees in establishments coming under the heading of various industries have been compiled in the Census and Statistics Office from returns furnished for the purpose by the Labour Department's Inspectors of Factories; while information as to the hours worked has been ascertained from awards, and supplemented by the statistics of short time and overtime compiled from data collected with the annual census of factory production. Similar data have been obtained from the records of the Post and Telegraph, Public Works, and Railways Departments. One hour's work performed by one man is taken as a unit. Data as to man-hours are not available in the case of scaffolding operations.

Year.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.*Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.
* Excluding scaffolding accidents.† Includes medical expenses.
 ££
19307,1282·5577,099130,26818·4
19315,7932·5445,777103,13917·9
19324,7302·1954,71580,45317·1
19335,0942·3915,08977,63715·3
19344,9082·1114,90477,73015·9

The distribution of industrial accidents in 1934 among the classes of industries covered by the statistics is indicated in the following table:—

The average amount of compensation per case in respect of all accidents classified was lower in 1933 than in any other year during the quinquennium.

Class.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.Accidents where Particulars Of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.
*No Information available.†Excluding scaffolding accidents.
 ££
Factory2,1701·3062,16829,95213·8
Public Works1,1215·3841,12019,67117·6
Scaffolding212*2116,24429·6
Railways1,2224·0561,22218,82415·4
Post and Telegraph1831·1941833,03916·6
Grand totals4,9082·lll†4,90477,73015·9

Scaffolding accidents involved the highest compensation payment per accident in 1934, due to the proportionately greater number which terminated fatally—viz., three out of the total of 212.

The number of accidents per 100,000 man-houra worked was highest in the case of accidents to Public Works employees.

In the table following, industrial accidents during the year 1934 are classified into certain important industrial groups. Details for individual industries, under this and other headings, are published in an annual report (Statistical Report on Prices, Wage-rates, &c.) issued by the Census and Statistics Office.

Industrial Group.Total Accidents.Accidents per lOO.OOO Man-hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid In such Cases.Compensation per Case where known
Data on which to compute not available. †Excluding scaffolding accidents.
 ££
Food, drink, and tobacco1,5303·5031,53017,86611·7
Clothing, boots, and shoes400·119402506·2
Textiles and weaving370·488362517·0
Public Works1,1215·3841,12019,67117·6
Scaffolding212*2116,24429·6
Woodworking1750·9211754,26824·4
Paper-manufacture and printing430·4484348611·3
Metal-working and engineering2080·7782083,56317·1
Other manufactures1140·6511142,64623·2
Transport and communication—
Railways1,2224·0561,22218,82415·4
Post and Telegraph1831·1941833,03916·6
Tram-car construction and repair10·55613434·5
Personal service50·181548095·9
Miscellaneous170·313161086·7
Totals4,9082·lll†4,90477,73015·9

The average compensation paid in respect of industrial accidents naturally varies considerably in different industries and years according to the proportion of serious accidents occurring.

The following table shows for five years the average compensation paid in conjunction with the extent of disability:—

Year.Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.
* Where amount of compensation known.
 £ £ £ £
19306,8209·0242189·537627·17,09918·4
19315,5889·2163203·426707·05,77717·9
19324,5649·3128161·523752·44,71517·1
19334,9168·1154158·819693·55,08915·3
19344,7368·1143174·825580·84,90415·9

The average amount of compensation paid in respect of fatalities is normally considerably below the maximum amount which may be paid under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of such accidents. This is due mainly to the fact that in cases whore the deceased worker had no dependants only medical and funeral expenses are paid; and that in cases of partial dependency the amount paid as compensation may be considerably less than the maximum.

CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND EXTENT OF INJURY SUSTAINED.

With regard to the extent and degree of the disability sustained, it is usual to distinguish fatal accidents, accidents causing temporary disability, accidents causing permanent partial disability, and accidents causing permanent total disability. In the actual compilation of the statistics difficulty occasionally arises as to whether a particular injury should be regarded as temporary or permanent; and in cases of doubt the conservative practice has been adopted of classifying the injury in the temporary-disability class. The following table relates to the five-years period, 1930–34.

Cause.Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.Percentage of Total Accidents.
Machinery—
Prime movers704..740·3
Transmission84103970·4
Lifting-machinery5832676162·2
Power-working machines1,87531672,1987·9
Vehicles1,75243381,8336·6
Explosions and fires1492251760·6
Poisonous, hot, and corrosive sub-stances650256572·4
Electricity6239740·3
Falls of persons—
Fronm elevations1,30757I81,3825·0
Into excavations217....2170·8
Slipping and stumbling on the level2,17517..2,1927·9
Stepping on or striking against fixed objects—
Stepping on272..12731·0
Striking against1,206611,2134·4
Falling objects, not being handled by the person injured7142197442·7
Falls of earth83723168763·2
Handling of objects—
Heavy5,0309355,12818·5
Sharp1,7163111,7486·3
Hand-trucks, &c.5589..56720
Hand-tools—
In hands of person injured—
Glancing of tool4,3128324,39715·9
Breaking of tool831..840·3
Flying particles48640..5261·9
Other76312..7752·8
In hands of other than person injured37310..3831·4
Animals235512410·9
Miscellaneous—
Strains, sprains, and septic wounds undefined as to cause (sustained while slaughtering)5124..5161·9
Doors, windows, covers, gates (excluding elevators2815..2861·0
Other3631163801·4
Summary.
Factories11,7174843112,23244·2
Public marks7,257212417,51027·2
Scaffolding92853191,0003·6
Railways5,97098316,09922·1
Post and Telegraph7937128122·9
Totals26,66585413427,653100·0

NATURE OF INJURY.

A classification of accidents according to the nature of the injuries sustained gives the following results for the last five years:—

Nature of Injury.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.Totals, 1930·34.
Contusions and abrasions1,9881,4369821,1189876,511
Burns and scalds202162163149163839
Concussions4536272729164
Cuts and lacerations2,1671,9031,6481,8181,7279,263
Punctures4103113012862641,572
Amputations139917510382490
Dislocations3427282523137
Fractures238194156178180946
Sprains and strains1,6001,3219821,0411,1156,059
Other and ill-defined3053123683493381,672
Totals7,1285,7934,7305,0944,90827,653
Number of cases where septic poisoning followed9769308791,0017494,535
Percentage of all accidents13·716·118·619·715·316·4

A feature of special interest brought out by this table is the relatively high percentage of accidents in which septic poisoning followed. It is gratifying to note, however, that after three successive increases this percentage shows a considerable fall in 1934.

PART OF BODY AFFECTED.

Informative figures showing the number of cases in which the different parts of the body were affected by industrial accidents occurring in 1930–34 are given in the following table:—

Part of Body affected.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.Totals, 1930·34.
Head1371278299104549
Eyes2492201781762271,050
Rest of face10195586467385
Neck201814131580
Back6485243664204212,379
Thorax and contents2902471831962231,139
Abdomen and contents136861029989512
External genitals22208101272
Upper limbs—
Collarbone and shoulder145128105108104590
Arm4082872692912981,553
Hand and wrist1,0417657577576603,980
Finger and thumb1,9781,6991,4231,6321,4508,182
Lower limbs—
Pelvis, hip, and thigh140111738495503
Leg6445023904414192,396
Ankle and foot9647555936036273,542
Undefined or multiple20520912910197741
Totals7,1285,7934,7305,0944,90827,653

Accidents to the fingers and hands form a large proportion of total accidents. Out of the total of 27,653 accidents classified during 1930 to 1934, 12,162 cases wore recorded where fingers or hands were affected.

A tabulation made for 1934 correlating nature of injury with part of body affected showed that the most common type of accident was to the fingers andthumbs, resulting in cuts or lacerations; of the 4,908 accidents tabulated, 982 came under this category; of the 82 cases of amputations also, 75 resulted in loss of some part of the fingers or thumbs; contusions of the feet numbered 180, and cuts and lacerations of the hands 291; of the 1,115 sprains, 362 resulted in injury to the back, while sprained legs, ankles, &c, accounted for a further 312.

DURATION OF INCAPACITY.

A further measure of the extent of disability is furnished in the cases of temporary disability by data as to duration of absence from work as the result of the accident. A summary of this aspect of the matter is given below.

Duration.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.Totals, 1930 to 1934.
No.No.Per Cont.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.
1 week or under1,5491,26221·898320·81,06720·998620·15,84721·2
1 week to 2 weeks2,2171,81131·31,44230·51,59731·41,54031·48,60731·1
2 weeks to 4 weeks1,8361,49025·71,23126·01,33926·31,35427·67,25026·2
4 weeks to 6 weeks5705118·83958·44278·44058·32,3088·4
6 weeks to 13 weeks5083906·73757·93547·03396·91,9667·1
13 weeks to 6 months1211041·81172·51042·0861·75321·9
Over 6 months21270·5230·4260·5260·61230·4
Total specified6,8225,59596·64,56696·54,91496·54,73696·526,63396·3
cases of temporary disability
Cases where employee did not return or duration not stated970·1100·260·1....320·1
Permanent partial disability2581642·81302·81553·01473·08543·1
Fatality39270·5240·5190·4;250·51340·5
Totals7,1285,793100·04,730100·05,094100·04,908'100·027,653100·0

In many cases the injured employee did not cease work immediately, in some instances a considerable period intervening. The following table shows for such cases occurring during the year 1934 the length of time elapsing before the employee left work, and the final cause of cessation of work.

Factories.Public Works.Scaffolding.Railways.Post and Telegraph.
Period elapsing.
Under 1 week3271051137757
Over 1 week and under 2 weeks40142494
Over 2 weeks20155313
Final Cause.
Incipient septic poisoning307781026130
Strains623556824
Other causes1821312810
Totals3871341845764
Percentage of all accidents17·812·08·537·435·0

This table indicates that many employees suffering from minor injuries pay no immediate attention, especially in the case of small cute, strains, or abrasions. Theneglect may cause more severe pain (with abrasions, septic poisoning), and the absence then enforced is likely to be longer than if the first injury had received immediate attention. Lost time means lost wages, especially if the injury results in under three days' absence, in which case no compensation is payable. Further, in the case of apprentices, lost time has to be made up at the termination of the period of apprenticeship, and these two considerations are likely to militate against the worker ceasing work immediately on account of a minor injury.

In order to render the statistics of time lost and compensation paid as complete as possible supplementary reports on cases outstanding at the 31st January are prepared by Inspectors of Factories for the Census and Statistics Office in the following June. By June most outstanding cases can be cleared up, although there remains a not altogether inconsiderable residuum of cases where employees fail to return to their former work—especially through having taken up other employment or through the seasonal closing-down of the industry (e.g., freezing) in connection with which the accident occurred, so that they cannot be traced. The cases still outstanding at the end of January must naturally be the severer cases, and, as the severest cases of all may still be outstanding in Juno, the toll of time lost as a result of factory accidents tends to be slightly understated in the statistics. The Juno clearing-up accounts for a few minor discrepancies between the statistics of factory accidents published in this volume and those published in the Annual Report of the Department of Labour.

ACCIDENT SEVERITIES.

In view of the fact that the age of the individual is not particularly relevant to the character of the hazard from which the injury has occurred, for the purpose of calculating accident-severity rates a constant loss of 60,000 working-hours is counted for each fatality irrespective of the age of the person at the time of death. In respect of permanent partial disablement an international scheme for the apportionment of loss of earning-power caused by this type of accident has been drawn up by the International Labour Office.

Under this scheme, which has been adopted with some slight modifications in the treatment of New Zealand statistics, time lost on account of permanent partial disability is assessed on the basis of a proportionate part of the time lost in connection with ?injuries resulting in death. For example, dismemberment or loss of use of hand is regarded as a 50-per-cent. disability—that is, the time lost on account of an injury of this type is assessed as 50 per cent, of 60,000 working-hours—i.e., 30,000 working-hours.

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* Excluding scaffolding accidents.
Total cases resulting in—
Temporary disability6,8315,6024,5764,9204,736
Permanent partial disability258164130155147
Fatality3927241925
Total7,1285,7934,7305,0944,908
Calendar days lost per accident12511210995120
Hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked (i.e., severity rate)*1,8741,5271,4131,3501,455

A more detailed explanation of the method of compilation of accident severities is contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book.

The severity rate for all accidents during the period 1930·34 has varied between 1,350 (in 1933) and 1,874 (in 1930). The extent of the toll on industry exacted by industrial accidents is realized when it is considered that during the five years 1930·34 one hour was lost as a result of such accidents out of every sixty-six hours worked in the industries covered by these statistics.

Comparison of the severity rates as between different industrial groups is affected by the varying proportions of serious accidents and fatalities in different industries. In the main groups covered by the cumulative table for the fiveyears 1930·34 shown below the effect of this factor is minimized by the relatively large number of accidents classified.

Industrial Group.Total Cases of Accidents resulting inCalendar Days lost per Accident.Hours lost per 100,000 Man-hours worked (Severity Rate).
Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
* Excluding scaffolding accidents.
Food, drink, &c.8,383203108,596591,533
Clothing, boots, &c.19410120510585
Textiles and weaving213131227155592
Public Works7,257212417,5101245,338
Scaffolding92853191,000308..
Woodworking76513489072811,698
Paper-manufacture and printing252132267170542
Metal-working and1,2047031,277108641
engineering Other manufactures565325602181783
Transport and communication—
(1) Railways5,97098316,099952,524
(2) Post and Telegraph7937128121841,226
(3) Tram-car construction and repair2211244684,383
Personal service174..21405413
Miscellaneous1024..106127346
Totals26,66585413427,6531121,539*

LOSS OF EARNING-POWER INVOLVED.

Provision is made in certain cases for the actual impairment of wage-earning capacity to be stated. Of the 147 cases of permanent partial incapacity in 1934, the question as to what wages the employee would earn on resumption was answered in 87 cases. In 71 cases it was reported that, though dismemberment or disablement had occurred, no diminution of earning-power had taken place. In 16 cases, however, definite impairment eventuated, in some cases to a serious extent.

HOUR OF OCCURRENCE.

The following tabulation of industrial accidents, according to the hour of occurrence, shows the effects of fatigue during the working-day:—

Time of Occurrence, to nearest Hour.Year.Causes, 1930–34.
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.Machinery.Falls of persons.Handling Objects.Hand tools.Others.
8 a.m.291227204232216121150280280339
9 a.m.670550407470469305315653704589
10 a.m.1,0048206617397284044921,158960938
11 a.m.1,0908286396937094805381,115881945
12 noon577462423400433250336589561559
1 p.m.177172123138166115130158167206
2 p.m.569473372448450263305644545807
3 p.m.844667546612524354418869745807
4 p.m.747596472460484303413714616713
o p.m.417321386308254125234450393484
Other hours610594401480354240422588224965
Not stated62578710746173113767107
Not applicable7026977587882163
Totals7,1285,7934,7305,0944,9082,9853,7917,4436,1647,270

This table shows the latter part of the morning—10 a.m. and 11 a.m. being almost equal in incidence—as the time when most accidents occur; but it is apparent that the Saturday half-holiday reduces materially the number of accidents occurring in the late afternoon, and this should be considered in its interpretation. Finally, most establishments are idle between noon and 1 p.m. When these facts are allowed for, it would appear that for most classes of accidents there is a tendency for the risk to increase (in sympathy with increasing fatigue) with each additional hour of the working half-day, the midday and the night-time rest eliminating the cumulated effects of such fatigue.

A more definite indication is given by considering the length of time the employee had worked when the accident occurred.

Number of Hours already worked.1930.1931.1922.1933.1934.Totals, 1930·34.
* Excluding accidents to Post and Telegraph employees.
Under 14183592713393301,717
1 and under 27446405185555242,981
2 and under 31,0719166828017334,203
3 and under 41,0819056527327054,075
4 and under 56215023874744692,453
5 and under 65584824194324392,330
6 and under 78496675585695093,152
7 and under 88636395704685013,041
8 or over4423433233632881,759
Not stated203183214214154968
Not applicable57235473162
Totals6,907*5,659*4,599*4,951*4,725*26,841*

The foregoing tabulation shows that the greatest number of accidents occurred during the third, and to a lesser extent during the fourth, hour worked in the day.

Chapter 61. SECTION XLIII.—CONSUMPTION OF COMMODITIES.

PROBLEMS of consumption are of special interest in periods of rapid economic change, and, with a view to throwing some light on the changes in the consumption of commodities in New Zealand during the past few years, relevant statistics have been collated in a manner which illustrates some of the salient features of the economics of consumption in the Dominion in recent years. Statistics of consumption cannot be compiled with absolute accuracy, owing to the impossibility of obtaining exact comparability in component statistics of production, exports, and imports. Nevertheless, a sufficient degree of comparability can be attained to permit of the compilation of statistics of consumption with a reasonable approach to accuracy. There arc several serious lacunae in the available statistical data, the most serious deficiency being occasioned by the lack of statistics illustrating the distribution among individuals of the annual flow of commodities entering into consumption.

VALUE OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE.

Statistics of the value of production, of exports, and of imports have been compiled regularly for many years past. From these statistics an estimate of the annual value of goods available for use can be made, the value of exports being deducted from that of production, and the value of imports added to the residuum. If all values were assessed on the same basis, the result of this computation would give a close approach to the value of all goods available for use in the Dominion. However, the bases of valuation do not exactly correspond, imports and exports being assessed at the value on shipboard in New Zealand ports, and New Zealand production at values at the place of production in most instances (although for some individual commodities wholesale market values or f.o.b. export values are used). Generally speaking, however, there is no serious lack of comparability between the bases of valuation of the three factors involved. The import and export statistics used in the computations which follow relate to a June year, while the production statistics are for the production year, which approximates closely, in most cases, to a June year. No adjustment is made to the estimates quoted in the table for held-over stocks of commodities exported or consumed in years subsequent to the year in which they are produced, so that the figures illustrate the value of goods available for use, but not necessarily the amount actually used during each year. Except on rare occasions, however, the influence of this factor would not appreciably effect the accuracy of the compilations as an indication of goods consumed in each year. In recent years exceptions may be found on occasions in the large stocks of wheat and wool held over, as compared with the total production. While these are important individual commodities, the influence of held-over stocks of these two commodities in an index of aggregate Dominion consumption is not sufficient to cause any material margin of error in the estimates shown.

Year ended 30th JuneProduction.Exports.Imports.Goods available for Use.
Total.Per Head.
Values (in N.Z. Currency).
 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
1926110.846.352.1116.682.9
1927111.546.447.3112.478.7
1928120.155.143.5108.575.0
1929126.656.146.5117079.9
1930120.947.049.3123.283.1
193197.636.935.195.863.7
193283.634.724.773.648.4
193383.837.525.371.646.7
193498.849.126.776.449.5
193597.043.034.388.356.8
Index Numbers (1926 = 100).
1926100100100100100
1927101100919695
1928108119839390
19291141218910096
193010910295106100
19318880678277
19327575476358
19337681496156
193489106516660
19358893667669

Some interesting facts are illustrated by the foregoing table. It will be observed that between 1926 and 1929 the values of production and of exports increased steadily, imports declined in value, and there was but little change in value of goods available for use in the Dominion. During that period the terms of trade were favourable to New Zealand, prices received for exports increasing, while prices of commodities entering into New Zealand's import trade were falling. As will be shown in a later table, the quantum of imports and of goods available for use increased during those years, despite the fall in the value of imports. Between 1929 and 1932 all values fell sharply, the greatest fall being shown in the value of imports, while values of production and of exports fell less than the value of goods available for use. A sharp recovery in exports is revealed by the 1934 figures, while the value of imports and of goods available for use increased but slightly. The 1935 statistics show recessions in production and in exports, but a sharp increase in the value of goods for New Zealand consumption—mainly through the agency of a rise in the value of import?.

Since the value of goods available for use in the Dominion is the main item entering into the aggregate income of the people, it is interesting to compare statistics for this item with such data as are available as to incomes. An estimate of the aggregate private income is available for 1925–26, a special compilation being made in that year as part of the census tabulations, while, from the taxation receipts of the Employment Promotion Fund, estimates are now made annually. It is not claimed that the results obtained by the two methods (census and taxation receipts) are exactly comparable; but, even allowing for differences in computation methods, a comparison of the figures affords undeniable evidence of an increase in the “spread” between aggregate private income and the value of goods available for use.

In 1925–26 the aggregate private income exceeded the value of goods available for use by approximately 15 per cent., corresponding figures for other years being—1931–32, 33 per cent.; 1932–33, 26 per cent.; 1933–34, 31 per cent.; and 1934–35 (provisional), 20–25 per cent. The explanation for the growth of this “spread” can best be arrived at by consideration of the principal factors making up the difference between aggregate private income and the valuations shown above of goods available for use. These are—

  1. Transport charges, the services of retailers and other middlemen between the point of production (or importation) and the consumer.

  2. The value of services other than those contributing directly to the production of material goods—e.g., professional services, Governmental administration, &c.

  3. Payments by individuals in respect of obligations due outside New Zealand—e.g., interest on Government loans paid from taxation.

  4. Accretions to savings other than those invested in material assets—e.g., abnormally high bank deposits.

The spread between aggregate private income and the value (at place of production or importation) of goods available for use was higher in 1931—32 than in am* other year for which the figures are available. The probable causes are— (a) A lag between retail prices in responding to the fell in producers' prices; (b) the relative stability of prices of services not entering into the production of commodities;(c) the higher proportion of income needed to pay overseas commitments. A closer adjustment is indicated by the 1932–33 figures, while the widening of the spread in 1933–34 is probably mainly symptomatic of the accumulation of liquid resources in the form of higher bank deposits in New Zealand and higher New Zealand banking funds overseas.

It is noteworthy that in 1934–35 the value of goods available for use increased at a much higher rate than the aggregate private income, although the spread between the two figures is still considerably higher than in 1925–26.

AGGREGATE VOLUME OF CONSUMPTION OF GOODS.

Index numbers of producers' prices, of export prices, and of import prices (on a calendar-year basis, and since 1926 only) are compiled regularly by the Census and Statistics Department. By the use of these index numbers in conjunction with the statistics of value quoted in the previous table it is possible to assess the value of goods available for use within the Dominion at prices riding in any given year. By this means the influence of changing prices is eliminated from the statistics of value, the results indicating changes in volume. Figures for each year since 1926–27 are shown in the following table:—

VALUE OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE IN DOMINION.

Year ended 30th JuneProduced in New Zealand.Imported.Total.
£m.Percentage of Total.£m.Percentage of Total.£m.
192765.15847.342112.4
192864.95846.342111.2
192970.15851.742121.8
193076.85757.343134.1
193169.36241.838111.1
193258.56532.13590.6
193355.66233.73889.3
193461.86434.23696.0
193563.05845.142108.1
 Total for nine years585.!60389.540974.6

An interesting feature brought out by the above table is the assessment of the relative proportions of New-Zealand-produced goods and of imported goods in the total quantum of goods entering into consumption. Over the period of nine years covered by the table the proportions were approximately 60 per cent, of New-Zealand-produced goods and 40 per cent, imported goods. While exact accuracy cannot be claimed for these figures—particularly in respect of single years—a definitely higher proportion of New-Zealand-produced goods in the total is observed from 1930–31 to 1933–34 than was the case in the earlier years covered and in 1934–35. The falling-off in the quantum of imports was considerably greater than that in the volume of locally produced goods consumed in the Dominion. The reversion of the proportions in 1934–35 to the figures for years preceding 1930–31 is attributable to—(1) The poor harvest season, some important crops—e.g., cereals and potatoes—being in short supply; (2) the marked recovery in imports.

Movements in the volume of goods available for use in the Dominion are indicated in the following table of index numbers (on the base: 1926–27 = 100):—

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE.

Year ended 30th in JuneProduced in New Zealand.Imported.Total.Average Volume per Head.
1927100100100100
1928100989998
1929108109108106
1930118121119115
1931106889994
193290688176
193385717974
193495728579
193597959688

The low point during the nine years covered by the table was reached in 1932–33. The figures for that year indicate a decrease by comparison with 1926–27 of 21 per cent, in the aggregate volume of goods available for use and of 26 per cent, in the volume per head, the decreases, as compared with 1929–30—the peak year in the period—being as much as 33 per cent, and 30 per cent, respectively. The 1934–35 aggregate volume is 4 per cent, below the 1926–27 figure, the volume per head being 12 per cent, lower than the 1926–27 level.

While, in the ultimate analysis, the rate of growth of the population is probably the most significant basic factor underlying the long-term movement in the flow of goods entering into consumption, the standard of living of the people as a whole is another factor of paramount importance. In the absence of a marked ingress or egress through migration movements, short-term population changes are relatively small; while, in periods of rapid economic change such as have occurred during the period covered by the above table, substantial year-to-year changes in the standard of living of large sections of the community may and do occur. The marked movements in the index numbers of the aggregate volume of goods available for use shown in the above table are probably symptomatic of variations in the standard of living. A further factor of considerable importance is the fluctuation in the volume of consumption of capital goods, which, judging by the available statistics illustrating the volume of building activity, has been subject to very considerable movements during the past few years. Between 1930–31 and 1932–33 the fall in building activity was considerably greater than that in the total volume of production or of imports. It was evident that normal replacements of capital goods were not being carried out—in short, the volume of production of goods (for export and home consumption) was being maintained only at the expense of some depreciation of capital assets. An indication of changes in the volume of consumption of the more immediately consumable types of goods is afforded by the next table, in which certain important classes of durable goods are omitted.

In periods of depression notable changes in the composition of goods produced or imported for use within the Dominion may be expected to occur. In particular, construction and other expenditure of a capital nature is severely restricted, despite governmental assistance towards the encouragement of building enterprise. With a view to throwing some light on the changes in the volume of consumption of immediately consumable goods, the products of certain industries and some of the more durable imports have been excluded from the statistics of value of goods available for use. The classes excluded arc-(l) Building and construction (including expenditure by the Public Works Department and local authorities on construction and maintenance); (2) imports of machinery and machines: (!!) value of products of general engineering works and agricultural and dairying machinery manufactories operating in the Dominion. The residuum approaches the total value of the less durable types of goods used in the Dominion. It has not been found possible to make a distinction between producers' goods and consumers' goods included in the remaining total. A difficulty exists in the fact that many commodities may be used either as material for further production or for final consumption.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE.

Year ended 30th JuneAll Goods.Goods other than Capital Goods.
Volume.Value.Price level.Volume.
TotalPer Head.TotalPer Head.
1927100100100100100100
1928999897989995
192910810611099111108
193011911511697120114
1931999485919388
1932817668858075
1933797472838781
1934857977849285
19359688918710595

In compiling the index numbers of volume (excluding capital goods) a special wholesale-prices index number was compiled to enable the values to be assessed on the assumption of unchanging prices. For the first four years covered there were only very slight differences between the index numbers of volume for all goods and for commodities other than capital goods. In 1930–31 and 1931–32 the figures for all goods were the higher, “not, in 1932–33 and since, the index numbers for the less durable goods are the higher. An interesting point is that, despite the substantial increase in building end other capital construction in 1934—35, the volume of goods available for immediate use increased at a slightly greater rate than that for all goods.

NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE CONSUMED IN THE DOMINION.

Statistics of the value of production are given in the Miscellaneous section of this Year-Book. From this basis it is possible to compute the ratio of local consumption to exports, a feature which is of peculiar significance to New Zealand in view of its high per caput overseas trade and debt.

It is first necessary to deduct from the production totals (miscellaneous group) the value represented by buildings and by load and railway construction, &c., for these items are not possible of export. In order to avoid such fluctuations as are caused by the unequal incidence of price-changes or by the holding of wool stocks, &c., the aggregate of five years has been adopted. For production, figures have been taken for the production years (terminating at varying dates for different commodities) 1930–31 to 1934–35; for exports, partly as naturally later in point of time, the calendar years 1931–35 are adopted.

Produce.Consumed Locally. Per Cent.Exported. Per Cent.
Agricultural and pastoral3169
Forest8416
Mining6634
Factory and other991
Totals5644

The term “Factory and other” includes fisheries, factory (added value), and other industrial production; but it should be noted that the output of butter and cheese factories and of meat-freezing works is treated herein under agricultural and pastoral, and not under factory production. Similarly, sawmill output is included with forestry.

An important qualification of the above figures lies in the fact that production values are computed as close to the point of production as possible, while export values are f.o.b. at the point of shipment, and consequently include transport and accessory charges. The effect is to understate slightly local consumption, which may be taken as approximately 60 per cent, of the total production of commodities.

While the statistical data discussed in the foregoing pages afford an indication of movements in the value and volume of Dominion consumption of important classes of commodities in the aggregate, considerable interest attaches to the statistics for individual commodities of importance. Estimates of the consumption of a selection of individual commodities are given in the following paragraphs. No indication of the distribution of consumption of these commodities among individual classes of consumers is available; and, indeed, a family budget collection on a very extensive scale would be necessary to provide such information. The aggregate Dominion consumption of each commodity has been arrived at by combining statistics of production, of exports, and of imports, having regard also to changes in held-over stocks—where such data are available.

DAIRY-PRODUCTS AND MEATS.

Butter.—Available statistics indicate that the annual consumption of butter in the Dominion has increased from approximately 425,000 cwt. ten years ago to 550,000 cwt. at the present time, the latter figure representing an annual average consumption of 40 lb. per head and the former 35 lb. per head. The persistence of a low level of butter prices for the greater part of the last three years has probably been the principal factor contributing to this increase.

Cheese.—Estimates of the quantum of New Zealand's consumption of cheese cannot be made with any close approach to accuracy. Approximately 95 per cent. of the average annual output of cheese is exported, so that the impossibility of obtaining exact correspondence in the periods covered by statistics of production, of exports, and of held-over stocks may involve a serious proportionate error in the estimate of the small residuum comprising New Zealand consumption. From a consideration of available statistics over a period of years it would appear that New Zealand consumption of cheese averages between 85,000 cwt. and 90,000 cwt. annually—equal to 5 lb. to 0 1b. per head of population. Some increase in the quantity consumed is indicated by relevant statistics for the last three or four years.

Whole Milk.—Statistical data indicative of the consumption of whole milk point to an average consumption per head of approximately | pint per day. While the available data on which to base an estimate of milk-consumption are somewhat meagre, it would appear that some increase has occurred in recent years, earlier estimates giving a per head consumption of about ½ pint per day. Consumption of whole milk accounts for only 3 to 4 per cent, of total milk-production in the Dominion.

Beef.—From statistics of cattle slaughterings and exports of beef it is estimated that the amount of beef used in New Zealand is approximately 1,700,000 cwt. (inclusive of bone) annually, the average annual consumption per head being about 125lb. Estimates of the consumption of beef cannot be made with any close degree of accuracy, since statistics of slaughterings do not indicate the weight of each carcass slaughtered and an appreciable margin of error is possible in the estimation of an average weight. It seems quite clear, however, that consumption of beef has declined materially during the past decade, a fall of at least 20 per cent, in the consumption per head being indicated by relevant statistical data.

Mutton.—Consumption of mutton in the Dominion has shown a material upward trend during the last few years, the present annual consumption being approximately 1,000,000 cwt., as compared with 750,000 cwt. ten years ago. The present Dominion consumption represents an average of about 801b. per head, as compared with 60 lb. a decade ago.

Lamb.—A marked increase in consumption has accompanied the fall in prices of lamb in recent years. The annual average consumption in the Dominion has increased from 150,000 cwt. in 1924–2(5 to 325,000 cwt. during the last three years, the consumption per head increasing from 12 lb. to 25 lb. per annum during this decade.

Pork.—Consumption of pork has declined in recent years, statistics for the three years ending 1935 indicating a Dominion annual average consumption of 80,000 cwt., whereas corresponding statistics for 1924–20 pointed to an annual consumption of 190,000 cwt. The average consumption per head of population is now about 6 lb. per annum, as compared with 15 lb. ten years ago.

Bacon and Ham.—New Zealand's external trade in bacon and ham, both out-ward and inward, is negligible, so that the statistics of production of bacon-curing establishments in the Dominion afford a close guide to consumption. the output in 1925–20 and in each of the last five years was—

Year.Total.Per Head of Population.
Tons.Lb.
1925–2610,05410.2
1930–318,21012.3
1931–327,56211.2
1932–337,22910.6
1933–347,35610.7
1934–357,17910.4

A substantial fall in consumption of bacon and ham is indicated by the above figures.

Empire Comparison.—The following comparison of annual consumption per head of population of whole milk, butter, cheese, and meats in New Zealand, Great Britain, Australia, and Canada is of interest. In each instance the latest available data are quoted.

Item.Unit of Measure.Annual Average Consumption per Head.
New Zealand.Great Britain.Australia.Canada.

* Not available.

† Veal not included.

Whole milkGallons20–2515–20*60–65
ButterLb.40253131
Cheese5–6
Meats—
 Beef (including veal)1256111056
 Mutton and lamb10532½846
 Pig meats17461975
Total meatsLb.247139½213137

Some interesting differences in, habits of consumption are brought out by this comparison. New Zealand and Australia are considerably heavier meat-eating countries than either Canada or Great Britain. An interesting point is the predominance of pig meats in Canadian meat-consumption and the low position occupied by mutton and lamb. Incidentally, it should be noted that, while statistics of poultry consumption cannot be obtained for all four countries, data available in respect of Canada, indicate that poultry occupies a much more important place in the dietary of that country than is the case in New Zealand. Pig meats have a very important place in the meat-consumption of Great Britain and Canada as contrasted with a comparatively minor position in both New Zealand and Australia. Raw-milk consumption is markedly higher in Canada than in either New Zealand or Great Britain, although it will be noted that butter-consumption is relatively high in New Zealand.

This brief table serves to illustrate the dangers of international comparisons of consumption of individual commodities, as, even in this short list of important foodstuffs, it is quite apparent that the differences for individual commodities represent in some instances differences in habits rather than a lower or higher standard of consumption. It would seem that the consumption of dairy-products and meats on the whole is considerably lower in Great Britain than in any of the other three countries, but that, while there are marked differences in respect of individual commodities in the case of the other three countries, such differences are—generally speaking—of a compensatory nature.

CEREALS AND VEGETABLES.

Flour.—The aggregate consumption of flour in the Dominion has remained remarkably constant during the past decade, never falling below 140,000 short tons per annum, and seldom reaching 145,000 short tons. The annual consumption per head has declined from 200 lb. some years ago to 185 lb. in the last three years. Statistics of bread-consumption are not available; but from a household budget survey conducted by the Census and Statistics Department in 1930 it would appear that the average consumption of bread per head is approximately £ lb. per day. Flour used in bread-making is included in the estimate of flour-consumption quoted above.

Other Cereal Product,?.—Oatmeal and oaten products consumed in New Zealand arc almost entirely of New Zealand manufacture. Approximately 4,500 tons of oatmeal are produced in New Zealand factories each year, only slight year to year variations being shown by the figures for the past decade. In addition, from 3,500 to 4,000 tons of other oaten products for human consumption are produced each year, representing an annual consumption per head of 6 J lb. of oatmeal and 5i lb. of other oaten products. No data are available as to the consumption of wheaten products (other than flour) for human consumption.

Vegetables.—No data are available as to the consumption of vegetables, the quantities grown in home gardens being a matter of pure conjecture; while, even in respect of market gardens, only acreage statistics (for holdings 1 acre and upwards outside borough boundaries) are available. Statistics in respect of production of potatoes and onions grown on farm holdings are collected, however, from which the following estimates have been made, after taking into consideration external trade in these commodities.

Year.Apparent New Zealand Annual Consumption.
Potatoes.Onions.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 Tons(000).Lb.Tons(OOO).Lb.
1925–26123196712
1930–311512251116
1931–32116170711
1932–33125182914
1933–34130190812
1934–35108156812

Some marked variations are observed in the case of potatoes, the low years corresponding to seasons when there were crop shortages. The variations in human consumption are probably not as great as the figures would indicate, since in flush years (when prices are unprofitable) an appreciable proportion of the crop will be fed to animals or wasted in storage. Considerable year to year variations are also possible in the unknown quantities of potatoes and onions grown in home gardens.

The commodities dealt with under this and the previous headings comprise what may be described as basic foodstuffs. Data indicative of consumption of these commodities in recent years do not suggest any marked falling off during the depression years, although material changes are observed in the consumption of some of these commodities as compared with the position several years ago. In recent years an upward movement in consumption is observed in some instances—notably in butter-consumption. It should be noted, however, that, while statistical evidence points to increases in consumption of some of the basically necessary foodstuffs (under the stimulus of lower prices), this does not necessarily preclude the possibility, or indeed the probability, of a considerable fall in consumption in the case of individual families suffering greatly diminished incomes.

OTHER FOODS, BEVERAGES, AND TOBACCO.

Marked movements have occurred in recent years in the aggregate consumption of many commodities included under this heading.

Fresh Fruits.—Estimates of Dominion consumption of New-Zealand-produced fruits is particularly difficult in view of the fact that in rural localities—and even in some of the larger centres of population—homestead gardens contribute materially to the fruit-supplies of many individual families.

Statistics of production of certain classes of fruit on holdings of 1 acre and upwards outside borough boundaries during the 1935–36 season are published on page 353. From these statistics, in conjunction with the external-trade statistics, estimates of New Zealand consumption of the more important fruits have been compiled. The figures are shown in the following table; while for comparative purposes similar estimates based on the 1930 collection of orchard statistics are given:—

Variety of Fruit.1930.1936.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 Lb. (000).Lb.Lb.(OOO).Lb.
Apples47,64332.381,36652.0
Pears12,9808.813,6588.7
Peaches5,8123.911,4057.3
Nectarines7020.51,4350.9
Apricots2,0791.42,4611.6
Plums2,8792.03,8652.5
Oranges14,2019.617,50511.2
Lemons;.2,6791.85,8043.7
Bananas19,04212.823,89015.3

The figures in the above table indicate a substantial increase in consumption of fruits since 1930—probably the reflection of a more general recognition of the value of fruit in the dietary. The consumption of stone-fruits is, of course, variable, depending on the season, a fact which should be borne in mind in interpreting the figures shown for such fruits.

A further point of interest is the fact that the statistics of consumption of oranges and lemons quoted for 193(5 include a much greater proportion of New Zealand fruits than is included in the corresponding figures for 1930. New Zealand production of lemons in 1930 totalled 1,502,000 lb., and in 1936 5,054,000 lb., imports in the former year totalling 1,272,000 lb. and in the latter year 752,000 lb. It will be seen that, while consumption has more than doubled between the two years, imports have fallen by over 40 per cent. A similar, though less striking, transition from imports to local production is observed in the case of oranges. In this instance, however, the increase in local production has been, to date, largely confined to bitter oranges, imports still accounting for practically the whole local consumption of sweet oranges. Imports from the Cook Islands are included.

Dried Fruits.—The following table, showing imports of dried fruits in 1920 and from 1931 to 1935, illustrates the changes in consumption of these commodities:—

Commodity.Unit of Quantity.19261931.1932.1933.1034.1035.
Raisins and sultanasTons4,0374,2914,6403,7653,7784,698
 Per headLb.6.46.46.85.55.56.7
CurrantsTons469729633538744597
 Per headLb.0.71.10.90.81.10.9
DatesTons1,2382,0102,4171,7222,3741,984
 Per headLb.2.03.03.52.53.42.8
PrunesTons874807640808804930
 Per headLb.1.41.2.0.91.21.21.3
ApricotsTons217281357223348405
 Per headLb.0.30.40.50.30.50.6

An interesting feature of this table is the falling-off in imports in 1933 in all classes of dried fruits except prunes.

Canned Fruits.—The production of canned fruits in New Zealand factories increased from 6,177 cwt. in 1926–27 to 26,951 cwt. in 1932–33, falling to 19,629 cwt. in 1934–35 (a poor fruit-production season). The quantities of imports of the main types of canned fruits in 1927 and from 1931 to 1935 are indicated in the following table. Owing to variations in the size of the tins, the movements in the figures can be regarded only as an approximate indication of changes in imports of these commodities.

IMPORTS (IN THOUSAND DOZEN TINS).

Year.Apricots.Peaches.Pineapples.
192767108181
193146128184
19323262205
19332040156
19344458240
19354568317

A sharp falling-off is indicated in 1933 (as was observed in the case of dried fruits).

Miscellaneous Foods, Beverages, and Tobacco.—In the following table the estimated Dominion consumption of each of a selection of miscellaneous foodstuffs and beverages is shown for 1926", and for each year from 1931 to 1935.

Commodity.Unit of Quantity.1926.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.

*1928 Figures.

† Figures not available.

Dominion Totals.
Fresh sea fishTons18,75517.43015,06213,45914,20613,961
Canned fish1,6688129367361,1851,592
Refined sugar76,13872.59977,27469,62067,68776,825
Salt29,81330,10731,28034,44934,52933,946
Maizena and cornflour1,1591,2691,4091,5021,5401,633
Sago and tapioca9461,3371,5051,1841,4421,371
Rice3,0243.5482,9783,6183,8963,499
Desiccated coconut365570513662655621
Mustard116868592119123
Peel183354221238227328
Confectionery (includes chocolate)10,254*10,0978,2868,4409,4049,559
Ice-cream (factory pro-duction)Thousand gallons273*320269277246397
Aerated watersDitto2.0791,4401,3901,3791,818
TeaTons4,8925.4084,6505,1794,5404,452
Tobacco1,9762,4822,0481,8822,0121,887
Per Head of Population.
Fresh sea fishLb.302622202120
Canned fish2.61.21.41.11.72.3
Refined sugar12110711310198111
Salt474546505049
Maizena and cornflour1.81.92.12.22.22.3
Sago and tapioca1.52.02.21.72.12.0
Rice4.85.34.45.35.65.0
Desiccated coconut0.60.80.71.00.90.9
MustardOz.3.02.12.02.22.82.8
Peel4.78.55.25.65.37.6
Confectionery (includes chocolate)Lb.16*1512121414
Ice-cream (factory pro-duction)Pints1.5*1.71.41.41.32.1
-Aerated watersGallons1.41.00.90.91.2
TeaLb.7.88.06.87.56.66.4
Tobacco3.13.73.02.72.92.7

Alcoholic Liquors.—The following table shows estimates of the Dominion consumption of alcoholic liquors in each of the calendar years shown. The figures are based on the Customs returns, with an addition in respect of New-Zealand-produced wine, which is not included in such returns

Item.1926.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
*Including locally produced cider.
Beer (ale and stout)—
 Total (1,000 gallons)12,94910,1258,8688,6239,60611,159
 Per head (gallons)9.26.75.85.66.27.2
Potable spirits—
 Total (1,000 gallons)658379323317325338
 Per head (gallons)0.470.250.210.210.210.22
Wine*
 Total (1,000 gallons)260170150205245265
 Per head (gallons)0.180.110.100.130.160.17

CLOTHING.

An estimate of the Dominion's annual requirements of apparel is impossible of attainment in view of the heterogeneous nature of the items covered by this group. Some indication of changes in the consumption of clothing is, however, afforded by statistics of local production and imports of piece-goods, although, in the latter instance, values only are available. A rough estimate of the quantities of the main types of piece-goods imported has been made by applying import prices of a selection of standard lines of piece-goods to the statistics of value. Much more satisfactory data are available in respect of boots and shoes. In the following table these figures are shown for 1920 and 1931–35.

Item.Unit of Quantity.1026.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* Local production, plus imports, minus exports.
Woollen piece-goods—
 Estimated quantity imported-Million running yards1.41.01.11.31.51.4
 New Zealand productionDitto2.11.61.82.12.22.3
 Total available for use3.52.62.93.43.73.7
Silk and artificial silk piece-
  goods—
 Estimated quantity importedMillion lb.1.11.62.21.82.42.5
Cotton and linen piece-goods—
 Estimated quantity importedMillion running yards50.236.846.049.252.053.2
Blankets (local production only)Thousand pair.128121117111116127
Boots and shoes*Ditto3,9024,4803,3894,2984,8844.835

The consumption of woollen piece-goods was low in 1931, 1932, and 1933, but increased in 1934. Imports of silk and artificial silk piece-goods have more than doubled since 1926—despite a recession in 1933—while imports of cotton piece-goods, after touching a low point in 1931, have increased substantially since that year. While statistics are not available as to the quantity of made-up apparel imported, the value of imports of miscellaneous made-up apparel has fallen from an average of over £2,000,000 during 1926–29 to £1,000,000 in 1932–35, figures for the calendar years 1926 and 1931–35 being as follows:—

Year.Value.
 £(N.Z.)
19262,202,791
19311,285,243
1932936,855
1933947,033
19341,036,362
19351,107,622

The relative buoyancy of imports and local production of piece-goods indicates that the proportion of the Dominion's clothing requirements made up in New Zealand factories, shops, and homes is considerably greater than was the case same years ago. Statistics of the output of clothing factories indicate a substantial increase in clothing manufacture since 1931–32, the value of products rising from £2,153,4(57 in that year to £2,958,508 in 1934–35. No data are available as to bespoke tailoring.

Trade statistics for recent years indicate that the bulk of imports of boots and shoes is now comprised of rubber-soled shoes for sports wear, &c. Imports of leather boots and shoes have declined from 101.138 dozen pairs in 1928 to 43,151 dozen pairs in 1935, while production in New Zealand factories has risen from 120,501 dozen pairs in 1927–28 to 141,534 dozen pairs in 1934–35. It will be observed that the increase in local production of leather footwear is considerably less than the fall in imports. A very substantial increase in usage of rubber-soled shoes is indicated by imports of this item, and this increase has apparently been accompanied by a material decrease in the case of leather footwear.

OTHER COMMODITIES.

Fuel and Lighting.—Statistics indicative of the Dominion consumption of fuel and lighting are shown below. Consumption of gas and of electricity, both of which may be regarded as services rather than commodities, .-ire included in the fuel and lighting group. No data are available as to consumption of firewood.

Item.Description.Unit.1926.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
*Figures not yet available.
CoalTotal consumptionMillion tons2.42.31.91.92.12.1
Domestic consumption0.91.00.80.80.9*
KeroseneIlluminatingMillion gals.2.31.72.61.81.71.8
Candles Million Lb3.72.62.42.52.42.5
Gas Million cub. ft.3,3723,5943,4383,3383,2823,263
Electricity Million units288591615635667710

Petrol—The following table, taken from the Annual Report of the Transport Department, shows the consumption of petrol in each year since 1928. Data as to motor-vehicles licensed, &c, are included in a previous section (Section XIII: Roads and Road Transport).

Calendar Year.Consumption of Petrol.
By Motor-vehicles.Other.Total.
 Gals.(OOO).Gala.(OOO).Gals.(OOO).
192841,4572.05843,515
192956,5703,65060,226
193062,8213,90866,729
193155,2035,28660,489
193249,8615,49555,357
193351,2625,40056,662
193455,9146,10062,014
193561,7456,48468,229

Miscellaneous Goods.—In the following table the values of imports of a number of miscellaneous consumers' goods are shown. In view of the heterogeneous nature of many of the items included—e.g., fancy goods—no indication is available as to the quantity of imports, nor, indeed, would such figures have much significance.

VALUE OF IMPORTS (IN NEW ZEALAND CURRENCY).

Commodity.1920.11)29.1931.1032.1933.1934.1935.

* Not available.

†Passenger vehicles other than buses.

 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Miscellaneous hardware and ironmongery1,147917429346356489660
Sewing-machines9913377577284130
Vacuum cleaners*682729365472
Plate and plated ware1001005243546370
Earthenware and chinaware292344187137153182241
Miscellaneous glassware1041074233436795
Linoleum204231887477107138
Carpets and mats453419174174217326358
Fancy goods and toys419445236144174178220
Watches and clocks1551476028486783
Jewellery and precious stones133965640404760
Perfumery and toilet pre-parations150200146129151149190
Books, papers, and music488514382334380409438
Miscellaneous sporting and athletic requisites121144113102118132132
Motor-cycles and parts223271755683109149
Motor-cars and chassis 3,0803,4075304644811,8192,717
Gramophones and records31537310150343532
Wireless apparatus**283264288365319

The commodities for which import statistics are quoted above are, in general. particularly sensitive to economic changes, the aggregate import value of these items for each of the years shown being—

Year.Value.
* Approximate.
£Year.
19267,500,000*
19298,000,000*
19313,058,000
19322,504,000
19332,805,000
19344,682,000
19356,104,000

The fall from £8,000,000 in 1929 to only £2.504,000 in 1932 and £2.805.000 in 1933 in imports of these items is a significant indication of the effects of the depression on expenditure on goods other than immediate necessaries. The fall is even more marked than the figures indicate, owing to the depreciation of New Zealand currency during the period. The figures for 1929 and 1933 on a sterling basis would be £8,000.000 and £2.244,000; and, on a gold basis, £8,000.000 and £1,526.000. A marked recovery in 1934 and 1935 is indicated by the figures for these years, although even the 1935 total is still substantially below that for 1929. An important point, however, which must not be lost sight of is the increasing part played by New Zealand factories in the provision of miscellaneous consumers' goods, local production of certain classes of these goods—e.g., radios—having made great advances in the last few years. Comparison of the statistics quoted, above with corresponding figures in respect of local factory production (see particularly tables on pages 424–25, 440) will illustrate this point.

Chapter 62. SECTION XLIV.—ELECTRIC POWER.

STATE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-POWER.

ALTHOUGH abundant water-power is available throughout New Zealand, comparatively little use was made of it before 1900, but since then the development has been extensive. In 1903 water-power to the extent of 9,911 horse-power was actually in use. By 1913 this amount had risen to 34,956 horse-power, by 1923 to 54,244, and by 1935 to 382,538.

The Public Works Act vests the sole right to use the water-power of the Dominion in the Crown, subject to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right to develop such power, or to delegate it to any local authority, or, outside a mining district, to any person or company, subject to conditions.

The regulations covering the delegation of this right, which were amended in June, 1934, make it essential for persons desiring to obtain a license to generate power by this means to obtain permission from the Minister of Public Works. The regulations provide for an annual rental to be paid to the Crown by the licensee, such rental to be paid, except in special cases, at the rate of £1 per kv.a. of maximum demand per annum, and to be not less than £10. A number of local authorities and private concerns have taken advantage of this provision of the Act.

Persistent demands were made for some years that the Government should itself develop the power resources of the Dominion for the benefit of the people generally, and in 1910 the Aid to Water-power Works Act was passed, and the Lake Coleridge scheme for the supply of electricity to Christchurch City and Canterbury Provincial District was selected for development. Operations were commenced works in 1911 and completed in 1915, with a capacity of 00 kv.a., which was extended to 26,495 kv.a. in 1926, and further extended to kv.a. in 1930. After the successful inauguration of the Lake Coleridge scheme a complete system was drawn up of interconnected power systems in both the North and South Islands.

For the North Island the scheme embrace stations—viz., Mangahao (24,000 h.p.), Lake Waikaremoana (40,000 h.p., capable of extension to 140,000 h.p.), and the Arapuni Rapids, on the Waikato River (100,000 h.p., capable of extension to 160,000 h.p.). These three stations have now been linked up. and are operated as one system. Two additional units, each of 24,000 kv.a, capacity, are on order for Arapuni, and are expected to be in commission in 1937.

