THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1933.


Table of Contents

List of Tables

PREFACE.

In presenting the forty-first issue of the “New Zealand Official Year-Book” the necessity arises of remarking that, for the third successive year, the dictates of finance have required a substantial reduction in the size of the volume.

Curtailment of services has, in some few instances, rendered material no longer available, but the diminution is due in greater part to the continuance of the kindred processes of abridgement and excision. Despite care exercised in condensation, it is inevitable that the Year-Book has suffered some impairment. It may therefore be of service to refer to other annual publications of the Census and Statistics Office (vide opposite page 1) in the pages of which omissions from, or undue brevity of treatment in, the Year-Book may possibly be remedied.

Pressure upon remaining space has precluded the introduction of new features of sufficient importance to warrant specific mention, but various new addenda of a minor character will be found throughout the volume.

I desire to express cordial acknowledgment of the services rendered by other Departments. I also wish to record my grateful appreciation of the assistance given by my officers—in particular, Mr. D. J. Cruickshank, LL.B., Acting Chief Compiler, who has carried out the difficult and onerous work of editing and condensing the subject-matter.

J. W. Butcher, Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Office,

Wellington, New Zealand, 15th December, 1932.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS OFFICE.

Title.Latest No.Month of Issue.Price per Copy.Postage (extra).

* £1 1s. per annum (post free).

† No Census taken in 1931.

‡ Out of print.

   s.d.d.
New Zealand Official Year-Book1933Jan., 19337610
Annual Statistical Reports—
Population and Buildings1931-32Sept., 1932201
External Migration1931April, 1932201
Vital Statistics1931Aug., 1932508
Justice1931Oct., 1932262
Trade and Shipping (Part 1)1931June, 19322008
Trade and Shipping (Part II)1931Sept., 1932262
Agricultural and Pastoral Production1930-31Feb., 1932261
Factory Production1930-31April, 1932362
Insurance1930Mar., 1932201
Miscellaneous (Prices, Wages and Hours of Labour, Unemployment, Industrial Accidents, Banking, Building Societies, Bankruptcy, Incomes and Income-tax, Statistical Summary)1930April, 1932408
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand (published annually)1932Aug., 1932768
Monthly Abstract of Statistics....*261
Volumes of Census Results (published quinquennially)
Geographical Distribution1926May, 1927464
Dependencies1926Feb., 1927161
Ages1926Nov., 1928202
Conjugal Condition1926Feb., 1929262
Orphan Children and Dependent Children1926Mar., 1929202
Race Aliens1926Feb., 1929202
Native-born and Foreign-born1926May, 1929202
Religions Professions1926Nov., 1928202
Industrial and Occupational Distribution1926Mar., 1930303
Unemployment from Sickness and other Causes1926Sept., 1930202
Incomes1926May, 1930362
Families and Households1926April, 1931202
Dwellings1926Feb., 1931302
Maori and Half-caste Population1926Mar., 1929303
Public Libraries and Places of Worship1926Mar., 1927161
Poultry1926Mar., 1927161
General Report1926April, 1931503

Note.—This list is subject to revision from time to time. Publications are obtainable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

Chapter 1. THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1933
SECTION I.—DESCRIPTIVE

NEW ZEALAND.—AREA, LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES.

THE Dominion of New Zealand consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. These may be classified as follows:—

(a) Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general practical purposes:—

 Square Miles.
North Island and adjacent islets44,281
South Island and adjacent islets58,092
Stewart Island and adjacent islets670
Chatham Islands372
Total103,415

In all further references in this volume, unless the context indicates the contrary, Chatham Islands and Stewart Island are classed with the South Island.

(b) Outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847:—

Three Kings Islands.Antipodes Islands.
Auckland Islands.Bounty Islands.
Campbell Island.Snares Islands.

(c) Islands (total area, 293 square miles) annexed to New Zealand:—

Kermadec Islands.Manihiki Island.
Cook Islands.Rakahanga Island.
Niue (or Savage) Island.Pukapuka (or Danger) Island.
Palmerston Island.Nassau Island.
Penrhyn (or Tongareva) Island.Suwarrow Island.