As in the North Island, the two Government stations in the South Island, Lake Coleridge and Waitaki, have been interconnected and are operated as one system, It is proposed that the other two stations, Waipori and Lake Monowai, will be linked up also, making a complete system covering the major portion of the South Island.

A commencement with the first of the major generating stations in the North Island was made at Mangahao in 1922, the full development of 24,000 kv.a. being undertaken. Mangahao was completed in 1925.

A start was made almost immediately with the Waikaremoana station of 40,000 kv.a., and power was turned on to full capacity in November, 1929.

In November, 1920, the Waihi Gold-mining Company's electric-power plant of 7,860 kv.a. at Horahora was acquired by the State. Considerable extension, to 12,860 kv.a., was made in 1925. The requirements of the whole of the Auckland District were in time to be supplied from Arapuni (60,000 kw.), and a commencement with this huge development was made in 1925. The first unit of 17,650 kv.a was brought into operation in June, 1929, and the station linked up with Horahora. Two further units were in use by March, 1930, and the fourth (18,000 kv.a.) and final unit of the present development went into commission in 1932. Unfortunately, in June, 1930, an earth movement occurred, necessitating the temporary closing-down of the station. Remedial measures to recondition the headworks were made, and the station resumed operation in 1932.

The Waitaki River was selected as the next source of power for the South Island system. During the past six years this scheme has been undergoing construction, and at the end of 1934 commenced commercial operation.

The following table for the last five years covers those State systems in actual operation in each year:—

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
* Amount very small (see units); precise data lacking.
 £££££
Capital outlay10,149,13710,566,15210,584,34812,900,75213,095,382
Total revenue680,003864,746901,383940,8641,040,649
Power purchased25,3896,543**306
Working-costs178,372229,249137,995151,518197,968
Interest339,619512,872537,861511,834585,268
Sinking fund18,06220,53929,812....
Depreciation103,08382,19798,097229,07297,341
Total costs664,525851,400869,591930,111918,725
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
Units generated462,081,637652,858,396683,128,000729,266,587792,864,909
Units purchased16,295,2356,544,56734,00062,712236,134
Totals478,376,872059,402,903083,162,000729,329,299793,101,043
Units sold428,164,585583,963,603615,887,000656,465,321713,371,996

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.

The policy of the Government generally is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of the local authorities. Formerly the only local authorities available were the cities, boroughs, counties, and town districts, but with the extension of electric supply into the country areas a wider organization became necessary, and this was first provided under the Electric-power Boards Act of 1918. This Act provides for several local districts to combine for the purpose of electric-power distribution, and to set up a special Electric-power Board to carry out the work, with rating-powers over the district concerned. The legislation was consolidated and amended in the Electric-power Boards Act, 1925, amendments to which were enacted in 1927 and 1928. An Act of 1930 established an Association of Electric-power Boards and municipal electric-lighting authorities.

So far only one of the four main cities—viz., Auckland—has been included in the inner area of a power district, but of the secondary centres the cities of Wanganui,Palmerston North, and Invercargill, and the boroughs of Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, Masterton, Lower Hutt, Petone, Blenheim, Greymouth, Timaru, and Oamaru are included.

Twenty-seven Boards—viz., Waitemata, Franklin, Cambridge, Central, Te Awamutu, Waitomo, Thames Valley, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Central Hawke's Bay, Dannevirke, South Taranaki, Wanganui-Rangitikei, Manawatu-Oroua, Horowhenua, Tararua, Wairarapa, Hutt Valley, North Canterbury, Malvern, Banks Peninsula, Springs-Ellesmere, Ashburton, South Canterbury, and Waitaki—have carried out fairly complete reticulation of their area B, and are distributing power taken in bulk from the systems of Horahora-Arapuni, Mangahao-Waikaremoana, and Lake Coleridge-Waitaki. The Auckland Board, which took over the city electric-power station and has provided large extensions of both plant and mains, is now taking its supply from the Horahora-Arapuni scheme. Ten Boards—viz., Wairere, Opunake, Taranaki, Marlborough, Waimea, Golden Bay, Grey, Teviot, Otago Central, and Southland—have local water-power stations in operation. The Southland station now operates under Government control (since 13th October, 1936). The Westland Board has delegated its license to a private company for a term of years. The Tauranga, Otago, and Otago Central Boards have arranged to purchase power in bulk from other authorities. The other five—viz., North Auckland, Lake Wakatipu, Buller, Reefton, and Hurunui—were not actually functioning during 1935–36, though the North Auckland Board has commenced the construction of its distribution system.

The following is a summary of actively functioning Electric-power Boards:—

Year ended 31st March.Capital Outlay as at End of Year.Revenue.Expenditure.
Sale of Electricity (Gross).Sale of Material (Profit).Total.*Capital Charges.Power.Total.*
* Includes other items
 £££££££
19279,411,5921,243,52816,1191,312,212673,163488,5961,323,883
192811,078,6701,553,62715,3871,628,191720,388609,0031,520,489
192912,009,8911,788,71915,2981,850,453797,205735,7731,749,991
193012,920,1502,030,23912,1502,092,169859,262786,1471,887,500
193113,637,1772,157,22810,9762,223,379905,479667,5272,044,457
193213,847,76012,129,1924,5552,203,485944,868908,1162,076,822
193314,026,3202,120,6975,2092,248,6631,095,826896,3282,199,841
193414,226,2592,098,0884,5622,154,188981,196884,4602,066,683
193514,657,5142,198,4935,7232,252,187937,814937,0932,122,139
193614,319,4202,281,4877,8342,338,2211,003,6601,018,2722,275,941

Revenue in the foregoing table is exclusive of moneys derived from rates. Rates, inclusive of arrears, brought in £43,188 in 1935–36. Capital charges are inclusive of interest, sinking-fund, and depreciation payments, while power charges include wages, stores, fuel, distribution, and street-lighting expenses.

ALL STATIONS.

In addition to the Government undertakings controlled by the Public Works Department, the Tourist Department's undertaking at Rotorua, and those undertakings operated by Electric-power Boards, there are fifty establishments which areoperated by other organizations, six of which represent private enterprise, the rest being local bodies of various classes. A general summary covering all stations in operation for the last three years is given hereunder:—

Year ended 31st March.
1934.1935.1936.
StationsNo.999899
Persons engaged (both sexes)No.2,8032,9073,010
Salaries and wages£641,959670,553734,249
ConsumersNo.334,792342,413356,048
Number of—
Ranges 36,08139,73044,449
Milking-machines 16,99217,20018,026
Water-heaters 50,27253,63558,864
Generators (capacity)—
MainKw.245,630271,970288,437
StandbyKw.85,58392,69991,086
Route-miles of linesMiles20,99621,70722,424
Revenue—
Current—
Retail£3,374,5783,501,3953,643,026
Bulk£944,652988,8281,083,944
Other (including rates)£166,053150,239141,190
Total£4,485,2834,640,4624,868,160
Expenditure—
Working expenses£1,917,7352,051,7252,199,814
Capital charges£2,008,3742,075,0172,153,631
Total£3,926,1094,127,3424,353,445
Appropriations£416,256341,650259,505
Capital outlay—    
Total expenditure£30,709,05433,495.18634,036,936
Depreciation£3,957,1634,332,9404,796,665
Net value at 31st March£26,751,89129,162,24629,240,271
Units—
GeneratedThou`ds857,806916,3021,031,699
Per head of mean populationUnits556590660
Sold (retail)Thou'ds667,289709,554775,371
Bulk salesThou'ds633,902681,423773,585

The figures given in respect of employees and salaries and wages are those which are met out of revenue.

CLASSIFICATION OF STATIONS.

Prior to the 1935 issue of the Year-Book electric-supply stations were classified in two groups, one being termed generating stations and the other distributing stations. Stations which were solely engaged in generating or which generated more unit than they purchased were classified as generating, while those which purchased all their energy or purchased more than they generated were classed as distributing stations.

The classification now adopted is a quadripartite one, as follows:—

  1. Generating stations:—

    1. Generating solely.

    2. Generating and purchasing, but generating bulk of supplies of power.

  2. Distributing stations:—

    1. Generating and purchasing, but purchasing bulk of supplies of power.

    2. Purchasing solely.

The only deviation from this classification is in connection with the Government stations which, though they purchased 236,000 units during 1935–36, have been shown under the heading of “Generating only.”

The following table sets out the main particulars of all stations classified in this manner for the year ended 31st March, 1936:—

Generating only.Both Generating and Purchasing.Purchasing only.Total.
Mainly Generating.Mainly Purchasing.
* 000 omitted.
StationsNo.2414194299
Capital outlay to date£14,493,7904,830,9347,243,1227,469,09034,036,936
Present net value£12,754,4814,343,1555,898,5736,243,76229,240,271
Revenue£1,215,624610,8001,533,5641.508,1724,868,160
Working-expenses£269,638191,132832,827906,3172,199,814
Capital charges and appropriations£891,351392,173607,546522,0062,413,136
Units generated*..877,004145,4979.198..1,031,699
Units purchased*..23611,608351,832368,366731,602
Units sold—
Bulk sales*..705,72225,0899,88732,887773,585
Retail sales*..84,304102,064300,221288,782775,371

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The following summary, covering all stations, shows for 1935–36 the principal details for employees and for salaries and wages paid:—

Class of Employment.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.
Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.
(a) Salaries or Wages paid out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
    £££
Secretaries, managers, engineers2681269112,93674113,010
Clerical staff42926569489,86933,137123,006
Wage-earning employees2,030172,047496,5201,713498,233
Totals2,7272833,010699,32534,924734,249
(b) Salaries or Wages not paid directly out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
    £££
House-wiring107110820,46324720,710
Trading departments5646012,90034113,241
New construction-works734..734164,156..164,156
Totals8975902197,519588198,107
Grand totals3,6242883,912896,84435,512932,356

CAPITAL OUTLAY.

The following is a summary of the data collected for 1935–36:—

Class of Expenditure.Expenditure during Year ended 31st March, 1936.Total Expenditure up to 3lst March, 1936.
 ££
Land in connection with power-house, headworks, cottages. &c.Cr. 13,765395,847
Power-house buildings, cottages. &c.30,5622,047,150
Generating plant, headworks, &c.Cr. 53,1698,516,221
Special standby plant3,4841,019,975
Main transmission-line and main substations58,6065,635,774
Distribution system, substations, land, cottages, &c.328,12610,826,337
Public (street) lighting8,097448,418
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, and service buildings32,596445,724
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, and equipment40,354639,027
Interest during obstructionCr.72,1931,945,609
Loan conversion premiumsCr. 146,079159,507
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, law-costs, &c., and other capital expenditure)Cr. 14,2701,957,347
Totals477,34934,036,936

During 1935–36 the Mangahao-Waikaremoana system which had previously not shown a figure for power-house buildings, &c., transferred in all £233,862 to the Power-house Account. This transfer accounts for the large figure shown under power-house buildings, &c., as being expended during 1935–30, and for the credits shown under land, generating plant, and miscellaneous.

It should be noted that the capital-outlay figures no longer include the outlay in stocks of materials and capital invested in trading departments.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The following statement of assets and liabilities summarizes the financial position of the industry, in addition to setting out fully the state of reserves and invested funds:—

Assets.Liabilities
 ££ £
Capital expenditure34,036,936 Capital raised29,901,082
Less amounts written off, Ac.1,302,071Less repaid718,219
 32,734,865Balance owing29,182,863
Stocks, trading departments, and rolling-stock850,990Other liabilities (including sundry creditors)836,161
Reserve funds accrued (invested outside the undertakings)—Reserves—
Sinking fund reserve3,081,900
Sinking funds2,787,647Depreciation reserve3,494,594
Depreciation funds796,179Renewal fund reserve507,189
Renewal and other funds570,614Accident fund reserves43,831
Cash in hand and bank, sundry debtors2,164,512Other special reserves1,511,167
£39,904,807General reserve719,500
Credit balance, Revenue Account527,542
 £39,904,807

POWER PLANT.

Particulars relating to the power plant in use during the year ended 31st March, 1936, are set out hereunder:—

Source of Power.Main Plant.Standby Plant.Total.
 No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.
Steam-engines11,2503384,2823485,532
Water-turbines101382,439153,834116386,273
Gas-engines175102,139112,214
Oil-engines122,1613320,8454523,006

UNITS.

The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. It. should be noted that the figure are inclusive of bulk sales.

year ended 31st March.Units (000 omitted).
Generated.Purchased.Total.Sold.Lost in Transmission, &c.
1932787,650455,3191,242,9691,072,346170,623
1933831,697602,6331,434,3301,242,274192,056
1934857,806630,7151,488,5211,301,191187,330
1935916,302672,9401,589,2421,390,977198,265
19301,031,699731,6021,763,3011,548,956214,345

REVENUE.

Revenue is derived chiefly from sale of energy, and in 1935–36 this source was responsible for 97 per cent, of the total. Some local authorities supplement revenue by the levying of rates, and in 1935–36 this policy resulted in £44,633 being added to revenue. The following table sets out the revenue of all stations:—

Year ended 31st March.Sale of Energy.Profits, Sale of Apparatus.Miscellaneous.Interest.Rates.Total.
 ££££££
19324,180,5197,53277,44527,52669,4454,362,407
19334,308,8079,077139,32023,93060,4014,541,535
19344,319,2309,12867,25819,75269,9154,485,283
19354,490,2239,67363,16120,61856,7874,640,462
19364,726,97012,53666,30017,72144,6334,868,160

EXPENDITURE.

A study of the expenditure figures immediately reveals that overhead costs, comprising management expenses and capital charges, are considerably greater than prime costs, which may be taken as the operating-expenses. During the year ended 31st March, 1936, of the total expenditure recorded (£4,353,445), 59 per cent, represented overhead expenses, while operating-expenses or prime costs stood at 41 per cent. It is apparent from these figures that the actual output of electrical energy can be greatly increased for a relatively small additional cost.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure:—

EXPENDITURE.

Item.Year ended 31st March.
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
Operating Expenditure.
 £££££
Cost of power734,845907,264942,536985,6961,056,906
Cost of generation102,00777,78885,49690,32580,949
Fuel216,11626,33815,74610,42311,540
Stores13,2454,2423,7513,6134,400
Repairs69,71255,25231,48532,54443,983
Standby plant55,587131,64621,49719,35437,933
Cost of transmission60,22757,75667,49174,62681,618
Cost of distribution394,573388,389369,057402,047463,316
Public (street) lighting21,82521,53827,26530,54724,726
Totals1,668,1371,670,2131,564,3241,649,1751,805,371
Miscellaneous Expenditure.
 £££££
Cost of management254,158250,500253,479271,124308,640
Insurance48,79239,30919,53019,33718,897
Losses from trading2,7153,5553,0861,5685,290
Other expenditure61,38261,35577,316110,52161,616
Totals367,047354,719353,411402,550394,443
Capital Charges.
Interest1,324,5041,456,2571,366,8251,325,2231,372,115
Sinking fund284,827271,166261,692284,711235,071
Depreciation reserve334,194322,591289,229401,359411,413
Loan repayment..65,40631,73847,85873,013
Exchange..37,30258,89016,46662,019
Totals1,943,5252,152,7222,008,3742,075,6172,153,631
Grand totals3,978,7094,177,6543,926,1094,127,3424,353,445

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold is given hereunder:—

Year ended 31st March.
1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
 d.d.d.d.d.
Operating-expenses0·370·320·290·280·28
Capital charges and miscellaneous expenses0·520·490·430·430·39
Totals0·890·810·720·710·67

APPROPRIATION OF SURPLUS.

The following table shows the appropriations of net surplus for years ended 31st March:—

1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
 £££££
Renewal Fund65,17359,48875,11348,19518,782
Reserve Fund128,19456,510101,68990,05915,099
Other211,224238,399239,454203,396225,624
Totals404,591354,397416,256341,650259,505

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER IN USE.

The following table shows the hydro-electric horse-power actually in use in the various districts at the 31st March in each of the last five years. The figures cover all hydro-plants, whether main or standby, exceeding one horse-power with the exception of plants not exceeding six horse-power used exclusively for farming purposes:—

District.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.
* Due to exclusion of Arapuni plant during temporary close-down.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland North2,7992,8393,1883,1883,126
Auckland7,1043493,1883,1883,126
Auckland South16,447½*118,452118,445118,445118,445
Gisborne56,32946,33146,30646,27956,279
Hawke's Bay56,32946,33146,30646,27956,279
Taranaki North10,880½10,46210,43910,43912,796
Taranaki1,3001,3001,4851,4951,495
Wellington North32,85343,08643,07343,07133,070½
Wellington1,5471,5471,5401,5401,530
Nelson and Marlborough2,4732,4732,471½2,8272,777
Westland5,2568,9069,1108,9979,396
Canterbury51,37749,34449,31749,33859,803
Canterbury South51,37749,34449,31749,33859,803
Otago26,065½31,169½31,34293,966½87,566½
Southland14,753½12,45012,457½12,493½13,401½
Totals229,185328,708½329,174392,079399,685½

The following table gives an analysis of the purposes for which plants were generating power as at the 31st March, 1936:—

District.Mining.Electric Supply.Flax-mills.Sawmills.Flour-mills.Dairying.Construction Works.Freezing-works.Paper-millsMiscellaneous.Totals.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland N.1492,920..15......4..383,126
Auckland1492,920..15......4..383,126
Auckland South1,013117,403..17..........12118,445
Gisborne..56,267..............1256,279
Hawke's Bay..56,267..............1256,279
Taranaki North..12,400....24329..10..3312,796
Taranaki..1,415..40..........401,495
Wellington N...33,040......8......22433,070½
Wellington..1,500......30........1,530
Nelson..2,697..51..........292,777
Marlborough..2,697..51..........292,777
Westland5408,33936451..18......129,396
Canterbury..59,62426..1075......4159,803
Canterbury S...59,62426..1075......4159,803
Otago1,27084,766..7118........1,405½87,566½
Southland..10,793½8........1,2001.400..13,401½
Totals2,972391,164½70581249390..1,2141,4001,645399,685½

The figures shown in the above table do not. of course, indicate the purposes for which hydro-electric power was used, since by far the greatest proportion of the total horse-power used in industry would be drawn from the electric-supply stations and not generated in separate plants.

Chapter 63. SECTION XLV.—MISCELLANEOUS.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

THE Public Trust Office is designed mainly to afford, at low rates of commission, a secure and convenient recourse in any case where a person residing either in New Zealand or abroad desires to draw a will, form a trust, or appoint an executor, trustee, agent, or attorney in the Dominion. The Office aims also to relieve those who for various reasons may be unable or unwilling to commence or continue the administration of trust property to which they may have been appointed.

The Public Trust Office commenced operations in 1873, at the end of which year 257 estates, of a total value of £17,000, were being administered by the Office. Since then there has been a practically continuous increase in both number and value of estates administered, the records at 31st March, 1936, showing 19,123 estates of a value of £60,660,310.

Year ended 31st March.Total Value of Estates in Office, including Unrealized Assets.Funds at Credit of Estates and Accounts.
 ££
192741,043,52326,485,917
192844,155,54828,485,442
192948,334,79031,043,172
193053,049,43734,049,290
193157,527,26336,488,434
193259,132,51236,859,518
193359,757,44936,815,941
193460,760,49337,155,883
193560,706,01636,666,196
193660,660,31036,500,511

The slight decline in the past two years is due to operations connected with conversion of local bodies' loans, and the limited extent to which, under the prevailing financial conditions, moneys were accepted by the Public Trustee for investment on investment agency in the Common Fund, the amount held under this latter heading being substantially reduced by the repayment of the investment agencies on maturity.

New estates which came into the Office during the year ended 31st March, 1936, numbered 2,719, and represented a value of £6,675,965. The classification of these and of the estates under administration at 31st March, 1936, is as follows:—

——New Estates during 1935–36.Estates under Administration at 31st March, 1936.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
 £ £
Wills estates1,2483,195,8546,59119,159,696
Trust estates223564,9542,4777,852,592
Intestate estates429309,2282,4371,562,521
Mental patients' estates430446,6862,2152,548,191
Miscellaneous estates3892,159,2435,40329,537,310
Totals2,7196,675,96519,12360,660,310

Testators and other clients appointing the Public Trustee their executor or trustee may direct investment of their funds either in the Common Fund of the Office or outside of the Common Fund. In the former case the investments are not ear-marked to the estate, but are guaranteed by the State. Interest, which is at such rate as is fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council, accrues from the date the moneys reach the Office, and is free of all commission and other charges.

In the case of special investment outside the Common Fund, the investments belong to the estate, but there is no State guarantee, and (subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee) any loss falls on the estate. Commission is charged on the interest collected.

In general, investment in the Common Fund is preferred by clients, the safety of such investment being an important consideration. The Common Fund at 31st March, 1936, held moneys to the total of £24,480,143.

The total amount invested by the Public Trust Office as at 31st March, 1936, on behalf of the estates and funds under administration was £35,324,321.

During the year ended 31st March, 1936, 4,014 wills were deposited with the Public Trustee, and 1,876 were withdrawn on account of the death of the testator or for other reasons, the net increase for the year being 2,138. The number of wills on deposit at the 31st March, 1916, was 11,385; by 1926 it had increased to 48,957; while at 31st March, 1936, it had risen to 85,878.

In addition to preparing wills in the first instance, the Office affords its clients special facilities for the revision of existing wills to provide for changes desired by them. During 1935–36 3,497 wills held on behalf of testators were so revised.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

For thirty years following the enactment of the Companies Act of 1903, no comprehensive revision of statute law relating to companies was made in New Zealand, and the essential provisions of company law remained substantially unaltered. In 1930 the Attorney-General appointed an advisory committee, including representatives of the business community, and of the professions of law and accountancy, to act with the Law Draftsman in framing a new measure, which, in the form of the Companies Act, 1933, came into force on 1st April, 1934. In great part the measure is an adaptation of the Imperial Act of 1929 to suit the special conditions of Now Zealand, and harmonizes also with similar measures already passed or in hand in Australian States.

A noteworthy step in the history of company legislation was taken by the Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 1934–35, which provided machinery for the incorporation of the holders of bonds issued by certain afforestation and other companies.

The position of certain investment companies in 1934 led to the appointment of a Commission of Inquiry and the passing of a novel series of legislative enactments designed to investigate their affairs and to protect the investors. The Acts passed comprised the Companies (Special Investigations) Act, 1934; the Companies (Special Liquidations) Act, 1934–35; and the Companies (Temporary Receivership) Act, 1935.

During the year ended 31st December, 1935, 810 joint-stock companies were registered, with a total nominal capital of £24,238,018. In the following table these companies are classified according to the amount of their nominal capital.

Amount.Private Companies.Public Companies.Overseas Companies.
Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
 £ £ £
Under £1,000285122,745........
£1,000 and under £2,000167197,28345,000....
£2,000 and under £3,00091194,7421225,900....
£3,000 and under £4,00032100,17526,500....
£4,000 and under £5,0001978,100521,000....
£5,000 and under £6,00027137,0101470,000210,000
£6,000 and under £7,000954,50016,000....
£7,000 and under £8,000964,100535,500....
£8,000 and under £9,000540,750........
£9,000 and under £10,000....19,000....
£10,000 and under £15,00023251,50022233,000220,000
£15,000 and under £20,000465,0009139,500115,000
£20,000 and under £50,00010254,37215390,5004125,000
£50,000 and over4492,0001612,870,141108,203,700
Totals6852,052,27710613,812,041198,373,700

The next table gives figures of total registrations during each of the last three years, classified according to amount of nominal capital.

Amount.1933.1934.1935.
Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
 £ £ £
No fixed capital6..7......
Under £1,000327125,970280110,117285122,745
£1,000 and under £2,000171203,904153182,768171202,283
£2,000 and under £3,00089193,83885185,710103220,642
£3,000 and under £4,00041127,65035109,97034106,675
£4,000 and under £5,0002393,1721770,7992499,100
£5,000 and under £6,00038190,50058291,80043217,010
£6,000 and under £7,0001272,8251591,9811060,500
£7,000 and under £8,000642,700751,0401499,600
£8,000 and under £9,000324,000649,416540,750
£9,000 and under £10,000545,500654,37519,000
£10,000 and under £15,00040420,90045480,50047504,500
£15,000 and under £20,00015237,50014221,00014219,500
£20,000 and under £50,000371,012,940411,145,00029769,872
£50,000 and over174,509,600164197,694,6633021,565,841
Totals8307,300,999933200,739,13981024,238,018

In comparing one year with another, as in the following table, it should not be overlooked that re-registrations on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons are included. Such re-registrations may have a considerable effect on the year's total, when large companies are concerned.

Year.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
* See letterpress.
 £
19162584,072,803
19172615,367,201
19182003,055,351
19193285,942,605
19205019,563,933
19213373,498,208
192241713,125,494
192350213,006,085
192456521,367,310
192562114,760,398
192665510,748,231
19276988,701,808
192873610,984,907
192990312,472,057
19308936,702,675
19317958,283,581
19328126,865,769
19338307,300,999
1934933200,739,139*
193581024,238,018

The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of £193,023,363) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were re-registered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act, 1933.

TOTAL COMPANIES ON REGISTER.

The tables which follow, the result of a special compilation, show the number and capita] of all companies on the register at 31st December, 1932. In the case of public companies, the information was obtained from the statutory returns furnished annually by each public company to the Registrar of Companies, and includes details of the nominal, subscribed, and paid-up capital, and also of the amount of mortgages registered under the Companies Act. As regards private companies, the information is less complete, there being no annual return as in the case of public companies. On the registration of a private company, however, it is necessary that all the capital be subscribed for in accordance with the Act, so that, except in cases where the capital has been subsequently increased by resolution, the subscribed capital is identical with the nominal capital. The paid-up and loan capital, as explained later, is capable of approximate estimation.

PUBLIC COMPANIES ON REGISTER, 31ST DECEMBER,1932.

Amount of Nominal Capital.Number.Nominal Capital.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Mortgages under Companies Act.
 ££££
Under £1,0008639,86730,86927,21736,484
£1,000 and under £2,00083101,37968,32657,53628,852
£2,000 and under £3,000127271,351192,028163,18863,969
£3,000 and under £4,00084258,275185,874152,90050,264
£4,000 and under £5,00045185,521133,652108,71467,605
£5,000 and under £6,000117587,900379,013318,181158,155
£6,000 and under £7,00040241,777172,595141,466166,265
£7,000 and under £8,00034244,500172,210137,05519,637
£8,000 and under £9,00042339,450263,677216,253101,250
£9,000 and under £10,000654,00044,92134,2616,000
£10,000 and under £15,0001962,094,3211,445,7131,174,715472,406
£15,000 and under £20,000821,268,422960,580828,330259,712
£20,000 and under £50,0003599,916,3127,280,0376,117,0712,238,446
£50,000 and under £100,00019911,711,9598,614,2297,315,9552,564,822
£100,000 and over23270,238,54451,078,01242,314,0609,219,297
Totals, 31st December, 19321,73297,553,57871,021,73659,106,90215,453,164
Totals, 31st December, 19261,63089,544,85858,807,51949,982,59316,181,126

The total capital employed by the 1,732 public companies on the register at the 31st December, 1932, amounted to £74,560,066, as compared with £66,163,719 for 1,630 companies at the date of the previous tabulation (31st December, 1926). In regard to the mortgages included in the foregoing amounts, it should be noted that complete accuracy is impossible, owing to the fact that many of the mortgages are to secure current accounts which vary from time to time, Moreover, information regarding bank overdrafts and other accommodation not requiring registration is not available.

PRIVATE COMPANIES ON REGISTER, 31ST DECEMBER,1932.

Amount of Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
 £
Under £1,0001,129488,590
£1,000 and under £2,0001,0211,250,409
£2,000 and under £3,0007361,594,938
£3,000 and under £4,0004951,556,926
£4,000 and under £5,0003141,307,221
£5,000 and under £6,0004592,319,577
£6,000 and under £7,0002541,558,212
£7,000 and under £8,0001501,081,421
£8,000 and under £9,000121982,854
£9,000 and under £10,00071647,080
£10,000 and under £15,0005515,974,744
£15,000 and under £20,0002013,194,469
£20,000 and under £50,00044711,783,657
£50,000 and under £100,000845,074,298
£100,000 and over509,548,710
Totals, 31st December, 19326,08348,363,106
Totals, 31st December, 19263,43936,060,343

Assuming that the subscribed capital of private companies is equivalent to the nominal capital, and that the ratio of subscribed capital to paid-up capital obtaining in the case of private companies engaged in manufacturing industries (this information being available from the annual returns of factory production) is constant throughout all private companies, the total paid-up capital of all private companies may be put down as approximately £44,800,000. Making a similar assumption in regard to the ratio of mortgages to paid-up capital, the mortgages of all private companies total about £9,800,000, which, added to the paid-up capital, gives a total working capital of £54,600,000, compared with £41,600,000 in 1926. For both public and private companies the total working capital is thus estimated at approximately £129,000,1*00, the corresponding figure for 1926 being £108,000,000.

The figures given above in respect of companies on the register in December, 1932, do not include foreign companies, regarding which information is extremely scanty, only the total nominal capital being recorded with the Registrar of Companies. At the end of 1932 there were 203 foreign companies on the register, with a total nominal capital of £143,800,000, this being a small decrease on the 1926 total of £145,300,000 (205 companies). This capital, however, gives no indication whatever as to the amount of overseas capital employed in the Dominion, which, nevertheless, must be only a small proportion of the totals shown.

In addition to the foregoing there were at the end of 1932 41 companies limited by guarantee, 16 unlimited companies, 33 rural intermediate credit associations, and 11 companies of a miscellaneous character.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.

There were 1,730 applications for letters patent during 1935, 887 of these being filed with provisional specifications, and 843 with complete specifications. Patent fees for the year amounted to £9,256.

The total number of applications received up to the 31st December, 1935, was 75,402, and the patents in force in New Zealand at that date numbered 7,758. The number of patent agents on the register was 17.

In the following table are shown the countries of residence of persons who applied for patents in New Zealand during the last three years. Owing to applications being received from joint applicants resident in different countries, also from applicants giving two addresses, the figures usually total more than the actual number of applications received.

Country.1933.1934.1935.
New Zealand1,009921888
Great Britain320367351
Australia182207205
United States7079105
Germany124112103
Netherlands73134
France121413
Sweden10108
Denmark476
Union of South Africa....5
Canada644
Switzerland381
Italy41..
Austria41..
All other countries10137
Totals1,7651,7751,730

A large number of the applications for patents deal with telephony and telegraphy, the figures for 1935 and 1934 being 319 and 306 respectively. These show a considerable increase on the average yearly number for the quinquennium 1929–33 (236).

The total number of applications during 1935 in respect of trade-marks was 943, and the fees received totalled £3,387. Of the total applications (remarks above regarding joint applicants are applicable here also), 447 were made by residents of New Zealand, 218 came from Great Britain, 160 from Australia, 77 from the United States, 21 from Germany, and 2 from Italy.

The number of applications for registration of designs totalled 185, and the fees received for the year were £153.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade-marks and designs in each of the last ten years:—

Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.
19262,1371,143204
19272,0521,325145
19282,0701,201163
19292,2511,359125
19302,1031,265169
19312,065999151
19321,846925164
19331,762814143
19341,766915146
19351,730943185

For the year 1935 the total receipts of the Patent Office were £12,869 and the payments £4,477, leaving a surplus of £8,392 compared with £7,667 in 1934.

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.

The Inspection of Machinery Act makes provision for the inspection of steam boilers, digesters, other steam-pressure vessels, and air-receivers; of hydraulic, electric, and other lifts; of all types of power-driven cranes and power-driven machinery on land; and of machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled. Nothing in the Act applies to any machinery driven by manual or animal power, or to any machinery the motive power of which does not exceed one horse-power. Machinery which is used exclusively for farming purposes and does not exceed six horsepower is exempt from annual inspection.

Boilers, pressure-vessels, air-receivers, lifts, and cranes are required to be of approved design and workmanship, and the moving parts of machinery to be adequately guarded.

The Act provides that where loss of life or serious bodily injury to any person occurs by reason of the explosion of a boiler or as a result of an accident caused by machinery, the explosion or accident must be reported by the owner, and the cause investigate! by an Inspector of Machinery. There were no boiler explosions during the year. The number of accidents reported as caused by machinery were: Fatal, 4; non-fatal, 62: total, 66.

The Act also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Working Railways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up by the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Inspector of Machinery.

Inspections of boilers and machinery during the year ended 31st March, 1936, numbered 86,577, made up as follows:—

Boiler inspections—
Stationary, portable, and traction boilers4,997
Steam-pressure vessels3,251
Air-receivers761
Total boilers9,009
Machinery inspections—
Lifts3,116
Cranes395
Hoists1,308
Machines driven by steam power12,329
Machines not driven by steam power60,253
Electric-power supply station units167
Total machinery77,568
Grand total86,577

In 1935–36 new boilers to the number of 425, representing an aggregate of 1,594 horse-power, were inspected and tested before being used. Of these 252, of a total horse-power of 1,064, had been made in New Zealand, the others being imported.

During the year ended 31st March, 1936, 308 certificates were issued to land engineers, engine-drivers, and electric-tram drivers. At examinations during the year 408 candidates sat, 274 being successful.

Revenue and expenditure in connection with inspection of machinery for the past five years have been as follows:—

——1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
Revenue—£££££
Inspection fees, &c.22,80218,98119,53019,33219,566
Examination fees, &c.384401313359423
Totals23,18619,38219,84319,69119,989
Expenditure26,14117,14416,93317,56518,349

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

Complete statistics covering all phases of production are not available; and, in compiling the following statistics of value of production, estimates of production have been made in several cases where direct data are not available. Since statistical information as to production in each of the major productive activities is collected by the Census and Statistics Department, the items for which estimates must be made are, with the exception of one group of commodities, relatively unimportant. Although the value of products made in the home—e.g., home-made clothing, jams, kitchen-garden products, &c.—must, in the aggregate, account for a considerable annual value, it is quite impossible to estimate with any reasonable degree of accuracy the value of such production; which is, on this account, omitted from the value of production statistics.

The general principle followed in assessing values has been to value products as near as possible to the actual point of production. For example, live-stock is valued at saleyard prices, while values at the factory are used in the case of factory products. In some cases, however, reliable data as to values at or near the point of production cannot be obtained; and in these cases export valuations or wholesale price quotations have been used in assessing values. Although absolute uniformity of treatment in the basis of valuation as between different commodities has not been possible, the method of valuation of each individual item has been the same for each year throughout the period covered. The statistics thus afford a fairly accurate measure of fluctuations in the value of production from year to year, although the absolute figures for any individual year must be regarded as approximate only.

Since the basis of valuation is (as far as possible) at the point of production, transport costs are only pertly represented in the values shown, while the accretions to the value of commodities caused by the services of retailers and other distributors of finished products are not included in the statistics.

In classifying the value of production into the principal groups care has been taken to avoid duplication, products of one group which constitute the raw material of another group being excluded from the statistics. For example, the gross value of agricultural products in 1934–35 is estimated at £27·2 millions; bat, as the major part of this was utilized for the purpose of adding value to live-stock, the net value only (£7·9 million) is classified under the heading “Agricultural”; since live-stock and live-stock products are included in the next two groups.

Products have been classified into the groups to which they most logically belong from a production point of view; butter and cheese, for example, being classified under “ Dairying, Poultry, and Bees,” and not as factory products. The figure shown under the heading “Factory Production” is the aggregate value added to materials by the process of manufacture, excluding industries which are already included in other groups (e.g., butter and cheese-making, meat-freezing, fish-curing, and sawmilling). The total output of factory industries is included in cases where the materials are produced in New Zealand and are not already included as production in some other group.

The series of annual estimates of value of production have been revised back to the year 1900–01. It should be understood that all values are in terms of New Zealand currency, which since the latter portion of 1929–30 has depreciated in terms of sterling.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

Year.AgriculturalPastoral.Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.Mining.Fisheries.Forestry.Factory.Building and Miscellaneous.Total.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
1900–014·112·23·72·90·12·05·43·533·9
1905–064·317·35·34·00·12·66·85·245·6
1910–114·020·57·44·00·22·88·15·852·8
1915–167·631·211·53·70·31·99·75·371·2
1916–176·331·412·73·30·22·410·65·272·1
1917–187·332·913·82·80·22·611·55·376·4
1918–198·037·614·83·80·32·612·65·985·6
1919–208·837·218·04·10·43·115·16·493·1
1920–218·830·226·23·00·44·618·67·699·4
1921–229·528·821·83·20·54·517·28·293·7
1922–238·131·425·23·10·44·518·09·7100·4
1923–247·133·224·63·40·54·719·211·4104·1
1924–258·144·126·23·50·54·820·811·9119·9
1925–268·432·925·23·60·64·722·313·1110·8
1926–278·832·724·73·90·54·023·013·9111·5
1927–289·639·327·24·10·53·522·813·1120·1
1928–299·943·129·34·00·53·424·012·4120·6
1929–309·136·128·44·10·63·625·613·4120·9
1930–318·824·622·24·00·52·923·311·397·6
1931–328·019·321·93·70·41·718·610·083·6
1932–338·920·421·23·50·41·717·710·083·8
1933–348·732·122·53·60·42·018·610·998·8
1934–357·928·323·03·80·42·620·710·397·0

From the figures of total value of production it is possible, by taking into account the increase of population and the movement of prices, to compile a series of index numbers showing the relative volume of production. The index number of producers' prices used in this compilation is obtained by combining the index number of wholesale prices of locally produced commodities with the index number of export prices. The recent compilation of a series of export-prices index numbers for Juno years has made possible the construction of producers' prices index numbers on a more satisfactory basis than has hitherto been possible. The index numbers of the volume of production have accordingly been recomputed in the light of the improved data now available. The figures are given in detail in the next table.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION.

Year.Mean Population, Year ended 30th June.Value of Production.Index Numbers of Value of Production (1928–29 = 1000).Index Number of Producers' Prices (1928–29 = 1000).Index Numbers of Volume of Production (1928–29-1000).
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 £m.£ 
1900–01812,01033·941·72684824655761037
1905–06929,06645·649·1360568602598944
1910–111,050,01452·850·3417582601694968
1915–161,150,37271·261·9562716823683870
1916–171,148,57872·162·8570726909627799
1917–181,151,23576·466·4603768979616784
1918–191,174,62885·672·96768431027658821
1919–201,217,15093·176·57358841088676813
1920–211,259,86999·478·97859121105710825
1921–221,291,41393·772·6740839997742842
1922–231,317,154100·476·2793881948836929
1923–241,339,786104·177·78228981029799873
1924–251,367,978119·987·694710131111852912
1925–261,399,578110·879·28759161016861902
1926–271,427,455111·578·1881903951926950
1927–281,447,391120·183·0949960987961973
1928–291,464,164126·686·510001000100010001000
1929–301,482,235120·981·695594390710531040
1930–311,503,29997·664·97717507631010983
1931–321,520,35783·655·0660636690957922
1932–331,532,22983·854·76626326541012966
1933–341,544,45098·864·078074072610741019
1934–351,555,58997·062·47667217391037976

The value of production for the year 1934–35 was in the aggregate £1,800,000, or 2 per cent., lower than in the 1933–34 production season. Agricultural production declined by £800,000, or 9 per cent., an exceptionally dry season materially affecting the yield of field crops, while orchard production also suffered a setback. As is normal in years of short harvests, the prices of agricultural produce were, in the main, much in advance of the prices that were ruling in the previous year. This factor tended to offset to a large extent the effects of the lowered yields on the aggregate value of crop production. Decreases in yields of the main crops were general, the wheat harvest, for example, being a very poor one, declining from 9,000,000 bushels in 1933–34 to 5,900,000 bushels in 1934–35. A notable exception, however, was that the harvest of grass-seed was outstandingly good.

The fall in the value of pastoral production is due to (1) a considerable setback in prices realized for wool as compared with the satisfactory prices at the 1933–34 sales, and (2) the exceptionally dry weather conditions which affected the growth of wool, resulting in a decline in the quantum of wool produced. The meat-production returns were appreciably higher than in 1933–34, counteracting to a certain extent the effect of the drop in wool realizations on the aggregate value of pastoral production.

Dairy production—which accounts for approximately 90 per cent, of the aggregate value shown under the heading “Dairying, poultry, bees”—recorded a decrease in quantity in 1934–35, due to butterfat production being affected by the dry season. Prices obtained for New Zealand dairy-produce in overseas and local markets were, however, definitely above the abnormally low prices ruling during the previous season, with the result that the aggregate value of production for this group as a whole was slightly higher than in 1933–34.

The value of mining production was £200,000 higher than in 1933–34.

For the second year in succession the value of forestry production shows an upward movement, rising from £1,700,000 in 1932–33 to £2,000,000 in 1933–34 and to £2,600,000 in 1934–35. A recovery in building activity is chiefly responsible for the increase. The value of factory production records a satisfactory increase of £2,100,000, while the value of building and miscellaneous activities declined by £600,000.

At the time of going to press, all data necessary for the computation of the value of production for the year 1935–36 have not been collated. Certain groups have, however, been completed and they are as follows: Agricultural production, £9,200,000, representing an increase of £1,300,000 over the 1934–35 figure, due principally to an improved harvest for wheat and oats and to grass-seed crops; pastoral production, £34,500,000, recording a substantial increase of £6,200,000 over the previous year's result, and due in the main to the rise in wool and cattle prices; and mining production, £4,000,000, or £200,000 higher than in 1934–35. Though the dairying, poultry, and bees group is not yet completed, it may safely be assumed that this group will be appreciably higher than for 1934–35, judging by the value of dairy-produce exported during the year ended 30th June, 1936.

GENERAL ELECTIONS.

The 1935 general election of parliamentary representatives was held in November of that year—for Maori electorates on the 26th, and for European electorates on the 27th. Dealing with the latter only, it is found that out of a total roll number of 919.79S some S34.682 (90·75 per cent.) exercised their votes. A summary for the general elections of 1928, 1931, and 1935, is as follows:—

 19281931.1935.
Number of votes recorded for candidates elected365,116382,562442,716
Number of votes recorded for candidates defeated370,275310,510385,079
Number of informal votes8,3004,9556,887
Total number of electors who voted at the election743,691698,027834,682
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total valid votes recorded49·6555·2053·48
Total number of electors on roll (where contest)844,633838,344919.798
Number of districts where no contest..4..
Percentage of electors on roll who voted88·0583·2690·75
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total number of electors on roll43·2245·6348·13
Number of seamen's rights exercised1,7718371,229
Number of electors voting as absent voters38,88731,16038,776
Number of electors exercising postal votes7,9776,9569,796

The relative interest in the poll evinced by men and women may be measured by the percentage of votes recorded to the number on the roll—viz., men 92·02 per cent, and women 89·46 per cent, in 1935, the 1931 figures being 84·51 and 81·99 respectively.

A statement of the voting in individual electorates in 1935 is given.

RESULTS OF GENERAL ELECTION, 1935.

Electoral District and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.Number of Electors on Roll.Population at Census, 1936.
Auckland Central—
Dodd1,573  
Lundon284  
Mullenger264  
Parry6,871  
Stanley179  
informal177  
 9,34810,66717,144
Auckland East
Burton3,803  
Donald ..1.649  
Lamont218  
Schramm6,140  
Informal99  
 11,90913,60119,961
Auckland Suburbs
Bishop2,853  
Clark781  
Mason7,749  
Informal88  
 11,47112,61121,991
Auckland West
Govan792  
Savage8,567  
Stallworthy2,387  
Informal131  
 11,87713,26318,490
Aron
Sullivan8,955  
Walker3,545  
Informal93  
 12,59314,15322,585
Awarua
Doyle2,701  
Hargest3,651  
McIntyre301  
Niederer2,182  
Informal84  
 8,9199,53416,851
Bay of Islands
Cameron3,883  
Hornblow190  
Kennedy28  
Rushworth6,004  
Informal95  
 10,20011,21519,820
Bay of Plenty   
Harker1,678  
Hultquist3,519  
Merry2,964  
Informal62  
 8,2239,10815,773
Buller—
Powell2,087  
Webb6,809  
Informal213  
 9,10910,20317,190
Central Otago
Bodkin5,994  
Edie4,162  
McNaught472  
Informal58  
 10,68611,59319,100

RESULTS OF GENERAL ELECTION,1935—continued.

Electoral District and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.Number of Electors on Roll.Population at Census, 1936.
Chalmers
Ansell3,525  
Campbell4,596  
Fraser501  
Informal33  
 8,6559,68016,663
Christchurch East
Ahlfeld422  
Armstrong8,299  
Richardson2,571  
Informal129  
 11,42112,94720,349
Christchurch North
Dennehy2,018  
Holland6,174  
Macfarlane5,203  
Informal63  
 13,45814,68322,102
Christchurch South
Evans861  
Howard8,464  
Milliken2,879  
Informal82  
 12,28613,70422,137
Clutha
Cox3,515  
Roy5,445  
Informal105  
 9,0659,73015,754
Dunedin Central
Cameron4,800  
Neilson6,529  
Wren457  
Informal73  
 11,85912.96119,925
Dunedin North
Black1,073  
Falconer4,429  
Munro6,097  
Informal67  
 11,66612,62418,812
Dunedin South
Jones7,715  
Sidey4,337  
Informal46  
 12,09813,19019,958
Dunedin West
McMillan5,886  
Stewart5,200  
Informal44  
 11,13012,16317,615
Eden—
Anderton5,946  
Clarke3,458  
Pickering155  
Stallworthy3,481  
Informal80  
 13,12014,54619,674
Egmont
Ross2,410  
Wilkinson5,582  
Informal93  
 8,0859,23616,875
Franklin
Fyers368  
Massey4,118  
Sexton4,803  
Informal57  
 9,34610,20317,790
Gisborne
Coleman6,230  
Lysnar4,409  
Informal79  
 10,71812,05519,222
Grey Lynn
Arthur1,290  
Lee9,828  
Smith210  
Wildish1,816  
Informal379  
 13,52314,74122,326
Hamilton
Barrell5,532  
Caro2,479  
Young4,141  
Informal59  
 12,21113,52522,147
Hauraki
Massey4,781  
Petrie5,325  
Rickards1,629  
Informal75  
 11,81013,09022,006
Hawke's Bay
Campbell5,212  
Cullen6,222  
Informal69  
 11,50312,78421,128
Hurunui
Davie3,694  
Duff1,362  
Forbes4,897  
Informal67  
 10,02011,00618,547
Hutt—
Jacobson4,116  
Nash11,873  
Informal243  
 16,23217,78829,803
Invercargill
Denham4,241  
McChesney2,595  
Miller2,708  
Reed3,895  
Informal90  
 13,52914,19423,036
Kaiapoi
 Hawke3,339  
 McLachlan2,021  
 Williams4,763  
  Informal67  
 10,19011,48119,263
Kaipara   
 Caughley528  
 Coates4,738  
 Grounds4,436  
  Informal141  
 9,84310,81818,679
Lyttelton
 Marshall4,190  
 McCombs6,965  
 Riseley709  
  Informal71  
 11,93513,99721,024
Manawatu
 Closey1,271  
 Hornblow618  
 Hunter2,958  
 Linklater2,929  
 Oram676  
  Informal68  
 8,5209,32715,658
Manukau
 Jordan9,345  
 Thornley1,020  
 Wily2,943  
  Informal76  
 13,38414,82122,993
Marsden
 Barclay5,215  
 Johns602  
 Jounneaux163  
 Murdoch4,868  
  Informal60  
 10,90811,84720,029
Masterton
 Hislop2,688  
 Robertson3,532  
 Sykes3,207  
  Informal29  
 9,45610,17216,726
Mataura
 Golden3,085  
 McDougall4,743  
 Newman1,444  
  Informal51  
 9,32310,12317,435
Mid-Canterbury
 Carr3,960  
 Herring4,422  
 Woods1,861  
  Informal50  
 10,29310,91618,490
Motueka
 Holyoake5,115  
 York4,835  
  Informal86  
 10,03610,82219,073
Napier
 Barnard7,290  
 Jacobsen396  
 Logan3,233  
 Wood141  
  Informal49  
 11,10911,93019,324
Nelson
 Atmore6,552  
 Everett3,942  
  Informal65  
 10,55911,29410,053
New Plymouth
 Andrews786  
 Cave676  
 Frost4,831  
 Sheat264  
 Smith5,662  
  Informal170  
 12,38913,27321,659
Oamaru
 Hill948  
 Macpherson4,154  
 Nordmeyer5,296  
  Informal136  
 10,53411,25717,862
Oroua
 Cobbe4,716  
 Fair1,620  
 Oliver2,383  
  Informal35  
 8,7549,72116,088
Otaki
 Appleton1,060  
 Bothamley794  
 Lowry4,845  
 Monk2,996  
  Informal67  
 9,76210,83919,940
Pahiatua
 Gower3,074  
 McGhie1,308  
 Ransom4,249  
  Informal55  
 8,6869,45515,800
Palmerston
 Hodgens4,730  
 Mansford4,615  
 Nash4,380  
  Informal58  
 13,78315,24924,679
Parnell
 Endean5,758  
 Herdman3,334  
 Jordan507  
 Osborne5,028  
  Informal174  
 14,80116,17623,127
Patea
 Adams1,626  
 Dickie4,349  
 Simpson3,700  
  Informal58  
 9,73310,48817,930
Raglan
 Hampton96  
 Martin5,148  
 Potter581  
 Reid3,453  
  Informal97  
 9,37510,33418,157
Rangitikei
 Crawford1,679  
 Stuart3,329  
 Wilson4,236  
  Informal44  
 9,28810,20216,825
Riccarton
 Colechin1,342  
 Dunn1,566  
 Kyle5,123  
 Thurston3,984  
  Informal103  
 12,11813,12322,306
Roskill
 Clavis698  
 Fleming4,705  
 Jamieson98  
 Potter492  
 Richards8,728  
  Informal121  
 14,84216,24225,212
Rotorua
 Clinkard2,784  
 Corbin223  
 Doidge3,442  
 Moncur4,894  
  Informal65  
 11,40812,87023,365
Stratford
 Finnerty538  
 Poison4,434  
 Skoglund4,095  
  Informal65  
 9,13210,14916,911
Tauranga
 Burnett3,602  
 McFarlane806  
 Macmillan3,567  
 Polley53  
 Robinson2,243  
  Informal79  
 10,35011,49520,299
Temuka
 Burnett4,701  
 Cartwright499  
 Langford4,096  
  Informal31  
 9,32710,10016,412
Thames
 Keegan236  
 Samuel4,707  
 Thorn5,969  
  Informal80  
 10,99211,77619,136
Timaru
 Carr6,524  
 Thomas5,465  
  Informal74  
 12,06312,97821,067
Waikato
 Annett722  
 Coulter4,258  
 Lye3,474  
 Ziman1,221  
  Informal155  
 9,83011,07218,659
Waimarino
 Boles3,082  
 Langstone4,945  
 Littlewood206  
  Informal53  
 8,2868,87016,135
Waipawa
 Barker559  
 Christie3,089  
 Jull2,830  
 Ormond2,121  
  Informal48  
 8,6479,20915,800
Wairarapa
 Card3,648  
 McDonald2,033  
 Roberts3,681  
 Thomsen91  
  Informal157  
 9,61010,65517,616
Wairau
 Grace219  
 Healy3,438  
 McKenzie2,640  
 Meachen3,790  
  Informal54  
 10,14110,76317,338
Waitaki—
 Barnes4,295  
 Bitchener3,716  
 Knell625  
  Informal40  
 8,6769,21315,518
Waitemata
 Donald2,045  
 Guiniven252  
 Harris3,894  
 Lyon6,578  
  Informal195  
 12,96414,13921,310
Waitomo
 Broadfoot4,521  
 Jones2,995  
 Penniket2,341  
  Informal65  
 9,92210,82219,540
Wallace
 Edmond2,640  
 Hamilton4,674  
 Hinchey1,821  
 Rewcastle91  
  Informal54  
 9,28010,09717,433
Wanganui
 Bain1,754  
 Cotterill4,887  
 Hogan524  
 Veitch3,308  
  Informal61  
 10,53411,43418,392
Wellington Central
 Eraser8,118  
 Mason3,639  
  Informal213  
 11,97014,39221,225
Wellington East
 Duncan1,189  
 Gaudin657  
 Mazengarb4,885  
 Nicolaus433  
 Rawcliffe70  
 Semple8,208  
  Informal86  
 15,52817,50826,749
Wellington North
 Chapman5,039  
 Gilmer4,245  
 Treadwell2,266  
  Informal106  
 11,65613,84518,357
Wellington South
 Goldsmith1,849  
 McKeen8,170  
 Toogood2,111  
  Informal68  
 12,19813,91421,579
Wellington Suburbs
 Butler7,091  
 Wright8,947  
  Informal104  
 16,14218,37226,890
Westland
 O'Brien6,971  
 Young3,294  
  Informal70  
 10,33511,49119,647

MAORI REPRESENTATIVES.

The votes polled for each candidate in the tour Maori Electoral Districts at the general election of 1935 were as follows:—

Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
Eastern Maori
 Apirana Turupa Ngata5,678
 Reweti Tuhorouta Kohere406
 Tiaki Omana2,454
Total8,538
Northern Maori
 Tau Henare3,303
 Rehutai Maihi162
 Mahuika Otene90
 Paraire Karaka Paikea2,320
 Louis Wellington Parore414
 David William Taylor202
 Hemi Whautere Witehira214
Total6,705
Southern Maori
 Eruera Tihema Tirikatene362
 Thomas Kaiporohu Bragg319
 Erueti Te Whitiorongomai217
  Rio-Love 
 Tuiti Makitanara68
Total966
Western Maori
 Haami Tokouru Ratana3,433
 Herewini te Moananui Howera644
 John Atirau Asher (Tiaki Ehia)996
 Taare Patena165
 Taite te Tomo3,395
Total8,633

BY-ELECTIONS.

The only by-election held since the General Election has been that for the Manukau seat, rendered vacant by the appointment of Mr. W. J. Jordan, M.P., as High Commissioner for New Zealand in London. At the by-election held on 30th September, 1936, Mr. A. G. Osborne was elected.

LICENSING.

According to a return compiled by the Department of Justice, the following are the licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors:—

Publican's licenses1,032
Accommodation licenses192
Wholesale licenses145
Packet licenses19
New Zealand wine licenses4
Total1,392

The date of the return is nominally 1st September, 1929, but the above numbers cannot be increased, and the figures may be accepted as correct to the end of December, 1935. A further 412 conditional licenses (temporary licenses for race meetings, agricultural shows, &c.) were granted during 1929–30, the last year for which figures are available. In addition, there were (October, 1930) 46 club charters and (October, 1936) 178 wine-makers' licenses.

The proportion of licensed houses to population is steadily declining. The average number of persons to each licensed (i.e., publican's or accommodation license) house at the end of 1935 may be taken as 1,281, as compared with 1,182 in 1925, 911 in 1915, and 583 in 1905.

The annual fees payable for licenses are,—

 £
(1) For a publican's license—
      (a) Within the limits of a borough or town district40
      (b) Outside the aforesaid limits '25
(2) For a New Zealand wine license1
(3) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding20
(4) For a packet license—
      (a) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register10
      (b) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register5
(5) For a wholesale license20
(6) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding30

Fees form part of the revenue of the local body of the district in which the license was issued.

NATIONAL LICENSING POLLS.

The licensing poll of the 27th November, 1935, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the fourth at which, the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. The votes recorded for the various issues at each of the four polls referred to are as follows:—

 1922.1925.1928.1935.
For national continuance282,669299,590373,692521,167
For State purchase and control35,72756,03764,27657,499
For national prohibition300,791319,450294,453243,091

The voting in each licensing district in 1935 was as follows:—

District.For National Continuance.For State Purchase and Control.For National Prohibition.
Auckland Central6,3916882,108
Auckland East7,9439632,853
Auckland Suburbs6,8398473,529
Auckland West7,7218773,104
Avon7,7779103,665
Awarua4,8614413,524
Bay of Islands6,1778732,947
Bay of Plenty5,6906121,812
Buller6,1997402,042
Central Otago7,5025642,522
Chalmers4,9913753,158
Christchurch East7,5737642,949
Christchurch North8,2518854,149
Christchurch South7,8307943,502
Clutha4,7754383,631
Dunedin Central7,2785713,853
Dunedin North6,4546234,467
Dunedin South7,3165634,033
Dunedin West6,6995713,677
Eden7,1538454,930
Egmont5,5893502,025
Franklin5,0876903,419
Gisborne7,3516992,459
Grey Lynn8,3678734,033
Hamilton7,3378623,882
Hauraki6,9108383,881
Hawke's Bay7,8146142,912
Hurunui6,6705482,695
Hutt9,9051,4184,540
Invercargill6,8231,0725,303
Kaiapoi6,0156313,387
Kaipara5,7487723,110
Lyttelton7,4959983,251
Manawatu5,5575442,290
Manukau7,9728894,324
Marsden6,5158673,383
Masterton5,5147472,975
Mataura5,0774303,682
Mid-Canterbury6,2196063,328
Motueka7,3226691,883
Napier7,4556962,850
Nelson6,8917812,767
New Plymouth7,7648463,597
Oamaru5,2166304,466
Oroua5,7574402,450
Otaki6,2978792,430
Pahiatua5,8963532,353
Palmerston8,9107733,942
Parnell8,8171,1104,583
Patea6,3765832,640
Raglan5,9557762,493
Rangitikei6,2025702,393
Riccarton7,5788263,546
Roskill7,9199875,727
Rotorua7,4811,0342,778
Stratford6,1284892,370
Tauranga6,3638263,017
Temuka5,7064733,010
Thames6,7498933,204
Timaru7,4606753,692
Waikato6,0676372,901
Waimarino6,1587371,310
Waipawa6,0766131,870
Wairarapa6,2907502,439
Wairau6,9146112,491
Waitaki5,3694202,755
Waitemata7,7001,0593,904
Waitomo6,7329082,136
Wallace5,5174383,231
Wanganui6,649252,807
Wellington Central8,1109842,629
Wellington West9,2851,3914,612
Wellington North8,3151,0752,127
Wellington East7,5991,0193,329
Wellington South9,3911,4864,959
Westland7,3687452,066
Totals521,16757,499243,091

LOCAL OPTION.

In the no-license districts an additional issue is submitted—viz., local restoration—three-fifths of the valid votes cast being required for the carrying of the proposal. The voting figures for each of the twelve districts are shown for 1935.

District.That License be restored.That License be not restored.
Auckland Suburbs5,7465,317
Clutha4,4164,370
Eden5,1317,509
Grey Lynn6,7146,404
Invercargill7,3516,006
Masterton5,2384,089
Mataura5,1354,025
Oamaru4,8055,501
Roskill5,3219,014
Wellington East6,2288,756
Wellington South5,9385,887
Wellington Suburbs6,5099,061
Totals68,53275,939

LOTTERIES.

Under section 42 of the Gaming Act, 1908, the Minister of Internal Affairs may grant permission (subject to such conditions as he thinks fit) for the disposing by raffle or chance of any painting, drawing, sculpture, or other work of art, or literature, or mineral specimens, or mechanical models. By the Stamp Duties Amendment Act, 1931, any such licenses granted for the raffling for mineral specimens in excess of £100 value are subject to a lottery duty of 10 per cent. of the nominal value of all tickets represented in the drawing of the lottery, whether such tickets have been disposed of by way of sale or otherwise. Information as to receipts from this source will be found in Section XXIV—Taxation.

The Gaming Act permits sweepstakes and art-unions (as defined) under certain specified conditions.

During the year ended 31st March, 1936, 822 licenses were issued under the authority of section 42 (above), of which eleven were for large (nine for £5,000 and two for £1,000) and 281 for small alluvial-gold lotteries, and 530 were for works of art. The £5,000 gold art-unions were principally for the relief of distress, and the two of £1,000 were in aid of the funds of the Territorial Force Associations in the Wellington and Canterbury districts respectively.

The following is a summary of large alluvial-gold lotteries subject to lottery duty during the last five years:—

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.1935–36.
* Proceeds of sale of tickets, less commission, which was approximately 20 per cent.
Number of lotteries 767109
Cross sales£189,420*154,789149,365177,788157,763
Commission on sales£..23,21822,40526,36223,664
Expenses£53,82918,46719,96428,76326,076
Prizes£28,00024,00028,00039,50045,000
Net proceeds£107,59189,10478,99683,16363,022
Lottery duty£13,86815,47914,93717,77915,776
Net profit£93,72373,62564,05965,38447,246

The profits are now mainly distributed to officially recognized central funds for the relief of distress or to organizations rendering social relief or performing some service of community value.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS.

The following article on the New Zealand time-service arrangements was prepared by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Acting Director of the Dominion Observatory.

One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand, called “New Zealand Mean Time” (N.Z.M.T.).

The following extract from the New Zealand Gazette of 31st October. 1868, contains the Government announcement regarding the standardizing of mean time for New Zealand:—

“Colonial Secretary's Office,“Wellington, 30th October, 1868.

“In accordance with a resolution of the House of Representatives to the effect that New Zealand Mean Time be adopted throughout the colony, it is hereby notified for public information that the time corresponding to the longitude 172° 30’ east of Greenwich—which is exactly 11½ hours in advance of Greenwich time—has been adopted as the mean time for the colony; and that from and after the second day of November the public offices of the General Government will be opened and closed in accordance therewith.

“E. W. STAFFORD.”

The meridian 172° 30’ cast is the approximate mean longitude of the Islands of New Zealand, and corresponds to a time 11 hours 30 minutes fast on Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.).

The use of Summer Time in New Zealand is governed by the Summer Time Act, 1929, and its amendment of 1933. For general purposes in New Zealand the clock is advanced thirty minutes during the period beginning at 2h., New Zealand Mean Time, on the last Sunday in September in any year, and ending at 2h., New Zealand Mean Time, on the last Sunday in April in the following year. Nothing in the Summer Time Act shall affect the use of New Zealand Mean Time for purposes of astronomy, meteorology, or navigation, or affect the construction of any document mentioning or referring to a point of time in connection with any of those purposes. The times stated in this article are N.Z.M.T., and are in accordance with the 24h. system; 0h. and 24h. = midnight; 12h. = noon.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the Dominion Observatory, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by means of astronomical observations, and by comparison with radio time-signals from observatories in other parts of the world.

The following time-signals are sent from the Observatory:—

(1) RADIO TIME-SIGNALS, TRANSMITTED THROUGH STATION ZLW, ON A WAVE OF500 KC/S (600 METRES) I.C.W.

These signals are transmitted at 10h. 30m., daily (including Sundays and holidays), in the following manner:—

At 10h. 28m. 0s. a dash of two seconds duration is sent, followed by the letters “ZMO” (the call sign of the Observatory). This signal is repeated at 28m. 15s., 28m. 30s., and 28m. 45s. At 10h. 29m. 10s., a series of G's is sent, ending at 10h. 29m. 50s. At 10h. 30m. 0s. the actual time-signal (a dash of approximately three seconds duration) is sent direct from the Observatory signal clock—the beginning of the dash being the exact minute. The time-signal from the clock is repeated at 10h. 31m., 10h. 32m., 10h. 34m., and 10h. 35m.; there is no time-signal at 10h. 33m. Between each of the actual time-signals, series of one-second dashes are sent in groups of one, two, four, and five; according as they precede the time-signals at 10h. 31m., 10h. 32m., 10h. 34m., and 10h. 35m., respectively. The last of each set of intermediate dashes is sent on the 50th second. The intermediate signals are for tuning and identification purposes only, and must not be used as precise time-signals.

Special care is taken with all the signals transmitted through station ZLW, and their error seldom exceeds a quarter of a second. Corrections to these signals are afterwards determined, and may be obtained on application to the Dominion Observatory.

(2) RADIO TIME-SIGNALS TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE NATIONAL BROADCASTING SERVICE STATIONS 2YA AND 3YA.

Time-signals are sent to station 2YA from the Observatory. On week-days these signals are usually broadcast by 2YA at 10h. 30m., 15h. 30m., and 19h. 30m. On Sundays, the only signal broadcast is that at 15h. 30m.

The time-signals at 10h. 30m. and 10h. 30m. consist of dashes of approximately three seconds duration, transmitted at 10h. 30m., 10h. 31m., 10h. 32m., and at 15h. 30m., 15h. 31m., 15h. 32m. Intermediate signals are also sent as described for ZLW in the preceding section. The intermediate signals are not sent at 15h. 30m. on Saturdays, Sundays, and Government holidays.

The time-signal at 19h. 30m. consists of a single dash of approximately three seconds duration.

Station 3YA re-broadcasts time-signals transmitted through station 2YA.

The above time-signals are sent regularly to station 2YA from the Observatory, but their actual broadcast is controlled by 2YA, and they are liable to be suppressed if special broadcasts are in progress, or if time-signals are deemed inadvisable on artistic grounds. The Observatory therefore cannot guarantee regularity in the time-service through the National Broadcasting Service stations.

(3) TIME-SIGNALS BY LIGHTS AT WELLINGTON AND AUCKLAND.

At the Dominion Observatory (Wellington) these signals are given daily, the lights being exhibited on a flagstaff. A red light is shown 36 ft. above the ground, and a white light 6 ft. higher. The red light is switched on at 20h. 20m., and the white light at 20h. 25m. Simultaneous extinction of both the lights at 20h. 30m. is the time-signal. The lights are operated automatically by the Observatory signal clock, but, as they are not supervised, failures sometimes occur through unforeseen causes. The signal fights face east, and are therefore not visible from localities west of the Observatory.

Time-signal lights are also exhibited on the Ferry Buildings at Auckland on Tuesday and Friday evenings as follows: The green light is switched on at 19h. 40m., the red at 20h. 20m., and the white at 20h. 25m. Simultaneous extinction of all the lights at 20h. 30m. 0s. is the time-signal. The lights are extinguished by direct signal from the Dominion Observatory, Wellington. If the signal fails, the red light continues burning until 20h. 35m. Tests recently carried out by the Auckland Harbour Board show that the time taken by the telegraph signal operating the lights, to reach Auckland from Wellington, is less than one-tenth of a second.

(4) GENERAL.

In addition to the above time-signals, the Dominion Observatory also sends time-signals to the Telegraph Office and the Railways Department, by telegraph, daily at 9h. and 15h. 30m. The Telegraph Office transmits the Observatory time-signals by telegraph-line to some 2,300 telegraph-offices in both Islands, to Stewart Island, and to the Railways Department. Telegraphic signals are also sent at 9h. to all railway offices in New Zealand, including 221 offices by telegraph and 257 stations by telephone.

The Dominion Observatory controls the Government Buildings (Wellington) clock, which is checked at 9h. each day by means of a special circuit between the clock and the Observatory.

The chimes of the Wellington General Post Office clock are broadcast several times every day by the National Broadcasting Service stations in the various centres. At 15h. the clock is checked by comparison with the Dominion Observatory signal clock. The General Post Office clock may be used as a time-signal where very high accuracy is not required, experience having shown that it is always within a few seconds of the correct time. In using the General Post Office clock as a time-signal, the first stroke of the hour should be taken as the time.

REVIEW OF LEGISLATION, 1935.

Acts passed: Public Acts, 43; Local Acts, 18; Private Acts, 4.

The following is a brief synopsis of the more important public and general Acts passed by the General Assembly during the session ended on the 29th day of October, 1935.

The Rabbit Nuisance Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Rabbit Nuisance Act, 1928. It authorizes Rabbit Boards to purchase and sell goods or substances intended to be used for the destruction of rabbits or for the prevention of the incursion or increase of rabbits within their districts, and for that purpose makes provision for the grant to Rabbit Boards of licenses under the Poisons Act, 1934, to sell poison, and of licenses under the Arms Act, 1920, to deal in ammunition.

The War Veterans' Allowances Act, 1935, provides for the grant of pensions for persons who, being domiciled in New Zealand, served in the Great War or in the South African War with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy, or as members of the New Zealand Army Nursing Service, and for the dependants of such persons. The Act applies to veterans who satisfy the War Pensions Appeal Board that they are unfit for permanent employment by reason of physical or mental disability, and that they have resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years (subject to occasional absences) immediately before applying for their pensions. The disability need not be directly attributable to war service. The maximum pension is limited to £52 a year for the ex-soldier, £39 a year for his wife, and £13 a year for each dependent child.

The Finance Act, 1935, makes provision with respect to public finance and other matters. Part I of the Act effects (as from 31st July, 1935) an increase of 7½ per cent, in the salaries of public servants, and provides for correspondingly increased grants to Education Boards and to the governing bodies of secondary schools and University or other educational institutions. Part II effects (as from 31st July, 1935) an increase of all pensions paid by the State (with certain minor exceptions) so as to restore them to their former level. Part III authorizes the payment of a subsidy, not exceeding £200,000 in the aggregate, during the financial year ending on 31st March, 1936, from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Service Superannuation Fund, the Teachers' Superannuation Fund, and the Government Railways Superannuation Fund. The payment of a subsidy from the Main Highways Revenue Fund is authorized to be applied by local authorities in the relief of ratepayers in respect of land used for agricultural, horticultural, and pastoral purposes.

The War Pensions Amendment Act, 1935, amends the War Pensions Act, 1915. It redefines “dependant” in relation to members of the Forces during the War, and by so doing extends the class and number of persons benefiting by the principal Act. In particular, the term “dependant” is extended to include the wife and children of a former member of the Forces in cases where the marriage has taken place later than two years (the period allowed under the former law), but not later than seven years after discharge. The wife and children of a member of the Forces (being his “dependants” as redefined) become entitled to a pension under the principal Act in respect of his death or disablement except in cases where the member dies within one year after marriage, and had not at the date of his marriage a reasonable expectation of surviving for at least one year thereafter.

The Mental Defectives Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Mental Defectives Act, 1911. No medical practitioner shall by reason of his employment in a hospital or other public institution be deemed to be the partner, principal, or assistant of any officer of the institution, or of any other medical practitioner, so as to disqualify him from signing a medical certificate in support of an application for a reception order. Minors may be admitted to institutions in the same manner as adults. The Director-General is authorized to grant not more than seven days' leave of absence to patients detained under Part IV of the principal Act (being mentally defective persons under detention for offences). A section is included amending the section of the principal Act relating to the maintenance of persons detained in public institutions under that Act, in particular making the wife of the patient liable for his maintenance. Provision is made for the sale of any unclaimed goods of a deceased or discharged patient.

The Masseurs Registration Amendment Act, 1935, provides that any registered nurse who is the holder of a certificate from the Director-General of Health that she has received an approved course of instruction in the practice of actinotherapy may engage in the practice of actinotherapy either on her own account or in public hospitals, without being registered as a masseur.

The Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1932–33. The Minister is authorized to declare any Crown land subject to the principal Act to be ordinary Crown land. Section 4 provides for the cancellation of existing titles when land is acquired for small farms under the principal Act. Provision is made for leases of small farms and for their registration free of charge, lessees of small farms being given an additional right to purchase their holdings for cash or on deferred. payments or to take perpetually renewable leases under the Land Act, 1924.

The Whaling Industry Act, 1935, enables effect to be given in New Zealand to the International Convention for the regulation of whaling signed at Geneva on 24th September, 1931, and follows closely the provisions of the Whaling Industry (Regulation) Act, 1934 (Imperial).

The Rent Restriction Act, 1935, extends the duration of Part I of the War Legislation Amendment Act, 1916 (relating to the restriction of rent), for a further year to 31st October, 1936.

The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act, 1935, extends for a further year, to 31st December, 1936, the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act, 1931, which confers on the Governor-General authority to make regulations restricting immigration while such restriction is considered to be in the public interest.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932. The amending Act provides that if the ordinary rateable value of any land is reduced to an amount less than the special rateable value of that land under the principal Act, the special rateable value is to be reduced to the ordinary rateable value. Provision is made for refunds in cases where rates have been overpaid under the principal Act, whether by reason of retrospective amendments or otherwise. Where urban farm-land situated outside a borough is included in the borough valuation roll, the principal Act ia to apply to borough rates only on that land, and not to county rates or other rates. A special rateable value is not to be determined for any land less than three acres in area that becomes urban farm-land while an urban farm-land roll is in force.

The League of Nations Sanctions (Enforcement in New Zealand) Act, 1935, authorizes the Governor-General to make, by Order in Council, all such regulations as he from time to time thinks necessary for the purpose of enabling the Dominion of New Zealand to fulfil its obligations under Article 16 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. No regulations, however, may be made under the Act for any of the following purposes: (a) Requiring compulsory military training; (b) requiring service overseas; or (c) prohibiting fair and reasonable expression of opinion as to the expediency of any regulation made under the authority of the Act. Regulations made under the Act are required to be confirmed by Parliament, and if not confirmed they automatically lapse.

The Judicature Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Judicature Act. 1908, Section 2 provides that the Supreme Court shall in future consist of the Chief Justice and nine other Judges, instead of eight as previously. Whenever all the Judges are available to act on the Court of Appeal one of the Divisions of that Court may-consist of six Judges, instead of both consisting of five Judges. It is provided that in jury cases questions of foreign law are to be decided by the Judge alone.

The Administration Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Administration Act, 1908, and extends Part II of that Act, relating to the resealing in New Zealand of probates and letters of administration granted in His Majesty's dominions out of New Zealand.

The Law Practitioners Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Law Practitioners Act, 1931. It provides for the setting up of a Disciplinary Committee of the New Zealand Law Society, with power to suspend from practice any person who may be guilty of professional misconduct, or to remove the name of any such person from the roll of barristers or of solicitors. The amending Act also contains provisions of a machinery nature in connection with the administration of the Solicitors' Fidelity Guarantee Fund, while, inter alia, restrictions are imposed on the rights of solicitors to commence practice without practical experience.

The Rating Amendment Act, 1935, amends the provisions of section 79 of the Rating Act, 1925, relating to the application of the proceeds of the sale or letting of land to enforce payment of rates. It enables local authorities that levy special rates on a graduated scale for drainage or river-protection purposes to have a separate classification list for each special rate.

The Banking Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Banking Act, 1908, and certain other Acts relating to banks. It defines the application of the principal Act and its amendments to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. The provisions as to the unlawful defacing of bank-notes are also amended. Miscellaneous amendments and repeals of various provisions of the principal Act and other Acts consequent on the establishment of the Reserve Bank are included in the amending Act.

The Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Amendment Act, 1935, amending the principal Act of 1934–35, provides that on the transfer of securities from the Crown to the Corporation pursuant to Part V of the principal Act the right to recover arrears of interest in respect of the securities is to vest in the Corporation. Provision is also made for losses in respect of interest on securities transferred to the Corporation. Special provisions are made for cases where the Corporation lends on the security of leasehold interests in Crown lands or certain classes of Native lands. The Corporation is enabled to borrow on the hypothecation of its securities. Securities issued by the Corporation are exempted from fees under the Mortgagees' Indemnity (Workers' Charges) Act, 1927. An additional form of mortgage to secure loans granted by the Corporation is authorized providing for terms not exceeding five years at any time, with a reduction of the principal by not less than 1 per cent. per annum.

The Land Laws Amendment Act, 1935, amends the provisions as to the payment of interest out of the Land for Settlements Account to the Consolidated Fund. The surrender of existing licenses to occupy land pending completion of purchase in exchange for new licenses is authorized. A further extension is granted, to 31st December, 1940, of the time within which the owners of certain leases in perpetuity of settlement land may acquire the fee-simple of their holdings. Temporary provision is made for the extension of certain licenses for occupation with right of purchase. It is provided that section 5 of the Land for Settlements Amendment Act, 1927 (requiring increases of rent on revaluations), shall not apply in certain cases.

The Public Works Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Public Works Act, 1928. It authorizes the taking as for a public work of land required for aerodromes, and provides for the limitation of the height of trees and buildings in the vicinity of aerodromes. The powers of the Minister of Public Works as to the supply of water for irrigation and other purposes are extended. The amending Act provides for the registration of a charge against the land and the produce thereof for moneys unpaid for the supply of water in cases where no irrigation agreement is registered.

The Mining Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Mining Act, 1926. It makes provision as to notice of appeal and the giving of security on appeals from the Warden's Court. Inter alia, it enables actions to be removed from the Warden's Court to the Supreme Court when the amount involved is over £500, instead of £5,000 as hitherto.

The Police Offences Amendment Act. 1935, amends the Police Offences Act. 1927. It re-enacts section 32 of the principal Act relating to the unlawful use of motor-cars, &c, and imposes more severe penalties both on conviction on indictment and on summary conviction. It modifies section 44 of the principal Act as to the payment of medical and hospital expenses by persons arrested in a state of drunkenness. It is made an offence to make a false allegation to a police officer that a crime or other offence has been committed.

The Government Railways (Wellington to Johnsonville.) Act, 1935, is to be read together with the Government Railways Act, 1926. Its purpose is to safeguard the interests of the Crown in the event of the electrification of the railway-line between Wellington and Johnsonville. When the electrification is completed the Government Railways Department is to have a monopoly in the carriage of passengers in the district, by rail or road service, subject to an obligation on the Department to maintain adequate motor services for the parts of the district not conveniently served by the railway.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923. It exempts from land-tax any land held by the Public Trustee for the National Provident Fund. The same exemption is allowed in respect of contributions to the support of a widowed mother-in-law as previously existed in the case of a widowed mother. It provides that bonus shares shall be exempt from income-tax as if they were dividends. Special provision is made as to the assessment for income-tax of co-operative dairy companies and co-operative pig-marketing companies. The Commissioner of Taxes is authorized to apportion interest as between vendor and purchaser when there has been a sale of securities. Section 87 of the principal Act is extended by providing that income derived from the carriage by air of merchandise, mails, or passengers shipped or embarked in New Zealand shall be deemed to be income derived in New Zealand. Provision is made for reciprocal arrangements with other countries as to the exemption from income-tax of non-resident traders. The provisions as to the assessment of banking companies for income-tax are amended (consequent on the establishment of the Reserve Bank).

The Native Housing Act, 1935, authorizes the Board of Native Affairs to make advances to Natives out of moneys appropriated by Parliament for the general purpose of improving the housing conditions of Natives. Wide powers are given to the Board with respect to the securities on which advances may be made.

The Transport Licensing Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Transport Licensing Act, 1931. It provides that passenger-service licenses shall continue in force for three years instead of one year. Provision is made for the revocation of passenger-service licenses on a material change in the circumstances under which they were granted. The amending Act provides that certificates of fitness for passenger-service vehicles shall continue in force until revoked.

The Trustee Amendment Act, 1935, amends the Trustee Act, 1908. It provides that a trust for non-charitable and invalid purposes as well as charitable purposes shall not be invalid, but shall be deemed to be for the charitable purposes only. Trustees are authorized to purchase certain securities at a premium. It authorizes trustees to grant a renewal or extension of a mortgage, notwithstanding that the rate of interest or margin of security may be less than that required in the case of a new loan.

The Tobacco-growing Industry Act, 1935, makes provision for the establishment of a Tobacco Board, consisting of nine members, including one representative of the Government, four growers' representatives, and four manufacturers' representatives. Provision is made in the usual way for meetings, vacancies, &c. Raw tobacco is not to be grown, purchased, sold, or manufactured except under the authority of the Board, whose main function will be to exercise a guiding influence over the tobacco-growing industry. Provision is made to permit of the transfer of the powers of the Board to the Executive Commission of Agriculture, as in the case of other producers' Boards.

The Housing Survey Act, 1935, requires certain borough councils and other local authorities to make housing surveys within their districts preparatory to the inauguration of a Dominion housing scheme. The duration of the Act is limited to the 31st December, 1936.

The Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, contains many provisions dealing with a wide range of subjects. Following are the more important provisions: The Act provides for the abolition as from 1st April, 1936, of the Main Highways Revenue Fund and the Main Highways Construction Fund, and their merger in the Main Highways Account, of which they form part. The powers of the Unemployment Board in relation to assistance to unskilled and other workers and to the payment of sustenance to partly employed persons are extended, as are the provisions for exemption from the emergency unemployment charge on salary or wages earned by relief workers. Part IV of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926 (as to Government guarantee) is extended to special loans raised without a poll of ratepayers. The provisions as to special pensions to miners' widows are extended. It is provided that income derived from the National Provident Fund shall not be “income” within the meaning of the Pensions Act, 1926, in the case of persons who were contributors to that Fund before the passing of section 24 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.

The Shipping and Seamen (Safely and Load-line Conventions) Act, 1935, is deemed to be part of the Shipping and Seamen Act, 1908. It empowers the Governor-General to make, by Order in Council, regulations to give effect to the Safety Convention signed in London on 12th October, 1934, and to the Load Line Convention signed in London on 5th July, 1930. The principal Act is to be read subject to any regulations in force under this Act. The regulations are to be laid before Parliament.

Chapter 64. SECTION XLVI.—DEPENDENCIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

ON page 1 of this book the islands comprising the Dominion of New Zealand are divided into three groups, viz.:—

Islands forming the Dominion proper for statistical and general practical purposes.

Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847.

Annexed islands.

Only the first of these groups has been covered by the preceding sections of the book. The present section deals briefly with the second and third groups, and also with the mandated territories of Western Samoa and Nauru, the Ross Dependency, and the Tokelau or Union Group.

Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands, although coming within the first group for general purposes, are given brief mention.

STEWART ISLAND, which, with its small adjacent islands, has an area of some 670 square miles, is separated from the South Island by the waters of Foveaux Strait. It was thought by Captain Cook in 1770 to be a peninsula, and not until 1808 was his error discovered. In that year Dugald Stewart, in the schooner “Prince of Denmark.” sailed through the strait. Stewart Island has several good harbours, is well wooded, and mountainous, the highest peak being the extinct volcano, Mount Anglem (3,200 ft.). The principal industry is sea-fishing, and the island is also a noted holiday resort. Stewart Island is a county, and for broad comparisons is treated as part of the South Island. The population at the census date (24th March, 1936) was 617, including 119 Maoris.

The CHATHAM ISLANDS consist of two inhabited islands and several unimportant islets of a total area of some 372 square miles. The islands were discovered by Lieutenant Broughton on 28th November, 1790, and rained after the Earl of Chatham. They contain no high country, and the larger island as a central lagoon of about 72 square miles. The chief industries are sheep-farming and sea-fishing. Although about 480 miles eastward of Banks Peninsula, the group was constituted a county in 1901, and is not classed with the outlying islands. Before 1927 the islands were not included in any electoral district, and thus had no parliamentary representation, but from 1927 have been included in the Lyttelton Electoral District, and in the Western Maori Electoral District for the election of Maori representatives. In view of the special circumstances of the Chathams, certain laws am modified in their case—e.g., the Employment Promotion Act does not apply to the Chatham Islands, nor do the provisions of the petrol-tax imposed for road purposes. The Chatham Islands are for most purposes grouped with the South Island, and are also treated for statistical purposes as part of Canterbury Provincial District, although the latter is not strictly correct in point of law. The islands are included within the Wellington Deeds, Land Transfer, and Land Districts, but within the North Canterbury Hospital District and the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. The population at the census of 24th March, 1936, was 702, including 303 Maoris.

OUTLYING ISLANDS.

The outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries as proclaimed in 1847 are—

  • Three Kings Islands.

  • Auckland Islands.

  • Campbell Island.

  • Antipodes Islands.

  • Bounty Islands.

  • Snares Islands.

  • Solander Island.

The THREE KINGS ISLANDS (so named by Tasman on account of his having discovered them on the anniversary of the Feast of the Epiphany) are a group of uninhabited islets (area, about three square miles) extending about seven miles in an east-north-east; direction, and situated about thirty-eight miles west-north west of Cape Maria van Diemen, at the northern extremity of the North Island. It was here that the s.s. “Elingamite” was wrecked on the 9th November, 1902, with heavy loss of life.

The AUCKLAND ISLANDS were discovered on the 18th August, 1806, by Captain Abraham Bristow, in the ship “Ocean.” They lie about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their accepted position being given as latitude 50° 32´ south and longitude 166° 13´ east. They have several good harbours. The largest of the islands is about twenty-seven miles by about fifteen miles, and is very mountainous, the highest being about 2,000 ft. above the sea. The total area is about 234 square miles.

CAMPBELL ISLANDS, which lies about 150 miles south-east of the Auckland Islands, was discovered in 1810 by Frederick Hazelburgh, master of the brig “Perseverance,” owned by Mr. Robert Campbell, of Sydney. It is mountainous, and of a circumference of about thirty miles. There are several good harbours. The area is approximately forty-four square miles.

The ANTIPODES ISLANDS are an isolated group, consisting of several detached rocky islands (aggregating about twenty-four square miles) lying nearly north and south over a space of four to five miles; accepted position, 49° 41´ 15rΰ south, and longitude 178° 43r´ east.

The BOUNTY ISLANDS, a little cluster of islets, thirteen in number, and without verdure, were discovered in 1788 by Captain Bligh, R.N., of H.M.S. “Bounty” position verified by observation, 47° 43´ south, longitude 179° east. The total area is probably less than one square mile.

The SNARES ISLANDS are situated about fifty-six miles to the south-west of Stewart Island, and comprise six islets of a total area of about 600 acres.

SOLANDER ISLAND, which lies about forty miles to the north-west of Stewart Island, was discovered by Captain Cook in 1770. It is a bare rock, one mile in length and approximately half a square mile in area.

None of the outlying islands is at present inhabited.

KERMADEC ISLANDS.

The KERMADEC ISLANDS, four in number, with some outlying islets, rank as “annexed islands,” having been annexed to New Zealand by Proclamation dated the 21st July, 1887. The islands are situated between the parallels of 29° 10´ and 31° 30´ south latitude, and between the meridians of 177° 45´ and 179° west longitude. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland, and lies a little more than half-way to Tonga, but 100 miles to the eastward of the direct steam route to that place. It is 300 miles eastward of the steam route to Fiji, and 150 miles westward of that from Auckland to Rarotonga Macaulay Island and Curtis Islands were discovered in May, 1788, by Lieutenant Watts in the “Penrhyn,” a transport ship. The remainder of the group was discovered in 1793 by Rear-Admiral de Bruni, Chevalier d'Entrecasteaux.

The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than that of the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Esperance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723 ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured puraiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Throe of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but are so difficult of approach as to be practically useless.

Several attempts have been made to settle on the islands, which are normally uninhabited, the latest being in 1935, when a small party took up residence on Sunday Island.

COOK ISLANDS GROUP.

Under the provisions of the Colonial Boundaries Act, 1895, and by resolution of the New Zealand Parliament, the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands as from the 10th June, 1901. The provisions for the government of the Cook Islands are contained in the Cook Islands Act, 1915, and its various amendments. A member of the Executive Council (the Minister for the Cook Islands) is responsible to the Government for the administration of the Territory.

A Resident Commissioner is stationed at Rarotonga, with Resident Agents, answerable to the Resident Commissioner, in charge of the remaining islands of the Group. The only exception is Niue, which possesses no direct sea communication with the remainder of the Group (see letterpress post).

The local administration of each island is assisted by Island Councils, consisting of ex office elected or nominated members. European officials and Arikis (Native chiefs) are councillors ex office, and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General. The Cook Islands Amendment Act, 1921, provides for the election of a European member of the Island Council of Rarotonga as a representative of the European population.

Each Council is empowered to make laws for the good government of the island, with the proviso that such laws must not be repugnant to Acts of the New Zealand Parliament or regulations made thereunder. The maximum penalties imposed by the Ordinance of an Island Council must not exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine of £50. The Council has no power to deal with Customs duties, to borrow money, to establish Courts of Justice, or to appropriate expenditure of revenue other than that raised under authority of their Ordinance. No Ordinance has effect until it has received the assent of the Resident Commissioner or the Governor-General. The Governor-General may, by notice in the Gazelle, disallow any Ordinance within one year after the Commissioner has given his assent.

Laws are enforced through the High Court, which has all jurisdiction, civil or criminal, necessary for the administration of justice. The Chief Judge resides at Rarotonga. A Commissioner may, with some exceptions, exercise the full powers and functions of a Judge. A judgment obtained in a civil proceeding in the High Court, may be enforced in the Supreme Court of New Zealand. From any decision in the former Court an appeal lies to the Supreme Court in the Dominion.

A Native Land Court is constituted under the provisions of the Cook Islands Act, 1915, and consists of a Chief Judge at present stationed in Rarotonga.

Following is a brief description of the various islands of the Cook Group:—

RAROTONGA (1, G:J8 miles from Auckland), the most fertile and valuable of the Cook Group, is a magnificent island, rising to a height of 2,100 ft. It is clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation, and has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The island is handicapped by the lack of a suitable harbour.

MANGAIA, the south-easternmost of the Cook Group, is of volcanic origin, and about eighteen miles in circumference. It produces large quantities of coconuts, bananas, oranges, limes, citrons, and other fruits.

ATIU resembles Mangaia in appearance and extent. It is a raised mass of coral, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts, where the ascent is gradual. On the highest point of the central ridge coconuts, bananas, oranges, and coffee grow with the utmost luxuriance; and the kumara, one of the most valuable of South Sea vegetables, yields large crops.

MAUKE is a low circular island about two miles across, lying to the north-east of Rarotonga. Like Mangaia and Atiu, it is surrounded by an unbroken fringing reef. Mauke is very fertile.

MITIARO is a low-lying island, from three to four miles long and one mile wide.

MANUAS and TE AU-O- TU (Hervey Islands) are surrounded by a reef which is about 10½ miles in circumference.

TAKUTEA is a small coral island, about half a square mile in area, some 120 miles distant from Rarotonga.

ATTUTAKI is probably the most fertile of all the islands forming the Lower Group. It is capable of exporting large, quantities of tropical fruits and vegetables, but exports are restricted owing to irregular and infrequent shipping calls. The island is about eighteen miles in circuit.

NIUE was one of the islands annexed to New Zealand in 1901. By Act of the New Zealand Legislature passed in 1932, its administration was transferred from the Minister for the Cook Islands to the Minister of External Affairs as from the 1st October, 1932. Separate reference to Niue appears later.

PALMERSTON is an atoll lying about 450 miles east of Niue and about 220 miles from the nearest island of the Cook Group (Aitutaki). and is remarkable as the “San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Sea.

SUWARROW lies 513 miles from Rarotonga. It is a coral atoll, of a triangular form, fifty miles in circumference, the reef having an average width of half a mile across, enclosing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The island is at present uninhabited, although visited periodically: while part of it is a naval reserve.

PUKAPUKA (Danger Island): Next to the 10th parallel, bearing north-west of Suwarrow about 250 miles.

NASSAU is a fine island of about 360 acres, and lies about 45 miles to the south-east of Pukapuka or Danger Island. The area under cultivation (well-planted coconuts) is about 300 acres.

RAKAHANGA is an atoll, three miles in length and of equal breadth.

MANIHIKI, lying about 400 miles eastward of Danger Island, is an atoll, about thirty miles in circumference, valuable from the extent of the coconut-groves.

PPENRHYN (Tongareva) lies about 300 miles north-east of Manihiki. It is one of the most famous pearl-islands in the Pacific, and there is a lagoon with two entrances capable of holding a large number of vessels—the only island in the Group which affords land-locked shelter for craft other than the small local fleets of fishing-boats.

REVENUE.

Revenues are derived principally from Customs duties, which, with minor exceptions, follow the New Zealand Customs tariff; from Court fees and fines, dog-tax, motor fees, road and water rates, stamp sales and duties, trading licenses, &c. The Rarotongan Treasury finds all revenue for ordinary expenditure, but the New Zealand Government subsidizes that Treasury for medical and educational purposes. Including grants from the New Zealand Government, the revenue of the Cook Islands for the year 1935–3(5 was £40,556 and the expenditure £40,691.

MEDICAL SERVICES.

Under the provisions of the Cook Islands Act, 1915, all Natives are provided gratuitously with medicinal and surgical aid. As a result of this beneficent policy, the population is particularly free from the usual tropical diseases and is increasing steadily.

The manufacture or importation of intoxicating liquor is prohibited absolutely, excepting for medicinal, sacramental, or industrial purposes.

POPULATION AND VITAL STATISTICS.

A census of the Cook Islands taken as for 30th April, 1936, showed an increase of 2146 per cent, on the preceding census of 1926. The increase was restricted to the Native population which numbered 11,991 (males 6,235, females 5,756) in 1936. The population other than Natives—255, comprising 141 males and 114 females—showed a decline of 26 in the ten years since 1926.

Island.Population, 1926 Census.Population, 1930 Census.
Uninhabited at census.
Aitutaki1,4311,719
Atiu9331,086
Mangaia1,2491,459
Manihiki416487
Manuae and Te Au-o-Tu238
Mauke511652
Mitiaro238265
Palmerston9790
Penrhyn395467
Pukapuka526651
Rakahanga327290
Rarotonga3,9365,054
Suwarrow**
Takutea**
Nassau*18
Totals10,08212,246

Each of the seven censuses taken since the annexation of the islands in 1901 has shown an increase of population. A system of compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages is in force in the islands; but in view of the irregularity and infrequency of communication with some of the islands it is impossible to give precise figures for a given period. During the year ended 31st March, 1936, registered births for the island of Rarotonga numbered 216 (males 104, females 112); deaths, 108 (males 56, females 52); and marriages, 40. Equivalent rates per 1,000 of mean population are: Births, 44; deaths, 22; and marriages, 8.

EDUCATION.

Government schools are established on all the islands of the Lower Group, and the Administration subsidizes the London Missionary Society for its schools established in the Northern Cook Islands. In addition, Roman Catholic Mission schools are established on various islands throughout the Group.

The aim of the Administration is to educate the children up to the equivalent of Standard IV of the New Zealand school syllabus, with facilities at Rarotonga for advanced children to attain proficiency standard. A limited number of scholarships are granted, which enable pupils of outstanding ability to enter Maori colleges in New Zealand in order to fit them for positions in the Cook Islands Public Service. During the year 1935, 2,816 children were being educated in] the Cook Islands schools.

RADIO COMMUNICATION.

Radio stations are erected at Rarotonga, with substations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, and Mauke. An extension of wireless services into the islands of the Northern Group is under consideration.

TRADE.

The figures of exports and imports for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Exports to New Zealand.Total Exports.Imports from New Zealand.Total Imports.
 ££££
1926101,752138,58895,531134,473
192799,106138,35787,773116,606
192896,470133,05181,511117,639
192993,066124,48673,565106,835
193085,965109,43869,976103,468
193166,93279,94549,22369,260
193259,88073,40948,26363,585
193359,26273,98354,02276,716
193453,75659,30746.21461,449
193540,47253,59943,56661,676

Apart from copra exports (£12,882 in 1935), the bulk of the trade is with New Zealand. In 1935 other countries of export were the United States, £10,079 the United Kingdom, £1,813; France, £1,211; and Tahiti, £14. Imports in 1935 exclusive of imports from New Zealand, came chiefly from the United Kingdom, £5,759; the United States, £4,468; and Australia, £6,057.

Exports of principal commodities during 1935 were—

 QuantityValue
£
Copra1,353 tons12,882
Oranges48,268 cases19,947
Bananas52,539 cases8,130
Tomatoes62,383 boxes10,687
Orange-juice927 cases1,116
Coconuts1,403 packages361
Pearls..175

NIUE.

Niue (or Savage Island), lying about 300 miles to the east of Tonga, is a coral island, thirty-six miles in circumference and 64,028 acres in area, rising to a height of 200 ft. It is fertile and has the usual tropical productions. Niue is included within the boundaries of the Cook and other islands annexed in 1901, but has a separate Administration.

By the Cook Islands Amendment Act, 1932, the control of Niue was transferred from the Minister for the Cook Islands to the Minister of External Affairs. The constitution and laws (vide observations under “Cook Islands Group,” immediately preceding) otherwise remain unaltered. A Resident Commissioner, who is also Judge, is stationed on the island.

POPULATION.

Returns for the census taken on 30th April disclose the population as 4,104. Totals for the six preceding censuses taken since the annexation of Niue by New Zealand (11th June, 1901) are as follows:—

19024,079
19063,822
19113,943
19163,880
19213,750
19263,795

The following comparison with the census taken on 20th April, 1926. shows an increase of 309 (8–14 per cent.) in the ten years:—

 Census, 1926.Census, 1936.
Native population—
Males1,7631,980
Females2,0002,102
European population—
Males1812
Females1410
Total population3,7954,104

EDUCATION.

There are two Government schools, where agriculture, handicraft, domestic art, and woodwork form part of the curriculum. The average roll number of these two schools was 275 in 1935. In addition, there are ten schools under the control of the London Missionary Society, which are subsidized by the Administration. The average roll number for these schools during 1935 was 500.

HEALTH AND VITAL STATISTICS.

A Government hospital is established in Niue, the staff consisting of a European matron and a number of Native nurses. The medical work of the island is under the control of a European medical officer, assisted by several Native trainees. Medical and surgical aid and attendance are given free of charge to all Natives.

During 1935 births registered in Niue numbered 172 (100 males, 72 females); deaths, 82 (42 males, 40 females); and marriages, 57. Equivalent rates per 1,000 of mean population were: Births, 42; deaths, 20; and marriages, 14.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Revenue of the Niue Island Administration for the year ended 31st March, 1936, was £15,409. No grants were received from the New Zealand Government. Customs duties brought in £1,850, copra export duty £313, stamp sales £2,328, and landing and shipping charges £1,314. Expenditure aggregated £17,520.

COMMUNICATIONS.

There is no intercommunication between the Cook Group and Niue, which lies 600 miles west of Rarotonga. Great difficulty was experienced in the past in providing a satisfactory subsidized service with New Zealand until the advent of the Government motor-vessel “Maui Pomare.” The “Maui Pomare” maintains a regular four-weekly service from Lyttelton, Wellington, and Apia to Niue, and this service adequately caters for the needs of the island.

Radio communication is maintained by regular services with New Zealand and Western Samoa.

TRADE.

Exports and imports for the last ten years are given below. The greater part of the trade is with New Zealand.

Year.Exports to New Zealand.Total Exports.Imports from New Zealand.Total Imports.
 ££££
192617,65517,65514,10517,563
192714,29014,35010,89614,006
192816,34720,93814,40318,637
192913,44922»0614,68819,107
193013,32315,87714,86318,630
19315,1867,1918,95811,507
193210,82013,98711,56814,756
193310,27511,54210,40013,123
193411,34212,34111,88813,372
193510,01012,07613,38015,288

The principal items of export are bananas and copra. Other items include fancy baskets, hats, and kumaras. With a view to improving the marketing of bananas in New Zealand, grading and packing for export are now done under the control and supervision of the Resident Commissioner and his inspectors. The export of fruit from Niue was hampered until 1925 by the difficulty and irregularity of communication with New Zealand, but with the maintenance of a regular service by a Government vessel these drawbacks have been removed.

Exports of principal commodities during 1935 were—

 QuantityValue
£
Bananas22,714 cases8,620
Copra316 tons2,031
Hats1,769 dozen756
Kumaras41 tons360
Fancy baskets162 dozen78

WESTERN SAMOA

The Native race inhabiting Samoa is of typical Polynesian character, with straight hair, brown colouring, good physique, and mild and hospitable disposition.

The first known visit of Europeans to the islands was that of a Dutch expedition, under Jacob Roggeveen, in its voyage around the world in 1721–22. In 1768 De Bougainville called at the islands, and in 1787 La Perouse, who named them “Navigators Islands,” a name which the French retain. The first British vessel to pay a visit was H.M.S. “Pandora,” in 1790. Missionaries, who were to play an important part in the development of the country, made their advent in 1830, when two members of the London Missionary Society arrived at Savai'i.

The first formal recognition of “whites” took place some eight years later, when Captain Bethune, of the British Navy, concluded a commercial treaty with the Native chiefs, by which harbour dues were to be paid and security to European interests guaranteed in return. Next year (1839) Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, in command of a United States exploring expedition, completed a similar treaty.

Three great nations were to have control of the destinies of the Samoans. Great Britain appointed a Consular Agent in 1847, the United States a Commercial Agent in 1853, and Germany her first representative in 1S61. In 1869 one of the frequent internecine wars of the Natives broke out—a war that was to have far-reaching consequences, for the foreign authorities took for the first time direct measures to ensure peace. The trouble arose over rival claimants to the Native chieftainship, and continued, despite several patched-up truces, for some years.

At a conference in Berlin in 1889, an Act was signed by the representatives of Great Britain, the United States, and Germany declaring the neutrality and independence of the islands, providing for equal rights therein of the nationals of the three signatory Powers and other matters affecting the government of the islands. This arrangement was never free from trouble, and when, on the death of King Malietoa Laupepa in 1898, disturbances again arose over the succession, the kingship was abolished, in accordance with the recommendation of a joint Commission. By the Anglo-Gerrnan agreement of the 14th December, 1899, accepted by the United States in January, 1900, Great Britain renounced in favour of Germany all rights over Western Samoa, and similarly in favour of the United States all rights over Tutuila and the other islands of Eastern Samoa.

On the outbreak of war in 1914 between the United Kingdom and Germany a New Zealand Expeditionary Force took possession of Western Samoa, landing unopposed at Apia on the 29th August, and remained in occupation until the establishment of Civil Government under the aegis of the Dominion.

The islands have been administered since 1919 under mandate of the League of Nations, the Administrator being appointed by the Governor-General of New Zealand and responsible to the Minister of External Affairs. There is a Legislative Council, consisting of not less than four, nor more than six, official members appointed by the Governor-General, and four unofficial members, two of whom are Europeans elected triennially by the European residents, the remaining two being Native Samoans, appointed by the Governor-General. The Administrator, acting with the advice and consent of this Council, is empowered to make Ordinances for the peace, order, and good government of the Territory, subject to disallowance by the Governor-General. A High Court is established, and the Supreme Court of New Zealand is given jurisdiction over Western Samoa—that is to say, there is the right of appeal from the High Court to the Supreme Court.

All matters concerning the Samoan people are placed before the Fono of Faipule, a body composed of thirty-three chiefs elected by their districts, and no action regarding legislature or procedure affecting the Samoans is taken without its concurrence. Under the present system of administration the mandated territory has progressed steadily, particularly in the realms of health, public works, and education.

GEOGRAPHICAL.

Western Samoa includes the Islands of Upolu, Savai'i, Apolima, and Manono, together with several small islets, lying between the 13th and 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st and 173rd degrees of longitude west of Greenwich.

The principal islands are Savai'and Upolu. Savai'i is the larger of the two with a length of 48 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 703 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of over 6,000 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures about 430 square miles in area, and rises to a height of over 3,600 ft. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains the port and capital of Apia. Rainfall is plentiful throughout the Group.

POPULATION.

At the 1st April, 1936, the population of Western Samoa as estimated by the Administration was 54,733, made up as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
Native Samoan population26,09425,00051,094
European and half-caste population1,6111,4323,043
Chinese labourers (and dependants)503..503
Melanesian labourers (and dependants)92193
Totals28,30026,43354,733

It is anticipated that a census of Samoa will be taken towards the end of 1936.

The following figures of the recorded movement of the population relate to the twelve months ended the 31st December, 1935:—

Births.Deaths.Marriages.Immigration.Emigration.
Native Samoans1,722469139650674
Europeans and half-castes631213415417
Chinese labourers (and dependants)......22
Melanesian labourers (and dependants)..2......
Totals1,7854831521,0671,093

HEALTH AND HOSPITALS.

The Samoa Health Ordinance, 1921, is on the lines of the New Zealand Health Act, 1920, but remodelled to suit local conditions. A Government hospital is maintained at Apia, district hospitals have been established at Tuasivi (Savai'i) and Aleipata (Upolo), while there are five dispensaries in out-districts and at mission-stations.

Of the more important tropical diseases, only three are prevalent in Western Samoa—viz., ankylostomiasis (or hookworm), framboesia (yaws), and filariasis (elephantiasis). Every effort has been made to stamp out these diseases, particularly hookworm and yaws, and systematic campaigns to this end have been in progress since 1923. These have resulted in a marked improvement in the general health of the Natives.

Of recent years the sanitation of Apia has been considerably improved, and the reticulation with a high-pressure water-supply system completed. Water has been piped into several villages from springs in the hills, while in other villages where this is not possible largo reinforced-concrete tanks are erected to receive the rain-water from church buildings.

EDUCATION.

Until recent years education in Samoa had been almost entirely in the hands of the missions, and beyond the training of pastors (who also acted as teachers in the village mission schools) little higher education was attempted; latterly, however, more advanced instruction in the English language has been given not only in the Administration schools at Ifi Ifi, Malifa, Vaipouli. and Avele, but also by the London Missionary Society at Papauta, by the Methodist Mission at Faleula, and by the Marist Brothers and Sisters at Apia. All these schools are frequently inspected by one of the Senior Inspectors of the New Zealand Education Department.

A count taken in 1936 showed that 18,242 children were attending the various Government and mission schools. The majority of the pupils are at village mission schools, where the instruction is in the hands of Native pastors. In second-grade or district schools the Government and the missions co-operate, the teachers being paid by the Government. The number of such schools is forty-five, having an aggregate roll number of 4,217 at 31st March, 1936. The Government schools, on the other hand, had an average attendance of 1,314 during the year ended 31st March, 1936.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

The revenue for the financial year ended 31st March, 1936, was £111,867, of which Customs duties and taxation contributed £81,453; fees and charges (Court, hospital. &c.), £9,551; post-office and wireless-telegraph receipts, £7,824; and miscellaneous items, £13,039. No subsidy from the New Zealand Government has been received since 1930–31. The expenditure for the year totalled £100,736. The figures of revenue and expenditure for each of the last five years are—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.
 ££
1932109,040128,936
1933105,92098,166
193490,61389,955
193578,80876,505
1936111,867100,736

The public debt of the Territory at 31sfc March, 1936, was £131,710. The money has been provided by the New Zealand Government, a further £25,000 of that expended on public works baring been donated as a gift.

TRADE.

The exports and imports of Western Samoa for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Exports.Imports.
 ££
1926320,783324,940
1927335,978304,369
1928422,175326,553
1929293,938288,849
1930284,515275,355
1931194,447164,950
1932183,028150,902
1933173,837150,856
1934128,11792,784
1935189,298137,757

The principal item of export is copra, exports of which in 1935 totalled 12,501 tons, of a value of £108,695. Cocoa-beans of a value of £19,639, representing 576 tons; bananas, £38,146 (109,000 cases); rubber, £1,372 (25 tons); constitute the only other items of any importance.

Of the exports in 1935, £169,013 was the produce of Western Samoa, the remaining £20,285 being re-exports. Total exports in 1935 included £59,251 to New Zealand, £29,601 to the United Kingdom, £9,836 to the United States, and £70,809 to the Continent of Europe (exact destination unknown). The imports in 1935 came principally from Now Zealand (£51,384), the United Kingdom (£22,855), Australia (£22,032), the United States (£14,151), Japan (£13,662), Fiji (£3,381), Canada (£3,016), India (£2,195), Dutch East Indies (£1,396), and Hong Kong (£546);

The trade turnover for 1935 shows a total of £327,055, as compared with £220,901 for the previous calendar year, an increase of over 47 per cent. This satisfactory position is due mainly to a decided increase in the price of copra.

In addition to a scale of import duties, there are export duties, of which the chief are: Copra (£1 10s. per ton), cocoa-beans (£2 per ton), and bananas (Is. per case net). In order to assist growers the tax on cacao was temporarily remitted from November, 1933. The net import duty collected in 1935 was £29,126, export duties collected totalling £33,762.

Vessels entered inwards at the Port of Apia during 1935 numbered 117 (all steam or oil-engined vessels), and represented an aggregate tonnage of 140,990. The tonnage of cargo brought by these vessels was 10,19S, while cargo entered outwards totalled 23,461 tons.

TOKELAU OR UNION GROUP.

The latest addition to New Zealand's dependencies is the Tokelau or Union Group, which consists of three islands, or groups of islets (Ataiu, Nukunono, and Fakaofo), of a total area of 2,550 acres. They are situated between 8° and 10° of south latitude and between 171° and 173° of west longitude, and are distant about 270 miles from Apia, Samoa, which has since 1923 been the port of entry for the group.

These islands were ceded to Great Britain in 1916, from which year up to 1925 they formed part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. They were transferred to the jurisdiction of New Zealand as from the 11th February, 1926, and are now administered by the Administrator of Western Samoa on behalf of the New Zealand Government. The Secretary of Native Affairs in Western Samoa is District Officer for the Tokelau Islands, the latter having no local European officials or residents.

The population of the islands at the census of 1926 was 1,033. while it is anticipated that the 1936 census will be taken towards the end of the year. A return by the local Native officials in August, 1935, gives a total of 1,198, the figures for the three islands being—Atafu, 419: Nukunono, 256; Fakaofo. 523.

The Natives are Polynesians, with a language allied to that of the Samoans. Jurisdiction is exercised by the local chiefs with the assistance of Native Councils, while education is administered by the missions, which maintain Native teachers in the islands.

The only exportable product of the islands is copra. The total amount of copra available for export in a normal year is estimated to be 365 tons—viz., 65 from Atafu, 210 from Nukunono, and 90 from Fakaofo.

There is a wireless station on Fakaofo Island.

NAURU.

For much of the information contained in the following paragraphs the Census and Statistics Department is indebted to “Ocean Island and Nauru,” by A. F. Ellis, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.

HISTORICAL.

Since 1899 the history of Nauru, or Pleasant Island, has been that of its rich phosphate deposits. Discovered by Captain Fern of the American whaling-ship “Hunter” in 1789, it was, until annexed by the Germans in 1888, the haunt of beachcombers. In 1899 an accidental discovery was made in Sydney, from a geological specimen, of the presence of phosphatic rock on the island. This discovery made by an official of the Pacific Islands Company (later the Pacific Phosphate Company) led to a prospecting party being sent to Nauru in May of the following year, with the result that extensive deposits were discovered.

From 1900 to 1906 the company, whilst working the deposits of the neighbouring Ocean Island, negotiated with German interests for the working of the Nauru deposits. In June, 1906, it was able to commence operations with a mixed stall of British and Germans. During 1907, 11,630 tons of phosphate were quarried and during the period 1909–13 the output was 630,656 tons, an average of 105,109 tons per annum.

With the outbreak of the 1914–18 war the island passed into British hands. It was surrendered to H.M.A.S. “Melbourne” on the 9th September, 1914, and was included with the German New Guinea possessions in the capitulation of Herbertshohe. The island was garrisoned with Australian troops on the 6th November, 1914, and a Civil administration was established on the 1st January, 1915. A mandate for the administration of the island was conferred by the Allied and Associated Powers upon the British Empire, to come into operation at the same date as the Treaty of Peace with Germany, and this mandate is held jointly by the Imperial Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government. An agreement between the three parties to the mandate was drawn up and completed on the 2nd July, 1919. The administrative control of the island is vested in an Administrator, whose term of appointment is five years, the three successive administrators to date having been appointed by the Commonwealth Government.

GEOGRAPHICAL.

Nauru Island is barely $ of a degree below the equator and lies 106° 56' east of Greenwich. It is an elevated island about three miles and a half long and two miles and a half wide, with a circumference of twelve miles and an area of 5,396 acres. With the exception of a narrow coastal belt favourable for the growth of coconuts, and of a brackish lagoon, the island consists of phosphate deposits overlying a bed of coralliferous limestone. The island is completely surrounded by a coral reef, and beyond the reef the sea-bed slopes sharply at an angle of 45°. These two factors, together with the presence of the strong equatorial current of two knots, materially affect the shipping facilities of the island. The fact that the island lies in the latitude of the easterly trade winds, which blow from nine to ten months of the year, is also significant since it explains the comparative absence of rainfall, a condition necessary for the existence of phosphate deposits.

The origin of the deposits on Nauru Island, as well as those on Ocean Island, is a matter of conjecture. The deposits do not appear to be simple guano, while some authorities consider them to be of a marine sedimentary origin raised from the sea-bed and subject to weathering.

From the point of view of phosphate manufacture the deposits are of a very high grade, exports averaging S5–4 per coin, tricalcic phosphate and 34 per cent. calcium carbonate. Owing to the uneven nature of the outcrops of coralliferous limestone the extent of the deposits cannot be measured accurately, but it is estimated as between fifty and ninety million tons.

DEVELOPMENT.

For £3,500,000 the Governments of Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand purchased from the Pacific Phosphate Company both the concession for working the Nauru deposits and the company's interests in Ocean Island. The rights under the concession, which had been obtained by the company from the German interests, were vested in the British Phosphate Commission, and in accordance with the Nauru agreement of 2nd July, 1919, the Commission succeeded the company on 30th June, 1920.

The agreement provides for the allocation of the annual output of phosphate among the three Governments in the following proportions, which coincide with the proportion of capital supplied by each towards the undertaking: Great Britain, 42 per cent.; Australia, 42 per cent.: and New Zealand, 16 per cent. Apportion of its share not required by any Government may be disposed of either to the other Governments pro rata, or if they do not require it to other countries. The partner countries receive interest at 6 per cent, on their capital invested, and redemption of capital within fifty years is provided for by a sinking fund. The Natives are paid £40 per acre (prior to 1st July, 1927, this was £20) for all phosphate-bearing lands, with an annual rental of £3 per acre for all non-phosphate lands leased, and are compensated for trees destroyed. A royalty of 7⅞. (prior to 1st July, 1932, 7£d.) per ton of phosphate shipped is paid, 4⅜. going to the Native landowner, 1½. being used by the Administrator solely for the benefit of the Nauruan people, and the remaining 2d. held in trust by the Administrator for the benefit of the landowner.

Nauru, together with Ocean Island, presents a unique example of large-scale development in isolated tropical conditions. Complete mechanization of all stages of the productive process enables the phosphate to be handled with the maximum speed and minimum cost. From quarrying to loading, through the crushing and drying processes, it is carried by cableways, railways, and electric belt-conveyors. The method of loading vessels at Nauru is unique and has been evolved to suit the local conditions. Owing to the geophysical structure of the sea-bed the construction of either a harbour or dock was found impracticable; so, in 1930, a cantilever conveyor was built. On the outer edge of the coral reef massive pillars were constructed to which were fixed two large swinging cantilever arms. With a length of 172 ft. these arms are able to reach out to ships moored beyond the reef, and with electric belt-conveyors running out on both arms the plant is able to load both the fore and after holds of a vessel simultaneously at the rate of 1,000 tons per hour. Owing to the great depth of the sea-bed and the proximity of the reef the mooring system for vessels using the cantilever is both elaborate and expensive. Unfortunately the method of loading is only a fine weather one, and in uncertain weather conditions lightering has to be reverted to.

Besides controlling the extensive mechanized plant, comprising electric-power stations, refrigeration, water-condensers, reservoirs, foundries, electric dust-precipitators, &c, the Commission also owns and operates three vessels especially built for the carrying of phosphate, and fitted with special apparatus for the servicing of the formidable mooring buoys and equipment. Shipment operations are also greatly expedited by a radio-telephone system enabling prompt consultations with Ocean Island as well as with the Commission's vessels. This service operates in addition to the radio-telegraph station under the control of the Administration.

The shipments from both Nauru and Ocean Islands, with deliveries to New Zealand, during each of the last five years have been as follows:—

Year ended 30th JuneExports.Shipments to New Zealand.
Nauru Island.Ocean Island.Total Shipments.Quantity.Per Cent, of Total.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons. 
1932289,340142,200431,540146,27033·89
1933436,100224,200660,300177,77026·92
1934379,100177,489556,589148,95026·76
1935457,900237,982695,882214,62130·84
1930506,600319,779826,379192,87923·34

At the present time Australia and New Zealand absorb nearly the whole output, leaving very little for export to other countries. The distribution during 1935–36 was as follows: Australia, 561,200 tons; New Zealand, 192,879 ton's; United Kingdom, 6,000 tons; and other countries, 66,300 tons.

The New Zealand Government receives from the British Phosphate Commission an annual contribution of £35,849 towards interest on and amortization of loan-money raised to meet the Dominion's share of the purchase-money of the Pacific Phosphate Company's rights. The indebtedness of the New Zealand Government on account of Nauru and Ocean Islands, originally £600,000, had been reduced to £410,915 at 31st March, 1936.

At the 1st April, 1936, there were 1,647 Native inhabitants, who speak a language akin to that of the Gilbert Islanders. In addition there were 4 Natives of other Pacific Islands, and 1,092 Chinese, who have been introduced for the working of the phosphate-deposits. Europeans numbered 179, the total population being thus 2,922.

Revenue and expenditure and trade of the Nauru Administration for each of the last five years available are—

Year.Revenue.Expenditure.Exports.Imports.
 ££££
193116,44016,903239,777108,729
193220,23515,435466,42395,739
193319,77918,748436,78797,684
193419,79819,758«470,87298,085
193523,48720,666474,393157,247

Imports consist almost entirely of food-supplies, and of machinery for the working of the phosphate.

THE ROSS DEPENDENCY

The following article on the Ross Dependency was prepared by Mr. 31. J. S. Nestor, of the Lands and Survey Department.

EARLY HISTORY.

It is convenient when writing on the history of the Dependency to deal first with Antarctica as a whole.

Prior to the departure from Plymouth of Captain James Cook's South Polar Expedition (13th July 1772) there existed a universal belief in a huge fertile southern continent, whose boundaries reached from the Pole to somewhere near the 30° S. latitude. This belief had been held in an even more exaggerated form centuries before by the ancient Greek philosophers, from whom, in fact, the name “Antarctica” is derived (“Anti-arktos”: opposite the Bear, the constellation containing the Polar Star). It was the object of Cook's voyage to discover the great southern continent if it existed, or to disprove its existence definitely. No man was better fitted for such a task, and on 17th January, 1773, the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time by human beings. Continuing south-east in high latitudes, Cook reached the 147° E. on 16th March, and as winter was approaching he bore up for New Zealand. In November, 1773, he sailed again for the south. On 30th January, 1774, the ship was blocked in 71° 10̕ S̋ and 106° 54̕ W., the farthest south of the cruise and of the century. Although Cook did not think it impossible to sail further to the south he considered that further attempts could only be classed as a dangerous and rash enterprise; added to which a diet of old and over-salted meat, and rotten biscuits half devoured by cockroaches, caused disease among the crew, and nearly caused the death of Cook himself. However, Cook's failure to discover the Antarctic continent did not disappoint him, since, to put it bluntly, he was of opinion that it was not worth discovering. “Countries condemned to everlasting rigidity by nature,” he wrote, “never to yield to the warmth of the sun, for whose wild and desolate aspect I find no words; such are the countries (Isle of Georgia and Southern Thule) we have discovered: what then may those resemble which lie further to the south ?” Milton may well have answered him:—

  • Beyond this flood, a frozen continent

  • Loomed dark and wild, beat with perpetual storm

  • Of whirlwind and dire hail, which on firm land

  • Thaws not, but gathers force, and ruin seems

  • Of ancient pile.

During the period following Cook's epochal cruise there are many accounts, some resting on doubtful evidence, of voyages far to the south by sealers, and others, notably Benjamin Morrell, Weddell (1823), Biscoe (who was the first to sight the Antarctic mainland, 1830), Kemp (1833), Balleny (1839), Wilkes (1839), and D'Urville (1839). Perhaps the most outstanding cruise of this period was that of the Russian, Bellinghausen (1819), who circumnavigated the globe in high southern latitudes as part of a Czarist scheme of polar exploration on a truly imperial scale.

Controversy still rages concerning the alleged discoveries of the American navigator, Captain Wilkes (1839), but there is no doubt concerning those of the British navigator, Admiral Sir James Clark Ross, whose two specially equipped ships, “Erebus” and “Terror”—old bombing vessels of great strength—penetrated the Antarctic pack ice, for the first time in history, in January, 1841. We know of Ross that he was a determined man and absolutely fearless. The formidable ice-field was penetrated in five days, and the open sea beyond (since named the Ross Sea) attained. Presently there appeared to the south a mighty range of snow-clad mountains—the long-sought-for continent of Antarctica. The names of the two ships are immortalized in two volcanoes in the Prince Albert Range—Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, and of Ross, in the great segment of Antarctica which he discovered, now known as the Ross Dependency.

RECENT HISTORY.

Ross entirely overshadows all previous southern explorers with the sole exception of Cook. He pioneered the route to Antarctica since followed by all successful explorers, and opened the gates to the Pole itself. The great polar expeditions of the present century led by Shackleton, Scott, Amundsen, and Byrd have all been based within the boundaries of the Ross Dependency.

In such a necessarily brief article it is impossible to do full justice to all the notable expeditions following that of Ross, but the salient points concerning the more outstanding of these are appended. The first discovery of fossils in Antarctica was made by the Norwegian whaler. Captain C. A. Larsen, well known in New Zealand through the visit to these coasts of his whaling-ships. The discovery is important since it revealed that at one time Antarctica enjoyed a warm climate. The later discovery of coal-seams confirmed scientific opinion on this point.

The first human beings to winter on Antarctica were the “Southern Cross” party of ten (1899) on Cape Adare under the leadership of C. E. Borchgrevinck. Although at the time the expedition set out from London it was feared that the whole party was doomed to certain death, it was found that climatic conditions were not nearly as terrible as was expected. There was only one death, and oven this calamity was not attributable to the rigour of the climate.

Other scientific expeditions which may be mentioned were those of Kristensen (1894), Gerlache (1897), Drygalski (1901), Nordenskjold (1902), the “Scotia” (1903), and Dr. Charcot (1904). None of these, however, attains the standard of the great “Discovery” expedition of 1902–4, when three of the foremost figures in Antarctic exploration—Captain Robert Falcon Scott, Dr. E. A. Wilson, and Sir Ernest Shackleton—were associated in a series of sledging journeys which did more to reveal the character of the mainland than any previous efforts. In addition to geographical discovery, scientific work of a high standard was performed and the unqualified success so attained undoubtedly did much to influence favourable opinion towards support for further exploration of a like nature.

The South Pole had not yet been reached, and such a spectacular achievement, which might also yield valuable scientific data-, was aimed at by Shackleton, who later (1908–9) sledged to within ninety miles of this objective. The same-goal was actually attained by a Norwegian expedition, led by Captain Ronald Amundsen, and a British party under Captain Scott, simultaneously in 1911. They travelled by different routes and reached the Pole without mishap, but, on the return journey, Captain Scott and the remainder of his party—Dr. Wilson, Oates, Evans, and Bowers—perished on the Ross Barrier. Scott's chronicle of the return trip is considered to be one of the greatest of human documents ever written. The passing of this coterie—Scott, Amundsen, and Shackleton—marks the close of what has been termed the “heroic age,” the period characterized by spectacular achievement under trying conditions (hand sledges, and, above all, continuous isolation), as compared with the modern motor-tractor, aeroplanes, and wireless. A connecting link between those days and the present is provided by Sir Douglas Mawson, who has supplemented his original work (with Shackleton) by recent valuable charting and scientific discovery under modern conditions.

The Australasian Expedition (1911–14) marked the beginning of direct interest in the south by New Zealand and Australia. It was followed in 1929 by the “Banzare” expedition which, while fundamentally Australian, was supported strongly by the British Government, and by New Zealand and the Union of South Africa. The utility of the aeroplane as a permanent aid to polar reconnaissance was established conclusively when Sir G. H. Wilkins made a ten-hour flight. (1928) from Deception Island over Graham Land to Hearst Land.

Other notable aeroplane flights were those of Byrd (1931) and Lincoln Ellsworth (1935). The importance of Mr. Ellsworth's epic flight from Dundee Island to the Bay of Whales can hardly be overestimated. The latest expedition is that of John Rymill, a South Australian explorer.

NATURAL FEATURES.

The physical character of Antarctica, and particularly of the Ross Dependency, has been established conclusively from the published results of the various scientific and other expeditions, although, of course, scientific study is yet far from complete.

The area of the continent, only a fraction of which has yet been seen by human beings, is computed by Sir Douglas Mawson and Dr. Bruce to be about 5£ million square miles, thus equalling the combined areas of Europe and Australia.

Of this huge area, the Ross Dependency occupies approximately 175,000 square miles. No part of the continent has ever been inhabited, probably because its most northerly point is separated by 500 miles of the stormiest ocean in the world from the nearest inhabited land mass (South America). Its mean altitude is probably no less than 6,500 ft., including the ice cap. There are no trees, flowers, land animals, or cultivable soil. It is unique in the ferocity of its winds, and the magnitude of its glaciers; its predominating features are essentially glacialogical. The bleakness and poverty of the life, combined with its changeless and sombre beauty, almost transcend the imagination of man.

Coal-seams have been found, but the prospect of exploitation of this mineral, and any other which may be found in the future, is a distant one. As Dr. Priestley remarked to the writer, during his last visit to New Zealand, the problem of Antarctica is one of exploration, not exploitation.

FLORA AND FAUNA.

The character of vegetation and terrestrial fauna may be summed up in the remark that the former is represented by a few mosses and lichens, and the latter by several small insects, none larger than a flea. The mainland is, however, visited by Emperor and Adelie penguins, petrels, skuas, gulls, terns, and true or hair seals (as distinct from the sub-Antarctic fur seals).

WHALING INDUSTRY.

In the icy seas which beat against the coasts are found seven different kinds of whales, which, together with the seals (though these latter are not of great economic importance) constitute the sole material wealth so far taken from Antarctica. The blue whale (Balaerw-pterasibbaldi) and the finner arc the commonest type and the most profitable; but five others of both the toothed and baleen varieties have been reported. Thirteen years ago Captain C. A. Larsen, commanding a whaling fleet sent out by a Sandefjord company, the Hvalfangerselskap Rosshavet, pioneered the whaling industry in the Ross Sea. The mother ship was the “Sir James Clark Ros3,” a steel single-screw steamer of 13,000 tons, built at Belfast in 1905; it was accompanied by five small steam catchers. On 17th December, 1923, the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time by a whaling fleet. Captain C. A. Larsen brought the ships safely through the pack ice, and, on the 27th December, the first whaling operations were put in train by the killing of four 100-ton blue whales. Captain Larsen lived to see confirmation of his confidence in the future of the Ross Sea fisheries, which should prove a valuable asset for generations to come providing that the industry is properly controlled. Grave fears have repeatedly been expressed as to Antarctic whaling generally, and the view is held that experience of the northern fisheries will be repeated if a “Laissez-faire” policy is adopted. To date, no New Zealand capital has been attracted to this industry, although proposals to form a Ross Sea Whaling Company have been mooted from time to time. The arduous nature of the work, the isolation, the long hours, the perilous hurried trips in the small catchers, the working of machinery perpetually cased in ice, and the flensing of frozen carcasses, is such that the fisheries are practically monopolized by Norwegians, and have been for many years.

THE FUTURE.

It is impossible to forecast the future of the Ross Dependency. As mentioned before, the prospect of “making it pay” is remote. Settlement will depend on the value of precious minerals which may be discovered. Sir Douglas Mawson, however, looks far into the future when he writes: “Owing to the high velocity of the winds descending from the icy plateau of the hinterland, it would be possible, by the erection of only a limited installation of staunchly constructed wind generators, to harness a goodly amount of energy. In the present state of electrical science, such power could not be exported as current, but it might be converted to saleable commodities. Some day, therefore, there may thus be produced for export atmospheric-nitrogen products and like power-consuming manufactures.”

The same writer, who is one of the foremost authorities on south polar regions, sees possibilities in fur-farming, since the climate is favourable, and suitable food is available at no cost whatever. The shore stations established for this purpose would be linked with whaling operations. “The whaling craft, besides securing cargoes of whale products, would make it its business to visit the shore stations annually, bringing stores and transporting the trade to market.“

WHALING.

IN ROSS DEPENDENCY.

Regulations dated the 24th October, 1929, which supersede those of 1st November, 1926, prohibit the carrying-on of whaling operations within the boundaries of the Ross Dependency without a license, the annual fee payable for which is £200, in addition to which the Government requires a royalty of 2s. 6d. per barrel (40 gallons). The owner or master of a vessel engaged in whaling or used as a floating whale-factory is liable to a fine not exceeding £1,000 for each day on which operations are carried on without a license. A penalty not exceeding £100 per day is provided for in cases of non-compliance with the terms of the license granted in respect of any vessel used for whaling or as a floating factory and a similar penalty for failure to equip a floating factory in accordance with the requirements of the regulations or to convert a whale into commercial products within 48 hours after delivery at the factory. Provision is made for the arrest on warrant of any vessel in respect of which an offence against the regulations is committed.

The regulations apply, of course, only to territorial waters, and operations are carried on outside territorial waters by unlicensed expeditions. The great majority of whales are taken outside territorial waters.

Receipts from whaling-industry license fees, &c, have been as follows:—

 £
1926–272,921
1927–287,177
1928–2913,962
1929–307,871
1930–31Dr. 70
1931–32614
1932–33..
1933–341,000
1934–35600
1935–36500

The whale-oil taken by expeditions which have received New Zealand licenses in each of the last eleven seasons is as follows:—

Season.Barrels.*

* Of 40 imperial gallons.

† Not Available.

1925–2637,700
1926–2770,300
1927–28124,000
1928–29122,000
1929–30169,190
1930–31272,500
1931–32 to 1935–36

The Whaling Industry Act, 1935, gives legislative effect, so far as New Zealand is concerned, to the International Whaling Convention signed at Geneva in 1931. The general principles of the Convention are in the direction of conservation of the species and regulation of the industry.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING STATISTICS.

The seventh report on International Whaling Statistics—edited by the committee for whaling statistics appointed by the Norwegian Government—gives statistics of whaling in various geographical areas of the world.

The total catch of whales during the last five years was as follows:—

Year.Antarctic.Arctic.Africa.North Pacific.Japan.Other Areas.Total.
1930–3140,201703823..1,147..42,874
1931–329,5728271,0433191,036..12,797
1932–3324,3271,0041,1685911,32525328,668
1933–3426,0875832,3921,0191,77531132,167
1934–3531,8085683,0048552,27474539,254

The next table shows the production of oil in the last five years.

Year.Antarctic.Arctic.Africa.Other Whaling Grounds.Total.
 Barrels.Barrels.Barrels.Barrels.Barrels.
1930–313,608,34825,26837,08616,2743,686,976
1931–32808,56028,59044,11234,580915,842
1932–332,456,46234,83353,00052,4832,596,778
1933–342,395,54416,03882,35979,2142,573,155
1934–352,453,99915,341117,950103,9932,691,283

NOTE.—Six barrels of oil are equivalent to 1 ton.

Of the 39,254 whales caught in 1934–35, 16,834 were of the blue species, 14,078 were fin, 4,031 were humpback, 962 were sei, 2,238 were sperm, and 1,111 were of other or unspecified species.

The whaling expeditions operating during the year consisted of seventeen shore stations, thirty floating factories, and 242 catchers.

Norwegian and British whaling operations are by far the most important. Records from 1919 onwards show that Norway led until 1931–32. At present the whaling output from these countries is approximately upon a level. Oil production during 1934–35 was—Norwegian, 1,239,237 barrels; British, 1,288,554 barrels; other countries, 163,492 barrels.

Chapter 65. SECTION XLVII—STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF NEW ZEALAND.

POPULATION AND MIGRATION (INCLUDING MAORIS).

Year.Population.Mean Population.Overseas Passenger Arrivals.* Overseas Passenger Departures.*
At 31st December.At 31st March.Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March.
* Excluding “through” passengers, and tourists on cruising liners.
1885619,323613,200613,802602,49916,19911,695
1886631,355620,565624,275615,81916,10115,037
1887645,330635,347638,343627,95613,68912,712
1888649,349646,914647,340641,13113,60622,781
1889658,021652,128653,685649,52115,39215,178
1890667,477664,853662,749658,49115,02816,810
1891676,051668,594671,776666,72414,43117,629
1892692,426679,465684,239674,04218,12213,164
1893714,258698,182703,342688,82426,13515,723
1894728,121718,740721,190708,46125,23722,984
1895740,699731,468734,410725,10421,86220,967
1896754,010743,376746,288737,42217,23615,764
1897768,910757,503761,463749,37018,59215,840
1898783,317771,568776,114764,5361S.85516,159
1899796,359786,530789,838779,04918,50616,619
1900808,132798,471802,246792,50118,07416,243
1901830,800815,862821,111808,81125,08618,564
1902851,072833,139840,936824,50130,29322,301
1903875,648857,993863,360845,56630,88319,608
1904900,682882,100888,165870,04732,63222,277
1905925,605908,116913,144895,10832,68523,383
1906956,457933,114943,325920,61539,23326,385
1907977,215961,598966,836949,65036,10830,378
19081,008,373985,320992,794973,45944,97030,709
19091,030,6571,016,0631,019,5151,000,69238,65033,931
19101,050,4101,035,2121,040,5341,025,63835,76932,361
19111,075,2501,056,1991,063,8871,045,70641,38937,189
19121,102,4711,081,3441,088,8611,069,82844,66035,733
19131,134,5061,111,5891,118,4881,096,46744,58830,369
19141,145,8381,139,6681,140,1721,125,62837,64632,506
19151,152,6381,150,3861,149,2381,145,02725,55122,476
19161,150,3391,150,2501,149,2251,150,31821,79921,163
19171,147,4481,150,9381,148,8931,149,22515,64913,869
19181,158,1491,154,5591,152,7981,152,74811,90611,660
19191,227,1811,178,4061,192,6651,166,48220,93119,877
19201,257,6111,236,9151,242,3961,207,66044,06232,924
19211,292,7171,267,4981,276,6521,252,20641,88228,559
19221,318,8841,301,2511,305,1261,285,71135,23328,389
19231,343,0211,325,3011,328,1931,311,38136,48829,668
19241,370,4031,347,8531,352,6181,334,02939,81530,593
19251,401,2301,379,4871,384,4281,359,99541,84629,172
19261,429,5551,409,8121,413,7001,392,07345,68533,825
19271,450,0901,437,9801,438,8141,420,76238,67636,248
19281,466,9521,453,5171,455,7341,443,32335,47835,035
19291,485,5641,470,6541,472,9251,459,98334,43931,643
19301,506,0871,488,5951,492,3761,477,49432,55928,321
19311,521,8881,510,9401,613,4161,497,73220,22521,634
19321,533,7091,524,6331,526,1151,517,10317,87921,210
19331,545,9461,536.9641,538,4901,529,13318,82621,217
19341,557,0431,548,9091,550,2771,541,51123,24126,617
19351,568,2071,559,6241,560,8221,553,00526,15727,397
1936..1,573,927..1,564,007....

VITAL STATISTICS.

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.Deaths under 1 Year per 1,000 Births.
Births.Marriages.Deaths.Deaths. under 1 Year.Births.Marriages.Deaths.
188519,6933,8136,0811,75634·356·6510·6189·17
188619,2993,4886,1351,89933155·9910·5498·40
188719,1353,5636,1371.79532·095·9710·2993·81
188818,9023,6175,7081,33631·225·979·4370·68
188918,4573,6325,7721,45630·175·949·4478·89
189018,2783,7975,9941,43829·446·129·6678·67
189118,2733,8056,5181,66729·016·0410·3591·23
189217,8764,0026,4591,59427·836·2310·0089·17
189318,1874,1156,7671,60027·506·2210·2387·97
189418,5284,1786.9181,50727·286·1510·1981·34
189518,5464,1106,8631,63726·785·949·9188·27
189618,6124,8436,4321,43926·336·859·1077·32
189718,7374,9286,5951,35425·966·839·1472·26
189818,9555,0917,2441,51025·746·919·8479·66
189918,8355,4617,6801,80625·127·2810·2495·89
190019,5465,8607,2001,46925·607·679·4375·16
190120,4916,0957,6341,46326·347·839·8171·40
190220,6556,3948,3751,71225·898·0110·5082·89
190321,8296,7488,5281,77026·618·2310·4081·08
190422,7666,9838,0871,61626·948·269·5770·98
190523,6827,2008,0611,59927·228·289·2767·52
190624,2527,5928,3391,50627·088·489·3162·10
190725,0948,19210,0662,22827·308·9110·9588·79
190825,9408,3399,0431,76127·458·829·5767·89
190926,5248,0948,9591,63427·298·339·2261·60
191025,9848,2369,6391,76026·178·309·7167·73
191126,3548,8259,5341,48425·978·709·3956·31
191227,5089.1499,2141,40926·488·818·8751·22
191327,9358,81310,1191,65326·148·259·4759·17
191428,3389,28010,1481,45625·908·519·3151·38
191527,85010,0289,9651,39425·339·129·0650·05
191628,5098,21310,5961,44625·947·479·6450·72
191728,2396,41710,5281,36025·695·849·5848·16
191825,8606,22716,3041,25223·445·6514·8448·41
191924,4839,51910,8081,10821·428·339·4645·26
192029,92112,17512,1091,51325·0910·2110·1550·57
192128,56710,63510,6821,36623·34:8·698·7347·82
192229,0069,55610,9771,21523·177·638·7741·89
192327,96710,07011,5111,22521·947·909·0343·80
192428,01410,25910,7071,12721·577·908·2940·23
192528,15310,41911,0261,12521·177·848·2939·96
192628,47310,68011,8191,13221·057·908·7439·76
192727,88110,47811,6131,08020·297·628·4538·74
192827,20010,53711,81198419·567·588·4936·18
192926,74710,96712,31491219·017·788·7534·10
193026,79711,07512,19992418·807·778·5634·48
193126,6229,81712,04785618·426·798·3432·15
193224,8849,89611,68377717·096·808·0231·22
193324,33410,51011,70177016·597·167·9831·64
193424,32211,25612,52778116·477·628·483211
193523,96512,18712,21777316·138·208·2232·26

EDUCATION.

Year.Number of Scholars-receivingUniversity Students (excluding affiliated Agricultural Colleges).
Primary Education atSecondary Education at
Public Schools.Registered Private Schools.Native Village Schools.Secondary*(including Endowed) Schools.District High Schools.Technical* Schools.Registered Private Schools.
* Combined secondary and technical high schools, Instituted in 1931, included with secondary schools.
1885102,40711,9892,1612,659......442
1886106,32812,4972,3462,358......490
1887110,91913,4172,6312,242......588
1888112,68513,8932,5122,120......662
1889115,45613,5162,4622,147......588
1890117,91213,6912,2592,117......596
1891119,52314,1762,2312,205......705
1892122,62014,4672,1332,262......695
1893124,69014,9312,1342,251......680
l894127,30014,6492,4182,454......680
1895129,85614,7042,6752,525......742
1896131,03713,9792,8622,614......677
1897132,19714,5242,8642,709......653
1898131,62114,8572,9722,706......667
1899131,31515,3803,0652,723......766
1900130,72415,6023,1092,792......805
1901131,35115,3973,2732,899662....783
1902132,26215,6673,7423,0721,479....864
1903133,56815,6873,6933,7222,096....862
1004135,47516,4453,7544,0382,330....971
1905137,62316,7383,8634,0602,872....1,153
1906139,30217,2174,1744,2702,594....1,332
1907141,21618,1744,1834,1962,452....1,325
1908147,57516,2444,2174,3272,142699..1,634
1909152,60517,9894,1214,8561,891846..1,846
1910156,59419,0524,2805,1761,9101,253..1,862
1911161,90419,9674,5575,4651,7771,3418311,900
1912166,55320,3504,6945,8311,8151,5268832,228
1913172,51921,2514,6476,1541,8371,6645452,318
1914178,87122,2475,0726,4181,8961,8398502,257
1915183,63122,4775,1916,4882,1021,9559922,039
1916186,35023,6355,1327,0522,1152,1051,0041,985
1917188,75425,6855,1737,5902,1802,3471,2001,977
1918193,34526,3715,0648,3842,2832,7471,3662,226
1919194,58620,9775,1989,0682,1592,9261,4973,060
1920198,46022,1935,5089,1962,1572,7661,4393,822
1921205,95523,9245,82210,0302,1763,3491,6344,123
1922211,08124,8616,16110,7362,6064,2021,9983,958
1923212,46026,0106,18611,6192,8185,0542,1344,202
1924213,76826,3026,31012,0102,9005,3692,4734,236
1925215,06325,9336,38612,5143,1365,1322,5114,442
1926219,01726,7786,59113,6513,2995,7002,7944,653
1927221,15727,3586,62014,1903,5815,7032.932i 4,878
1928219,95026,5966,67115,0383,8806,0613,4304,802
1929219,16626,9776,97915,4984,0006,1143,6984,623
1930219,23526,4517,07016,1494,2406,9533,8254,801
1931218,68926,7267,50316,3444,9447,3973,6734,869
1932207,48926,4107,31315,9484,4867,1063,5264,912
1933200,81926,4287,34015,7154,5117,1493,5864,806
1934199,91326,6367,58715,9014,3657,1833,6514,721
1935197,52626,8697,87616,1624,5937,3233,9684,818

JUSTICE.

Year.Summary Convictions in Magistrates' Courts.Total Convictions and Sentences in Superior Courts.Total Distinct Persons sentenced in Superior Courts.Prisoners in Gaol at End of Year (undergoing Sentence).
Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.NumberRate per 1,000 of Mean Population.NumberRate per 10,000 of Population.
188517,80429·002660·432360·386318·57
188616,70526763060·492860·465588·84
188715,55724·373860·603470·546339·81
188814,47222·363080·482650·416059·32
188914,08221·542760·422280·356119·29
189014,12821·322700·412270·345177·75
189113,34919·872830·422210·334947·31
189213,58319·852410·351950·294336·25
189313,71019·493040·432720·394636·48
189412,93417·933710·513240·454836·63
189513,38318·224070·553590·495317·17
189614,48119·403550·483110·424936·54
189716,32520·133660·483150·416238·10
189816,99121·893910·503860·506336·80
189917,58622·274050·513830·485086·38
190019,24223·994270·533910·495276·52
190120,72425·243610·443540·436618·39
190222,45526·703490·423390·406027·45
190325,18629·173980·463800·446888·26
190425,67228·905270·595190·587017·78
190525,37127·784490·494330·477608·21
190627,67029·334450·474330·468338·71
190730,90131·964900·614810·507918·09
190830,85231·085430·555320·548158·08
190931,15130·555520·545440·538778·51
191032,43631·174950·484940·478438·01
191133,02931·054530·434270·408027·46
191236,19133·244800·444280·398217·45
191339,68535·484460·404090·378347·36
191441.72336·595220·464830·429818·56
191539,67534·525090·444410·389418·16
191635,45930·854480·394010·358347·25
191734,18929·766230·543770·339548·31
191829,25225·376320·553550·311,0058·68
191932,69227·418080·684610·398526·94
192035,51728·591,0110·814590·379967·92
192137,12429·081,4751·166160·481,0448·08
192234,51326·441,4171·096010·461,0528·32
192337,10427·941,6631·256250·471,1418·50
192439,59429·271,3881·035550·411,1978*73
192544,01731·791,4651065110·371,2849·16
192646,20532·681,5621·105690·401,3889·71
192745,93031·921,7391·215690·401,48310·23
192845,13930·781,3680·944780·331,4359·78
192946,30931·441,3450·914730·321,3429·04
193047,24731·661,5241·025380·361,52310·11
193142,09227·811,6241·076000·401,61410·61
193242,36627·761,7101·126360·421,52229·92
193337,67124·491,5130·985310·351,4109·12
193437,70424·321,2130·784900·321,1997·67
193538,33724·461,1480·744720·301,1127·09

AGRICULTURE.

Season.Wheat for Threshing.Oats for Threshing.
Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.
* Yield probably overstated for these four seasons, due to total being obtained by applying ascertained averages to areas returned by farmers as sown for threshing. Areas returned in these years as intended for threshing would appear, in many cases, to have been eventually utilized for other purposes.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1885–86173,894,242,28524·40329,4888,603,7022611
1886–87253,0256,297,63824·89387,22811,973,29530·92
1887–88357,3599,424,05920·37336,47410,512,11931·24
1888–89362,1538,770,24624·22367,22510,977,06529·89
1889–90335,8618,448,50025·15426,07113,073,58432·10
1890–91301,4605,723,61018·99346,2249,947,03628·73
1891–92402,27310,257,73825·50323,50811,009,02034·03
1892–93381,2458,378,21721·98326,5319,893,98930·30
1893–94242,7374,891,69520·15376,64612,153,06832·27
1894–95148,5753,613,03724·32351,85210,221.39329·05
1895–96245,4416,843,70827·88364,78812,203,54033·62
1896–97258,6085,926,52322·92372,59711,232,80330·15
1897–98315,8015,670,01717·95354,8199,738,39127·44
1898–99399,03413,073,41632·76417,32016,511,38839·56
1899–1900269,7498,581,89831·81398,24316,325,83240·99
1900–1206,4656,527,15431·61449,53419,085,83742·45
1901–2163,4624,046,58924·76405,92415,045,23337·06
1902–3194,3557,457,91538·37483,65921,766,70845·00
1903–4230,3467,891,65434·26409,39015,107,23738·57
1904–5258,0159,123,67335·36342,18914,553,61142·53
1905–6222,1836,798,93430·00354,29112,707,98235·86
1906–7206,1855,605,25227·18351,92911,201,78931·83
1907–8193,0315,507,13928·84386,88515,021,86138·82
1908–9252,3918,772,79034·75406,90818,906,78846·46
1909–10311,0008,661,10028·00377,00013,804,00037·00
1910–11322,1678,290,22125·73302,82710,118,91733·41
1911–12215,5287,261,13833·09403,66819,662,668*48·71
1912–13189,8695,179,02627·28386,78613,583,924*35·12
1913–14166,7745,231,70031·37361,74114,740,946*40·75
1914–15229,6006,044,33028·94287,56111,436,301*39·77
1915–16329,2077,108,36021·59212,0887,653,20835·98
1916–17217,7435,051,22723·19177,5245,371,43630·29
1917–18280,9786,807,53624·23156,2024,942,75931·64
1918–19208,0306,567,62031·57172,0806,884,60939·87
1919–20139,6114,559,93432·66179,8006,967,86238·75
1920–21219,9856,872,26231·24147,5595,225,11535·41
1921–22352,91810,565,27529·94170,6556,752,66339·56
1922–23275,7758.395,02330·44143,0905,688,15739·75
1923–24173,8644,174,53724·0163,8421,964,51130·77
1924–25166,9645,447,75832·62147,3875,707,17438·72
1925–26151,6734,617,04130·44102,4854,115,00640·14
1926–27220,0837,952,44236·13117,3264,997,53542·58
1927–28260,9879,541,44436·5688,2233,852,68743·66
1928–29255,3128,832,86434·6073,1013,065,11341·93
1929–30235,9427,239,55630·6867,7223,002,28844·33
1930–31249,0147,579,15330·4487,1523,376,60938·74
1931–32268,7566,582,09824·4968,6902,818,15241·03
1932–33302,53111,054,97236·54116,2065,132,18344·16
1933–34286,2719,036,01731·5678,3433,242,50041·39
1934–35225,3895,933,24526·3252,5161,890,14535·99
1935–36248,6398,859,22335·6377,5023,302,64242·61

LIVE-STOCK.

Year.Horses.Total Cattle.Dairy Cows.Sheep.Pigs.Goats.
* Not enumerated.
1886187,382853,358*15,174,263277,90110,220
1887***15,155,626**
1888***15,042,198**
1889***15,423,328**
1890***16,116,113**
1891211,040788,919*17,865,423222,5539,055
1892***18,570,752**
1893***19,380,369**
1894*885,305*20,230,829**
1895*964,034257,14019,826,604**
1896237,4181,047,901276,21719,138,493239,778*
1897249,8131,138,067300,21919,687,954209,834*
1898252,8341,209,105324,48519,673,725186,027*
1899258,1151,203,024333,53619,348,506193,512*
1900261,9311,222,139355,25619,355,195249,751*
1901266,2451,256,680372,41620,233,099250,975*
1902279,6721,361,784381,49220,342,727224,024*
1903286,9551,460,663428,77318,954,553193,740*
1904298,7141,593,547468,12518,280,806226,591*
1905314,3221,736,850498,24119,130,875255,320*
1906326,5371,810,936517,72020,108,471249,727*
1907342,6081,851,750543,92720,983,772242,273*
1908352,8321,816,299541,36322,449,053241,128*
1909363,2591,773,326536,62923,480,707245,092*
1910***24,269,620**
1911404,2842,020,171633,73323,996,126348,754*
1912***23,750,153**
1913***24,191,810**
1914***24,798,763**
1915***24,901,421**
1916371,3312,417,491750,32324,788,150297,50117,601
1917373,6002,575,230777,43925,270,386283,77018,235
1918378,0502,869,465793,21226,538,302258,69417,730
1919363,1883,035,478826,13525,828,554235,34716,924
1920346,4073,101,945893,45423,919,970266,82914,534
1921337,2593,139,2231,004,66623,285,031349,89217,367
1922332,1053,323,2231,137,05522,222,259384,33317,480
1923330,8183,480,6941,248,64323,081,439400,88917,071
1924330,4303,563,4971,312,58823,775,776414,27118,196
1925326,8303,503,7441,323,43224,547,955440,11518,975
1926314,8673,452,4861,303,85624,904,993472,53421,761
1927303,7133,257,7291,303,22525,649,016520,14326,099
1928307,1603,273,7091,352,39827,133,810586,89824,251
1929298,9863,445,7901,371,06329,051,382556,73234,226
1930297,1953,770,2231,441,41030,841,287487,79339,127
1931295,7434,080,5251,601,63329,792,516476,194*
1932280,9944,072,3831,702,07028,691,788513,416*
1933276,8974,192,0231,845,97227,755,966591,582*
1934273,9064,301,1281,932,51128,649,038660,393*
1935272,9864,293,4991,952,09429,076,754762,755*
1936276,1704,254,0781,951,50730,113,704808,463*

TRADE.

Year.Excluding Specie.*Specie.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.

* Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency.

Specie exports and imports represent (gold) face value.

 ££s.d.££s.d.££
18856,738,862101977,278,1011117281,077201,820
18866,534,51310946,319,2231025138,278439,790
18876,680,77210946,064,2819100185,397181,234
18887,403,20611895,430,050879364,119511,850
18899,183,95414105,980,583930157,910328,280
18909,569,31614895,928,89581811242,404331,630
18919,560,85914486,431,10191165,53872,748
18929,490,920131756,742,544917143,931200,512
18938,680,845126106,494,279948304,519417,236
18949,221,550121596,990,1778619,497797,843
18958,518,119111206,115,95386732,105284,176
18969,299,90712937,035,37998721,198101,941
18979,741,2221215107,994,20110100275,77161,022
189810,449,83813938,211,4091011768,11719,191
189911,923,422151118,613,6561018114,913125,977
190013,223,258169810,207,3261214622,903438,770
190112,869,8101513611,353,4161316611,614464,499
190213,635,459164410,958,03813079,518368,685
190314,971,9261761012,075,9591319938,452712,716
190414,738,75016111112,900,030141069,598391,664
190515,642,069172712,481,1781313413,878347,679
190617,992,480191614,303,1701533102,657908,233
190720,061,6412015016,539,70717227,316763,154
190816,075,2051631017,247,1621775242,289224,122
190919,636,151195214,817,4621410825,845857,257
191022,152,4732151016,748,2231611127,736303,360
191118,980,18517161018,782,6081713148,305763,271
191221,511,6261915120,576,579181711258,955399,995
191322,810,3632071121,653,6321972176,359634,670
191426,253,925230621,144,2271810117,522711,869
191531,430,822277020,658,72017196318,0901,070,114
191633,281,0572819225.045,4032115105,8801,293,880
191731,517,072278820,742,130181170,475177,135
191828,480,5782414124,131,7922018835,610102,215
191953,907,925454030,309,167258362,150362,531
192046,405,366377061,553,85349101136,58041,975
192144,828,460352342,744,1223398367198,321
192242,725,9493214934,826,07426138300186,487
192345,939,7933411943,363,9833213027,37214,510
192452,509,2233816548,527,60335176103,488..
192555,243,04739 18152,425,7573717419,22530,650 
192645,208,924320649,811,76335486,65177,800
192748,496,3543314144,782,6663126..280
192855,570,38138 12544,844,1023134618,10042,164 
192954,930,0633751048,734,4723319649,00063,505
193044,940,517302344,339,65429140175363,087
193134,950,6982311126,498,15117102202,33056,155
193235,609,919236824,646,00616301,355,86155,310
193341,005,9192613125,581,36616127296,032424,704
193447,342,8473010931,339,55220442,283,9001,242,000
193546,538,3812916336,317,2672355521,000381,821

TRADEcontinued.

Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Wool.Frozen Meat.*Tallow.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
* Since 1933 includes chilled beef.
 Lb.£Cwt.£Cwt.£
188586,507,4313,205,275296,473373,857138,600176,962
188690,853,7443,072,971346,055427,193129,700119,619
188788,824,3823,321,074402,107455,870154,720147,233
188883,225,7333,115,008552,298628,800136,460124,950
1889102,227,3543,976,375656,822783,374159,020159,460
1890102,817,0774,150,599898,8941,087,617173,300162,471
1891106,187,1144,129,6861,000,3071,194,724175,580173,257
1892118,180,9124,313,307869,6001,033,377165,220165,513
1893109,719,6843,774,738903,8361,085,167170,060183,588
1894144,295,1544,827,0161,025,2431,194,545199,400204,499
1895116,015,1703,662,1311,134,0971,262,711263,560260,999
1896129,151,6244,391,8481,103,3621,251,993222,540208,821
1897135,835,1174,413,1441,407,9211,566,286310,200259,964
1898149,385,8154,645,8041,551,7731,698,750347,160302,141
1899147,169,4974,324,6271,865,8272,088,856338,620311,649
1900140,706,4864,749,1961,844,8312,123,881367,780368,473
1901146,820,0793,699,1031,857,5472,253,262335,360351,710
1902160,419,0233,354,5632,138,5572,718,763424,060550,131
1903155,128,3814,041,2742,378,6503,197,043396,940517,871
1904144,647,3764,673,8261,912,9792,793,599322,480357,974
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,690,6842,694,432318,942347,888
1906154,384,5686,765,6552,025,5072,877,031378.400455,026
1907171,635,5957,657,2782,354,8083,420,664414,880560,965
1908162,518,4815,332,7812,120,3033,188,515372,520481,335
1909189,683,7036,305,8882,572,6043,601,093484,160648,452
1910204,368,9578,308,4102,654,1963,850,777520,180756,841
1911169,424,8116,491,7072,250,5653,503,400413,120607,257
1912188,361,7907,105,4832,573,2383,909,569470,900684,739
1913186,533,0368,057,6202,578,6934,449,933454,860663,088
1914220,472,8989,318,1143,229,9695,863,062490,300694,348
1915196,570,11410,387,8753,591,2607,794,395535,260780,828
1916185,506,85912,386,0743,326,0457,271,318449,440785,339
1917178,274,4862,175,3662,446,9455,982,404251,980553,016
1918108,724,5757,527,2662,036,9044,957,576328,420847,618
1919274,246,61319,559,5373,822,6839,628,292937,4802,680,006
1920162,327,17611,863,8274,629,28211,673,696540,8201,748,773
1921158,714,8285,221,4794,322,75411,164,345554,240867,298
1922321,525,56211,882,4633,518,0048,387,461529,900750,574
1923217,566,09110,904,6583,043,9109,012,627504,860785,668
1924206,189,91115,267,5443,213,5749,499,877479,760799,230
1925205,726,85617,739,7363,414,20611,174,567500,760895,061
1926213,154,39911,830,1903,034,3568,656,213422,660741,046
1927220,500,72012,961,7443,364,9659,104,621477,500714,441
1928226,804,54416,679,0983,793,82810,309,662514,960804,271
1929234,955,97815,359,2063,336,2009,883,277416,640693,614
1930197,239,6147,664,3624,036,63910,937,382492,660683,571
1931211,718,8685,515,3764,138,8068,892,555465,280413,080
1932238,179,0625,742,8214,645,4808,436,306507,540462,081
1933286,307,4417,422,2665,203,1139,845,627560,400516,063
1934255,796,78312,516,4254,969,44711,886,955553,240480,354
1935222,661,4037,097,1335,206,51412,768,968505,540630,638

TRADEcontinued.

Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Butter.Cheese.Gold.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Cwt.£Cwt.£Oz.£
188524,923102,38715,24535,742222,732890,056
188023,175105,53716,42945,657235.578939,648
188717,01854,92123,91354,562187,938747,878
188829,995118,25230,68278,918229,608914,309
188937,955146.84026,55867,105197,492785,490
189034,816122,70140,45184,986187,641751,360
189139,430150,25839,77086,675251,1611,007,172
189253,930227,16241,49391,042237,393951,963
189358,149254,64546,20199,626227,502915,921
189460,771251,28055,655115,203221,614887,865
189557,964227,60176,743150,909293,4931,162,181
189671,353281,71671,372130,166263,6941,041,428
189799,002402,60577,683150,517251,647980,204
189896,801403,69068,711135,776280,1751,080,691
1899136,086571,79969,440141,818389,5701,513,180
1900172,583740,620102,849229,111373,0141,439,602
1901201,591882,406104,294238,685455,5581,753,784
1902253,9981,205,80274,746163,539507,8521,951,420
1903285,1061,318,06774,780194,998533,3142,037,832
1904314,3601,380,46084,526185,486520,3231,987,501
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,171520,4852,093,936
1906320,2251,560,235131,206341,002563,8432,270,904
1907328,4411,615,345236,833662,355508,2102,027,490
1908229,9711,171,182280,798783,419506,3812,004,799
1909321,1081,639,380400,6071,105,390506,3712,006,900
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,373478,2861,896,318
1911302,3871,570,917439,1741,192,057454,8371,815,251
1912378,1172,088,809577,0701,680,393343,1631,345,131
1913372,2582,061,651611,6631,770,297376,1611,459,499
1914434,0672,338,576863,7762,564,125227,954895,367
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,211422,8251,094,553
1916358,6322,632,293949,4163,514,310292,6201,199,212
1917254,3972,031,551885,7433,949,251218,624903,888
1918431,0233,402,223883,4304,087,27811,98742,391
1919345,8183,080,1281,572,3117,790,990320,2071,334,405
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0506,160,840212,973883,748
1921898,47811,169,5301,368,7868,199,183149,595612,168
19221,120,2009,041,5541,161,1964,686,850131,848540,182
19231,250,14010,689,2001,441,4606,870,397169,512698,583
19241,269,45511,641,6681,594,4867,023,297133,631551,788
19251,245,32410,240,1321,376,7545,800,808114,696472,364
19261,168,0408,695,1881,461,5485,939,359125,777516,207
19271,455,53910,915,2331,492,7925,582,546130,171534,639
19281,449,57011,302,6671,567,2726,693,951118,722489,584
19291,653,80713,228,0271,779,0937,017,463119,379480,212
19301,884,23711,854,0561,812,9816,438,438133,749550,678
19311,988,56610,649,5271,636,3474,461,293140,970581,032
19322,185,54510,639,0531,790,4314,951,268200,6481,092,288
19332,635,24711,648,6991,982,9424,766,351177,2411,281,612
19342,614,51910,042,7761,984,4964,694,459162,4901,320,690
19352,789,29813,616,7401,727,5524,376,512171,2831,441,790

TRADEcontinued.

Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Year.Kauri-gum.Phormium Fibre.Timber (sawn and hewn).
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Tons.£Tons.£Sup. ft.£
18855,876299,7621,06316,31628,439,013141 355
18864,920257,6531,11215,92229,349,789127,905
18876,790362,4341,57825,09430,919,464127,108
18888,482380,9334,04275,26943,474,434177,877
18897,519329,59017,084361,18242,568,600176,608
18907,438378,56321,158381,78942,098,863181,689
18918,388437,05615,809281,51442,824,305182,431
18028,705517,67812,793214,54222,860,55187,581
18938,317510,77512,587219,37526,718,046101,082
18948,338404,5674,67766,25631,901,415116,116
18957,425418,7661,80621,04038,297,905141,892
18967,126431,3232,96832,98534,984,414133,511
18976,641398,0102,76930,67439,326,396154,169
18089,905586,7674,85074,55640,721,632164,723
180911,116607,91910,371184,41150,425,741196,749
190010,159622,29315,906332,18257,517,085232,174
19017,541446,11410,171195,72871,822,369294,699
19027,430450,22320,852534,03149,251,549208,005
19039,357631,10222,652595,68457,097,990240,713
19049,203501,81720,936710,28160,326,992254,021
190510,883561,44427,877696,46775,370,136318,895
19069,154522,48627,779776,10675,528,899304,941
19078,708579,88828,547832,06872,154,417311,862
19085,530372,79817,403396,28S84,554,414375,235
19098,250552,69814,318306,97371,599,318337,740
19108,693465,04420,645448,41481,940,062407,658
19117,587395,70717,366300,20986,309,570439,353
19127,908401,30518,641376,26494,454,491490,508
19138,780549,10628,092721,92463,469,105319,055
19148,473497,44419,702455,21483,342,949422,864
19154,575279,13323,220571,62176,797,161383,883
19165,456339,88227,6741,001,72571,503,154381,488
19174,594291,91723,5161,197,39671,338,174408,121
19182,419157,31325,1671,387,76374,932,815556,309
19194,128255,81222,347866,93049,726,670439,935
19206,481556,75618,949647,54569,664,014697,608
19213,901367,1979,043293,77545,902,627503,785
19226,391563,2709,727265,08044,186,848479,447
19236,598596,22210,612284,89747,570,490473,752
19245,261443,57612,982388,88742,928,726472,120
19255,370414,90116,408516,46649,204,676573,882
19264,877332,76517,238526,31140,465,221475,627
19274,674278,63216,189473,22137,147,798425,453
19284,394240,13912,932352,15234,970,773376,967
19294,937267,61012,317340,58839,102,831439,342
19303,818189,6358,009198,21326,676,131300,582
19313,058128,0951,78430,93017,532,304172,633
19322,06862,1373,37542,48827,286,884253,883
19333,08977,9733,82842,77025,829,404237,528
19343,20986,9173,59147,50134,530,279320,527
19352,87279,1133,66153,96839,584,825364,351

INDEBTEDNESS OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.*

As at 31st March.Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Gross Indebtedness per Head of Population.Amount of Sinking Funds accrued.Net Indebtedness.Net Indebtedness per Head of Population.

† In 1925–20 the sinking funds accrued were, with certain exceptions, transferred to the Public Debt Redemption Fund.

‡Increase due mainly to floating debt under Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 1932·33, which was paid off in 1934–35.

 ££s.d.£££s.d.
188633,880,7225411111,617,16632,263,556511910
188735,741,65356511,427,19934,314,4545402
188836,758,437561651,344,42735,414,010541410
188938,375,0505816111,390,91536,984,13556143
189038,667,95058321,386,18637,281,7645616
189138,830,35058171,487,04237,343,30355171
189238,713,068561961,037,86237,675,2065590
189339,257,84056471,113,77038,144,07054128
189439,826,4155583951,92438,874,4913419
189540,386,9645543751,93239,635,0325439
189643,050,78057183778,89142,271,88956174
189744,366,61858115814,29443,552,32457911
189844,963,4245856881,90344,081,5215728
189946,938,00659137857,27946,080,72758119
190047,874,45259192944,37546,930,07758156
190149,591,245601581,033,49448,557,75159104
190252,966,447631161,128,81651,837,6316245
190355,899,01965301,357,73954,541,28063114
190457,522,21565431,500,68756,021,52863102
190569,912,000651971,650,71858,261,2826433
190662,191,040661301,661,51960,529,52164174
190764,179,0406614102,042,06862,136,97264124
190866,453,897678111,268,36165,185,5366032
190970,938,534691641,479,22409,459,3106873
191074,890,645726101,503,22573,387,420701710
191181,078,122761531,754,48679,323,0367520
191284,353,91378032,160,60382,193,3107603
191390,060,76381052,603,64287,457,12178137
191499,730,427871023,063,99291,689,8358091
1915100,059,910861973,178,05596,644,4558403
1916109,637,39795643,679,904105,957,4339224
1917129,836,1051121624,263,590125,572,51510921
1918150,840,05513012114,971,605145,868,450126610
1919176,076,260149855,951,056170,125,20414475
1920201,170,7551621297,257,564193,913,191156155-
1921206,324,3191621578,763,072197,561,222155174
1922219,054,38516861010,655,394208,241,12116008
1923218,953,3241654211,879,250207,024,04815642-
1924221,616,3011648512,974,028208,595,743154153
1925227,814,64716521113,462,839214,287,12815569
1926238,855,478169862,274,262230,581,216167163
1927245,850,8891701952,443,540243,407,34916955
1928251,396,2521721922,635,766248,740,73617127
1929264,191,98317912102,156,561256,652,371174104
1930267,383,3431791252,331,423265,051,92017811
1931276,033,35318213102,313,673273,715,71018131
1932281,942,8001841862,435,117279,507,68318367
1933282,622,9581831782,509,545280,113,41318250
1934302,791,996195992,647,985300,144,011193157
1935280,581,2171791812,657,832277,923,38517840
1936282,561,0981791062,592,458279,968,040177177

* In the debt tables the whole debt Is shown (in pounds) at its nominal amount, no adjustment having been made on account of the part that New Zealand currency is at present at a discount on sterling and at a slight premium on Australian currency.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

Yew ended 31st March.Consolidated Fund.Public Works Fund.
Receipts.Payments.Receipts.Payments.
From Taxation.From other Sources.Total.Total.
 ££££££
18862,016,7302,080,2664,096,9964,282,901198,8671,475,386
18871,882,0501,946,4123,828,4624,310,8751,499,5001,333,484
18881,876,2351,845,4443,721,6794,212,474500,000966,159
18892,031,6582,341,3574,373,0154,226,1121,503,000613,939
18902,090,4052,176,7144,267,1194,256,92183,142482,464
18912,173,9852,322,0434,496,0284,369,5664,262334,756
18922,179,7392,248,7914,428,5304,417,843216,533391,501
18932,339,5112,330,0404,669,5514,324,990215,765462,506
18942,353,2502,339,2134,692,4634,455,116418,323406,797
18952,300,3502,147,5494,447,8994,352,185353,000504,486
18962,335,7602,220,2554,556,0154,370,481162,272575.087
18972,521,9112,276,7974,798,7084,509,981540,275601,343
18982,678,5762,400,6545,079,2304,602,372759,673866,543
18992,707,0992,551,1295,258,2284,858,511935,691916,327
19002,891,1262,808,4925,699,6185,140,1271,062,116993,223
19013,042,8902,864,0265,906,9165,479,7041,401,7881,309,021
19023,113,0793,039,7606,152,8395,914,9152,364,7962,143,252
19033,277,9643,169,4716,447,4356,214,0191,398,9501,514,445
19043,649,6013,480,5167,130,1176,434,2811,875,6141,796,841
19053,754,3793,592,8187,347,1976,635,9021,908,6831,354,158
19063,841,5963,808,5027,650,0987,122,3401,555,7681,811,819
19074,264,5554,214,4018,478,9567,774,9261,918,0812,168,894
19084,645,7544,418,2359,063,9898,213,9651,846,0542,109,882
19094,377,7614,623,4249,001,1858,785,5133,628,2703,363,896
19104,180,5165,058,4019,238,9178,990,9222,093,6972,216,397
19114,837,3225,459,95110,297,2739,343,1063,396,6482,058,691
19125,296,5905,764.57111,061,16110,340,3681,256,4562,340,380
19135,606,8296,127,44211,734,27111,082,0383,300,7292,548,918
19145,918,0346,311,62712,229,66111,825,8643,478,7512,760,798
19155,880,8116.571,13412,451,94512,379,8032,224,4912,737,364
19167,266,9667,240,56414,507,53012,943,1073,187,1542,583,212
191710,549,6547,805,54018,355,19414,058,7701,105,8371,775,513
191812,340,8537,865,36920,206,22215,120,2881,091,1951,401,837
191913,801,6438,550,72922,352,37218,673,5991,240,0801,387,661
192016,251,7699,829,57126,081,34023,781,5242,243,3892,232,816
192122,184,41412,076,54734,260,96128,068,7305,012,1563,658,240
192216,370,51611,756,49128,127,00728,406,8389,792,9166,875,636
192315,594,28811,985,15527,579,44326,263,7603,968,5654,729.679
192416,416,87011,543,50027,960,37026,148,0054,275,9144,658,272
192516,172,30612,470,69428,643,00027,399,2004,833,2805,482,069
192616,978,4967,747,26624,725,76223,570.0835,956,8785,874,313
192716,899,5568,043,55124,913,10724,355,9655,931,1705,505,897
192816,848,7548,275,226! 25,123,98024,944,9055,464,2255,212,032
192917,832,0335,767,64323,599,67624,176,9289,028,9945,696,161
193019,471,1315,878,730i 25,349.86125.200,8822,339,3586,237,585
193118,597,4564,471,47523,068,93124,708,0427,356,0506,547,883
193216,188,1716.531,56222,719,73324,860.5525,179,8984,895,861
193315,604,0116,964,48022,568,52122,528,3791,958,3862,277,336
193417,057,0066,435,14323,492,74924,202,0272,363,7752,572,415
193520,176,3455,949,74926,126,09424,499.5953,000,3722,714,210
193621,554.3974,617,97126,172,36825,890,5683,458,1252,863,643

NOTE.—Commencing with 1925–20 railway revenue and expenditure, and with 1928·20 post and telegraph revenue and expenditure, were removed from the transactions of the Consolidated Fund. Revenue of the Consolidated Fund, however, now includes interest in respect of railway and post and telegraph capital liability, while the expenditure for the years 1925·20 to 1928·22 covers payment to the Working Railways Account in respect of losses on non-paying branch lines and isolated sections. From 1931–32, also, post and telegraph net profits are paid into the Consolidated Fund. Employment promotion taxation receipts, (commencing 1930–31) arc not paid into the Consolidated Fund.

LOCAL BODIES.*

Year ended 31st March.Receipts.Payments.Total Gross Indebtedness.
Revenue.Other Receipts.Total.
From Rates.From other Sources.
†Fire p. 537 regarding currencies in which figures given.
 ££££££
1885401,393841,895430,5611,673,8491,653,7064,436,309
1886410,639882,618514,7281,807,9851,644,7065,086,044
1887434,237790,063992,6332,216,9331,885,0015,825,683
1888433,832795,067511,5941,740,4931,819,7876,015,354
1889445,929676.428316,1391,438,4961,560,6056,164,901
1890460,303707,725206,6881,374,7161,476,6406,316,716
1891463,581662,765236,9021,363,2481,381,3206,427,470
1892488,824693,296214,1241,396,2441,400,4676,550,183
1893508,157709,076340,5381,558,3711,482,5486,750,698
1894551,412681,831623,0381,856,2811,589,1247,253,072
1895581,868683,857328,7981,594,5231,584,5187,422,306
1896592,903738,146269,1451,600,1941,627,0797,547,511
1897598,526765,047246,9191,610,4921,636,7167,675,814
1898644,552790,602304,6451,739,7991,733,0167,783,445-
1899685,769820,727385.3681,891,8641,778,5747,995,400
1900714,151848,032372,0281,934,2111,960,0738,149,272
1901734,023919,831825,0392,478,8932,250,5728,785,303
1902800,4711,019,024775,4322,594,9272,528,0929,245,364
1903846,7161,053,582966,0872,866,3852,867,5069,886,076
1904950,1501,206,0691,142,5953,298,8143,230,71210,756,062
19051,019,4311,255,2221,350,6313,625,2843,497,32112,056,736
19061,151,2191,392,1481,326,5973,869,9643,601,50612,873,165
19071,233,0491,579,3911,227,4734,039,9133,897,51513,903,153
19081,356,2571,750,6651,410,9944,517,9164,491,11314,931,351
19091,390,6981,934,1221,440,7464,765,5064,800,71115,920,757
19101,526,3171,934,0342,362,1715,822,5224,898,48217,809,917
19111,592,6012,171,7251,776,9585,541,2845,360,26119,104,571
19121,677,8772,298,9342,425,2586,402,0696,074,37220,763,486
19131,799,2992,531,6862,383,1236,714,1086,537,76922,1.83,427
19142,005,6382,719,1122,411,5757,136,3256,796,31423.773,429
19152,140,0862,861,2972,595,7067,597,0896,806,56724,538,721
19162,355,1552,967,6452,469,2757,792,0756,920,73626,045,312
19172,534,5393,243.9421,411,4227,189,9036,758,59320,799,686
19182,674,5413,283;7491,250,0477,208,3377,103,07327,653,081
19192,939,6003,452,071942,7807,334,4577,320,27728,074,950
19203,144,2134,486,5823,329,00310,959,79810,883,58630,187,942
19213,549,5905,336,3743,429,66212,315,02612,761,69032,104,957
19223,779,8956,074,7825,486,91215,341,58915,091,87536,745,089
19234,277,7816,243,9517,399,67417,921,40615,695,50743,191,184
19244,445,6276,704,1445,685,10716,834,87816,520,95040,537,833
19254,668,8847,512,0807,613,39919,794,36319,422,83353,353,400
19265,039,6458,333,9217,505,70220,879,26820,915,64559,419,754
19275,311,2608,954,6856,680,17620,946,12121,747,55764,012,247
19285,615,6729,786,2715,667,65121,069,59422,423,16766,404,172
19295,844,4959,583,5766,042,00721,470,07821,300,02469,294,619
19306,010,98710,746,7315,495,42722,253,14522,061,08871,207,539
19315,637,25410,627,3914,432,95620,697,60122,174,52472,686,036
19325,511,8189,682,2514,374,25119,568,32020,087,38172,402,282
19335,237,6888,913,2854,433,29418,584,26718,885,17372,476,050
19345,541,2558,888,4123,821,77918,051,44617,737,79271,969,387
19355,511,4429,167.2873,943,48818,622,21718,744,89171,245,458

* Exclusive of Hospital Boards.

LOCAL BODIES.*—LOAN INDEBTEDNESS.

As at 31st March.Counties.Boroughs.Harbour Boards.Electric-power Districts.Other.Total.
 ££££££
18857,8002,156,4551,872,100..276,8684,313,223
18863,5102,257,7752,414,945..275,2804,951,510
18878,7002,452,5852,887,700..271,7625,620,747
188814,2822,527,3533,006,900..264,2685,812,803
188923,5232,534,5563,057,118..276,8535,892,050
18908,5052,541,4533,155,600..272,5015,978,059
18918,0102,540,3903,226,000..268,2936,042,693
18929,6602,539,4453,276,300256,5296,081,934 
189311,6602,567,0953,369,410..255,7046,203,869
189411,0102,738,1843,610,450..255,1806,614,824
189510,5102,757,3953,652,350..265,2556,685,510
189610,5102,777,4953,686,959..262,6146,737,578
189710,5102,817,3783,703,561..261,9496,793,398
189811,7102,834,3063,723,380..264,9656,834,361
189910,5002,881,5673,804,187..267,0006,963,254
19006,9002,939,0253,845,881..265,5447,057,350
19016,7143,251,8174,035,331..269,2077,563,069
19026,7143,435,8844,123,631..273,4667,839,695
19036,6143,655,4364,256,481..298,6658,217,196
19046,2144,226,8004,308,851..357,0458,898,910
19057,8004,863,9864,382,551..763,90510,018,242
190615,2285,314,1734,554,151..834,49910,718,051
190731,6785,920,3054,676,551..987,51411,616,048
190837,1386,540,0714,877,676..1,077,44912,532,334
190956,5347,016,9265,052,845..1,177,31713,303,622
191076,8777,687,2095,788,400..1,385,19914,937,685
191199,0388,159,9866,001,650..1,466,93915,727,613
1912122,4188,507,4866,235,978..1,724,99516,590,877
1913121,9119,084,2056,371,636..1,905,58017,483,332
1914183,93610,083,8106,608,700..2,047,03618,923,482
1915247.69410,206,3536,869,500..2,121,92819,445,475
1916265,09111,086,7197,014,390..2,387,96820,754,168
1917286,67911,606,4857,151,743..2,387,86021,432,767
1918421,21412,150,3847,268,993..2,419,94622,260,537
1919537,41512,365,9587,301,143..2,469,19622,673,712
1920752,17613,944,5077,377,142..2,534,46824,608,293
19211,046,37814,575,8257,528.288147,7502,888,71926,186,960
19221,328,29716,282,9608,110,9111,480,0003,064,03630,266,204
19231,802,63319,501,9888,437,9873,052,3003,284,47436,079,382
19241,870,07819,819,4979,020,1884,740,8653,659,37239,110,000
19252,332,46123,483,0579,600,2036,514,7573,790,31645,720,794
19263,054,13125,607,4399,845,766S,745,7554,473,80651,726,897
19273,658,23827,662,02710,113,44110,113,4004,865,65356,412,759
19283,882,47129,277,77210,335,69910,175,3645,277,72258,949,028
19294,044,66629,973,85750,636,36811,986,7075,362,18862,003,786
19304,242,99229,307,00610,326,34612,636,3517,539,32664,052,021
19314,373,78629,966,12710,378,50913,011,5297,962,655.65,692,606
19324,443,67429,505,95510,422,12113,121,9607,974,00865,407,718
19334,426,11329,621,49010,465,43013,031,9308,097,57865,642,541
19344,435,48129,266,52610,345,96913,213,0798,076,64865,337,703
19354,336,58028,962,90010,378,88113,399,0537,753,87264,831.286

* Exclusive of Hospital Boards. Vide p. 537 regarding currencies in which figures Riven.

NOTE.— Loans from Government—i.e., Inscribed Debt and Advances from State Advances Office. and Main Highways Board—have not been included.

TRADING BANKS (AVERAGE OF FOUR QUARTERS)

Year.Assets.Liabilities.
Advances.Coin and Bullion.Total (all Assets).Notes In Circulation.Deposits.Total (all Liabilities).

* Note-issuing functions taken over by Reserve Bank (August, l934).

† As at end of December.

  £££££
188515,470,2752,101,78418,811,567968,48110,083,29611,130,244
188615,834,8772,177,54419,041,827943,07510,579,71111,603,194
188715,310,0502,342,05218,799,847896,61711,031,61411,995,495
188815,041,8972,319,32518,709,444873,04511,155,77812,108,353
188914,272,4812,217,83317,652,915879,44011,528,42412,486,717
189013,996,0862,536,52917,735,259903,01012,368,61013,356,598
189111,448,7452,405,09916,814,518937,30912,796,09813,820,458
189212,128,0652,450,71217,558,168959,94313,587,06214,623,335
189312,688,3032,627,36718,255,534973,89414,433,77715,489,633
189411,897,7402,896,56217,746,421901,52613,927,21714,930,791
189611,600,0803,310,94318,159,781897,91913,544,41514,491,627
189610,972,2263,308,39216,900,199946,36614,490,82715,620,431
189710,020,0403,093,29517,273,7711,009,03814,290,51215,380,248
189810,564,2662,791,08117,013,4041,070,13314,143,22915,299,058
189910,954,4352,675,36117,190,4331,163,75014,591,22315,834,858
190011,343,4112,739,19717,314,5351,299,82515,570,61016,964,582
190112,148,3352,996,34518,422,2741,361,35516,034,84817,490,035
190212,747,7733,201,82418,999,1801,375,78817,231,76818,701,063
190313,435,9933,608,94119,913,5401,450,26719,011,11420,563,879
190414,651,1983,806,19520,893,0961,468,16119,074,96020,643,359
190515,496,3954,006,10821,770,5251,468,97720,546,60122,144,166
190616,649,3294,593,95423,829,9331,574,26422,422,24324,143,008
190718,514,0454,836,71826,584,2391,644,64523,517,11125,334,348
190821,172,8084,840,94229,098,5671,615,10921,821,75323,611,903
190919,078,0324,947,09626,937,2651,577,56821,996.62123,728,326
191018,439,9996,035,76426,398,9271,628,09424,968,76126,742,081
191121,259,7275,195,33329,433,6141,677,84226,765,12228,625,803
191222,907,6565,338,29531,196,4001,714,66726,622,08327,508,348
191322,902,2985,204,26630,708,9321,674,33325,733,18727,591,099
191424,250,2465,712,75132,502,3121,908,38827,640,50729,808,349
191523,638,9706,781,00633,209,4832,846,27631,433,66334,448,270
191024,911,7067,393,91737,015,4864,049,52937,507,91741,977,010
191728,847,7498,072,27944,979,6155,410,95742,930,71348,541.961
191831,711,3508,085,96148,570,1266,206,76845,562,93962,048,732
191931,717,7208,017,15948,615,2097,087,54550,489,44457,861,393
192038,241,9327,728,94256,111,4337,890,41859.405,34167,818,469
192150,607,5417,660,53268,701,2827,569,31949,397,41158,808,439
192244,768,1787,822,56261,779,5707,019,22045.913,39453,868,834
192343,322,2427,900,59459,041,2356,593,06849,039,48256,204,292
192444,537,1617,816,14561,325.8656,587,54649,502,49957,131,235
192545,298,9557,722,91762,128,8086,775,47052.207,20260,219,697
192649,149,2607,797,31965,765,2976,730,42150,135,11458,008,161
192750,032,2037,874,97160,620,6766,510,01848,294,09656,321,397
192846,179,4637,511,83362,819,4856,374,04353,799,22161,850,695
192949,278,1947,051,39105,475,5296,433,91157,609,74665,232,866
193053,657,3976,798,55669,748,0716,255,71756,425,01463,984,419
193152,419,5276.917,89768,557,1205,782,35453,645,01861,463,034
193250,255,6745,957,94469,015,2095,958,26852,851,73660,649,208
193345,705,0445,105,84669,656,7006,205,42957,620,23365,281,375
193441,389,4573,477,248*73,509,1774,844,826*63,417,29969,259,271
193544,666,541767,589*83,008,626705,343*61,474,51165,981,411

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

Year.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over WithdrawalsInterest Credited to Depositors.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

*Fifteen months, 18t. January, 1920, to 318t March, 1921.

†Year ended 318t March following.

‡Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

  £££££
188569,9571,341,0011,264,305;76,69662,2281,638,036
188674,8711,248,4051,336,287−87,88265,8251,615,979
188779,7241,312,1511,182,409129,74267,3641,813,085
188884,4881,544,7471,387,471157,27678,0802,048,442
188990,7451,515,2821,457,08158,20184,8102,191,452
189097,2081,658,5431,500,437158,10692,3192,441,876
1891104,4671,842,9881,693,515149,473104,0992,605,448
1892112,5281,878,2701,821,34956,921111,3022,863,671
1893122,6842,386,0902,122,522263,568114,7603,241,998
1894129,4232,252,8622,268,624−15.762114,6433,340,880
1895137,6832,794,5072,369,333425,174129,4903,895,543
1896147,7582,881,1532,591,559289,594126,4984,311,635
1897159,3313,187,2192,891,169206,050137,2404,744,025
1898160,9683,279,6113,194,89484,717128,1294,957,771
1899183,0463,644,9803,417,299227,681134,9185,320,371
1900197,4084,170,4293,827,416343,013146,1695,809,552
1901212,4364,611,4564,230,193381,263159,1986,350,013
1902227,4655,069,6194,708,772360,847172,9266,883,787
1903243,6755,661,5935,343,828317,765187,1307,388,682
1904259,1645,836,5405,664,770171,770200,9307,761,382
1905276,0666,625,7445,984,185641,559259,0818,662,023
1906298,7467,907,1556,907,1041,000,051291,1929,953,266
1907319,7739,351,6648,125,1231,226,541343,42411,523,231
1908342,0779,674,0759,417,820256,255379,80812,159,294
1909359,7149,611,1209,499,320111,800395,80412,666,898
1910380,58510,708,9399,695,5151,013,424424,66814,104,990
1911405,56611,627,36810,662,046965,322472,87515,543,187
1912432,19911,725,18311,449,711275,472511,59916,330,257
1913458,59411,286,70211,041,454245,248555,90817,131,414
1914483,26211,904,32310,603,0181,301,305615,31019,048,029
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1916538,07215,576,40812,957,4202,618,988817,85625,603,209
1917566,35117,106,52914,461,1692,645,360947,82129,196,390
1918590,20518,101,10514,938,8423,162,2631,059,47233,418,125
1910630,78329,758,44725,962,3773,796,0701,178,93538,393,130
1920*664,81944,302,85241,162,4803,140,3601,818,53543,352,031
1921678,93029,125,99730,236,231−1,110,2341,599,90743,841,704
1922690,79026,682,42727,709,263−1,086,8361,605,52544,360,393
1923710,15729,598,37229,510,32188,0511,649,97646,098,421
1924735,14829,582,89730,413,609−830,7121,680,92046,048,628
1925758,15531,833,62232,602,506−768,8841,731,57847,911,322
1926783,82729,456,38330,149,629−693,2461,767,42648,085,502
1927804,72527,611,06630,584,098−2,973,9321,747,15647,758,726
1928828,29627,252,38128,111,040−850,5591,745,05048,644,217
1929852,75728,561,85429,575,004−1,014,1401,806,41449,436,401
1930878,04324,531,56928,063,338−3,531,7691.763,82547,668,547
1931877,09019,463,98525,488,081−6,024,0961,611,04843,255,409
1932797,09716,933,17610,635,028−2,702,7521,475,87442,028,621
1933798,26219,428,85317,818,1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,301
1934817,61724,179,53720,946,5623,232,0751,320,34849,423.714
1935840,07125,019,77523,533,5962,086,1791,406,45952,016,352

POSTAL.

Year.Money-orders issued.Postal Notes issued.
Letters posted and delivered.Newspapers posted and delivered.Money-orders issued.Postal Notes issued.Postal Revenue.Number.Amount.

* Received and despatched.

†Counted once only.

‡Year ended 318t March following.

 £ ££
188535,829,855*14,233,878*188,622581,39516,4426,771197,456
188638,084,592*14,324,047*155,680547,75592,54637,019206,029
188739,377,774*15,381,323*159,579555,744122,25546,973213,355
188840,398,020*16.202,849*102,387555,996149,87955,785212,247
188942,301,233*16,721,016*172,076589,545175,02364,244222,978
189043,917,200*17,912,734*176,427602,077189,91568,395229,867
189147,612,864*18,501,912*195,239051,990220,68377,808245,395
189250,610,742*18,557,565*199,438094,847247,90286,176252,494
189352,085,449*19,556,030*210,957750,929285,38999,073253,457
189452,168,336*19,271,590*222,078776,783319,368110,142254,800
189529,586,94912,675,973243,497812,604349,627120,957242,615
189630,442,05313,216,521209,566902,160376,796126,448262,482
189733,030,09514,261,345293,659970,831409,866131,643272,163
189835,654,94715,095,487318,3701,029,241431,449137,085304,947
189938,484,37115,717,388344,6641,118.808461,447144,631325,301
190039,898,47917,045,715309,8341,214,853490,506151,180316,858
190152,567,56018,973,932405,9671,286,508556,316169,527281,097
190257,714,63118,517,276307,2071,277,059616,264187,709302,604
190361,687,45719,696,434390,3121,416,225707,044215,275343,207
190466,501,43421,500,744407,7831,476,887785,347244,719383,243
190571,116,26123,626,362417,4411,541,712875,324270,300410,967
190679,084,56623,716,431439,0201,686,231981,642307,323438,729
1907159,680,65438,862,863441,4871,773,5911,092,631340,436478,388
1908175,440,11141,358,913488,0842,050,0841,222,280383,472544,642
1909186,926,33742,561,641538,7402,307,5931,414,752441,099566,990
1910196,768,96842,305,554509,0572,457,5231,660,959517,315603,150
1911206,450,62743,801,719007,7042,759,3931,821,566566,650613,252
1912214,184,11943,460,010000,4253,231,3501,970,643627,443644,637
1913223,961,20043,572,759090,7453,357,7742,238,842711,518695,136
1914233,901,32043,779,983091,5183,427,5052,314,327714,683698,898
1915242,547,85941,311,535664,8003,471,8182,370,079712,753858,583
1916242,121,36141,807,999609,3553,607,0872,280,463685,708964,793
1917245,706,94540,366,792642,6833,476,6452,160,597628,920976,027
1918242,527,36935,476,212638,5003,649,3712,091,051610,591983,585
1919247,143,18335,498,203690,2914,604,0592,197,520646,4111,068,489
1920259,743,23437,859,247699,0745,276,7762,280,219691,2011,352,677
1921253,767,13138,680,982669,3834,850,8202,377,622723,2541,499,304
1922239,997,08135,635,219659,9434,278,5292,434,506730,2321,378,421
1923252,021,95938,138,697684,9794,390,1592,652,777786,1461,146,588
1924272,311,92541,602,497731,5114,092,9292,846,333840,5591,257,942
1925294,630,76044,717,406766,6894,977,2303,040,722902,1191,320,277
1926298,617,08945,364,274793,1105,033,1273,329,638965,2701,400,886
1927297,478,29447,089,652803,5354,995,0903,614,2171,015,2131,439,587
1928298,548,36448,257,194807,8854,977,5223,575,9841,057,6241,441,794
1929309,162,10348,658,470835,3585,187,5533,816,6351,123,4461,498,684
1930313,148,05847.644,098833,5055,069,6293,907,2881,128,8071,582,550
1931263,633,95239,454,971714,4783,993,0352,884,654952,4441,744,553
1932246,395,13033,410,372648,9513,335,5522,686,648958,3731,393,655
1933261,979,31233,775,389635,6743,112,7292,883,0701,061,9461,294,757
1934275,063,94333,485,832854,6213,209,7133,325,5611,140,6951,384,264
1935288,645,48434,547,494573,0573,374,0293,827,4171,293,9551,466,857

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS.

Year ended 31st March.Miles Open for Traffic.Capital Cost of Open Lines.Train-mileage.Passengers carried, excluding Season-ticket Holders.Goods and Live-stock.*Revenue.Expenditure

* Equivalent tonnage of live-stock.

† From 1925–20 figures relate to railway operation only.

‡Capital cost written down by £10,400,000.

  £  Tons.££
18861,61312,472,8143,020,5503,362,2661,856,7331,047,418690,340
18871,72113,017,5673,008,9493,426,4031,783,524998,768699,072
18881,75313,352,9782,944,7863,451,8501,770,638994,843687,328
18891,77713,472,8372,790,0073,132,8031,954,126997,615647,045
18901,80913,899,9552,808,2033,376,4592,112,7341,095,509682,787
18911,84214,278,5862,894,7763.433,6292,134,0231,121,701700,703
18921,86914,656,6913,010,4893,555,7642,122,9871,115,432706,517
18931,88614,733,1203,002,1743,759,0442,258,2351,181,522732,142
18941,94815,137,0303,113,2313,972,7012,128,7091,172,792735,359
18951,99315,352,6133,221,6203,905,5782,123,3431,150,851732,160
18962,01415,425,5323,307,2204,102,4202,175,9431,183,041751,368
18972,01815,577,3023,409,2184,439,3872,461,1271,286,158789,054
18982,05515,993,9033,066,4834,672,2042,028,7401,376,008857,191
18992,09016,404,0763,908,7084,955,5532,744,4411,469,665929,737
19002,10416,703,8874,187,8935,408,2843,251,7101,023,8911,052,358
19012,21217,207,3284,620,9716,243,5933,461,3311,727,2361,127,848
19022,23518,170,7225,000,3607,356,1363,667,0391,874,5861,252,237
19032,29119,081,7355,443,3337,575,3903,918,2611,974,0381,343,415
19042,32820,692,9115,685,3998,300,3834,259,2172,180,6411,438,724
19052,37421,701,5726,107.0798,514,1124,185,4072,209,2311,492,900
19062,40722,498,9726,413,5738,820,3824,415,1002,349,7041,021,239
19072,45823,504,2726,755,4549,600,7864,824,5032,024.0001,812,482
19082,47424,305,6477,051,2749,756,7165,070,170!2,761.9381,949,759
19092,67427,702,5927,458,23010,457,1445,135,4032,929,5262,114,815
19102,71728,513,4767,889,16611,141,1425,490,0183,249,7902,109,474
19112,75329,000.5408,141,07511,200,0135,863,074:3,494,1822,303,272
19122,79830,506,0898, 371,68711,891,1345,887,9083,676,5092,465,896
19132,85131,611,2209,016,224113,123,8796,246,1283,971,0022,705,609
19142,85432,365,0879,319,26813.355,8936,019,6334,043,3282,880,323
19152,94534,133,8259,383,42013,505,7726,453.47214,105,4572,920,455
19162,96034,857,8829,356,52214,201,5006,370,9454,548,3562,910,883
19172,96035,378,6649,146,33114,173,1150,239,1734,800,8102,926,864
19182,98336,001,4327,468,64611,408,1565,742,908!4,687,7003,042,907
19192,98336,107,6817,477,58311,374,5215,611,7384,088,6323.308,575
19202,99030,390,1157,408,60812,760,8146,000,27915,752,4874,105,067
19213,00937,235,2549,303,39215,315,6406,487,2796,908,5315,030.001
19223,02139,309,0978,717,26514,262,4406,321,3516,043,5910,237,727
19233,02840,275,1018,340,73114,250,0106,618,5886,727,8025,502,497
19243.05341,399,4279,024.50313,817,3786,918,3496,984,2115,403,766
19253,08844,570,7409,083,62312,397,0797,025,3167,112,5245,545,416
19263,13847,608,67610,319,40711,787,7237,246,6927,589,2746,164,570
19273,16449,183,91610,723,86410,274,8787,299,7527,423,4726,158,283
19283,18051,187,37610,838,5949,272,5477,358,3887,343,8456,302,119
19293,28756,508,59811,113,4829,046,9817,013,4457,524,8646,374,579
19303,28757,787,67112,022,0438,466,7797,788,9737,473,9036,848,026
19313,32260,545,15411,281,8987,265,9126,957,7096,781,3886,406,143
19323,31551,424,88310,168,7206,503,5005,824,8115,788,9655,301,653
19333,31551,480,9499,828,8536,870,5705,490,6805,339,0754,833,754
19343,32053,909,34710,103,4747,511,3465,042,1995,028,8354,877,146
19353,32054,089,19010,626,4007,809,0356,023,9005,908,0645,138,588
19363,32054,253,05911,050,3767,963,8246,188,8056,243,5195,523,193

BANKRUPTCY.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amount realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amount paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
 ££££
1885984297,306109,862332,88794,188
18861,089415,953128,370566,291102,966
18871,036311,745135,633503,759109,255
1888881252,32298,213571,74179,843
1889724441,874187,048755,16595,032
1890652262,733112,951381,124122,276
1891605141,97184,341302,71272,572
1892507122,05086,497238,95343,662
1893484111,48368,844464,27437,721
1894626187,78585,538310,07870,889
1895485133,60388,684239,56270,018
1896412115,45571,712256,87037,492
189741973,46640,942133,34545,015
189840790,06845,474285,15530,994
189938959,43534,269158,93230,084
190030477,68953,415141,80037,411
190122258,65849,78184,45230,358
190220561,60439,386110,99529,406
190320446,70723,76188,01917,618
190425786,09443,514125,39228,103
1905304100,81347,798146,33228,150
1900347100,37650,761192,92735,448
190735077,69859,849158,66342,459
1908406200,44767,018199,06947,800
1909471204,18771,351259,01744,110
1910393127,63479,100176,00147,796
191134488,59240,009133,51728,757
191231264,39839,965120,32526,825
1913343155,58242,735228,82925,813
1914391174,41064,153199,25133,910
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
1916304123,44150,416172,77429,223
1917265138,09663,645178,24427,405
191816450,35667,72988,60733,176
191914143,62754,66259,76724,980
192014544,02647,89777,75245,227
1921336362,60178,271558,50438,646
1922690344,861120,145834,35663,009
1923674368,673124,641668,92565,667
1924670279.602118,641703,99574,878
1925653235,37798,648471,02880,187
1926752236,915102,899585,08771,515
1927867331,363108,850679,47372,388
1928806236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,65591,180502,11254,759
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657624,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884
193432672,57244,533258,92033,788
193525768,21641,037225,50823,142

Chapter 66. SECTION XLVIII.—OFFICIAL.

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND.

His Excellency the Right Honourable Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E.

Military Secretary—Major A. F, Purvis, M.C.

Official Secretary—D. E. Fouhy, Esq.

Aides-de-Camp—Captain A. G. W. Heber-Percy; Lieut. Sir Standish O'G. Roche, Bart., R.N.

Honorary Aides-de-Camp—Naval: Captain I. G. Glennie, R.N.; Captain R. D. Oliver, D.S.C., R.N. Military: Colonel I. T. Standish, C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel S. C. P. Nicholls, D.S.O.; Colonel A. S. Wilder, D.S.O., M.C, V.D.; Colonel L. M. Inglis, M.C, V.D.; Lieut.-Colonel N. L. Macky, M.C; Lieut.-Colonel S. G. Scoular. Air: Wing-Commander T. M. Wilkes, M.C; Squadron Leader L. M. Isitt

Honorary Physician—Colonel F. T. Bowerbank, O.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P., Edin.

Honorary Surgeon—Lieut.-Colonel C. T. H. Newton, D.S.O., M.D., F.R.C.S., Edin.

His Excellency assumed office on the 12th April, 1935.

A complete list of successive vice-regal representatives since 1840 will be found in the 1931 issue (pp. 59–60) of the Year-Book.

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS.

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856.

Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May, 18562 June, 1856.
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 July. 18616 Aug 1862.
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug., 186230 Oct., 1863.
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct., 186324 Nov., 1864.
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865.
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct., 186528 June, 1869.
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 June, 186910 Sept., 1872.
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sept., 187211 Oct., 1872.
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse.11 Oct., 18723 Mar., 1873.
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar., 18738 April, 1873.
13. VogelJulius Vogel. C.M.G.8 April, 18736 July, 1875.
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 July, 187515 Feb., 1876.
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb., 18761 Sept., 1876.
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sept., 187613 Sept., 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sept., 187613 Oct., 1877.
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct., 18778 Oct., 1879.
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct., 187921 April. 1882.
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 April, 188225 Sept., 1883.
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sept., 188316 Aug. 1884.
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884.
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug., 18843 Sept., 1884.
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sept., 18848 Oct., 1887.
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct., 188724 Jan., 1891.
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan., 18911 May. 1893.
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.1 May, 189321 June, 1906.
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 June, 19066 Aug., 1906.
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C., K.C.M.G.6 Aug., 190628 Mar., 1912.
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar., 191210 July, 1912.
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.10 July, 191212 Aug., 1915.
32. NationalRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.12 Aug., 191525 Aug., 1919.
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.25 Aug., 191914 May, 1925.
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May, 192530 May, 1925.
35. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, P.C, M.C.30 May, 192510 Dec.,1928.
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C, G.C.M.G.10 Dec., 192828 May, 1930.
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.28 May, 193022 Sept., 1931.
38. CoalitionRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.22 Sept., 19316 Dec., 1935.
39. LabourHon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec., 1935 

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1936.

His Excellency the GOVERNOR-GENERAL.

Right Hon. M. J. SAVAGE, Prime Minister, Minister of External Affairs, Native Minister, Minister for the Cook Islands, and Minister in Charge of Native Trust, Legislative, Electoral, Audit, and High Commissioner's Departments.

Hon. P. FRASER, Minister of Education, Minister of Health, Minister of Marine, and Minister in Charge of Mental Hospitals, Inspection of Machinery, and Police Departments.

Hon. W. NASH, Minister of Finance, Minister of Customs, Minister of Stamp Duties, and Minister in Charge of State Advances, Land and Income Tax, Public Service Superannuation, Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Fire Insurance, and Census and Statistics Departments.

Hon. D. G. SULLIVAN, Minister of Industries and Commerce, Minister of Railways, and Minister in Charge of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.

Hon. H. G. R. MASON, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice, and Minister in Charge of Prisons and Registrar-General's Departments.

Hon. H. T. ARMSTRONG, Minister of Labour, Minister of Immigration, and Minister of Employment.

Hon. R. SEMPLE, Minister of Public Works, Minister of Transport, and Minister in Charge of Roads and Public Buildings.

Hon. W. E. PARRY, Minister of Internal Affairs, and Minister in Charge of Museum, Advertising, and Pensions Departments.

Hon. P. C. WEBB, Minister of Mines, and Minister in Charge of Printing and Stationery Department.

Hon. F. JONES, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, and Minister of Defence.

Hon. W. LEE MARTIN, Minister of Agriculture, and Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies and National Provident Fund Departments.

Hon. F. LANGSTONE, Minister of Lands, Commissioner of State Forests, and Minister in Charge of Land for Settlements, Scenery Preservation, Discharged Soldiers' Settlement, Valuation, and Tourist and Publicity Departments.

Hon. M. FAGAN, M.L.C., Member of the Executive Council without portfolio.

Clerk of the Executive Council—C. A. Jeffery. C.M.G.

LABOUR MINISTRY.

(Assumed Office, 22nd September, 1931; resigned 6th December, 1935.)

Name and Office.From
Right Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.—
Prime Minister6th December, 1935.
Minister of External Affairs6th December, 1935.
Native Minister6th December. 1935.
Minister for the Cook Islands6th December. 1935.
Peter Fraser—
Minister of Education6th December, 1935.
Minister of Health6th December, 1935.
Minister of Marine6th December, 1935.
Walter Nash—
Minister of Finance6th December. 1935.
Minister of Customs6th December, 1935.
Minister of Stamp Duties6th December. 1935.
Minister of Marketing25th May, 1936.
Daniel Giles Sullivan—
Minister of Industries and Commerce6th December. 1935.
Minister of Railways6th December, 1935.
Henry Greathead Rex Mason—
Attorney-General6th December, 1935.
Minister of Justice6th December. 1935.
Hubert Thomas Armstrong—
Minister of Labour6th December. 1935.
Minister of Immigration6th December, 1935.
Robert Semple— 
Minister of Public Works6th December, 1935.
Minister of Transport6th December. 1935.
William Edward Parry-
Minister of Internal Affairs6th December, 1935.
Patrick Charles Webb—
Minister of Mines6th December, 1935.
Frederick Jones—
Postmaster-General6th December, 1935.
Minister of Telegraphs6th December, 1935.
Minister of Defence6th December, 1935.
William Lee Martin—
Minister of Agriculture6th December, 1935.
Frank Langstone—
Minister of Lands6th December, 1935.
Commissioner of State Forests6th December, 1935.
Mark Fagan, M.L.C.—
Member of Executive Council without portfolio6th December, 1935.

PARLIAMENTARY UNDER-SECRETARY.

(Appointed under Civil List Amendment Act, 1936.)

JOHN ALEXANDER LEE, M.P., Parliamentary Under-Secretary in relation to the office of the Minister of Finance. Appointed 2nd September, 1936.

SUPREME COURT.

Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal, November, 1935.—Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Michael Myers, P.C., K.C.M.G. Puisne Judges: Hon. J. R. Reed, C.B.E.; Hon. H. H. Ostler; Hon. A. W. Blair; Hon. D. S. Smith; Hon. Robert Kennedy; Hon. A. Fair; Hon. E. H. Northcroft.

Judge of Court of Review (Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act).—Hon. H. F. Johnston.

Judge of the Arbitration Court.—Hon. E. Page.

HONOURS.

Since the preceding issue of the Year-Book the following honours have been conferred by His Majesty the King for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:—

[(a) Signifies conferred in January, 1935; [(b) conferred in recognition of services rendered in connection with the visit to New Zealand of His Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester; (c) in June, 1935.]

Knight Commander of the British Empire: G. Shirteliffe, O.B.E. (a). Knight Bachelor: Br. J. S. Elliott (b), J. Hutchison (a), Hon. J. R. Reed, C.B.E. (6). Companion of St. Michael and St. George: C. A. Berendsen (b), D. V. Bryant (b), W. Fels (a), C. A. Jeffery (a). Commander of the British Empire: Miss J. Batten (6), C. J. McKenzie (a). Officer of the British Empire: Mrs. M. E. Parkes (a), Professor Ann G. Strong (a).

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS.

[For earlier Parliaments and sessions refer to pp. 59–60 of the 1930 edition of the Year-Book. On some occasions there have been long adjournments during sessions, without Parliament being prorogued.]

Parliament.Dates of Opening of Sessions.Dates of Prorogation.Dates of Dissolution.
Nineteenth24 June, 191515 Oct., 191527 Nov., 1919.
9 May, 19169 Aug., 1916
28 June, 19172 Nov., 1917
9 April, 191817 April, 1918
24 Oct., 191812 Dec., 1918
28 Aug., 19197 Nov., 1919
Twentieth24 June, 192012 Nov., 192015 Nov., 1922.
10 Mar., 192124 Mar., 1921
22 Sept., 192113 Feb., 1922
28 June, 19221 Nov., 1922
Twenty-first8 Feb., 192319 Feb., 192314 Oct., 1925.
14 June, 192330 Aug., 1923
26 June, 19247 Nov., 1924
25 June, 19253 Oct., 1925
Twenty-second16 June, 192614 Sept., 192618 Oct., 1928.
23 June, 19277 Dec, 1927
28 June, 192811 Oct., 1928
Twenty-third4 Dec., 192819 Dec, 192812 Nov., 1931.
27 June, 192911 Nov., 1929
26 June, 19305 Nov., 1930
11 Mar., 19317 May, 1931
25 June, 193111 Nov., 1931
Twenty-fourth23 Feb., 193211 May, 19321 Nov., 1935.
22 Sept., 193221 Mar., 1933
21 Sept., 193322 Dec, 1933
28 June, 193416 April, 1935
29 Aug., 193529 Oct., 1935
Twenty-fifth25 Mar., 193631 Oct., 1936 

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND, DECEMBER, 1936.

Speaker—Hon. Sir W. C. F. CARNCROSS, Kt. Chairman of Committees—Hon. J. A. HANAN. Clerk of the Legislative Council—C. M. BOTHAMLEY.

Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.
Alexander, Hon. John, C.M.G.Auckland22 June,1934.
Allen, Colonel the Hon. Sir James, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.Otago1 June, 1934.
Anderson, Hon. George JamesWellington22 June, 1934.
Bell, Right Hon. Sir Henry Francis Dillon, P.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.Wellington20 May, 1933.
Bloodworth, Hon. ThomasAuckland22 June, 1934.
Buddo, Hon. DavidCanterbury11 June, 1930.
Burns, Hon. ArchibaldAuckland22 June, 1934.
Carncross, Hon. Sir Walter Charles Frederick, Kt.Taranaki17 March, 1931.
Carrington, Hon. Carey JohnAuckland17 June,1933.
Davis, Hon. Eliot RypinskiAuckland22 June,1934.
Fagan, Hon. MarkWellington11 June,1930.
Hall-Jones, Hon. Sir William, K.C.M.G.Wellington6 Oct., 1934.
Hanan, Hon. Josiah AlfredOtago17 June,1933.
Hayward, Hon. WilliamCanterbury22 June,1934.
Isitt, Hon. Leonard MonkCanterbury22 June, 1934.
McCallum, Hon. RichardMarlborough11 June,1930.
Mclntyre, Hon. William HendersonNelson3 Sept., 1935.
McLeod, Hon. JamesTaranaki22 June,1934.
Masters, Hon. RobertTaranaki11 June,1930.
O'Byrne, Hon. Thomas FrancisSouthland22 June,1934.
Perry, Hon. WilliamWellington22 June,1934.
Rhodes, Hon. Sir Robert Heaton, K.C.V.O., K.B.E.Canterbury22 June, 1934.
Russell, Hon. Harold ArthurHawke's Bay22 June,1934.
Snodgrass, Hon. William Wallace, M.B.E.Nelson3 Sept., 1935.
Trevethick, Hon. JonathanAuckland11 June,1930.
Waite, Hon. FredOtago22 June, 1934.
Ward, Hon. Vincent AubreyWellington22 June, 1934.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, DECEMBER, 1936.

Speaker—Hon. W. E. BARNARD. Chairman of Committees—E. J. HOWARD.

Clerk of the House—T. D. H. HALL, LL.B.

Name.Electoral District.
For European Electorates.
Anderton, William Theo-philusEden.
Armstrong, Hon. Hubert ThomasChristchurch East.
Atmore, HarryNelson.
Barclay, James GillispieMarsden.
Barnard. William EdwardNapier.
Barnes, DavidWaitaki.
Barrell, Charles AbrahamHamilton.
Bodkin, William AlexanderCentral Otago.
Broadfoot, Walter JamesWaitomo.
Burnett. Charles HarrisTauranga.
Burnett, Thomas DavidTemuka.
Campbell, ArchibaldChalmers.
Carr, Rev. Clyde LeonardTimaru.
Chapman, Charles HenryWellington North.
Christie. Hubert MaxwellWaipawa.
Coates; Right Hon. Joseph Gordon, P.C., M.C.Kaipara.
Cobbe. Hon. John GeorgeOroua.
Coleman. David William.Gisborne.
Cotterill. Joseph Bernard FrancisWanganui.
Coulter, RobertWaikato.
Cullen. Edward LutterellHawke's Bay.
Denham, William Mortimer ClarenceInvercargill.
Dickie, Harold GalePatea.
Endean, William PhillipsParnell.
Forbes, Right Hon. George William. P.C.Hurunui.
Eraser, Hon. PeterWellington Central.
Hamilton, Hon. AdamWallace.
Hargest. JamesAwarua.
Herring, Horace EdgarMid-Canterbury.
Hodgens, JosephPalmerston.
Holland, Sidney GeorgeChristchurch North.
Holyoake, Keith JackaMotueka.
Howard. Edwin JohnChristchurch South.
Hultquist, Axel GordonBay of Plenty.
Hunter. Clifford LorrieManawatu.
Jones, Hon. FrederickDunedin South.
Jordan, William JosephManukau.
Kyle, Herbert Seton StewartRiccarton.
Langstone. Hon. FrankWaimarino
Lee, John AlexanderGrey Lynn.
Lowry. Leonard GeorgeOtaki.
Lyon, William JohnWaitemata.
McCombs, Terence HendersonLyttelton.
McDougall. DavidMataura.
McKeen, RobertWellington South
For European Electorates—
McMillan, Dr. David GervanDunedin West
Martin, Hon. William LeeRaglan.
Mason, Hon. Henry Greathead RexAuckland Suburbs.
Meachen, Edwin PurcellWairau.
Moncur, Alexander FrancisRotorua.
Munro, James WrightDunedin North.
Nash, Hon. WalterHutt.
Neilson, PeterDunedin Central.
Nordmeyer. Rev. Arnold HenryOamaru.
0'Brien, JamesWestland.
Parry, Hon. William EdwardAuckland Central.
Petrie, Charles RobertHauraki.
Polson, William JohnStratford
Ransom, Hon. Sir Ethelbert Alfred, K.C.M.G.Pahiatua.
Richards, Arthur ShaptonRoskill.
Roberts, BenjaminWairarapa.
Robertson, JohnMasterton.
Roy, James Alexander McLeanClutha.
Rushworth, Harold MontagueBay of Islands.
Savage, Hon. Michael JosephAuckland West.
Schramm, Frederick WilliamAuckland East
Semple, Hon. RobertWellington East.
Sexton, Arthur Clifton AxfordFranklin.
Smith, Hon. S y d n e y GeorgeNew Plymouth.
Sullivan, Hon. Daniel GilesAvon.
Thorn, JamesThames.
Webb, Hon. Patrick CharlesBuller.
Wilkinson. Charles AndersonEgmont.
Williams, Charles MorganKaiapoi.
Wilson, George Hamish OrmondRangitikei.
Wright, Robert AlexanderWellington Suburbs.
For Maori Electorates.
Henare, TauNorthern maori.
Ngata, Hon. Sir Apirana Turupa, Kt.Eastern Maori.
Ratana, Haami TokouraWestern Maori.
Tirikatene, Eruera TihamaSouthern Maori.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND NAMES OF PERMANENT HEADS, DECEMBER,1936.

Permanent Head.
Department.Title.Name.
AgricultureDirector-GeneralA.H Cockayne
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralG. F. C. Campbell, C.M.G.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralH. H. Cornish, K.C., M.A., LL.M.
CustomsComptrollerE. D. Good.
DefenceCommandant, N.Z. Military ForcesMajor-General Sir W.L. H. Sinclair-Burgess, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., A.D.C.
 Under-SecretaryH. Turner.
EducationDirectorN. T. Lambourne. M.A.
Friendly Societies and National ProvidentRegistrar and SuperintendentS. Beckingsale F.I.A.
Government InsuranceCommissionerW. E. Arnold.
HealthDirector-GeneralM.H Watt, C.B.E., M.D., D.P.H.
Industries and Commerce, Tourist and PublicitySecretary for Industries and Commerce, General Manager for Tourist and Health ResortsL.J.Schmitt.
Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. W. Butcher.
Internal AffairsUnder-SecretaryJ. W. A. Heenan, LL.B.
Dominion MuseumDirectorW. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc.
Government Actuary'sGovernment ActuaryC. Gostelow, F.I.A. Lond.
Justice and PrisonsUnder-Secretary of Justice, Controller-General of Prisons, and Registrar-General, Births, Deaths, and MarriagesB. L. Dallard.
ElectoralChief Electoral OfficerG. G. Hodgkins.
LabourSecretary, and Commissioner of UnemploymentJ. S. Hunter.
Land and Deeds and Stamp DutiesSecretary for Land and Deeds and Commissioner of Stamp DutiesP. G. Pearce.
Land and Income TaxCommissioner of TaxesC. E. J. Dowland.
Lands and SurveyUnder-Secretary and Land Purchase ControllerW. Robertson.
Law DraftingLaw DraftsmanJ. Christie. C.M.G., LL.M.
MarineSecretaryL. B. Campbell, A.M.I.C.E.
Mental HospitalsDirector-GeneralT. G. Gray, M.B., Ch.B. Aberd.. M.P.C.
MinesUnder-SecretaryA. Tyndall, A.M.I.C.E.
NativeUnder-SecretaryO.N. Campbell.
Native TrustNative TrusteeO.N. Campbell.
NavalFirst Naval MemberCommodore the Hon. E. R. Drummond, M.V.O.
PensionsCommissionerJ.H. Boyes.
PoliceCommissionerW. G. Wohlmann, M.V.O., I.S.O.
Post and TelegraphDirector-GeneralG. McNamara, C.B.E.
Prime Minister's, Cook Islands, and External AffairsPermanent HeadC. A. Berendsen, LL.M.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterG. H. Loney.
Public Service SuperannuationSecretaryR. S. Wogan.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeE. O. Hales.
Public WorksUnder-Secretary and Engineer-in-ChiefC. J. McKenzie, A.M.I.C.E.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerG. H. Mackley.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchSecretaryE. Marsden, C.B.E., D.Sc.
Dominion LaboratoryDominion AnalystW. Donovan, M.Sc, F.I.C.
Dominion ObservatoryDominion Astronomer and SeismologistC. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S., A.I.A. (Lond.).
Geological SurveyDirectorJ. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc, B.E., A.O.S.M.
MeteorologicalDirectorE. Kidson, O.B.F., M.A., D.Sc.
State Fire and Accident InsuranceGeneral ManagerJ. H. Jeiram.
State Forest ServiceDirectorA. D. McGavock.
TransportCommissionerG. C. Godfrey.
TreasurySecretaryG. C. Rodda, M.B.E.
ValuationValuer-GeneralW. Stewart.

By an Act passed during the year 1912, and intituled the Public Service Act, 1912, the Public Service of New Zealand was placed under the direct and sole control of a Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners, who are appointed for a term of seven years, are responsible only to Parliament, and can be dismissed from office only for misbehaviour or incompetence.

The Act, which became operative on the 1st April, 1913, applies to all members of the Public Service with the exception of the Controller and Auditor-General, officers of the Railways Department, members of the Police and Defence Forces, Judges and Magistrates, officers of the House, certain officers of the Legislative Departments, and persons paid only by fees or commission, as well as any officer to whom the Governor-General in Council declares the Act shall not apply.

By the Post and Telegraph Department Act of 1918 the Post and Telegraph Department was exempted from the control of the Commissioner, with the exception that the Commissioner makes all appointments other than to positions carrying a salary of over £699 9s. per annum.

Public Service Commissioner (Acting): A. D. Thomson.

PUBLIC SERVANTS.

In Departments under the control of the Public Service Commissioner the number of permanent officers (excluding administrative officers and Native-school teachers) at 1st April, 193(5, was 7,900, and the aggregate of annual salaries as at 1st August, 1935, was £2,174,466, inclusive of the 7½ per cent, (i.e., 7½ per cent, of existing salary rates) restoration of salary deductions which was granted by the Finance Act, 1935. The number of temporary employees, other than workmen, &c., in these Departments at 1st April, 1935, was 2,185, of whom 804 were shorthand-typists or machinists.

Staffs of the Railways, Post and Telegraph, Police, and Defence (military personnel; civil personnel are included above) Departments will be found in appropriate sections elsewhere in this volume (as also the numbers of school-teachers). The number of workmen in the employ of the Public Works Department will be found in the section on Employment and Unemployment, and of miners, &c, in State coalmines in the Mining Section. While not exhaustive, the above covers substantially the whole of the employees of the State.

HIGH COMMISSIONER'S OFFICE, LONDON.

High Commissioner for New Zealand—Hon. Sir C. J. Parr, G.C.M.G.

Secretary, and Loan and Stock Agent—F. T. Sandford.

Economic Adviser—R. M. Campbell, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.

Publicity and Exhibition Officer—H. T. B. Drew.

Stores, Indent, and Trade Officer—S. C. Manhire.

Finance Officer, Accountant, and Loan and Stock Agent—A. R. F. Mackay, M.Com.

Audit Officer—J. P. Rutherford.

Customs Department Representative—F. W. Lawrence.

Dairy Produce Officer—F. H. Taylor.

Liaison Officer, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research—N. L. Wright, F.I.C., D.I.C.

Offices—New Zealand Government Offices, 415 Strand, London, W.C. 2. Code address—Deputy, Rand, London.

OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES IN DOMINIONS AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

New Zealand Tourist and Trade Commissioner in Commonwealth of Australia—14 Martin Place (G.P.O. Box 365F), Sydney; code address—Zealandia, Sydney. District Manager—New Zealand Government Offices, Collins House, 360 Collins Street (P.O. Box 2136), Melbourne; code address—Aotearoa, Melbourne.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Brisbane—Messrs. Dewar and Jones, King&s Building, 79 Queen Street, Brisbane.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Adelaide—South Australian Intelligence and Tourist Bureau (P.O. Box 664o), Adelaide.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Perth—Western Australian Government Tourist Bureau, 62 Barrack Street, Perth. Code address—Tourist.

New Zealand Trade and Tourist Commissioner in Europe—Shell Buildings, Canters-teen 47, Brussels, Belgium. Code address—Newzeal.

Honorary New Zealand Representative, Marseilles—The Secretary, British Chamber of Commerce, 2 Rue Beauvau, Marseilles. Code address—Britcom.

New Zealand Trade and Tourist Commissioner, Toronto—Canada Permanent Building, 320 Bay Street, Toronto, 2. Code address—Maoriland.

New Zealand Trade and Tourist Commissioner, Los Angeles—Hollingsworth Buildings, 606 South Hill Street, Los Angeles, California. Code address—Newzeal.

New Zealand Government Agent, Vancouver, B.C.—E. E. Ackland, (P.O. Box 16), Vancouver, B.C.

Official Representative of Customs Department in Canada and United States—W. J. Stevenson, 44 Whitehall Street, New York. Code address—Depcustoms.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent in India—New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd., 26 Dalhousie Square West, Calcutta. Code address—Newzico. Also at Rangoon and Bombay.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Colombo—A. R. Hughes, Hong Kong Bank Buildings (P.O. Box 328), Colombo.

Acting Honorary New Zealand Government Agent. North China—C. G. Davis, care of Messrs. Hatch, Carter, and Co., 131 Devonport Road, Tientsin, North China.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Shanghai—S. Hutchison, 384 Embankment Building, North Soochow Road (P.O. Box 355), Shanghai.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Hong Kong—S. T. Williamson, P. and O. Building (P.O. Box 615), Hong Kong. Code address—Williamson, Hong Kong.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent, Singapore—American Express Company, Singapore.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Johannesburg—H. J. Constable (P.O. Box 1909), Johannesburg.

New Zealand Tourist Agent in Africa—Parry, Leon, and Hayhoe, Johannesburg, and at all principal centres in South Africa and Portuguese East Africa.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Durban—H. Middlebrook, 3 Natal Bank Buildings, West Street (P.O. Box 1822), Durban. Code address—Midstream.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Honolulu—H. C. Tennent. First National Bank Building (P.O. Box 44), Honolulu.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agents, Fiji—Messrs. Brown and Joske, Suva. Code address—Joske, Suva.

TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF OVERSEAS COUNTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND.

United Kingdom.—H.M. Trade Commissioner: R. Boulter, C.M.G., T. and G. Buildings, Grey Street (P.O. Box 369), Wellington.

Australia.—Trade Commissioner: R. H. Nesbitt, D.I.C. Building, Wellington.

Canada.—Trade Commissioner: C. M. Croft, Yorkshire House, Shortland Street, Auckland.

FOREIGN CONSULS.

CONSULS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OR WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, DECEMBER,1935.

Argentine Republic.—Vice-Consuls: F. S. Battley, Auckland; E. S. Baldwin, Wellington.

Belgium.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Armand Nihotte, Wellington. Consuls: A. M. Ferguson, Auckland; Sir J. J. Kinsey, Christchurch. Vice-Consuls: Sir C. R. J. Ward, Bart., Christchurch; A. H. Allen, Acting Hon. Consul, Dunedin; Sir R. A. Anderson, C.M.G., Invercargill.

Brazil.—Consul: George Robertson, Wellington. Vice-Consul: C. A. L. Treadwell, O.B.E., Wellington.

Chile.—Consul General for Australia and New Zealand: R. Dundas Smith, Sydney. Consuls: J. M. Wilson, Auckland; William Taylor, Dunedin.

China.—Consul: Feng Wang, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Yue H. Jackson, Wellington; Cheng Fu Pan, Western Samoa.

Czechoslovakia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Dr. A. Solansky (Acting), Sydney. Honorary Consuls: Professor R. M. Algie, Auckland; E. J. Hyams, Wellington. Honorary Vice-Consul: D. J. Shea, Christchurch.

Denmark.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Georg Lyngbye Host, Sydney. Consul for South Island: H. D. Acland, Christchurch. Honorary Consul: Stronach Paterson, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: S. P. Anderson, Auckland; W. Perry, Hokitika.

Ecuador.—Consul: William Birss, Auckland.

Finland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Paavo Simelius, Sydney. Vice-Consuls (honorary): C. E. Tudehope, Auckland; Vaino Sarelius, Christchurch.

France.—Consul for New Zealand and Western Samoa: E. M. V. M. Joubert, Auckland. Consular Agents: G. E. F. Kingscote, Christchurch; 0. R. Bendall, Wellington; S. E. D. Neill, Dunedin.

Germany—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies other than Western Samoa): Dr. Rudolf Asmis, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, also Western and American Samoa): W. Penseler, Wellington.

Greece.—Honorary Consul for New Zealand: J. F. Dyer, Wellington. Honorary Deputy Consul: G. T. Dawson, Wellington.

Italy.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, and New Guinea: Commendatore Nob. A. Grossardi, Melbourne. Consul: Oscar Carrara (acting), Wellington. Consular Agents: P. P. J. Amodeo (acting), Christchurch; J. A. Roberts, Dunedin; M. J. Sheahan, Auckland (temporarily in charge); Signor Adamo Vigna, Runanga (provisionally in charge).

Japan.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, excluding Western Samoa), Kuramatsu Murai, Sydney. Honorary Consul: N. S. Falla, C.M.G., D.S.O., Wellington.

Latvia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand—including Western Samoa—and its Dependencies): C. Zarine, London. Honorary Consul: N. E. Heath, Auckland.

Mexico.—Honorary Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Senor Carlos Zalapa, Sydney.

Netherlands.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: T. Elink Schuurman, Sydney. Honorary Consul: C. H. Weston, K.C., Wellington; Honorary Vice-Consuls: George Ritchie, Dunedin; H. H. F. Bauer, Auckland; N. Francis, C.M.G., Christchurch.

Nicaragua.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand): Senor Don Rafael Medina, Sydney.

Norway.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: H. H-T. Fay, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over Western Samoa also): A. W. iCuwton, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Robert Millar, Auckland; V. E. Hamilton, Cliristchurch (honorary); M. E. Wiig. Invercargill; J. H. Enright, Westport; W. F. Edmond, Dunedin (honorary).

Panama.—Honorary Consul: Quiros y Quiros, Auckland.

Peru.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: J. M. Paxton, Sydney. Consul: G. H. Baker, Auckland.

Poland.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Dr. Karol Poznanski, London. Honorary Consul: W. Noskowski, Sydney.

Portugal.—Consul: David L. Nathan, Auckland. Honorary Vice-Consul: Alfred Nathan, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: A. D. S. Duncan, Wellington; C. W. Rattray, Dunedin.

Spain.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, excluding Western Samoa): Senor Don Mariano Amoedo y Galarmendi, Sydney. Honorary Vice-Consul: A. K. S. Mackenzie, Wellington.

Sweden.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: C. 0. D. von Dardel, Sydney. Consul: J. T. Martin, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: J. T. F. Mitchell, Auckland; W. Machin, Christchurch; J. S. Ross, C.M.G., Dunedin.

Switzerland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): M. Stahel, Sydney. Gerant of the Consulate: Dr. Albert Blau, Auckland.

United States of America.—Consul-General: Geo. A. Bucklin, Wellington. Consul: W. F. Boyle, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: L. A. Bachelder (honorary), Auckland; L. W. Johnson, Walter W. Orebaugh, G. B. Lane, Wellington; Q. F. Roberts, Apia (in charge). Consular Agents: H. P. Bridge, Christchurch; H. Reeves, Dunedin.

Uruguay.—Honorary Consul: David Allan, Wellington.

Yugoslavia.—Honorary Consul: John Totich, Dargaville.

Appendix A. APPENDICES.

(a) PRINCIPAL EVENTS.

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SOME Noteworthy EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF New ZEALAND.

1642. Discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769. Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1788. Discovery of Macaulay and Curtis Islands (Kermadec Group), and of Bounty Islands.

1791. Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792. First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1793. Discovery of Raoul or Sunday Island (Kermadec Group). Visit of Lieutenant Governor King, of Norfolk Island, to Doubtless Bay.

1800. Discovery of Antipodes Islands.

1806. Discovery of Auckland Islands.

1807. Defeat of Hongi and the Ngapuhi Tribe.

1810. Discovery of Campbell Island.

1814. Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1818. Hongi's and Te Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.

1819–20. Raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson by Patuone, None, and Te Rauparaha.

1820. Hongi's visit to England. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.

1821. Hongi's capture of Mauinaina and To Totara Pas. Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki.

1822. Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.

1823. Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, to Hongi.

1823–28. Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1824. Fall of To Whetumatarau Pa to Pomare.

1825. First attempt at colonization, by an expedition under Captain Herd. Great defeat of Ngati-Whatau by Hongi.

1827. Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1828. Death of Hongi.

1829. Brig “Hawes” captured by Maoris.

1830. Battles of Taumata-wiwi and Kororareka. Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury, to Te Rauparaha.

1831. Tory Channel whaling-station established. Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William IV. Capture of Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, by Waikato.

1832. Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa.

1833. Mr. Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834. Battle near Otaki. Waimate Pa shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which H.M. troops employed in New Zealand.

1835. Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand.” Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1836. Battles between Waikato and Te Arawa.

1838. Pelorus Sound discovered. Arrival of Roman Catholic mission under Bishop Pompallier.

1839. Governor of New South Wales authorized to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840. Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841. Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842. Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843. Affray with Natives at the Wairau, and massacre of persons who had surrendered.

1844. Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845. Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846. Arrival of first steam vessel (H.M.S. “Driver”) in Now Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Native hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847. Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848. Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Severe earthquake at Wellington. Otago founded.

1850. Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852. Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854. Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855. First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856. Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857. Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858. New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.

1859. Establishment of Marlborough Province.

1860. Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861. Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862. Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. “White Swan,” with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863. Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus” on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Native affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand opened.

1864. Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including Battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. Gold discovered on west coast of South Island.

1865. Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Natives defeated at Wairoa.

1866. Further defeats of rebel Natives. Commencement of Panama steam mail-service. Cook Strait submarine telegraph-cable laid.

1867. Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868. Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner “Rifleman” and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Natives.

1869. Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit after Te Kooti. Termination of Panama mail-service. Visit of H.R..H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870. Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail-service. Bounty Island taken possession of. Inauguration of Vogel public-works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.

1871. Commencement of railway-construction under public-works policy.

1872. Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created:

1873. Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Company.

1874. In pursuance of immigration and public-works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants introduced. Westland Province established.

1875. Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

1876. New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877. Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education.

1879. Trouble with Parihaka Natives, under Te Whiti, and imprisonment of 180 of these. Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata Coal-mine explosion, whereby thirty-four lives lost.

1880. Release of Parihaka prisoners.

1881. Wreck of s.s. “Tararua,” with loss of 130 lives. Severe earthquakes in Wellington:. Arrest of Te Whiti. and Tohu.

1882. First shipment of frozen meat from Now Zealand.

1883. Amnesty to Maori political offenders proclaimed. Te Whiti and Tohu released. Direct steam communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885. New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886. Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887. Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris.

1888. British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889. South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890. Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891. Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Pallance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr. Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.

1892. Introduction of lease-in-perpoluity system of land-tenure.

1893. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa,” with loss of 135 lives.

1895. Government assumed management of Midland Railway.

1896. Brunner Mine explosion, causing sixty-seven deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898. Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899. Labour Day instituted. New Zealand Contingent (the first of ten) sent to South Africa.

1900. Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to seventy-six.

1901. T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Universal penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902. Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. “Elingamite” with loss of forty-three lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.

1903. Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905.Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner.”

1906. Death of lit. Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

1907. New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908. Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu Railway purchased by Government. Second Ballot Act passed.

1909. S.s. “Penguin” wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of seventy-five lives. Battle-cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910. Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener reported and advised on New Zealand defences. Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911.Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912. Foundation-stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913. Visit of Dominions Royal Commission. Visit of gift ship H.M.S. “New Zealand” to Dominion. Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.

1914.Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal-mine disaster, whereby forty-three lives lost.

1915. New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled.

1916. New Zealand Division transferred to western front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918. S.s. “Wimmera” sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast. Otira Tunnel pierced. Great influenza epidemic, causing over five thousand deaths.

1919.Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.O., Prime Minister.

1920. Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921. Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington, by Hon. Sir John Salmond.

1922. Meat-export trade placed under control of a Board.

1923. Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Reintroduction of penny postage. Dairy, produce Export Control Act passed, and adopted by dairy producers.

1924. Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor-vehicle Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor-vehicles. Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act passed.

1925. Social Hygiene Regulations made, to provide means of coping with spread of venereal disease. Repayment of the Public Debt Act passed. New Zealand and South Sea? International Exhibition at Dunedin. Death of Right Hon. W. F. Massey.

1926. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand. Absolute control adopted by Dairy-produce Control Board. Family Allowances Act passed.

1927. Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed. Limited control substituted for absolute control by Dairy-produce Control Board. Petrol-tax imposed.

1928. Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman. Compulsory insurance of motor-vehicles provided for by Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act.

1929. Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused seventeen deaths. Daylight-saving (half-hour) permanently adopted for summer months. Fatal clash between police and Mau at Apia.

1930. Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed. Deaths of Sir Joseph Ward, Sir Robert Stout., and Sir Thomas Mackenzie, ex-Premiers.

1931. Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 per cent, in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Graduated land-tax replaced by income-tax. Mortgagors relief legislation passed.

1932. Principal broadcasting stations taken over by New Zealand Broadcasting Board. System of export-licenses operated for first six months of year. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rent, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference. Stratford-Main Trunk railway opened.

1933. Wheat-purchase Board created, 7th January, to regulate prices and control disposal of wheat, including the exportable surplus. Exchange raised, 20th January, at instance of Government to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers); and Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act passed, 1st March, providing for Government purchase of surplus exchange. Sales tax of 5 per cent, on wholesale sales instituted from 9th February. New Zealand Debt Conversion Act passed, 4th March, reducing interest on internal public debt; a complementary Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act passed, 9th March. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England. Customs Tariff Commission appointed, 9th May. Mr. H. E. Holland, Leader of Opposition, died, 8th October. Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, constituting a central reserve bank, passed 27th November. First New Zealand silver coins in circulation, November.

1934 Commission appointed, 17th January, to inquire into company-promotion methods, &c. Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire into monetary system. First official trans-Tasman air-mail, 17th February. Reserve Bank incorporated from 1st April; commenced business, 1st August. Partial restoration (5 per cent, of reduced rates) of “cuts” operated from 1st April: affected public servants and old-age and South-African-War pensioners. Commission appointed, 27th April, to inquire into dairy industry. Meat export Restriction Order restricted export of frozen beef or veal from 12th July. Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act repealed as from 1st August. Dairy Board marketing regulations, effective from 1st August, placed under control all butter and cheese exported to United Kingdom. The Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act passed, 13th November. Opening of Waitaki hydro-electric works, 27th October. H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester arrived on an official visit, 15th December. First licensed air-transport service commenced operations, 31st December.

1935. Bank-notes of trading banks ceased to be legal lender, 10th January. Members of Executive Commission of Agriculture appointed, 23rd January. British silver coins ceased to be legal tender, 1st ^February. Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, 5th April, and Court of Review established. Lieut.-Colonel the Right Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., assumed office as Governor-General, 12th. April. Partial restoration (7£ per cent, of existing rates) of salaries and wages of public servants, 1st August. Restoration of pensions reductions, 1st August. System of group marketing approved in September by New Zealand Dairy Conference. Reduction of unemployment-tax to 8d. in the pound. 1st October. League of Nations (Enforcement of Sanctions) Act passed. 24th October. War Veterans' Allowances Act passed, 24th October. General election, 27th November. National Government defeated. Labour Government assumed office, 6th December.

1936. Inauguration of inter-island trunk ah services. Death of King George V, 20th January. Accession of King Edward VIII. Severe southerly storm swept North Island. 2nd February; “Rangatira “ran aground outside Wellington Heads. Special committee set up to advise Government on guaranteed prices, 22nd February. Standard rates of pay announced for public works. Reduction in Reserve Bank re-discount rate to 2£ per cent.. 2nd March. International Labour Conference delegates depart for Geneva, 13th March. Air-mail service inaugurated Opening of Parliament, 25th March. Reserve Bank Amendment Act passed. Tobacco Board appointed. Railways Amendment Act. passed, lion. W. Nash appointed Minister of Marketing. Parliamentary mission to Samoa departed, 16th June. Explosion at Colonial Ammunition Co.`s works at Auckland, one fatality. State Advances Corporation Act passed. Death of Sir William Hall-Jones, 19th June. Broadcasting Amendment Act passed. Reduction of Reserve Bank re-discount rate to 2 per cent.. 29 th June. Restoration of Public Service and pension “cuts” from 1st July. Factories Amendment Act operated from 1st July. Parliamentary mission to Cook Islands departed, 7th July. Memorial unveiled at Waitara to Sir Maui Pomare. Welded oil-barge launched at Evans Bay, Wellington—largest vessel built in the Dominion. National Art Gallery and Museum opened. Conversion of £5,869,988 Government debt domiciled in London. Guaranteed prices for dairy industry announced in the Budget, 4th August. J. E. Lovelock, representing New Zealand, won 1,500 metres race at Berlin Olympiad. Civil List Amendment Act passed, making provision for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries. Main Trunk express ran into a slip at Paraparaumu, one fatality. Mr. W. J. Jordan took office as High Commissioner, 1st September. Forty-hour week became operative, 1st September. Comprehensive Government housing scheme announced. H.M.S. “Achilles” arrived for service on New Zealand station. Agricultural Workers Act passed. Rail-car services inaugurated. New Zealand elected to seat on League of Nations Council, 28th September. Manukau by-election, 30th September. Empire Chamber of Commerce Conference opened at Wellington, 2nd October. Hon. W. Nash departed for London. Miss J. Batten broke England-Australia and trans-Tasman flight records: also made first direct England-New Zealand flight. Mr. L. E. Clark also flew from England to New Zealand. Prospectus issued for conversion in January, 1937. of £12,000,000 internally domiciled debt.

(b) STATISTICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The current publications of the Census and Statistics Office are listed at the beginning of this volume (facing page 1). In addition, the following are issued in the New Zealand Gazette:

  • Estimated Yields of Wheat, Oats, and Barley (Annual).

  • Estimated Spring Areas under Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Potatoes (Annual).

  • Stocks of Wheat, Oats, and Flour (Annual).

There are also occasional publications of the Census and Statistics Office (none of which are of recent date), while certain others formerly published regularly have now been discontinued.

Much statistical information, often of a detailed nature, is contained in the various departmental reports presented to Parliament. These are published separately, while collectively they comprise the annual Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives. Those more important from a statistical point of view are listed below:—

Subject.Report.
Number.Title.
* In four parts.
Meteorology, seismology, geological survey, &c.H.-34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
Public health, hospitals, &c.H.-31Report on Public Health, Hospitals, and Charitable Aid.
 H.-7Report on Mental Hospitals.
EducationE.-1Report of Minister of Education.
 E.-2Report on Primary and Post-primary Education.
 E.-3Report on Education of Native Children.
 E.-4Report on Child Welfare, State Care of Children, Special Schools, and Infant-life Protection.
 E.-7Report on Higher Education.
JusticeH.-16Report on Police Force.
 H.-20Prisons Report.
 H.-20AReport of Prisons Board.
 H.-20BReport on Offenders' Probation.
DefenceH.-19Report of General Officer Commanding.
 H.-5Report on New Zealand Naval Forces.
External tradeH.-44Report of Department of Industries and Commerce.
ShippingH.-l5Report of Marine Department.
RailwaysD.-2Railways Statement.
 D.-lPublic Works Statement.
Roads and transportD.-lPublic Works Statement.
 H.-40Report of Transport Department.
Postal and telegraphicF.-lReport of Post and Telegraph Department.
 F.-3Report of Broadcasting Board.
LandsH.-3Report of Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Department.
 C.-1AReport on Surveys.
Crown landsC.-lReport on Settlement of Crown Lands.
 C.-5Report on Land for Settlements Act.
 C.-9Report on Discharged Soldiers' Settlement.
 C.-14Report on National Endowments.
Native landsG.-9Report on Native Land Courts, &c.
 G.-3. 4Accounts of East Coast Native Trust Lands.
 G.-10Report of Board of Native Affairs.
Agricultural and pastoral productionH.-29Report of Department of Agriculture.
 H.-23Annual Sheep Returns.
 H.-34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
ForestryC.-3Report of State Forest Service.
FisheriesH.-15Report of Marine Department.
 H.-22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
MiningC.-2Mines Statement.
 C.-2AReport on State Coal-mines.
 C.-12Report on Kauri-gum Industry.
 H.-34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
Factory productionH.-44Report of Department of Industries and Commerce.
Public financeB.-l*Public Accounts.
 B.-2Report and Accounts of Public Debt Commission.
 B.-6Financial Statement (Budget).
 B.-7Appropriations chargeable on Consolidated Fund and other Accounts.
 B.-7AAppropriations chargeable on Public Works Fund.
 B.-10Public Securities held.
 D.-1Public Works Statement.
State advancesB.-13Report of State Advances Office.
 B.-14Report of Rural Intermediate Credit Board.
PensionsH.-18Report of Pensions Department.
SuperannuationH.-26Report of Public Service Superannuation Board.
 E.-8Report on Teachers' Superannuation Fund.
 D.-5Report on Government Railways Superannuation Fund.
National Provident FundH.-17Report of National Provident Fund Board.
Local bodiesH.-22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
BankingB.-15Balance-sheet of Bank of New Zealand.
 F.-lReport of Post and Telegraph Department.
 F.-4Report on Post-Office Savings-bank.
InsuranceH.-8Report of Government Insurance Commissioner.
 H.-6, 6aReport of State Fire Insurance Office.
 H.-12Report on Fire Brigades.
Roads and road transportH.-40Report of Transport Department
Friendly societiesH.-lReport of Registrar of Friendly Societies.
Trade-unionsH.-llReport of Labour Department.
UnemploymentH.-35Report of Unemployment Board.
Industrial disputesH.-llReport of Labour Department.
Industrial accidentsH.-llReport of Labour Department.
 D.-2Railways Statement.
 C.-2Mines Statement.
Electric-powerD.-lPublic Works Statement.
Public Trust OfficeB.-9, 9AReport and Accounts of the Public Trust Office.
Patents, designs, and trademarksH.-10Report of Commissioner of Patents, &c.
Inspection of machineryH.-15Report of Marine Department.
DependenciesA.-3Report on Cook Islands.
 A.-4Report on Western Samoa.
 A.-6Report on Niue Island.
Public ServiceH.-l4Report of Public Service Commissioner.

The foregoing list relates, as stated, to annual reports. Special reports on subjects of general interest which have been presented to Parliament during the last three years include the following:—

1934.

B.-3 .. Report of the Monetary Committee.

(NOTE.—A separate appendix contains evidence heard by, and statements presented to, the Committee.)

G.-ll .. Report of Native Affairs Commission.

H.-25, 25A, .. Interim and Final Reports of Commission of Inquiry into Company and 25B Promotion Methods, &c.

H.-28 .. Report of Tariff Commission.

H.-28A .. Statement on Customs Tariff.

H.-30 .. Report of Dairy Industry Commission.

H.-44A .. Report of Committee of Inquiry into Motion-picture Industry.

1935.

H.-30 .. Report of Departmental Committee on National Compulsory Superannuation and Health Insurance.

1936.

H.-32A. .. Report by Chief Librarian, General Assembly Library, on Rural Library Services.

The above list of officially presented statistics is, of course, far from exhaustive, while much statistical data receives publication through non-official or semi-official channels. A complete annual statistical bibliography is not at present practicable.

(c) GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following list, compiled originally by Mr. Johannes C. Andersen, M.B.E., F.R.S.N.Z. (Librarian of the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington), and revised for this issue by Mr. C. R. H. Taylor (Acting-Librarian), contains the names of some of the principal works dealing with New Zealand, Samoa, and the Cook Islands.

Considerations of space preclude the inclusion of a complete list, and make it necessary in this issue to omit works which have not been published or republished since 1912. Earlier works are listed in the 1932 number of the Year-Book

NEW ZEALAND.

1912. The Geology of New Zealand. By P. Marshall, D.Sc, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Wellington—Government Printer.

1913. New Zealand: its History, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. By S. Playne, London.

1913. Social Welfare in New Zealand. By H. H. Lusk. London.

1913. The Lore of the Whare Wananga. Third Volume of Memoirs of Polynesian Society. On Maori Religion, Myths, Cosmogony, &c. (Part 2, 1915.)

1914. The Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand. By J. Hight, Litt.D., and H. D. Bamford, LL.D. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1914. Oxford Survey of the British Empire. Vol. 5. Australasian Territories. London.

1914. Early Rangitikei. By Sir James G. Wilson, Kt. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1914. Mutton Birds and Other Birds. By H. Guthrie-Smith. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1916. Jubilee History of South Canterbury. By Johannes C. Andersen. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1916. The “Socialism” of New Zealand. By R. H. Hutchinson. New York—New Review Publishing Association.

1917. A Natural History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Adjacent Islands. By R. P. Thomson. London.

1917. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. By Herbert L. Williams. Wellington—Government Printer.

1921. Maori and Pakeha: a History of New Zealand. By A. W. Shrimpton, M.A., and A. E. Mulgan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd. (second edition, 1930).

1921. Hawaiki: the Whence of the Maori., By S. Percy Smith. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs. (Ed. 1, 1898; ed. 2, 1904; ed. 3, 1910.)

1921. The Hot Springs of New Zealand. By Arthur Stanley Herbert, M.D. London—H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd.

1921. Tutira: the Story of a New Zealand Sheep-station. By H. Guthrie-Smith. London—Blackwood and Sous.

1922. The Naturalization of Animals and Plants in New Zealand. By Hon. George M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst., M.L.C. Cambridge University Press.

1922. The Geomorphology of New Zealand. By C. A. Cotton, D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Wellington—Government Printer.

1922. Maori Myth and Religion. Spiritual and Mental Concepts of the Maori. Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori. Maori Division of Time. By Elsdon Best, F.N.Z.Inst. Dominion Museum Monographs 1–4. Wellington—Government Printer.

1922. The New Zealand Wars: a History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol. 1. 1845–64. By James Cowan. Wellington—Government Printer. Vol. 2, 1864–72, issued 1923.

1922. Medical Practice in Otago and Southland in the Early Days. By Robert Valpy Fulton, M.D. Edin. Dunedin—Otago Daily Times.

1922. Phormium tenax. By E. H. Atkinson. Wellington—Government Printer.

1923. The Waikato War, together with some Account of Te Kooti Rikirangi. By John Featon (new edition revised by Captain Mair). Auckland—Brett Printing and Publishing Co.

1923. The Animals of New Zealand, Fourth edition. By Captain F. W. Hutton and James Drummond. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs. (Ed. 1, 1904; ed. 2,1905; ed. 3, 1909.)

1923. Polynesian Voyagers. Maori Schools of Learning. (Dominion Museum Bulletins Nos. 5 and 6.) By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Printer.

1923. Cultivation of New Zealand Plants. By L. Cockayne. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1924. Dominion Civics. By Miss N. E. Goad. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1924. The Maori. By Elsdon Best. Published by the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. 2 vols. Wellington—H. Tombs.

1924. Maori Religion and Mythology. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 10.) By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Printer.

1924. The Long White Cloud (Aotearoa). By W. P. Reeves. Third edition (to which is added a sketch of recent events in New Zealand by C. J. Wray), London—Allen and TJnwin. (First edition in 1898.)

1924. White Wings (on early shipping). By H. Brett. (Vol. 2, 1928.) Auckland-Brett Co.

1925. The Maori as He Was. By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Printer.

1925. Bird Life on Island and Shore. By H. Guthrie-Smith. Edinburgh—Wm. Blackwood and Sons.

1925. Bibliography of Australasian Poetry and Verse. By P. Sorle. Melbourne University Pres3.

1925. Fungous Diseases of Fruit-trees in New Zealand. By G. H. Cunningham. Auckland—New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation.

1925. The Maori Canoe. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 7.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Government Printer.

1925. Games and Pastimes of the Maori. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 8.) By Elsdon Best. Published under tho direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Maori Agriculture. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 9.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Land Legislation and Settlement in New Zealand. By W. R. Jourdain. Wellington—Lands and Survey Department.

1925. Manual of New Zealand Flora. Second edition. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Edited by W. R. B. Oliver. Wellington—Government Printer. (First edition, 1906.)

1925. New Zealand Birds and how to Identify Them. By Mrs. P. Moncrieff. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Short History of New Zealand. By J. B. Condliffe. Christchurch—L. M. Isitt.

1926. Geography of the Pacific. By Miss N. E. Road. Wellington.—New Zealand Book Depot.

1926. History of the Pacific. By Miss N. E. Road. Wellington—New Zealand Book Depot.

1926. New Zealand: its Political Connection with Great Britain. Vol. 1. By J. I. Hetherington. Vol. 2, 1927. Dunedin—Coulls, Somerville, Wilkie, Ltd.

1926. Treasury of New Zealand Verse: New Edition of New Zealand Verse. By W. F. Alexander and A. E. Currie. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. New Zealand's First War. By T. Lindsay Buick. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Government Printer.

1926. Bird-song and New Zealand Song-birds. By J. C. Andersen. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. Travel in New Zealand. 2 vols. By James Cowan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. The Insects of Australia and New Zealand. By R. J. Tillyard. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1926. Tales of the Angler's Eldorado, New Zealand. By Zane Grey. London—Hodder and Stoughton.

1926. England and New Zealand. By A. J. Harrop. London—Methuen and Co., Ltd.

1927. The Pa Maori. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 6.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1927. Plants of New Zealand. By R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd. (First ed., 1906; second ed., 1907.)

1927. Colonization of New Zealand. By J. S. Maraia. London—Oxford University Press.

1927. New Zealand. By W. P. Reeves. Illustrations by F. and W. Wright. Second edition, with thirty-two illustrations. London—A. and C. Biaok. (First edition. 1908.)

1927. Place Names of Banks Peninsula. By J. C. Andersen. Published by the Board of Science and Art. Wellington—Government Printer.

1927. Maori String Figures. By J. C. Andersen. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research, Vol. 2. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn.

1927. The Evolution of Maori Clothing. By P. H. Buck. The Board of Maori Ethnological Research. New Plymouth—Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1927. Peoples and Problems of the Pacific. By J. Macmillan Brown. London—T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd., Bouverie House, Fleet Street, E.C.

1927. Earliest New Zealand. The Journals and Correspondence of the Rev. John Butler. Compiled by R. J. Barton. Masterton—Palamontain and Petherick.

1927. Rod-fishing in New Zealand Waters. By T. E. Donne, C.M.G. With illustrations and map. London—Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd.

1927. Natural History of Canterbury. Issued by the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury (R. Speight, Arnold Wall, and R. M. Laing, Honorary Editors). Christ-church—Simpson and Williams, Ltd.

1927. New Zealand Plants and their Story. Third edition. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S. Wellington—Government Printer. (First ed., 1910; second ed., 1913.)

1927. Trees from Other Lands for Shelter and Timber in New Zealand—Eucalypts. By J. H. Simmonds. Illustrated with seventy-six botanic plates and twenty. eight scenic plates. Auckland—The Brett Printing and Publishing Company.

1927. Supplement to Hocken`s's Bibliography of New Zealand Literature. By A. H. Johnstone. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1928. The Vegetation of New Zealand. Second edition. By Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Leipzig—W. Engelmann. (First ed., 1921.)

1928. Cheerful Yesterdays. By the Hon. 0. T. J. Alpers. With a Preface by the Earl of Birkenhead, P.C. London—John Murray.

1928. New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. By H. H. Allan, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst, Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1928. A Pioneer Missionary among the Maoris, 1850–1879. Being Letters and Journals of Thomas Samuel Grace. Edited jointly by S. J. Brittan, G. F., C. W., and A. V. Grace. Palmerston North—G. H. Bennett and Co., Ltd.

1928. The Amazing Career of Edward Gibbon Wakefield. By A. J. Harrop, M.A. (N.Z.), Ph.D. (Cambridge). With extracts from “A Letter from Sydney” (1829). London—George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.

1928. Maori Artistry. By W. Page Rowe. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 3. New Plymouth—Thomas Avery and Sous, Ltd.

1928. The Changing Maori. By Felix M. Keesing, M.A. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 4. New Plymouth—Thomas Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1928. Captain Hobson and the New Zealand Company: A Study in Colonial Administration. By J. C. Beaglehole, M.A. Vol. 13, Nos. 1–3, October, 1927-April, 1928, Smith College Studies in History, Northampton, Mass.—Department of History of Smith College.

1928. Myths and Legends of the Polynesians. By J. C. Andersen. London—Harrap and Co., Ltd.

1928. The French at Akaroa. By T. Lindsay Buick, F.R.Hist.S. Wellington—Government Printer.

1928. Pioneering in Poverty Bay (N.Z.). By Philip T. Kenway. London—John Murray.

1928. The Butterflies and Moths of New Zealand. With fifty-two coloured plates. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn, Ltd.

1928. Pulping and Paper-making Properties of Selected New Zealand Woods. By C. E. Curran and others. Wellington—Government Printer.

1929. Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori. By Raymond Firth, M.A. (New Zealand), Ph.D. (London). London—George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.

1929. Young New Zealand. By A. G. Butchers, M.A., M.Ed. (Melb.), LL.B. (N.Z.)—Part 2, Education in New Zealand, 1930.

1929. Early Wellington. Compiled by Louis E. Ward. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1929. Te Hekenga. Early Days in Horowhenua. Being the Reminiscences of Mr. Rod McDonald. Compiled and written by E. O'Donnell. Palmerston North—G. H. Bennett and Co., Ltd.

1929. Edward Gibbon Wakefield. By Irma O'Connor. London—Selwyn and Blount.

1929. The New Zealand Nature Book. By W. Martin, B.Sc., F.R.G.S. Vol. 1, The Fauna; Vol. 2, The Flora. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1929. The Pioneer Explorers of New Zealand. By J. R. Elder, M.A., D.Litt. (Abdn.). London and Glasgow—Blackie and Son, Ltd.

1929. A Great Colonizer: the Rev. Dr. Thomas Burns. By E. N. Merrington. Dunedin—The Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Co., Ltd.

1929. Kohikohinga. Reminiscences and Reflections of “Ropata.” By Vernon Roberts. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1930. New Zealand Birds. By W. R. B. Oliver, M.Sc, F.N.Z.Inst., C.F.A.O.U., R.A.O.U. Wellington—Fine Arts (N.Z.), Ltd.

1930. Pictures of Old New Zealand: the Partridge Collection of Maori Paintings by Gottfried Lindauer. Described by James Cowan. Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1930. New Zealand in the Making. By Professor J. B. Condliffe, D.Sc. London—Allen and Unwind.

1930. Yesterdays in Maoriland: New Zealand in the Eighties. By Andreas Reischek. Translated and edited by FI. E. L. Priday. London—Jonathan Cape. (A German edition published in 1924.)

1930. Legends of the Maori. By Sir Maui Pomare, K.B.E., C.M.G., M.D., M.P., and James Cowan. Wellington—Fine Arts (N.Z.-), Ltd. Vol. 2, London—H. H. Tombs, 1934.

1930. The Maori Yesterday and To-day. By James Cowan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1930. Old New Zealand. By F. Mailing (Pakoha Maori). Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs. (Earlier editions: 1863, Auckland—Creighton and Scales; also London—Smith, Elder, and Co.; 1876, 1884, 1887, London—Bentley and Co.; 1900, London—Macmillan; 1906, 1912, 1922, Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.)

1930. Early Days in Central Otago. By Robert Gilkison. Dunedin—Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Co., Ltd.

1930. Tales of the Maori Coast. By James Cowan. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons.

1931. The Mystery of the Moa. By T. Lindsay Buick. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons.

1931. Maori and Education. By Patrick M. Jackson. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn. (A collection of essays by various New Zealand writers, including Elsdon Best, Bishop Williams, Professor Sutherland, and others).

1931. Industrial Situation in New Zealand. By Fortescue W. Rowley, I.S.O. Wellington—H. H. Tombs.

1931. Songs from the Forests of Tane. By T. Chamberlin Chamberlin. Wellington—Fine Arts Co. (F.rst ed., 1912.)

1931. Illustrated and Priced Catalogue of the Stamps of New Zealand. By Verne, Collins and Co. Christchurch—Simpson and Williams.

1931. Pictures of Old New Zealand. By James Cowan. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1931. New Zealand Ferns. By H. B. Dobbie. Wellington—Third ed., Whitcombe and Tombs. (First ed., 1880; second ed., 1921.)

1931. Old Coaching Days in Otago and Southland. By E. M. Lovell-Smith. Christ-church—Lovell-Smith and Venner.

1931. Mining Laws of the British Empire, Vol. 10, New Zealand. London—Imperial Institute.

1931. The New Zealanders in England. By 0. S. Hinz. London—Dent.

1932. Pasture Plants and Pastures of New Zealand. By F. W. Hilgendorf. Christ-church—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1932. Legends and Mysteries of the Maori. By Chas. A. Wilson. London—Harrap.

1932. Pioneering Days of Southern Maoriland. By M. A. Rugby Pratt. London—J. A. Sharp.

1932. Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden. By J. R. Elder, M.A., D. Litt. (Abdn.) Dunedin—Coulls, Somerville, and Co.

1932. Samuel Marsden. By S. M. Johnstone. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1932. Who's Who in New Zealand. By G. H. Scholefield. Ed. 3. (First ed., 1908; second ed., 1924.) Wellington—Rangatira Press.

1932. The Provincial System of Government in New Zealand. By W. P. Morrell. London—Longmans.

1932. Price Fixing in New Zealand. By W. B. Sutch. New York—Columbia University Press.

1933. Cambridge History of the British Empire, Vol. 7, Part 2, New Zealand. Cambridge University Press.

1933. The Treaty of Waitangi. By T. Lindsay Buick, C.M.G. Second ed. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons. (First ed., 1914.)

1933. Report of the Hawke's Bay Earthquake. Published by the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Bulletin No. 43. Wellington—Government Printer.

1933 Pages from the Past. By C. A. MacDonald. Blenheim—H. Duckworth (E. N. Penny and Co.).

1933. Pioneer Medical Men of Taranaki, 1834–1880. By W. H. Skinner and H. B. Leatham. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons.

1933. The New Zealand Daily Industry. By G. A. Duncan. Palmerston North—II. L. Young.

1933. New Zealand Holiday. By Rosemary Rees. London—Chapman and Hall.

1934. New Zealand from Tasman to Massey. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington—H. H. Tombs.

1934. Samuel Marsden and his Lieutenants. By J. R. Elder. Dunedin—A. H. Reed.

1934. Beetles of New Zealand. By G. V. Hudson. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn.

1934. Skyways of Maoriland. By Hugh Gardiner. Wellington—McKenzie, Thornton, and Cooper.

1934. Adventuring in Maoriland in the Seventies. By G. L. Meredith. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1934. Journalese. By Robin Hyde (Iris Wilkinson). Auckland—National Printing Co.

1934. Children of the Poor. Anonymous (J. A. Lee, M.P.). London—T. Werner Laurie.

1934. The Life of William Hobson. By G. H. Scholefield. Oxford University Press.

1934. Adventures in Geyserland. By Alfred Warbriek, with a preface by James Cowac. Dunedin—A. H. Reed.

1934. Maori Music with its Polynesian Background. By Johannes C. Andersen. New Plymouth—Avery.

1934. The Elfin Dell. By Johannes C. Andersen. Wellington—A. H. Reed.

1934. Place Names in New Zealand. By Johannes C. Andersen. New Plymouth—Avery.

1934. Tales of the Maori Bush. By James Cowan. Wellington—A. H. Reed.

1934. Tales of the New Zealand Coast. By James Cowan. New Plymouth—Avery.

1934. Waitangi Ninety Years after. By T. Lindsay Buick. New Plymouth—Avery.

1934. Early History of Wellington College. By F. M. Leekie. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1934. The Litany of Beauty. By C. Stuart Perry. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn.

1935. Early Maoriland Adventures of J. W. Stack. Edited by A. H. Reed. Dunedin—A. H. and A. W. Reed.

1935. Exploration of the Pacific. By J. C. Beaglehole. A. and C. Black. Oxford University Press.

1935. The Genus Coprosma. By W. R. 3. Oliver, D.Se. Honolulu—Bernice P. Bishop Museum.

1935. The Silent Division. By O. E. Burton. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1935. The Little Country. By John Guthrie. London—Nelson and Sons.

1935. Touring in New Zealand. By A. J. Harrop. London—Allen and Unwin.

1935. New Zealand. By W. P. Morrell. London—Bonn.

1935. The Maori Situation. By I. L. G. Sutherland. Wellington—Harry H. Tombs.

1935. Vigil. By Jessie Mackay. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1935. The Confessions of a Journalist. By Pat Lawlor. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1935. Ideals of Nationhood. A selection of addresses delivered in New Zealand by the Right Hon. Lord Bledisloe. Arranged by T. Lindsay Buick. New Plymouth—Avery.

1935. A Pilgrim's Way in New Zealand. By Alan Mulgan. London—Oxford University Press.

1935. Hero Stories of New Zealand. By James Cowan. Wellington—H. H. Tombs.

1935. Wandering on the Islands of Wonders. By Bohumil Pospisil. Dunedin—Coulls, Somerville, Wilkie.

1935. The Gael Fares Forth. By N. R. Mackenzie. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1935. The Greenstone Door. By W. B. Satchell (second edition). Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1935. Handbook of Arthur Pass National Park. By R. S. Odcll. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1936. New Zealand—A Short History. By J. C. Beaglehole. London—Allen and Unwin.

1936. The Discovery of Dinorm`s. By T. Lindsay Buick. New Plymouth—Avery.

1936. The Poor Scholar. By C. R, Allen. Dunedin—Reed.

1936. Notable New Zealand Trials. By C. A. L. Treadwell. New Plymouth—Avery.

1936. Recent Economic Changes in New Zealand. By Dr. W. B. Sutch. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1936. The Lure of New Zealand Book-collecting. By Johannes C. Andersen. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1936. More Maoriland Adventures of J. \V. Stack. Dunedin—Reed.

1936. Katherine Mansfield—A Critical Essay. By Arthur Sewell. Auckland—Unicom Press.

1936. Land Problems of the Forties. By E. W. Wilson. Dunedin—Reed.

1936. Agricultural Organization in New Zealand. By Dr. H. Belshaw, Ph.D., and others (Institute of Pacific Relations). Melbourne—University Press.

1936. The Hunted. By J. A. Lee, M.P. London—T. Werner Laurie.

1936. So They Began. By John Guthrie. London—Nelson and Sons.

SAMOA.

1918. History of Samoa. By R. M. Watson. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1918. Grammar and Vocabulary of the Samoan Language. By H. Neffgen. London—Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co.

1925. Handbook of Western Samoa. New Zealand External Affairs Department. Wellington—Government Printer.

1926. A New Samoan Grammar. By Spencer Churchward, M.A. Melbourne-Spectator Publishing Company Proprietary, Ltd.

1930. Samoa under the Sailing Gods. By N. A. Rowe. London—Putnam.

1931. Material Culture of Samoa. By Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr. P. H. Buck). Honolulu-Bishop Museum.

1935. Gods Who Die. By G. E. L. Westbrook. New York—Macmillan.

COOK ISLANDS.

1916. Rarotongan Records. By Rev. W. W. Gill. (From the Journal of the Polynesian Society). New Plymouth.

1927. Material Culture of the Cook Islands. By Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr. P. H. Buck). Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 2. New Plymouth—Avery and Sons.

NAURU ISLAND.

1935. Ocean Island and Nauru. By A. F. Ellis, C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

ROSS DEPENDENCY.

No book has been written dealing exclusively with the Ross Dependency, but a list of books dealing with this region incidentally may be found in the 1929 number of the Year-Book. A recent book containing a good deal of information regarding the area ii “Antarctica—a Treatise on the Southern Continent,” by J. Gordon Hayes: London—The Richards Press, 1928.

(d) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK.

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time In the Year-Book of
Year.Page.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.)1912809
“Britomart,” Mission of, at Akaroa in August, 184019271012
Building-stones1892194
Cancer in New Zealand-a statistical study1926889
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot Estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Education system of New Zealand, the1925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1925835
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Forest-trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Gold-dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship “Amokura”1913942
Hanmer Thermal Springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. “New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Lakes of New Zealand193211
Land and income tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between189(5281
Live-stock production-A review based on standard values and units1929990
Local Government in New Zealand1925845
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &o.1907707
Maori, ancient, his clothing1908734
Maori, chant (tangi)1907711
Maori, colour-sense of the1905637
Maori, marriage customs1906638
Maori, mythology1900636
Maori, neolithic, the1902578
place-names1919936
Maori, religion1901530
sociology1903641
Maori, songs1908739
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland Railway, the1894386
Mineral waters of Now Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mortality rates, New Zealand1927995
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
Mount Cook, district, the1899554
Mount Cook, its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898652
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand Contingents for South Africa1900449
Mount Cook, International Exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress1894377
Rivera of New Zealand19326
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies-  
New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney Pageant, the1901527
Terman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1925823
Thermal-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
Topographical nomenclature of the Maori1919936
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zealand1919860
Waihi Gold-mining Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington-Manawatu Railway, the1895381
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
White Island, a day on1906637

INDEX.

A.

Abattoirs, 322, 370–376.
Aborigines (see Maoris).
Accident Funds. 252, 255, 259. 413.
Accident Insurance, 585–588.
State, 588.
Accidents—
Aircraft, 285.
Automobile, 90, 159, 276.
Deaths from, 90, 93, 102, 143, 270.
Earthquake, 720.
Frequency Rates, 727.
Industrial, 726—734.
Mining, 413.
Railway, 90, 252. 720–734.
Time lost through, 731.
Traffic, 270.
Tramway, 90, 276.
Treated in Hospitals, 102.
Acclimatization of Animal Life, 35.
Acclimatization of Fishes. 398—100.
Accommodation Licenses, 773.
Accounts, Public, 404–508.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 344–352, 804.
Acreage of Holdings. 302.
Acts passed in 1935, 777.
Actuarial Valuation: Superannuation Funds, 522–524.
Ad valorem Duties, 224.
Added Value in Manufacturing, 424–420.
Adjacent Islands, Population of, 851.
Adjustment of Farm Liabilities, 330.
Administration, 40–40.
Adopted Children, 58.
Adult Suffrage, 44.
Adult Wage-rates. 671.
Adulteration of Food, 107.
Advances—
Bank, 554, 559–501, 814.
Building Societies, 003, 005.
By State (see State Advances and State Aid).
Aerated-water Factories, 439.
Aerial Surveys, 287.
Aero Clubs, 282.
Aerodromes, 165, 277, 278, 283.
Afforestation, 388–392.
Bondholders, 759.
After-lifetime, Average, 74.
Age, Mean—
At Death, 74.
At Marriage, 66.
Agents Overseas, 827.
Ages—
Of Cancer Decedents, 88.
Of Hospital Patients, 99.
Of Industries, 429.
Of Infants dying, 78–81.
Of Inmates of Charitable Institutions, 119.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals. 122.
Of Issue left, 76.
Of Maoris dying, 92.
Of Maoris in Prison, 152.
Of Migrants, 838.
Of Offenders probationed, 155.
Of Parents, 54–59.
Of Persons dying, 72, 92.
Of Persons married, 65.
Of Prisoners, 152.
Of Public-school Pupils, 129.
Of Traffic Accident Victims. 276.
Of Tubercular Decedents, 85.
Aggregate Private Income, 643–644,736.737.
Aggregate Wealth, 631, 632.
Aggregation of Land, 308, 312.
Tax against, 478.
Agreement, Ottawa, 208, 216, 334.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 320–378, 706, 804.
Value of, 766.
Agricultural Bursaries, 140.
Agricultural Colleges, 127, 138.
Agricultural Machinery, 330, 343, 443.
Agricultural Policy, Recent Developments in, 330–343.
Agricultural Produce—
Consumed locally. 328. 329. 740. 742.
Exported, 180, 183, 740.
Gross Farming Income. 324.
Price Index Numbers, 659, 660.
Agricultural Workers Act. 686.
Agriculture. 320–355. 766.
Department of, 322.
(Emergency Powers) Act, 340, 342.
Research in, 322.
Aides-de-Camp, 819.
Air Force, 165.
Air Mails, 285.
Air Transport and Aviation, 277–287.
Aircraft, 285.
Aircraft Licensing and Control. 278–285.
Aitutaki Island, 1, 785.
Alcoholic Liquors—
Consumption of, 745.
Duty on, 218. 221.
Sale of, 773.
Ale brewed, 439.
Alienation of Land, 302, 305, 310, 315.
Aliens—
Migrants, 839, 840.
Naturalization, 842.
Race Aliens, 839.
All-groups Retail Prices Index, 655, 661, 602.
Allowances, Family. 509, 519.
Allowances, Sustenance, 474, 699, 710, 715.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 403.
Alps, 3.
Amortization of Debt, 469, 471, 493, 496, 535, 537, 541.
Amusements-tax, 485.
Analysis of Radio Programmes, 297.
Anglers' Licenses, 401.
Angling. 400–401.
Animal Life, 35–38.
Animals, Domestic, 356–378, 805.
Annexed Islands, 1, 782–788.
Annual Value Rating-system, 531.
Annuities, 520, 525.
Ante-natal Clinics, 118.
Anthracite. 407.
Anti-dumping Duty, 221.
Antipodes Islands, 1, 783.
Apia, 791.
Apiaries, Registration of, 378.
Apiculture, 378.
Apolima Island, 789.
Appeal Court (see Courts).
Apples, 352–354.
Exported, 180–199.
Apprentices, 694–696.
Appropriations, Expenditure under, 469.
Arapuni Power Supply, 749.
Arbitration Act, 600, 691.
Unions registered under, 701–704.
Arbitration Court. 691.
Award Wage-rates, 666, 671.
Area—
Of Indigenous Forests, 304, 379.
Of Lakes, 5.
Of Land Holdings, 302, 632.
Of New Zealand. 1,301.
Of Provincial Districts, 845.
Under Crops, 304, 344, 804.
Under Cultivation, 304, 344–355.
Army, 161–166.
Arrivals, 800. 836, 842.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 870.
Artillery, Permanent, 163.
Art-unions, 484, 774.
Asiatics. 840.
Assembly, General, 40.
Assessable Income, 634–644.
Assessment Court, 545.
Assessment of Income-tax, 478, 635.
Assets—
Of Afforestation Companies, 390.
Of Bankrupts. 622, 625.
Of Banks, 554. 557, 814.
Of Building Societies, 605.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 754.
Assets—continued.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 590.
Of Friendly Societies, 600.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 583.
Of Local Bodies, 628.
Of Manufacturing Industries, 427.
State, 627.
Assigned Estates, 621–026.
Assisted Immigration, 840.
Associations, Industrial, 704.
Assurance. Life, 577–584.
Asylums, 121–124.
Benevolent and Orphan, IIS.
Atafu Island, 2, 792.
Atiu Island, 1, 784.
Atlantic Salmon, 400.
Auckland—
Bankruptcies, 623.
Broadcasting Station, 297.
Building Values, 452.
Dwelling Construction Costs, 463.
Population, 847, 849.
Rainfall, 18, 26.
Retail Prices, 048–054.
Shipping, 235, 238–240.
Sunshine, 22, 20.
Temperature, 20. 20.
Trade of Port, 230–234.
Tramways, 254, 25(5–259.
Unemployment, 708.
Valuation of Land, 549.
Wind, 23.
Auckland Islands, 1, 783.
Audit of Expenditure, 464.
Auriferous Mining, 403.
Australia—
New Zealand Tourist and Trade Commissioner in, 827.
Railway Revenue of, 248.
Reciprocal Trade with New Zealand, 224, 227.
Trade Commissioner in New Zealand, 828.
Automatic Telephones, 291.
Automobiles (see Motor-vehicles).
Autonomy, Local (sec Local Bodies).
Aviation and Air Transport, 277–287.
New Zealand Air Force, 165.
Avifauna. 36.
Award Rates of Wages, 666–673, 687.

B.

“Bachelor Tax,” 480.
Bachelors marrying, 63.
Backward Children. 137, 141.
Bacon produced, 438. 741.
Balance of Overseas Payments. 176.
Balance of Trade, 172–178.
Balances of Accounts, 405.
Balance-sheet. State, 627.
Banking and Currency, 551–576, 814.
Bank-notes, 557, 572.
In Circulation, 557, 563.
Tax on, 484.
Bankruptcy, 621–626, 818.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 490, 576.
Banks, Overseas Funds of. 563.
Banks. Savings—
Post Office, 564, 815.
Trustee, 565.
Barley, 345, 346, 349.
Barren Land, 302. 304.
Basic Wage, 670, 687.
Baths, Medicinal, 5.
Beans, 345.
Beds, Hospital. 116.
Beef, Chilled. 341.
Beef exported, 372.
Beer. Consumption of. 745.
Beer Duty. 219. 221.
Beer produced. 439, 745.
Bees, 378.
Belgium, Trade Agreement with. 229.
Benefit Societies, 599–601.
Benevolent Asylums, 118.
Bibliography—
General, 862.
New Zealand Flora. 35.
Statistical. 860.
Big-game Fishing. 397.
Hills, Treasury. 490, 561, 573. 576.
Birds. Native. 36.
Birthday Honours, 822.
Birthplaces of Persons naturalized, 843.
Births, 48–60, 801.
In Cook Islands, 786.
In Niue, 787.
In Western Samoa, 790.
Biscuit-factories, 439.
Bitumen-surfaced Roads, 261.
Blind, Pensions for the, 509. 517–519.
Blind, School for the, 138, 141.
Board of School-children, 130.
Boat-building Works, 444.
Boats, Fishing, 395.
Boer War Pensions, 509, 517.
Boilers, Inspection of, 764.
Bond-issuing Companies, 758.
Bookstalls, Railway, 247.
Boot and Shoe Factories, 436, 440.
Boots and Shoes, Consumption of, 746.
Boroughs, 45, 527–543.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 547.
Debt, 539, 813.
Mileage of Streets, 261.
Population of, 845, 849.
Borrowers from Building Societies, 604.
Borrowing-powers of Local Bodies, 529.
Borstal Institutions, 153.
Boundaries of Now Zealand, 1.
Bounty Islands, 1, 783.
Brass-foundries, 442.
Bread Consumption, 742.
Bread, Fixed Price for, 646.
Bread. Law re Sale of, 107.
Breeding-ewes, 357–358.
Breeds of Cattle, 363.
Breeds of Sheep, 358.
Breweries, 435, 439.
Brick works, 442.
Brides and Grooms, 61–68.
Bridges, 261.
Bridle-tracks, 261.
Brigades, Fire, 598.
British Nationality, 842.
British Preference, 216, 224–229.
British Sovereignty, 2, 40.
British Trade Representatives, 828.
Broadcasting, 293, 295–300.
Time Signals, 775.
Weather Forecast, 16.
Budgets, Household, 647, 655.
Building and Construction, 445–463.
Building Costs, 462, 463.
Building Materials, 447–448.
Building Permits, 449—£54.
Building Societies, 602–605.
Building Subsidy, 714.
Buildings, 445–463.
Building-stones, 410.
Bullion, Exports of, 179–199. 403, 808.
Bullion Production, 403.
Bulls, 362.
Bursaries, 135, 139.
Bush (see also Flora), 304. 379.
Business Failures, 621–626, 818.
Business Premises erected, 450–453. 461.
Butter (see Dairy-produce).
Butter-fat Yields. 366.
Butterflies, 38.
By-elections. 773.

C.

Cabinet, 42.
Members of, 820, 821.
Cabinetmaking, 444.
Cable Tramways, 260.
Cables, Ocean, 293.
Cadets, Senior, 161, 164.
Calf-skins exported, 192, 195.
Call, Deposits at, 554. 560, 564–566.
Campbell Island, 1, 783.
Camps—
Health, 109.
Unemployment Relief, 712, 713.
Canada, Reciprocity with, 228.
Canadian Trade Commissioner, 828.
Cancer, 83–88,93, 101.
Candle-factories, 440.
Capital—
Expenditure of Government, 471.
Invested in Electric-power Undertakings. 754.
Invested in Factories, 428.
Invested in Railways, 244, 817.
Invested in Tramways, 255, 258.
Of Banks, 554, 556.
Of Joint-stock Companies, 760, 761.
Capital Punishment, 143, 149.
Capital Value of Land, 544–550.
Rating on. 530, 531.
Cargo handled at Ports, 230–234.
Car-miles run by Trams, 255.
Carry-over of Wool, 361.
Cassiterite, 406.
Casualties in the War, 166.
Casualties, Shipping, 242.
Cattle, 362–364, 805.
Causes of Industrial Disputes, 722.
Causes of Insanity, 122.
Cement-concrete Roads, 261.
Cement-works, 442.
Cemeteries, 109.
Census, 830, 831, 835, 844–852.
Income Statistics, 6–14.
Unemployment Statistics, 705.
Central Reserve Bank, 551–554, 573–576.
Cereals, 345–340.
Consumption of, 742.
Certificated Teachers, 126, 131.
Certificates, Engine-drivers', 764.
Certificates, Land Titles, 306.
Certificates, Marine Officers', 240.
Chaff, 344–351.
Charges before Magistrates, 145.
Charitable Aid, 114.
Charitable Institutions, 111, 118.
Chatham Islands, 1, 782.
Flora, 28.
Cheese (see Dairy-produce).
Chemists, Registration of, 108.
Cheque-paying Banks, 551–562.
Chewings Fescue, 350.
Chief Justice, 822.
Child Welfare, 136, 141, 147, 155.
Childbirth, Deaths in, 88, 117.
Children adopted, 58.
Children born, Sexes of, 51.
Children left by Fathers dying, 76.
Children, Offences by, 136, 155.
Children under One* Deaths of, 77–83, 94 801.
Children's Courts, 136, 155.
Children's Homes, 118, 137, 156.
Chilled Beef Exports, 341.
Chinese, 840.
In Samoa, 790.
Christchurch—
Bankruptcies, 623.
Broadcasting Station, 297.
Building Values, 452.
Dwelling Construction Costs, 463.
Population, 847, 850.
Rainfall, 18, 26.
Retail Prices, 648–654.
Sunshine, 22, 26.
Temperature, 20, 21, 26.
Tramways, 254, 256–259.
Unemployment, 708.
Valuation of Lund, 549.
Chronological List of Events, 854.
Cinematograph Film-hire Tax, 486.
Cinnabar, 406.
Cities, Population of, 847.
Citrus Fruits Industry, 341, 352, 353.
Civic Planning, 528.
Civil Aviation, 277–287.
Civil Law Cases, 142.
Civil Marriages, 61, 67.
Civil Service (see Public Service).
Claims, Insurance, 577–598.
Clearings, Bank, 562.
Clergy of each Denomination, 67.
Marriages by, 67.
Climate, 16–26.
Clinics, Ante-natal, 118.
Clinics, School Dental, 110.
Clothing, Consumption of, 746.
Clothing-factories, 436, 440.
Clothing-prices, 654, 655.
Clover-seed (see Grass-seed).
Club Charters, 773.
Clubs, Aero, 282.
Clubs, Working-men's, 599.
Coach building-works, 443.
Coal, Consumption of, 747.
Coal exported, 181–196, 233, 403.
Coal used in Factories, 423.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 413.
Coal-mining, 407–409.
Coal-resources, 407.
Coastal Shipping, 238.
Coastal Trade, Tonnage, 231–234.
Coastal Vessels registered, 236.
Cocksfoot, 350.
Coin held by Banks, 554, 558, 814
Coin imported and exported, 178, 570, 806.
Coinage, 569–572.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 291.
Cold-storage Advances, 508.
Coleridge Power-supply, 749.
College of Pharmacy, 108.
Colleges, Training, 131.
Colleges, University, 127, 138–141.
Collieries, 407.
Colonization, 40.
Combined Schools, 127, 133.
Commerce, Overseas, 171–234, 806.
Commercial Afforestation, 390.
Commercial Aircraft, Licensing and Control, 278–287.
Commercial Failures, 621–626, 818.
Commissions, Mortgagors' Liabilities Adjustment, 337, 609.
Commodities, Consumption of, 735–748.
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 759.
Companies, Bond-issuing, 759.
Companies, Co-operative Dairy, 342, 365.
Companies, Income of, 635.
Companies, Joint-stock, 759.
In Manufacturing Industries, 428, 429.
Companies, Private, 762.
Companies, Share Price Indexes, 663.
Companies (Special Investigations) Act, 759.
Companies (Special Liquidations) Act, 759.
Companies, Taxation of, 480, 484, 641.
Comparisons with Other Countries—
Birth-rates, 51
Cancer Death-rates, 87.
Cattle, Number of, 364, 375.
Consumption of Primary Products, 74 1.
Dairy Cows, Number of, 375.
Dairy Produce, Production of, 368.
Death-rates, 75.
Divorce-rates, 70.
Health Insurance, 677.
Imports of British and Foreign Origin, 208.
Imports of United Kingdom Origin, 209.
Infant-mortality Bates, 77.
Live-stock (see Cattle, Sheep, &c).
Marriage-rates, 63.
Maternal Mortality (see Puerperal Death-rates).
Motor-vehicles to Population, 272.
Natural-increase Bates, 51.
Pigs, Number of, 375.
Population, 853.
Production—
Dairy Produce, 368.
Wool, 360. 362.
Puerperal Death-rates, 89.
Puerperal Septicaemia, 89.
Retail Food Prices, 651.
Share Prices. 664, 665.
Sheep, Number of, 359.
Suicidal Death-rates, 91.
Telephones to Population, 291.
Tuberculosis Death-rates, 85.
Unemployment Relief, 678.
Vital Statistics (sec Births, Deaths, &c.).
Wool Production. 360, 362.
Compensation, Workers', 585, 586, 696–698. 727.
Conciliation Councils, 691–694.
Concrete-surfaced Roads, 261.
Condensed-milk Factories, 434, 438.
Conditional Licenses, 773.
Confectionery-factories, 439.
Confinement—
Deaths in, 88.
Maternity Hospital Cases, 117.
Conjugal Condition of Persons marrying, 63.
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 69.
Consent to Marriage, 61.
Conservation of Forests, 379.
Consolidated Fund, 467, 811.
Constabulary, 143.
Constitution, 40.
Of Cook Islands, 784.
Of Western Samoa, 789.
Construction and Building, 445–463.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 244, 817.
Construction of Roads, 261–270.
Consuls, Foreign, 828.
Consumption of—
Coal, 402, 407, 747.
Commodities, 735–748.
Electricity, 259. 441. 752.
Farm-produce, 327–330, 740–745.
Meat, 370–376, 740–742.
Timber, 386.
Wheat and Flour, 347, 742.
Wool, 359, 360, 444.
Contagious Diseases, 95, 103.
Conversion of Debt, 487, 493, 542.
Conveyance of Children to School, 130.
Conveyancing, 305.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 148, 803.
Convictions, Summary, 146, 803.
For Drunkenness, 157.
For Traffic Offences, 159.
Of Juveniles, 155.
Of Maoris, 157.
Of Women, 156.
Cook and other Pacific Islands, 1, 782–787.
Bibliography, 869.
Exports to,200.
Imports from, 215.
Population, 786, 787, 830.
Radio-stations, 292, 786, 788.
Trade, 786, 788.
Cook's Visits to New Zealand, 39.
Co-operative Dairy Companies, 342, 365.
Co-operative Public Works, 677, 700.
Copper, 406.
Cordial-factories, 439.
Corn Crops, Acreage and Yield of, 344–349..
Coroners' Inquests, 143.
Correspondence Classes, 129.
Corriedale Sheep, 358.
Cost of Living, 647–655.
Cost of Railway Construction, 244, 817.
Costs—
Dwelling. 462. 463.
Farm. 336–340, 342. 343.
Council, Executive, 42.
.Members of, 820.
Council, Legislative. 40, 43.
.Members of, 823.
Counties. 45, 527–543.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 546.
Debt, 539. 813.
Mileage of Roads. 261.
Population of, 848.
Country Lands, Mortgages on, 615, 619..
Country Quota, 43.
Courts—
Appeal. 150.
Arbitration, 666, 691.
Assessment, 545.
Bankruptcy, 621–626.
Children's. 136, 155.
Divorce, 68.
Judges of, 822.
Magistrates', 142, 145. 803.
Native Appellate. 316.
Native Land, 308.
Of Review, 338.
Supreme, 69, 142, 148, 290, 612, 803.
Coverage Commission, Radio. 290.
Cow-testing, 322, 363.
Crayfish. 396.
Creameries, 364.
Cream-separators on Farms. 330.
Credit. Rural Intermediate, 506.
Creditors' Petitions, 622.
Credits-in-aid, 465–467.
Crematoria, 109.
Crime, Law and, 142–160, 803.
Criminals, Habitual, 151, 153.
Crops, 304, 344–355, 804.
Crown Lands, 302. 308–314.
Crown Tenants, 311.
Advances to, 310–314.
Cultivation, Area in. 304, 344–355.
Currency and Banking, 551–576.
Curriculum, School, 125, 129, 130.
Curtis Islands, 783.
Customary Land, 315.
“Customs Aerodromes,” 279.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 210–229.
Customs Taxation, 220, 289, 477.
Cycle-works, 443.

D.

Dairy Cows, 805.
Dairy Farms, 303.
Dairy Industry, 342, 364, 433. 438.
Dairying Machinery, 330, 443.
Dairy-produce. 364–370.
Export of, 179–199, 366–367, 8O8.
Export Price Indexes, 660, 661, 662.
Grading of. 322.
Gross Farming Income. 324.
Guaranteed Prices of, 336.
Imports into United Kingdom. 360.
Local Consumption of, 740. 741.
Marketing of, 334–336, 366–367.
Production of, 366, 434, 438. 766.
Retail Prices Index, 650, 653. 655.
Danger Island (Pukapuka), 1, 785.
Dangerous Drugs and Poisons, 108.
Dates of Principal Events. 854.
Daylight Saving, 775.
Dead-births, 58.
Deaf, School for the, 137. 138, 141.
Dealing in Coin, Restriction on. 571.
Death Duties, 482.
Estates certified for, 630.
Deaths, 49, 71–94. 801.
Accidental (see Accidents).
Due to Earthquakes, 13.
From Puerperal Causes, SS, 117.
From Violence. 90. 143.
In Hospitals. 98–102. 117.
In Mental Hospitals. 123.
Of Friendly Society Members, 600.
Of Infants, 77–83,"94, 801.
Of Maoris, 48, 60, 92.
Debentures, General and Local Government, 489, 537.
Debenture-tax, 481.
Debits. Bank, 561, 562.
Debt, Conversion of. 493. 542.
Debt of Local Bodies. 115, 500, 529 537–543, 813.
Debt, Public, 489–500, 810.
Debtors' Petitions,.622.
Deceased, Estates of, 630.
Decrees in Divorce, 69.
Deeds Registration, 305.
Defectives, Mental. 121–124.
Defence, 161–170.
Expenditure on, 165.
Pensions. 517.
Deferred-payment Lands, 309, 310, 311.
Deficits, 468.
Degrees, University, 105, 138, 141.
Demography. 830–853.
Denominational Schools. 127. 132.
Density of Population, 851.
Dental Nurses, 110.
Dental Treatment of School-children, 110.
Dentists. Registration of, 105.
Departments. Government, 825.
Reports of. 860.
Departures. 800, 836–839.
Dependencies, 1, 782–799.
Dependent Children, Care of, 137, 141, 155.
Deposits, 557. 564–566, 814, 815.
By Insurance Companies, 577. 589.
Interest-rates. 567–569.
With Building Societies. 566, 605.
With Trading Companies. 566.
Depreciation Allowance. 481.
Depreciation of New Zealand Currency, 573–576.
Designs, Registration of. 762.
Destination—
Of Emigrants, 839.
Of Exports. 174, 185–194.
Of Shipping, 237.
Detention, Reformative. 138. 153.
Development of Land. 309. 318.
Diagrams (see Graphs).
Diamond Drills, 412.
Diphtheria, 84, 93. 95. 100, 103.
Diplomas, 105, 138. 141.
Disabilities from Industrial Accidents, 728, 729.
Discharged Mortgages, 616.
Discharged Soldiers (see Soldiers).
Discount Rates. 566.
Discovery of New Zealand. 39.
Diseases, Notification of, 95. 103.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 84. 93, 101.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 100.
Disputes. Industrial, 091–094, 719–725.
Dissolution of Marriage, 68.
Dissolution of Parliament, Dates of, 822.
District High Schools, 127. 133. 802.
District Nurses. US.
Diversification of Farm Production. 340.
Dividend (Totalizator) Duty. 485.
Dividends, Hank. 550.
Dividends, Bankrupts', 622. 623. 625, 818.
Divorce. (58–70.
Divorced Persons re-marrying, 03.
Domains. Public, 304.
Domestic-science Bursaries, 139.
Domicile of Debt. 493. 539.
Dominion of New Zealand. 1. 41. 782.
Drainage Districts, 527–536. 542.
Dredging, Gold. 403.
Drilling for Oil, 409.
Drills, Prospecting, 412.
Drivers' Licenses. 209.
Drowning Accidents. 90, 143.
Drugs, Sale of, 107. 108.
Drunkenness. 157.
Ducks. 377.
Dumping Duty. 221.
Dunedin—
Bankruptcies, 623.
Broadcasting Station, 297.
Building Values, 452.
Dwelling Construction Costs, 4(53.
Population, 847, 850.
Rainfall, 18, 26.
Retail Prices, 648–654.
Shipping, 235, 238–240.
Sunshine. 22, 26.
Temperature, 20, 21, 26.
Trade of Port, 230–234.
Tramways, 254, 250–260.
Unemployment, 708.
Valuation of Land, 550.
Wind, 23.
Dutiable Imports, 217, 222.
Duties—
Customs and Excise, 216–229, 477.
Death, 482.
Excise, 219, 477.
Export, 219, 476, 791.
On Interest Receipts, 487.
On Lottery Tickets, 484, 775.
On Overseas Passenger-tickets, 484.
Stamp, 484, 487.
Dwellings—
Advances for, 501–508, 602–605.
Costs, 462–163.
Erected, 450–453, 461–403.
Private, 448, 450.
Rents, 610, 651, 691.
Soldiers', 314.
Workers', 507, 508, 690.

E.

Early History, 39.
Earned Income, 638.
Reduced Tax on, 479, 638.
Earthquakes, 11–16.
Accidents due to, 726.
Compensation to Injured Workers, 726, 728.
Rehabilitation Advances, 508.
Economic Pensions, 516.
Education, 125–141, 802.
Education Endowments, 309.
Education, Expenditure on, 141.
Education Gazette, 130.
Educational Associations, Workers', 140.
Effective Wage-rates, 668.
Eggs. 377.
Elections, General, 767–772.
Electoral Districts, 43.
Electoral Qualifications, 44.
Electors, Compulsory Registration of, 44.
Electric—
Current, 435, 441, 749–757.
Power Boards, 527–543, 750, 813.
Power in Factories, 422.
Power on Farms, 330.
Railways, 243.
Telegraph, 290.
Tramways, 254–260.
Electricity, Consumption of, 747.
Emergency Unemployment Charge, 474, 486.
Emigration, 800. 836–839.
Employees—
Afforestation Companies, 391.
Building and Construction, 449, 459.
Electric-supply, 753.
Factory, 417, 418–421.
Fishing Industry, 395.
Local Body, 717.
Mining, 403, 407.411.
Postal. 293.
Public Service, 825.
Public Works, 716.
Railway, 251.
Tramway, 255, 260.
Unions of, 676, 701–704.
Wage-rates of, 666–673.
Employers' Liability, 676, 696, 728, 729.
Insurance, 585–588.
Employers' Unions, 701–704.
Employment and Unemployment, 705–718.
Employment Bureaux, 706.
Employment Placement Scheme, 716.
Employment Promotion, 705–717.
Fund, 474.
Taxation, 474, 486.
Employment, Seasonal Fluctuations in, 716.
Enactments affecting Labour, 676–700.
Enactments of 1935, 777.
Endowments, Education, 309.
Endowments, National, 309, 379.
Engine-drivers' Certificates, 764.
Engineering-works, 442.
Engines—
Employed in Factories, 422.
Employed on Farms, 330.
Inspection of, 763.
Railway, 245.
Ensilage, 320, 344, 349, 351.
Entertainments-tax, 485.
Entrepot Trade, 182, 185, 187, 196.
Entry, Ports of, 230.
Epicentres of Earthquakes. 14.
Epidemic Pensions, 509, 517.
Estate Duty, 482.
Estates—
Acquired for Settlement, 312.
Administered by Public Trust Office, 758, 759.
Assigned, 621–626.
Passed for Probate, 630.
Ewes, 357.
Examinations—
Education Department, 136, 140.
Engine-drivers, 764.
Marine Officers, 240.
Medical, of School Children, 109
Medical Practitioners, 105.
Mining, 413.
Of Motor-vehicles, 270.
University, 105. 141.
Excess-profits Tax, 479.
Exchange, Currency, 343, 554, 574.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 576.
Effect on Trade Statistics, 171–175.
Exchange Pool, 576.
Expenditure on, 469, 576.
New Zealand-London, 574.
Exchanges, Telephone, 291.
Excise Duties, 219.
Taxation by Means of, 221, 477.
Executions, 143, 149.
Executive Council, 40, 42.
Members of, 820.
Exemptions from Taxation—
Income-tax, 479, 480, 481, 639.
Land-tax. 479, 620.
Ex-nuptial Births, 56.
Exotic Trees, Planting of, 378, 389.
Expectation of Life, 74.
Expeditionary Forces, 166.
Expenditure, Local Body, 112, 535, 812.
Expenditure on Defence, 165.
Expenditure on Education, 141.
Expenditure on Naval Defence, 170.
Expenditure, Public, 464–475, 811.
Explorers, 39.
Export Control—
Dairy-produce, 335, 364.
Export Licenses, 576.
Fruit, 343. 353.
Honey,378.
Kauri-gum, 409.
Meat, 376.
Export Duties, 219, 404, 476, 791.
Export Licenses, 576.
Export Prices, 197, 658–660, 661.
Export Surplus, 172–178, 740.
Exports, 171–200, 230–234, 806.
Minerals, 179–199, 403.
Of Ports, 230–234.
Specie, 178. ~
Timber, 181–199. 387, 809.
Valuation of, 174, 179.
Value in British Currency, 171–178.
Values, Gold Basis, Index Numbers, 173.
Volume, Index Numbers, 173, 197.
External Migration, 832, 836–842.
External Trade, 171–234, 806.
Extra-marital Conceptions, 56.

F.

Factories, 414–444.
Accidents in, 726–734.
Act, 680.
Dairy, 342, 366, 434, 438.
Employees, 417–421, 431, 432.
Expenses of Operation, 426.
Growth of Production, 414–416.
Promotion of, 415.
Fair Rents Act, 653.
Fakaofu Island, 2, 792.
Fallow Land, 304.
Family Allowances, 509, 519.
Family Budgets, 647, 655.
Farm Costs, Reduction of, 336.
Farm Economy, (Some Aspects of, 322–330.
Farm Employees, Wages of, 667, 671, 686.
Farm Expenditure Indexes, 327, 662.
Farm Finance, Provision of, 339.
Farm Holdings, 302, 620, 632.
Farm Implements, 330.
Manufacture of, 443.
Farm Liabilities, Adjustment of, 336.
Farm Machinery, 330.
Farm Produce. Consumption of, 327–330.
Farm Produce, Marketing of, 333–336.
Farm Producers' Prices Indexes, 325, 327
Farmers—
Advice for, 322.
Financial Assistance to, 310, 313, 505.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 597.
Taxation of, 476, 478.
Tree-planting by, 392.
Farming, 320–378.
Farming Income, Gross, 322–325. 327, 328.
Farming Industry, Subsidies to, 339.
Farming bands, Mortgages on, 620.
Fauna, 35–38.
Feeble-minded. Schools for, 137.
Fellmongering-works, 443.
Female Suffrage, 44.
Fern Lands, 304.
Fertilizer used, 343, 355.
Fibre, Phormium (see Phormium).
Fidelity-guarantee Insurance, 585.
Film-hire Tax. 486.
Finance. Public, 464–508, 811.
Finances of Local Bodies, 532–543.
Hospital Boards, 112.
Fire Brigades, 508.
Fire Districts, 382, 527–543.
Fire Inquests, 143.
Fire Insurance, 589–598.
State, 597.
Fire Losses, 594.
Fireblight, 354.
Fire-protection in Forests, 382.
Fires on Vessels, 242.
First Offenders Probation. 154.
Fish, 37. 393.
Exported, 182, 195, 395.
Fisheries, 303–401.
Hatcheries, 397.
Fishing, Rig-game, 397.
Fishing Industry Advances, 508.
Fishing-boats, 395.
Five-day Week on Public Works, 700.
Fixation of Prices, 645–647.
Fixed Deposits, 560, 604.
Flax (see Phormium).
Floating Debt, 490.
Flocks—
Fowls, 377.
Sheep, 357.
Floods, 24.
Flora, 27–35.
Flotation of Loans, 489.
Flour—
Consumption of, 347, 742..
Customs Duty on, 218.
Fixed Price for, 645, 646.
Flour-mills, 434, 438.
Flying, 105, 277–287.
Fodder Crops, 344, 349.
Fog, 22.
Signals, 241.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 107.
Food, Retail Prices of, 648–651, 655.
Foodstuffs, Consumption of, 740–745.
Footwear Factories, 436, 440.
Forecasts of Weather, 16.
Foreign Consuls, 828.
Foreign Immigrants, 840.
Foreign Vessels entered and cleared, 236.
Foreigners naturalized, 843.
Forest. Trees, 383–386. (See also Flora.)
Forest Produce consumed locally, 740.
Forest Produce exported, 180–199, 387.
Forestation Companies, 390–392.
Forestry, 303, 379–392.
Value of Production, 766.
Forty-hour Week, 675, 681–682.
Forwarding Trade, 185, 188, 196.
Foster-homes for Children, 138.
Foundries, 442.
Foveaux Strait Oysters, 395.
Fowls, 377.
Fowl-wheat, 348.
Fractions, Totalizator, 485.
Franchise, 44.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 217, 222.
Free Education, 125, 133, 134. 139.
Freehold, Crown Land made, 310.
Freehold Land, 303, 310.
Freezing-works, 433, 437.
Freight—
Carried by Motor-transport, 275.
Carried by Shipping, 231–234.
Carried by Trains, 249–251, SI7.
Train-mileage, 251.
Frequency Rates of Accidents, 727.
Fresh-water Fisheries, 397.
Friendly Societies, 599–601.
Frosts, 21.
Frozen Meat exported, 179–199, 370. 807.
Handled at Ports, 233.
Fruit Export Control, 343, 353.
Fruit Industry, 303, 352.
Fruit preserving—
Advances, 508.
Factories, 439.
Fruits, Consumption of, 743, 744.
Fruits, Production of, 353.
Fuel and Light, Retail Prices of, 654, 655.
Funded Debt, 498.
Funds of Public Account, 464.
Funeral Funds, 601.
Furniture-making Works, 444.

G.

Gales, 23.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 150–153, 803.
Gardens, Acreage in, 351.
Gas, Consumption of, 747.
Gas-lighting District, 533–536, 542.
Gasworks, 441.
Gauge, Railway, 244.
Geese, 877.
General Assembly, 40.
General Elections, 767–772.
Generating Stations, 752, 753.
Geological Survey, 9, 411.
Geology, 9.
Geysers, 3.
Gift Duty, 482, 483.
Glaciers, 3.
Goats, 356, 805.
Gold Coin, Export of, 177, 178, 571, 806.
Gold exported, 180–199, 403, 808.
Duty on, 219.
Gold Production, World's, 405.
Gold Reserves, 554.
Goldfields, Subsidized Roads on, 412.
Gold-mining, 403.
Gonorrhoea, 104.
Goods carried on Railways, 249, 817.
Goods, Consumption of, 735–748.
Goods-service Licenses, 275.
Government Agents abroad, 827.
Government Departments, 825.
Reports of, 860.
Government Insurance, 583, 588, 597.
Government Railways, 243–253, 817.
Superannuation Fund, 523.
Government Roads, 263.
Government, System of, 40.
Government Valuations, 544–550.
Governor-General, 819.
Powers, Duties, &c, 42.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 364, 366.
Of Fruit, 354.
Of Honey, 378.
Of Phormium-fibre, 322.
Of School-teachers, 126.
Graduated Land-tax, 479, 480.
Grain Crops, 344, 804.
Grain-mills. 434, 438.
Granite, 410.
Grape-fruit, 342.
Grapes, 351, 354.
Graphs—
Births, Deaths, Natural Increase, and
Marriages, 49.
Cattle, Dairy-cows, and Pigs, 374.
Exports as affected by Prices, 198.
Imports, 207.
Infant Death-rates, 80.
Sheep and Breeding-ewes, 35.8.
Tuberculosis and Cancer Death-rates, 86.
Value of Merchandise Imports, 207.
Grass Lands, 304, 350.
Grass-seed, 349.
Certification of, 322.
Exported, 183–196.
Green Fodder, 345.
Greenstone, 410.
Greenwich Mean Time, 775.
Groceries, Retail Prices of, 648, 653, 655.
Gross Farming Income, 322–325, 327, 328.
Indexes, 325, 326, 327.
Gross Indebtedness, 490, 810.
Mortgage Indebtedness, 619.
Of Local Bodies, 537, 813.
Grounds for Divorce, 68.
Growth of Population, 46, 49, 50, 800.
Guaranteed Prices, 334—336.
Gum, Kauri, 409.
Exported, 181–199, 409, 809.

H.

Habitual Criminals, 153.
Habitual Drunkards, 157.
Hail, 23.
Half-castes, 831, 852.
Ham and Bacon Curing, 438.
Harbour Boards, 527–543, 813.
Harbours (see Ports).
Hardwood Trees, 385.
Harvests, 344–351.
Hatcheries, Fish, 397.
Hawaiki, 39.
Hay, 344, 349, 351.
Heads of Government Departments, 825.
Health Camps, 109.
Health. Public, 103–110.
Heavy-traffic Fees, 260, 272.
Herd-book Societies, 363.
Herd-testing, 322, 363.
Hides exported. 181–199, 233.
High Commissioner's Office, 827.
High Schools, 127, 133, 802.
Technical, 127, 133, 135.
Higher Education, 138, 802.
Highway Districts, 264.
Highways, 263–268.
Taxation, 269, 475, 477.
Hindus, 839.
History, 39, 854.
Hives of Bees, 378.
Hobson's Proclamation, 40.
Hogs, 372, 805.
Holdings (see Land Holdings).
Homes, Benevolent, 118.
Homes, Children's, 118, 137, 156.
Home-science Bursaries, 139.
Homicide, 90, 143, 148.
Honey, 378.
Export Control, 378.
Honours to New Zealanders, 822.
Hops, 345.
Horahora Power Supply, 750.
Horse-racing Taxation, 484.
Horses, 356, 376–377, 805.
Horticultural Station, 322.
Horticulture, 352.
Hosiery-factories, 440.
Hospitals—
Maternity, 117.
Mental, 121–124.
Private, 116.
Private Mental, 124.
Public, 6, 96–102, 111–120.
St. Helens, 117.
Hot Springs, 3.
Hotels, Licensed, 773.
Hours of Labour, 673–675.
In Factories, 431.
House of Representatives, 40, 43.
Members of, 824.
Household Budgets, 647, 655.
Houses (see Dwellings).
Housing, 446, 448, 453, 461–463, 503, 508, 529, 689–691.
Husbands' Petitions in Divorce, 69.
Hydraulic Sluicing, 403.
Hydro-electric Power, 749–757.
Used for Industrial Purposes, 757.
Hydrotherapeutical Treatment, 6.
Hygiene, 103.
Social, 104.

I.

Illegitimate Infants—
Births of, 56.
Deaths of, 78.
In Benevolent Institutions, 120.
Protection of, 137.
Immigration, 800, 832, 836–842.
Assisted, 840.
Early, 40.
Restriction on, 841.
Implements, Farm, 330.
Manufacture of, 443.
Import. Price Indexes, 660.
Imported Commodities, Price Indexes, 658.
Imports, 171–178, 201–215, 230–234, 806.
Diversion of, 207–209.
Excess of Exports over, 172–178.
Free and Dutiable, 217, 222.
Of Ports, 230–234.
Specie, 178.
Value in British Currency, 171–178.
Value on Gold Basis, Index Numbers, 173.
Volume, Index Numbers, 173.
Improved-farm Settlements, 309, 312.
Improvements, Value of, 544—550.
Incapacity from Industrial Accidents, 726–734.
Income, Aggregate Private, 643–644, 736, 737.
Income, Gross Farming, 322–325, 327, 328.
Incomes, 634–644.
Income-tax, 476, 478, 480, 634–644.
Increase in Population, 49, 50, 800, 831.
Indebtedness, Mortgage, 619.
Indebtedness of Local Bodies, 115, 500, 537–543, 813.
Indebtedness, Public, 489–500, 810.
Index Numbers—
Deaths, Sex-ratio, 72.
Export Prices, 658–660, 661.
Farm Expenditure, 327, 662.
Farm Producers' Prices, 325, 327.
Farm Production, Volume, 325, 329.
Goods Available for Consumption, 736, 738, 739.
Gross Farming Income, 325, 327.
Hours of Labour, 673–675.
House-rent, 651–65").
Import Prices, 660.
Population, 853.
Prices, Consumers' Goods, 658.
Prices, Imported Commodities, 658, 661.
Prices, Locally-produced Commodities, 658, 661.
Producers' Prices, 766.
Farm, 325, 327.
Production, 766.
Farm, Volume of. 325, 329.
Patio of Customs Revenue to Imports. 222.
Retail Prices, 327, 647–655, 661, 662.
Share Prices, 663–065.
Value of Exports, 736.
Value of Imports, 736.
Value of Production, 736, 766.
Volume of Exports, 173, 107.
Volume of Goods Available for Use. 738. 739.
Volume of Imports, 173.
Volume of Production. 329, 766.
Volume of Total Trade. 173.
Wage-rates, 666–673.
Wholesale Prices. 656–658. 661, 662.
Indians, 839.
Indigenous Forest, 27–35, 304, 379–388.
Individualization of Native Land, 315.
Industrial Accidents, 720–734.
Industrial Associations, 704.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 666, 691.
Industrial Disputes, 691–694, 719–725*
Industrial Efficiency Act. 415.
Industrial Life Insurance. 581.
Industrial Unions, 676, 701–704.
Industries, Important. 433–444.
Industries, Manufacturing, 414–444.
Inebriates, 157.
Infancy, Diseases of. 81, 94.
Infant Mortality. 77–83. 801.
Maori, 94.
Infant-life Protection, 77. 118. 136.
Infectious Diseases—
Control of, in Schools, 110.
Hospital Cases, 99.
Notification of, 95, 103.
Injuries (see Accidents).
Inland Fisheries, 397.
Inmates—
Of Charitable Institutions, 119.
Of Gaols, 150, 803.
Of Hospitals, 96–102, 116.
Of Mental Hospitals, 121.
Inquests, 143.
Insanity, 121–124.
Insolvency, 621–626, 818.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools, 109.
Inspection of Dairies and Dairy Factories. 364.
Inspection of Machinery. 763.
Instruments, Registration of, 303.
Insurance, 577–598.
State, 583, 588, 597.
Intercensal Population. 831, 835, 836.
Interest—
Credited by Savings-banks, 564. 565. 815.
On Local Bodies' Debt, 535, 540.
On Mortgages, 617.
On Public Debt, 495.
Payments Overseas, 176, 105, 541.
Rates (see Rates of Interest).
Recouped to Consolidated Fund, 468.
Reduction of, 487, 542, 611.
Tax on, 487, 493.
Interference, Radio. 298.
Inter-Island Passengers, 844.
Intermediate Credit. 506.
Intermediate Schools, 127, 133.
International Comparisons (see Comparisons).
International Payments, 176, 495, 541.
Intestate Estates, 759.
Intoxicating Liquor—
Consumption of, 745.
Sale of, 773.
Investigations of Companies, 759.
Investment Certificates, 480.
Investment Societies, Deposits with, 605.
Investments, State, 492, 627.
Investments, Totalizator, 485.
Invisible Imports and Exports, 176.
Iron-foundries, 442.
Iron-ores, 405.
Islands—
Adjacent, Population of, 830.
Administered on Mandate, 2. 788–794.
Annexed, 1, 783–799.
Outlying, 1, 782.
Issue of Bank-notes, 554, 563, 572.
Issue of Deceased Males, 76.
Issue, Previous, of Parents, 55.

J.

Jam-factories, 439.
Joint-stock Banks, 555–562.
Joint-stock Companies, 759.
In Manufacturing Industries, 428. 429.
Journal of Agriculture, 322.
Journal, School, 130.
Judicial Separation, 69.
Judiciary, Members of, 822.
Junior High Schools, 127, 132.
Justice, 142–160, 803.
Juvenile Offenders, 136, 155.

K.

Kaingaroa Plantation, 389.
Kauri-gum, 409.
Exported, 181–199, 403, 809.
Kermadec Islands, 1, 783.

L.

Labour Department Employment Bureaux, 706.
Labour Disputes, 691–694, 719–725.
Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 694.
Labour, Hours of, 673.
In Factories, 431.
Labour Laws and Allied Legislation, 676–700.
Labour Ministry, 821.
Labour Shares, 678.
Lake Wakatipu Steamer Service, 244–249.
Lakes, 5.
Lamb—
Consumption of, 741.
Exported, 370–371.
Lambs, 357.
Land and Income Tax, 476, 478, 634–644, 780.
Land Boards, 308.
Maori, 316.
Land Development, 309, 318.
Land Districts, 308.
Land Drainage Districts, 527–543.
Land for Discharged Soldiers, 313.
Land for Settlements, 312.
Land, Government Valuation of, 544–550.
Land Holdings, 302.
Mortgages on, 620.
Value of, 620, 632.
Land, Occupation of, 301, 304.
Land Offices, 308.
Land, Purchase of, 312, 313, 317.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 301–319.
Land Titles, Registration of, 305.
Land Transfer System, 305.
Land, Valuation of, 544—550.
Landing-grounds, 165, 277, 278, 283.
Lands open for Selection, 310.
Land-settlement Accounts, 472.
Land-settlement Finance Associations, 313.
Land-tax, 342, 47G, 480.
Lapsed Insurance Policies, 579, 581.
Latest Statistical Information [see Fore-front of Book].
Law and Crime, 142–160.
Laws affecting Labour, 676–700.
Laws enacted in 1935, 777.
Lease, Renewable, 309, 311.
Leasehold-landholdings, 303.
Legacy Duty, 482, 483.
Legal Education, 138.
Legal-tender, 572.
Legislation—
Labour and Allied, 676–700.
Passed in 1935, 777.
Legislative Council, 40, 43.
Members of, 823.
Legitimation Act, 57.
Legumes, 345.
Letters of Naturalization, 842.
Letters Patent, 762.
Letters posted, 288, 816.
Letter-telegrams, 290.
Levies by Hospital Boards, 111–115, 535.
Levy, Employment Promotion, 474, 486.
Liabilities—
Farm, Adjustment of, 336–338.
Of Afforestation Companies, 390.
Of Bankrupts, 622, 624, 818.
Of Banks, 554, 557, 814.
Of Building Societies, 604.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 754.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 590.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 583.
Of Local Bodies, 536.
State, 627.
Licensed Houses, 773.
Licenses—
Air Pilots, 282.
Anglers, 400.
By Local Bodies, 533, 773.
Commercial Aircraft, 279.
Export, 576.
Ground Engineers, 284.
Motor-vehicle, 269, 270, 274, 275.
Radio, 299.
Ross Sea Whaling, 797, 798.
Sharebrokers, 484.
Transport, 273.
Licensing, 773.
Poll, 773.
Life, Expectation of, 74.
Life Insurance, 577–584.
State, 583.
Life Table, 74.
Lifts, Inspection of, 764.
Light and Fuel, Retail Prices of, 654, 655.
Lighthouses, 241.
Lignite, 407.
Lime and Cement Works, 442.
Limestone, 411.
Limonite, 405.
Lincoln Agricultural College, 127, 138, 343.
Linseed, 345, 346.
Liquidations of Companies, 759.
Live-stock, 356–378, 805.
Carried on Railways, 250, 817.
Slaughtering of, 370–376.
Loans—
Allocation of, 492.
By Building Societies, 604.
Conversion of, 493, 542.
Dates of Maturity of, 494, 543.
Domicile of, 493," 539.
Of Hospital Boards, 115.
Of Local Bodies, 115, 500, 529, 537–543, 813.
Receipts from, 492.
Redemption of, 469, 471, 493, 496, 537, 541.
Local Bodies, 527–543, 812.
Advances to, 508.
Assets of. 536, 628.
Debt of, 115, 500, 529, 537–543, 813.
Employees of, 717.
Expenditure of, 535.
History of, 45.
Levies on, by Hospital Boards, 111, 535.
Receipts of, 532.
Superannuation, 524.
Taxation by, 488, 532, 533.
Local Consumption of Produce, 735–748.
Local Government, 45. (See also Local Bodies.)
Local Option. 774.
Local Railway District. 527–536.
Local Taxation, 488, 532, 533.
Location of Debt, 493, 539.
Location of New Zealand, 1.
Lockouts, 691–694, 719–725.
Locomotives, 245.
Lodges, Friendly Societies, 599–601.
London, Exchange on (see Exchange).
London Prices of Gold, Average. 403.
London Prices of New Zealand Stock, 495.
Losses from Fires, 594.
In Forests, 382.
Lotteries, 774.
Duty on, 484, 774.
Lucerne, 344, 345, 349.
Lunacy, 121–124.
Lupins, 346.

M.

Macaulay Island, 783.
Machinery—
Accidents. 729.
Factory, 421,428.
Farm, 330, 443.
Inspection of, 763.
Magistrates' Courts (see Courts).
Magistrates, Superannuation of. 524.
Mails, 288.
Air, 285.
Main Highways, 263–268.
Account, 265, 475, 534.
Taxation, 269, 475, 477.
Maize, 345, 346, 349.
Malnutrition of School-children, 109.
Malthouses, 435, 439.
Mamma .... ia, 35.
Mandated Territories, 2, 788–794.
Mangahao Power Supply, 749.
Mangaia Island, 1, 784.
Manganese-ore, 406.
Mangolds, 345, 349.
Manihiki Island, 1, 785.
Manono Island, 789.
Manuae Island, 1, 785.
Manual Education, 129.
Manufacturing Production, 414–444.
Manures used for Top-dressing, 355.
Maori Dog, 35.
Maori Land Boards, 316.
Maori War Pensions, 509, 513.
Maoris, 39. (See also Natives.)
Births of, 48, 60.
Children attending Schools, 127, 132, 134.
Deaths of, 48, 60, 92.
Half-castes, 831, 852.
In Mental Hospitals, 124.
In Prisons, 152.
Infant Mortality of, 94.
Lands, 315–319".
Marriages of, 67.
Members of Parliament, 43, 824.
Offences by, 157.
Population, 852.
Schools for, 132.
Map of New Zealand [End of Volume].
Marble, New Zealand. 410.
Marine Fish-hatchery, 397.
Marine Officers' Certificates. 240.
Market Gardens, 303, 351.
Marketing of Farm-produce, 333–336.
Marriages, 49, 61–70, 801.
Masseurs, Registration of, 100.
Massey Agricultural College, 127, 138.
Maternal Mortality, 88, 117.
Maternity Allowances, 525.
Maternity Hospitals, 117.
Maternity Nurses, District, 118.
Maternity Nurses, Registration of, 100.
Maturity of Loans, Dates of, 494, 543.
Mauke Island. 1, 784.
Mean Population. 800, 835, 836.
Mean Time, 775.
Measures and Weights, 108, 301.
Meat—
Consumption of, 740–742.
Export Control, 376.
Export of, 179–199, 233. 370–376, 807.
Freezing-works, 433. 437.
Retail Prices, 650, 653, 655.
Medical Inspection of Schools, 109.
Medical Practitioners, 105.
Medical Services in Samoa. 790.
Medicinal Waters, 5.
Members of Parliament, 43, 824.
Mental Hospitals, 121–124.
Mentally Backward Children. 137, 141.
Mercantile Marine, 235.
Mercury-mines, 406.
Merino Sheep, 357, 358.
Metal Reserves of Banks, 554, 558, 573, 814.
Meteorology, 16–20.
Midwives, District, 118.
Midwives, Registration of, 106.
Migration, External, 801, 832, 836–842.
Migration. Internal, 844.
Mileage of-—
Main Highways, 265.
Railways, 244,252, 817.
Roads, 201.
Telegraph Lines and Wire, 290.
Telephone Lines and Wire, 292.
Tramway Routes, 254, 260.
Mileage-tax, 266, 269, 478.
Military Forces, 161–170.
Military Pensions, 509, 513.
Milk, Adulterated, 107.
Milk, Consumption of, 740, 741.
Milk, Control of Prices of, 647.
Milk for School-children, 109.
Milk used in Dairy Factories, 438.
Milking-machines, 330.
Milk-products (see Dairy-produce).
Milk-testing, 322, 364.
Milling-wheat, 347.
Mills, 414–444.
Mineral Waters, 5.
Minerals. 402–413.
Miners' Pensions, 418. 509, 513–514.
Minimum Wage-rates. 666—673, 680.
Mining, 402–413.
Accidents, 407, 413, 720.
Act, Examinations under. 413.
Acts, 684.
Advances. 412.
Produce consumed locally, 740. 747.
Produce exported. 180–109, 403.
Value of Production, 402. 766.
Ministers of each Denomination, 67.
Marriages by, 67.
Ministries, Successive. 819.
Ministry, Labour, 821.
Minors, Marriages of, 61, 66.
Mission Schools, 125. 127. 787, 790.
Missionaries, Arrival of, 40.
Mitiaro Island, 1, 785.
Money-orders issued and paid, 289, 816.
Morbidity, 95–102. 600.
Mortality (see Deaths).
Mortgage Corporation, 502, 012, 779.
Mortgage Exemption. 480, 502, 620.
Mortgage Indebtedness, 618–619.
Mortgagee. Rights of. 607.
Mortgagees' Indemnity Insurance. 484. 587
Mortgages, 502–508, 606–620, 632.
Mortgage-tax. 478.
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitate
Act, 337, 007–611, 653.
Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, Rural
337.
Mortgagors Liabilities Adjustment Commissions, 337, 607—611.
Mortgagors Relief. 607–611.
Mothers, Ages of, 54.
In Illegitimate Cases, 57.
In Still-born Cases, 59.
Moths, 38.
Motion-picture Film-tax, 486.
Motive-power in Factories, 421–423.
Motor Transport, 247, 249, 260, 261–270.
Motor-engineering Works, 443.
Motor-omnibus Traffic, 247, 249, 260, 272
Motor-spirits, Consumption of, 747.
Motor-spirits, Fixed Price for, 646.
Motor-spirits Taxation. 219, 266, 269, 47£
Motor-vehicles—
Accidents, 90, 159, 276.
Country of Manufacture, 272.
Dormant Registrations, 271.
Drivers' Licenses, 269.
Duty on, 218.
Examination of, 270.
Insurance, 587.
Licensed for Goods-services, 275.
Licensed for Passenger-services, 274.
Registration of, 270.
Speed Limit, 270.
Taxation, 269, 478.
Motor-vessels registered, 235.
Motor-works, 443.
Mountains, 2.
Mud Baths. 7.
Multiple Births, 53.
Municipal Tramways, 254–260.
Municipalities (see Boroughs).
Mutton. Consumption of. 195. 741.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 597.

N.

Nassau Island, 1, 785.
National Broadcasting Services, 296.
National Endowments, 309, 379.
National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 338, 342, 509, 542, 611. 653, 691.
National Income, 644.
National Parks, 304.
National Prohibition, 773.
National Provident Fund. 524–526.
National Scholarships, 140.
National Wealth, 631–632.
Nationality, 842.
Of Migrants, 839.
Of Naturalized Persons. 843.
Of Vessels, 236.
Native (see Maori).
Native Appellate Court, 316.
Native Bush, 304, 379. (See also Flora.)
Native Fresh-water Fishes. 397.
Native Grasses, 304, 351.
Native Housing Act. 781.
Native Land Court. 316.
Native Lands. 302. 315–319.
Purchase of, 317.
Native Population. 852.
Native Schools, 127. 132. 802.
Native Succession Duty, 483.
Native Trust Office, 318.
Native-land Purchase, 317.
Nativity Order, 52, 59.
Natural Increase of Population, 50, 51, 832.
Naturalization, 842.
Nauru Island, 2. 792–794.
Naval Board. 167.
Naval Defence, 166.
Expenditure on, 170.
Naval Ratings, 169.
Naval Reserve, 167, 170.
Naval Station, 168.
Navigators Islands (sec Western Samoa).
Navy, 166.
Neo-natal Deaths, 79, 94.
Nephrite, 410.
Net State Indebtedness, 499, 810.
New Year Honours, 822.
New Zealand Coinage and Currency
569–576.
“New Zealand,” H.M.S., 166, 167.
New Zealand Mean Time, 775.
New Zealand Representatives Abroad. 827.
New Zealand University, 127, 138–141.
Newspapers—
Posted, 288, 816.
Registered, 289.
Night Letter-telegrams, 290.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 69.
Niue Island, 1, 785, 787.
No-license Issue, 773.
Nominal Wage-rates, 667–673.
Nomination of Assisted Immigrants, 840.
Note-issue, 572.
Notes in Circulation, 562.
Tax on, 484.
Notification of Births, 48.
Notification of Diseases, 95, 103.
Nukunono Island, 2, 792.
Nullity of Marriage, 69.
Nurseries and Plantations, 303, 35
388–392.
State, 388.
Nurses—
Dental, 110.
District, 118.
Registration of, 106.
Retiring-allowances to, 525.
School, 109.

O.

Oats, 345–349, 804.
Exported, 183, 184, 195, 196.
Observatory, Time Signals from, 298, 775.
Occupation of Land, 301, 304.
Occupation with Right of Purchase, 309, 311.
Occupations—
Of Bankrupts, 624, 626.
Of Taxpayers, 636.
Ocean Cables, 293.
Ocean Island, 793–794.
Offences, 146–160.
Offenders Probation Act, 154.
Offices Act, Shops and, 682.
Official Assignees, 621–626.
Official Representatives Abroad, 827.
Officiating Ministers, 67.
Oil-wells, 409.
Old-age Pensions, 509, 510–512.
Old-peoples Homes, 118.
Omnibus Traffic, 247, 249, 260, 272.
Omnibuses licensed, 271.
Onakaka Iron-ore, 405.
Onions, 345.
Consumption of, 742.
Opium, Prohibition of, 108.
Opossum-skins exported, 192.
Opticians, Registration of, 106.
Orchards, 304, 352–354.
Orchard-tax, 354.
Origin of Immigrants, 838.
Origin of Imports, 203–215.
Ornamental Stones, 410.
Orphanages, 118.
Orphanhood, 76.
Otekaike Special School, 138.
Ottawa Agreement, 208, 216, 334.
Outlying Islands, 1, 782.
Out-patients, 97, 116.
Maternity Hospitals, 117.
Output of Factories, 417.
Overdraft Rates, 566.
Oversea Shipping, 236–240.
Oversea Trade, 171–234, 806.
Overseas Funds of Banks, 176, 563.
Overseas Parcel-post, 289.
Overseas Representatives, 827.
Overseas-passenger Duty, 484.
Overtime in Factories, 431, 432.
Oyster-beds, 395.

P.

Pacific Cable, 293.
Pacific Islands, Annexed, 1, 784–788.
Packet Licenses, 773.
Palmerston Island, 1, 785.
Parapara Iron-ore Deposit, 405.
Parcel-post, 289.
Parents, Ages of, 54–59.
Parks, National, 304.
Parliament, 40.
Members of, 824.
Parliamentary Elections, 43, 767–773.
Parliamentary Under-Secretary, 822.
Parliaments, Successive, 822.
Party-line Telephones, 291.
Passengers—
Aero Club, 283.
Commercial Aircraft, 279–281.
Inter-Island, 844.
Motor-vehicle, 249, 260, 272, 275.
Overseas, 800, 836, 838.
Railway, 249, 817.
Tramway, 255, 256.
Passenger-service Licenses, 274.
Passenger-tickets, Duty on, 484.
Passion-fruit, 341, 351.
Passports, 840.
Pastoral and Agricultural Production, 320–378.
Value of, 766.
Pastoral Produce—
Consumed locally, 740.
Exported, 180–199.
Gross Farming Income, 324.
Price Indexes, 199, 660, 661, 662.
Pasture Grasses, 350.
Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks, 762.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 121.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 96, 116.
Payments by, 112, 115.
Payments Overseas, Balance of, 176–178.
Peaks, Altitude of, 3.
Pears, 353.
Peas, 345, 346.
Export of, 182–196.
“Pelorus Jack,” 36.
Pelts, Export of, 182–199, 233.
Penal Institutions, 150–154.
Penrhyn Island, 1, 785.
Pensions, 509–526, 778.
Permanent Building Societies, 603.
Permanent Heads of Departments, 825.
Permanent Military Forces, 161.
Permits and Passports, 840.
Permits, Building, 449–454.
Petitions—
Bankruptcy, 622.
Divorce, 69.
Petrol, Consumption of, 747.
Petroleum, 409.
Petrological Laboratory, 268.
Petrol-tax, 266, 269, 478.
Pharmacy, 108.
College of, 108.
Phormium, 303, 304, 351.
Fibre exported, 194, 809.
Grading of Fibre, 322.
Mills, 441.
Phosphate Rock, 410.
From Nauru Island, 794.
Phthisis, 84, 80, 96, 100.
Maori Deaths from, 93.
Miner's, 513, 514.
Physical Education, 125, 131, 141.
Physicians, Registration of, 105.
Physiography, 1–9.
Pickle-factories, 439.
Pig-iron Production, 402.
Pig recording, 341.
Pigs, 340, 372, 375, 805.
Pilots, Air, 165, 283, 284.
Pisciculture, 397, 398.
Placement, Scheme, 716.
Plaints, 142.
Plant Research, 322, 343, 381.
Plantations, 351, 389.
State, 389.
Plants, New Zealand, 27–35.
Platinum, 402, 407.
Pleasant Island (Nauru), 792.
Plumbers Registration, 107.
Plunket System, 78, 118.
Plural Births, 53.
Pneumoconiosis, Pensions for, 513, 514.
Poisons, 108.
Police, 143.
Superannuation, 520.
Policies, Insurance, 577–598.
Polling—
At By-elections, 773.
At General Elections, 767–772.
At Licensing Polls, 773.
Population, 800, 830–853.
Of Cook Islands, 786, 830.
Of Nauru Island, 792, 830.
Of Niue Island, 787.
Of Tokelau Islands, 792, 830.
Of Various Countries, 853.
Of Western Samoa, 790.
Of World, 853.
Pork exported, 340, 373.
Portfolios of Ministers, 820, 821.
Portobello Marine Fish-hatchery, 397.
Ports—
Finances of, 533–542.
Of Entry, 230.
Of Registry, 235.
Shipping of, 238.
Trade of, 230–234.
Post Office Employees, 293.
Accidents to, 726–734.
Superannuation of, 520.
Post Office Investment Certificates, 489.
Post Office Savings-bank, 564, 815.
Postal and Telegraphic, 288–294, 816.
Postal Notes, 290, 816.
Post-primary Education, 127, 133, 141.
Potatoes, 345, 348.
Consumption of, 742.
Pottery-works, 442.
Poultry, 303, 341, 377.
Poultry-runs Registration, 378.
Pounamu, 410.
Power Boards, 527–542, 750, 813.
Power, Electric (see Electric).
Power used in Factories, 421.
Power used on Farms, 330.
Preferential Tariff, 216, 224–229.
Pregnancy, Diseases, &c. of, 88, 102, 117.
Premiers, Successive, 819.
Premium Income, 577–598.
Prevention of Crime Act, 153.
Prevention of Profiteering Act, 647.
Price Fixation, 645–647.
Price Levels, the Spread in, 326.
Prices, 645–665.
Effect on Exports, 173, 197.
Effect on Farm Expenditure, 662.
Effect on Imports, 173.
Guaranteed, 334–336.
Of Stock, 495.
Producers', 325, 766.
Primage Duty, 217, 221.
Primary Products—
Consumption of, 740.
Marketing of, 333–336.
Primary Schools, 125–133, 141, 802.
Principal Events, 854.
Printing Establishments, 435, 442.
Prisons and Prisoners, 150–153, 803.
Prisons Board, 154.
Private Assignments, 625.
Private Companies, 762.
Private Hospitals, 116.
Private Income, Aggregate, 643, 644, 736, 737.
Private Mental Hospital, 124.
Private Radio-stations, 293.
Private Railways, 252.
Private Savings-banks, 565.
Private Schools, 127, 132, 802.
Private Wealth, 629–631.
Probate, Estates passed for, 630.
Probation, 154.
Probationer Teachers, 131.
Proclamation of British Sovereignty, 2, 40.
Production—
Agricultural and Pastoral, 320–378, 766.
Dairy, 364–370, 434, 438.
Diversification of Farm, 340.
Factory, 414–444.
Gold, World's, 405.
Local Consumption of, 735–748.
Mineral, 402–413.
Timber, 386.
Value of, 736, 765.
Volume of, 325, 766.
Wool, 359.
Production Districts, Exports of, 230.
Butter and Cheese, 365.
Professors, University, 139.
Profiteering, Prevention of, 647.
Profit-sharing, 678.
Programme Analysis, Radio, 297.
Prohibited Immigrants, 841.
Prohibition Issue, 773.
Prohibition Orders, 158.
Prorogation of Parliament, Dates of, 822.
Prospecting, State Aid to, 412.
Prospecting-drills, Government, 412.
Provident Fund, National, 524.
Provincial Districts, 45.
Area and Population of, 845.
Building and Construction in, 456.
Fire Losses in, 595.
Industrial Disputes in, 721.
Industries in, 417.
Provisional State Forests, 379.
Public Debt, 489–500, 810.
Repayment of, 469, 471, 493, 496.
Public Domains, 304.
Public Finance, 464–508, 810–811.
Public Health, 103–110.
Public Hospitals (see Hospitals).
Public Reserves, 302, 304, 309.
Public Schools, 125–141, 802.
Public Service, 825.
Civil Service Act Pensions, 509.
Employees, 826.
Superannuation, 520–522.
Public Trust Office, 758.
Public Wealth, 629.
Public Works—
Accidents, 726–734.
Employees, 716.
Five-day Week on, 700.
Fund, 472, 811.
Programme, 700.
Road Construction, 262.
Publicans' Licenses, 773.
Publications—
Census and Statistics Department [facing p, 1].
Education Department, 130.
General Bibliography, 862.
Statistical Bibliography, 860.
Publishing Works, 435, 442.
Puerperal Accidents, &c. 88, 102, 117.
Puisne Judges, 822.
Pukapuka Island, 1, 785.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis (sec Phthisis).
Pulse Crops, 344.
Pumpkins, 349.
Punishments by Courts, 147–160.
Pupils, School, 127–138, 802.
Purchase of Land for Settlement, 312, 313.
Pure Food Laws, 107.

Q.

Quackery-prevention, 108.
Quadrennial Parliaments, 44.
Quadruplets born, 53.
Quarries, 411.
Quartz-mining, 402.
Quicksilver-mining, 402, 403, 406.
Quinnat Salmon, 399, 401.
Quinquennial Census, 831, 845–852.
Quorum—
Executive Council, 42.
House of Representatives, 44.
Quota, Country, 43.
Quotations, New Zealand Stock, 495.

R.

Rabbit Districts, 527–543.
Rabbit-skins exported, 182–199.
Race Aliens, 839.
Racing, Tax on, 484.
Radio Licenses, 299.
Radio Time-signals, 298, 776.
Radio-beacons, 241, 292.
Radio-broadcasting, 293, 295–300.
Weather Forecasts, 16, 298.
Radio-telegraph, 292.
Raffle-tickets, Duty on, 484, 775.
Rail-cars, 246.
Railway Accidents, 90, 252, 276, 726–734.
Railway District, 527–536.
Railway Fares, School-children, 130.
Railways, 243–253, 817.
Private, 252.
Revenue and Expenditure, 246, 466, 473, 817.
Superannuation Fund, 523, 524.
Rain Forests, 382.
Rainfall, 16–26.
Rakahanga Island, 1, 785.
Rams, 357.
Rarotonga Island, 1, 784.
Rateable Value of Land, 547.
Rates collected by Local Bodies, 488, 533, 755, 812.
Rates of Exchange, 343, 574, 575.
Rates of Interest—
On Building Societies' Deposits, 605.
On Fixed Deposits, 507.
On Local Bodies' Debt, 530, 540.
On Mortgages, 617–618.
On Public Debt, 493, 495.
Paid by Savings-banks, 567, 568.
Reduction of, 487, 493, 542, 611.
Rating by Local Bodies, 530.
On Unimproved Value, 531.
On Urban Farm Lands, 340, 530, 544.
Ratings, Naval, 169.
“Real” Wage-rates, 668.
Rebate of Rates, 534.
Receiving-homes, 137.
Recent Developments in Agricultural Policy, 330–343.
Recidivism, 153.
Reciprocal Tariff and Trade, 224–229.
Recruiting of Police, 144.
Redemption of Loans, 469, 471, 493, 496, 538.
Redemption of Mortgages, 606.
Reduction of Interest, 338, 493, 542, 611, 653.
Reduction of Rent, 611, 653.
Reduction of Wages, 667, 668, 688.
Re-exports, 182, 185, 187, 196.
From United Kingdom, 187.
Reformative Detention, 138, 153.
Refuge Homes, 118.
Refund of Rates, 534.
Refunds to Racing Clubs, 485.
Regional Planning, 528.
Registered Articles Posted, 288.
Registered Companies, 759.
Registered Mortgages, 613.
Registered Vessels, 235.
Registrars, Marriages before, 61, 67.
Registration—
Of Adopted Children, 58.
Of Apiaries, 378.
Of Applicants for Employment, 706.
Of Births, 48.
Of Chemists, 108.
Of Companies, 759.
Of Dairies, 364.
Of Dairy Companies, 365.
Of Deaths, 71.
Of Deeds, 305.
Of Dentists, 105.
Of Designs, 762.
Of Electors, 44.
Of Friendly Societies, 599.
Of Industrial Unions, 701.
Of Marriages, 61.
Of Masseurs, 106.
Of Maternity Nurses, 106.
Of Medical Practitioners, 105.
Of Midwives, 106.
Of Mortgages, 606.
Of Motor-vehicles, 270.
Of Newspapers, 289.
Of Nurses and Midwives, 106.
Of Opticians, 106.
Of Orchards, 354.
Of Patents, 762.
Of Pharmaceutical Chemists, 108.
Of Physicians, 105.
Of Plumbers, 107.
Of Poultry-runs, 341, 377.
Of Private Schools, 132.
Of Still-births, 48.
Of Titles, 305.
Of Trade-marks, 762.
Of Trade-unions, 701.
Of Unemployed, 705–710.
Of Vessels, 235.
Registry, Ports of, 235.
Regulation of Prices, 645–647.
Relief, Charitable, 114.
Relief Fund, Coal-miners', 413.
Relief of Mortgagors, 607–611.
Relief of Unemployed, 474, 700–717,
Religious Denominations—
Marriages by Ministers of, 67.
Ministers on Marriage List, 67.
Renewable Leases, 309, 311.
Rent Reduction, 611.
Rent Restriction, 691.
Renters, Film, Taxation of, 486.
Rents, House, 611, 651, 691.
Repatriation Advances, 313, 508.
Repayment of Public Debt, 469, 471, 493, 496.
Reports, Departmental, 860.
Representatives abroad, 827.
Representatives, House of, 40, 43.
Members of, 824.
Reptiles, 37.
Research, Agricultural, 343.
Research, Coal, 408.
Research Institute, Wheat, 343, 347.
Research Scholarships, 139.
Research, Silvicultural, 381.
Reserve Bank, 551–554, 563.
Reserved Profits of Banks, 556.
Reserves, Public, 302, 304, 309.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights, 69.
Restorations, Salary and Wages, 668.
Restriction, Immigration, 841.
Retail Prices, 327, 647–655, 661, 662.
Retardate Children, 137, 141.
Revaluations, 545.
Of Soldier Properties, 314.
Revenue, Local Body, 112, 532, 812.
Revenue, Public, 464–475, 811.
Review, Court of, 338.
Review of Legislation, 777–781.
Rhodes Scholarships, 139.
Richmond Special School, 138.
Ride Clubs, 164.
River Districts, 527–543.
Rivers, 4.
Road Districts, 527–543.
Mileage of Roads, 261.
Road Transport, 249, 260, 270–276.
Roads, 261–270.
On Goldfields, Subsidized, 412.
Taxation, 269, 475, 477.
Rock Oysters, 395.
Rocks, Geological Account of, 9.
Rolling-stock—
Railway, 245.
Tramway, 254, 259.
Roman Catholic Schools, 132.
Root Crops, 304, 345, 349.
Ross Dependency, 2, 795–797.
Bibliography, 869.
Whaling, 797, 798.
Rotorua Nursery, 389.
Rotorua Thermal Springs, 5–9.
Rural Advances, 506.
Rural Intermediate Credit, 503, 506.
Rural Mail Deliveries, 288.
Rural Mortgages, 615, 620, 632.
Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 337.
Rural Population, 845.
Country Quota,43.
Rye-grass, 350.

S.

Sailing-vessels registered. 235.
St. Helens Hospitals, 117.
Salary and Wage Cuts, 667, 668, 688
Salary and Wage Restoration, 668, 688.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 107.
Sales of State Timber, 387.
Sales Tax, 437.
Salmon, Acclimatization of. 398.
Samoa (see Western Samoa).
San Pablo (Palmerston) Island. 1, 785.
Sanatoria, 8. 96, 116.
Sanctions, 779.
Sanitary Plumbing, 107.
Sanitation, 103–110.
Sauce-factories. 439.
Sausage-casings. Export of, 181–199.
Savai'i Island, 789.
Savings-banks, 564, 565, 815.
Sawmills, 386, 435, 441.
Scaffolding Accidents, 726–734.
Scenic Reserves. 304.
Scheelite, 406.
Schemes, Unemployment Relief, 710–716.
Scholarships, 135, 139, 140, 413.
School Committees, 126.
School Journal, 130.
School-children, 127–138. 802.
Dental Treatment of. 110.
Medical Inspection of. 109.
Schools, 125–141.
Dental Clinics. 110.
Of Mines, 138, 413.
Special, 136.
School-teachers, 126, 131—135.
Superannuation. 523.
Scrub Lands, 304.
Sea-fisheries, 393.
Seals, 36. 396
Seamen Act, Shipping and, 685.
Season Tickets, Railway. 240
Secondary Education. 127, 135, 141, 802.
Secondary Industries, 414-^144.
Second-growth Land, 304.
Secular System of Education, 125.
Securities, Mortgage, 615.
Seed-gardens, 303. 351.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 349–351.
Certification of, 322.
Exported, 180–196.
Seismology, 11—16.
Selections of Lands. 308, 310.
Senior Cadets, 181, 164.
Sentences on Criminals, 147–157
Separate Rates, 530.
Separation, Judicial, 69.
Separators, Cream, 330.
Service, Public (see Public Service)
Service-car Licenses, 271, 274.
Services, Army, Navy, and Air, 161–170.
Sessions, Parliamentary, Successive, 822.
Settlement Accounts, 472.
Settlement and Colonization, 40.
Settlement Conditions, Selections under. 310.
Settlement of Industrial Disputes. 723.
Settlement of Undeveloped Lands, 310.
Settlement, Small-farm, 715.
Settlement Surveys, 301.
Settlements, Land for, 312.
Settlers, Advances to, 501–508.
Share Prices, Index Numbers, 663–6*55.
Sharebrokers' Licenses, 484.
Shares in Building Societies, 602–605.
Shares, Labour, 678.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 330.
Sheep, 356–359, 805.
Sheep-farms, 303.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 181–199.
Sheet-metal Works, 442.
Shipbuilding-works, 444.
Shipping, 235–242.
Shipping and Seamen Act, 685.
Ships (see Vessels).
Shoe-factories, 436, 440.
Shoes, Consumption of Boots and, 746.
Shops and Offices Act, 682.
Short-time in Factories, 431, 432.
Shortwave Broadcasts, 298.
Sick Funds, 252, 413, 474, 600.
Sickness, 95–102, 600.
Signals, Time. 775.
Silver, 405.
Coins, New Zealand, 570.
Exported, 194, 403.
Silviculture, 381–382, 389, 392.
Singapore Naval Base, 167, 170.
Sinking Funds, State, 498, 504, 810.
Skins, Export of, 181–199, 233.
Slaughter of Animals for Food, 370–375.
Slaughterhouses. 322, 371–375.
Slot Telephones, 292.
Sluicing, 403.
Small Farms for Unemployment Relief, 715.
Snares Islands, 1, 783.
Snowfall, 22.
Soap-factories, 440.
Social Hygiene Regulations, 104.
Social Welfare, 114.
Softwood Trees, 383.
Soil Surveys, 343.
Solander Island, 1, 783.
Soldiers, 161–166.
Acquisition of Land by, 313.
Dwellings, 314.
Financial Assistance to, 313, 508.
Pensions, 509, 515, 517.
War Bursaries for Dependants. 135.
Source of Income, 636.
South Africa, Reciprocity with, 226.
South African War Pensions, 509, 517.
Southern Alps, 3.
Sown Grasses, Extent of, 304, 350–351.
Spas, 5.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 870.
Special Rates, 530.
Specie, Movement of, 179, 806.
Specific Duties, 224.
Speed Limit, 270.
Spirits, Consumption of, 745.
Spread in Price Levels, 326.
Springs. Hot, 5.
Staff Corps, 162.
Stakes, Tax on, 485.
Stamp Duties, 484, 487.
Estates certified for, 630.
Standardized Death-rates, 75.
Cancer, 86.
Standardized Marriage-rates, 62.
Standards, Administration of—
Length, 301.
Weights and Measures, 108.
State Accident Insurance, 588.
State Advances, 339, 446, 501–508.
Corporation, 502.
Mortgagors in Arrears, 504, 505.
Transfer to Corporation, 314, 502.
State Afforestation, 388, 473.
State Aid to—
Aero Clubs, 284.
Afforestation, 392.
Cold Storage, 508.
Crown Tenants, 309–310.
Discharged Soldiers, 313, 508.
Farming Industry, 333–340.
Fishing Industry, 508.
Fruit-preserving Industry, 508.
Housing, 503, 508.
Immigrants, 840.
Kauri-gum Industry, 109, 410.
Local Authorities, 508.
Mining, 411–113.
Prospecting, 412.
Purchasers of Private Land, 313.
Settlers, 501–508.
Unemployed. 706–717.
Water-power Development, 749.
Workers, 501–505, 507.
State Assets and Liabilities, 627.
State Coal-mines, 408, 473.
State Finance, 464–508, 810–811.
State Fire Insurance, 507.
State Forests, 389.
State Highways, 264.
State Indebtedness, 489–500, 810.
State Insurance—
Accident, 588.
Fire, 597.
Life, 583.
State Lands (sec Crown Lands).
State Maternity Hospitals, 117.
State Railways, 243–252, 817.
State Schools, 125–141, 802.
State Water-power Supply, 749.
Statistical Information, Latest [see Fore front of Book].
Statistical Publications—
Bibliography, 860.
Census and Statistics Department [facing p. 1].
Statistical Summary, 800–818.
Status of Aliens, 842.
Statute of Westminster, 41.
Statutes of 1935, 777.
Steam-vessels registered, 235.
Sterling Values of New Zealand Currency, 574.
Sterling Values of Trade, 171–178.
Stewart Island, 1, 782.
Oysters, 395.
Population, 849.
Still-births, 58, 82.
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts (see Courts).
Stock, Live (see Live-stock).
Stock, Quotations for, 495.
Stone-quarries, 410.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 410.
Strandings of Vessels, 242.
Street-cars, 254–260.
Street-lighting, 754, 755.
Streets and Roads, Length of, 261.
Strikes, 691–694, 719–725.
Stud Sheep, 357.
Students, University, 127, 139, 802.
Subdivision of Land. 312, 478.
Submarine Cable, 293.
Subsidies for Building, 714.
Subsidies. Main Highways, 265, 75.
Subsidies on Rates, 534.
Subsidies to Aero Clubs, 277, 282, 284.
Subsidies to Farming Industry, 339.
Subsidies to Hospital Boards, 111–115.
Subsidized Employment, 711.
Subsidized Prospecting, 412.
Subsidized Roads on Goldfields, 412.
Succession Duty, 482, 483.
Suffrage, 44.
Sugar, Consumption of, 745.
Sugar, Duty on, 218, 221.
Suicide, 91,143.
Sulphur, 407.
Baths, 7.
Summary Convictions, 140, 803.
Summer Time (Daylight Saving), 775.
Sumner School for Deaf, 137, 138, 141.
Sunday Island, 783.
Sunshine, 22.
Superannuation, 520—526.
Superphosphates, Fixed Price for, 646.
Supreme Court (see Courts).
Surpluses, 468.
Surrenders, Life Insurance. 577–584.
Surtax, 217, 221.
Preferential, 217, 224.
Surveys, 301.
Geological, 411, 412.
Of Ships. 241.
Of Traffic, 272.
Sustenance Allowances, 474, 699, 710, 715.
Suwarrow Island, 1, 785.
“ Sweating”, 676.
Sweepstakes, 774.
Swordfish, 397.
Sympathetic Strikes, 720–735.
Syphilis, 104.
Syrians, 839.

T

Table Mortgages, 503, 610, 613, 618.
Takutea Island, 1, 784.
Tallow exported, 181–199, 233, 807.
Tanneries, 443.
Taranaki Scholarships, 139.
Tariff Commission, 216.
Tariff, Customs, 216–229.
Tasman's Discovery of New Zealand, 39.
Tax, Laud and Income, 342, 470, 478, 641.
Taxation, 476–488, 811.
Customs, 220, 477.
Employment Promotion, 474, 486.
Local, 488, 532–534.
Motor-spirits, 219, 265, 269, 477.
Orchards, 354.
Sales, 487.
Unemployment, 474, 486.
Taxis, 271.
Taxpayers, Land and Income, 634—644.
Te Au-o-Tu Island, 1, 785.
Tea, Consumption of. 745.
Tea, Duty on, 218, 221, 225.
Teachers, Public-school, 126, 131–133.
Superannuation Fund, 523.
Technical Education, 127, 136,802.
Telegraph Services, 290.
Telephones, 291.
Temperature Records, 19–26.
Tenants, Relief of, 607.
Tenure of Occupied Lands, 303.
Tenures Selection Lands, 309–314.
Terminating Building Societies, 603.
Terraces, Pink and White, 5.
Territorial Forces, 161, 164.
Thermal Regions, 5.
Third-party Risks, 587.
Three Kings Islands. 1, 782.
Thunder, 23.
Tile-ma king, 442.
Timber—
Carried on Railways, 250.
Export, 181–199, 233, 387, 809.
Export Duty, 220.
Import, 387.
Import Duty on, 218.
Output, 386, 441.
Plantations, 379, 388–392.
Resources, 379.
Sales, 387.
Trees, 382–
Time lost—
In Factories, 431.
Through Industrial Accidents, 731.
Through Industrial Disputes. 719.
Time Signals and Mean Time, 298, 775.
Tin, 406.
Tinware-works, 442.
Tire-tax, 219, 269, 272, 478.
Title, Certificates of, issued, 306.
Titles, Compulsory Registration of, 305.
Tobacco, 341, 345, 355, 745.
Consumption of, 745.
Duty on, 218, 219, 221.
Excise Duty on, 219, 221.
Imports of, 202, 203, 210.
Tokelau Islands, 2, 792.
Toll Communications, 290.
Tolls by Local Bodies, 533.
Ton-miles—
Motor-vehicles. 272.
Railway, 251.
Tonnage bandied at Ports, 230–234.
Tonnage of Registered Vessels, 235.
Tonnage of Shipping, 236–240
Top-dressing, 355.
Totalizator Taxation, 484.
Tourist Agents Abroad, 827.
Tourists, 836, 838.
Tourists' Rail Tickets issued, 250.
Town Districts, 45, 527–543.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 547.
Debt, 539.
Mileage of Streets, 261.
Population, 850, 851.
Town Land, Mortgages on, 615. (532.
Town-planning, 528.
Tractors on Farms, 330.
Trade, 171–234, 806.
Balance of, 172–178.
Cook Islands, 786.
Niue Island, 787.
Representatives, 827.
Volume of, 173.
Western Samoa, 791.
Trade-marks, 762.
Trade-unions, 676, 701–704.
Trading Accounts, 473.
Trading Banks, 555–562.
Trading Companies' Deposits, 566.
Traffic—
Accidents, 90, 276.
Motor, 249, 259, 270–270.
Offences. 159.
Railway, 249.
Survey, 272.
Tramway, 255, 256.
Training of Defence Forces, 164.
Training of Police Recruits, 144.
Training of Teachers, 131, 140, 141.
Training-farm, Reformative, 138.
Train-miles run, 249, 817.
Tramway District, 527, 531.
Tramways, 254–260.
Accidents, 90, 276.
Cable, 260.
Transfer, Land, 305.
Transfers between Accounts, 465.
Transhipments of Cargo, 231–234.
Transit Trade, 182, 185, 187, 196.
Trans-Pacific Air Service, 282.
Transport. 235–287.
Co-ordination Board, 274.
District, Urban, 527–536, 542.
Licensing Act, 273.
Trans-Tasman Air Service, 282.
Trans-Tasman Flights, 278.
Travelling Scholarships, 139.
Trawlers, 395.
Treasury Bills, 490, 561, 573, 576.
Treaty of Waitangi, 40, 315.
Tree-planting, 387–392.
Trees, Indigenous, 33, 379–386.
Triennial Parliaments, 44.
Triplets, 53.
Tropical Diseases in Samoa, 790.
Trout, Acclimatization of, 398.
Trustee, Native, 317.
Trustee, Public, 758.
Trustee Savings-banks, 565.
Tuberculosis, 82–86, 96, 100.
Maori Deaths from, 93.
Tung-oil Industry, 342, 351.
Tungsten-ore, 401, 403, 406.
Turkeys, 377.
Turnips, 345, 349.
Tussock Land, 304, 351.
Twins and Triplets horn, 53.

U.

Unclaimed Moneys, 564, 577.
Undergraduates, 127, 139.
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion, 841.
Undeveloped Land, Settlement of, 309.
Undischarged Bankrupts, 621.
Unemployment, 098, 705–7IS.
Convictions under Act, 147.
Fund, 474.
Small Farms Scheme. 342. 715.
Taxation, 474, 486.
Unimproved Occupied Land, 304.
Unimproved Value of Land, 544–550.
Holdings, 620, 632.
Land-tax assessed on, 476, 479.
Rating on, 531.
Union (Tokelau) Islands, 2, 792.
Unions, Trade, 676, 701–704.
University Education, 127, 138–141, 802.
University Professors, 139.
Unproductive Land, 302, 304.
Upolu Island, 789.
Urban Areas, 847.
Fire Losses, 592.
Population, 847.
Unemployed registered in, 708.
Urban Drainage Districts, 527–543.
Urban Drift, 846.
Urban Farm Lands, Hating on, 340, 531 544.
Urban Population, 845.
Urban Security, Mortgages on, 615, 619.

V.

Valuation of Exports, 174, 179.
Valuation of Land, 544–550.
Value added in Manufacturing, 417–431.
Value, in Sterling, of Dominion Trade 171–178.
Value of Exports affected by Prices, 197.
Value of Land Holdings, 620, 632.
Value of Production, 736, 765.
Veal slaughtered and exported, 375.
Vegetables, Consumption of, 742, 743.
Vegetation, 27–35.
Vehicles—
Motor (sec Motor-vehicles).
Railway, 245.
Tramway, 254, 260.
Venereal Diseases., Control of, 104.
Vessels—
Employed in Fishing Industry, 395.
Entered and cleared, 236.
Nationality of, 236.
Registered, 235.
Survey of, 241.
War, 166–168.
Wrecked, 242.
Veterans Allowances, War, 509, 517.
Village-settlements, Tenures, 308.
Vinegar-factories, 439.
Vineyards, 304, 354.
Violent Deaths, 90, 143. (See also Accidents.)
Virgin Bush, Area of 304, 379.
Visible Trade-balance, 172–178.
Visitors to New Zealand, 836.
Vital Statistics, 48–102, 801.
Cook Islands, 785.
Nine Island, 787.
Western Samoa, 790.
Viticulture, 354.
Volcanoes, 2, 11.
Volume of Farm Production, 325.
Volume of Trade, 173.
Voluntary Contributions to Hospitals, 112.
Voluntary Mental Patients, 122.
Volunteer Territorial Force, 161, 162.
Voting—
At General Elections, 767–772.
At Licensing Polls, 773, 774.
Qualifications, 44.
Vouchers, Audit of, 464.

W.

Wage, Basic, 070.
Wage-rates, 458, 666–675, 686.
Legislative Changes in, 687.
Wages—
And Working Conditions, 680–689.
Lost through Industrial Accidents, 733.
Lost through Industrial Disputes, 719–723.
Of Afforestation Employees, 391.
Of Building Employees, 457.
Of Electric-supply Employees, 753.
Of Factory Employees, 4i9, 421.
Protection of, 688.
Reduction of, 667, 668, 688.
Restoration of Cuts in, 668, 688.
Waikaremoana Power-supply, 749.
Waikato Power-supply, 749.
Waipori Power-supply, 749.
Waitaki Power-supply, 749.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 40, 315.
Waitangi Treaty Site, Gift of, 305.
Wakari Private" Mental Hospital, 124.
War, 161, 166.
Bursaries for Soldiers' Dependants, 135.
Expenditure, 492.
Increases in Food-prices, 651.
Indebtedness, 492.
Pensions, 509, 515–517.
Taxation, 478.
Veterans' Allowances, 516.
Warships, 166.
Water-power, 749–757.
Waters, Mineral, 5.
Water-supply Districts, 527–543.
Wealth. 626–633.
Weather, 16–26.
Weights and Measures, 108, 301.
Wellington—
Bankruptcies, 623.
Broadcasting Station, 297.
Building Values, 452.
Dwelling Construction Costs, 463.
Population, 847, 849.
Rainfall,. 18, 26.
Retail Prices, 648–654.
Shipping, 235, 238–240.
Sunshine, 22, 26.
Temperature, 20, 2
Trade of Port, 230–234.
Tramways, 254, 256–260.
Unemployment, 708.
Valuation of Land, 549.
Wind 23.
Weraroa Training-farm, 138.
Western Samoa. 2. 788–791.
Bibliography of, 869.
Naturalization, 843.
Population of, 790.
Radio-communications, 292.
Westminster, Statute of, 41.
Wethers, 357.
Whale-oil, 798.
World Production. 799.
Whales. 36, 396, 798.
Whaling, 36, 797–799.
International Statistics, 799.
Wheat. 345–349, 804.
Consumption of, 347.
Duty on, 218, 331, 645
Export of. 183, 195.
Fixed Price for, 645, 646.
Research Institute, 343. 347.
Whey Putter, 366.
White Island Sulphur, 407.
Whitebait, 396.
Whole Milk. Consumption of, 740, 741.
Wholesale Licenses, 773.
Wholesale Prices, 656–658, 661, 662.
Widows—
And Orphans, 77.
Pensions for, 509, 512–513.
Re-marriages of, 63.
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 759.
Wind, 16, 23.
Wine, Consumption of, 745.
Wine Licenses, 773.
Wine-makers' Licenses, 773.
Wire (Telegraph), Miles of, 290.
Wireless (see Radio).
Withdrawals from Savings-banks, 564, 565, 815.
Wives' Petitions in Divorce. 69.
Women—
Deaths of, in Childbirth. 88, 117.
Offences by, 156.
Suffrage for, 44.
Wage-rates of, 670.
Working-hours of, 673–675.
Wool, 359–362.
Export Price Index, 659, 660.
Exported, 179–199, 233, 360, 807.
Stocks of, 361.
Used at Local Mills, 360, 444.
Woollen-mills, 436. 444.
Woodpackers, Fixed Price for. 646.
Wool-scouring Works, 443.
Workers, Advances to, 507.
Workers' Compensation, 585, 696–698, 727.
Insurance, 585, 586.
Workers' Dwellings, 507, 508, 690.
Workers' Educational Association, 140.
Workers' Unions. 676, 701–704.
Workers' Weekly Railway Tickets, 250.
Working Conditions, Wages and, 680–689.
Working Railways Account, 246. 473.
Working-days lost through Industrial Disputes. 719–725.
Working-hours, 073–675.
Working-men's Clubs, 599.
World Comparisons (see Comparisons).
World's Cold-production, 405.
World's Population, 853.
World's Whale-catch, 799.
Wrecks, 242.

Y

Yaws in Samoa, 790.
Yields of Crops, 346–350, 804.

Z.

Zoology, 35–38.

Appendix B. Map of New Zealand, showing Physical Features, Towns, and Communications