The total area of the above is 104,015 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue the aggregate area appears as 66,390,262 acres -i.e., 103,735 square miles. This covers not only the Dominion proper, but also the outlying islands and the Kermadecs.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30' S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the-west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then Colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Group of islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned in the following schedule, were included as from the 11th June, 1901:—

A line commencing at a point at the intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and proceeding due north to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; and thence due east to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich.

By mandate of the League of Nations the New Zealand Government also now administers the former German possession of Western Samoa; and, jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, holds the League's mandate over the Island of Nauru.

By Imperial Orders in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, and named the Ross Dependency. The Governor - General of New Zealand is Governor of the Ross Dependency, and is vested with the administration of the dependency.

By Imperial Orders in Council of the 4th November, 1925, the Union or Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofu, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and power in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of the 8th March, 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

MOUNTAINS.

The mountainous character of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Other dormant volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, both of which have, in recent years, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island contains much more mountainous country than is to be found in the North. Along almost its entire length runs the mighty chain known as the Southern Alps, rising to its culmination in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.). No fewer than seventeen peaks of the Southern Alps attain a height of over 10,000 ft. Owing to the snow -line being low in New Zealand, many large and beautiful glaciers exist. The Tasman Glacier (Southern Alps), which has a total length of over eighteen miles and an average width of one mile and a quarter, is the largest. On the west coast the terminal faces of the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers are but a few hundred feet above sea -level.

The following list has been compiled from various sources, and does not purport, to be free of omissions, nor is exactitude claimed in respect of the elevations shown, many of which are known to be only approximate.

Mountain or Peak.Height (feet).
North Island
Ruapehu9,175
Egmont8,260
Ngauruhoe7,515
Kaikoura Ranges— 
Tapuaenuku9,405
Alarm9,400
Southern Alps—
Cook12,349
Tasman11,475
Silberhorn10,757
Lendenfeldt10,450
David's Dome10,443
Malte Brun10,421
Torres10,376
Teichelmann10,370
Sefton10,354
Haast10,294
Elie de Beaumont10,200
Douglas Peak10,107
La Perouse10,101
Haidinger10,059
De la Beche10,058
The Minarets10,058
Aspiring9,975
Hamilton9,915
Glacier Peak9,865
Aiguilles Rouges9,731
Nazomi9,716
Darwin9,715
Chudleigh9,686
Annan9,667
Lowe9,653
Haeckel9,649
Le Receveur9,562
Goldsmith9,532
Big Mac9,511
Conway Peak9,510
Bristol Top9,508
Walter9,507
Grey9,490
Green9,307
Hutton9,297
D'Archiac9,279
Bell9,276
Hochstetter Dome9,258
Earnslaw9,250
Nathan9,200
Barnicoat9,183
Sibbald9,181
Arrowsmith9,171
Spencer9,167
The Footstool9,073
Rudolf9,039
The Dwarf9,025
Darran Range —
Tutoko9,691
Madeline9,042

The 1931 issue of the Year-Book contained a list, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude. In this issue, the list of South Island mountains is restricted to a minimum of 9,000 ft. altitude.

MINERAL WATERS AND SPAS.

The hot springs of the North Island form one of the most, remarkable features of New Zealand. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some three hundred miles; but the principal seat of hydrothermal action appears to he in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-cast from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces at Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood was deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints—are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognized by the Government, and it is dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

There are also several small hot springs in the South Island, the best known being those at Hanmer.

The following article on the mineral waters and spas of New Zealand is by the Government Balneologist, Dr. J. D. C. Duncan, M.B., Ch.B. (Edin.), Member of the International Society of Medical Hydrology, Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society: —

INTRODUCTORY.

It has been acknowledged by the leading hydrologists in Europe that New Zealand possesses the most valuable mineral waters in existence. Not only are these mineral waters interesting from a tourist's point of view, but they are, because of their medicinal value, of great therapeutic importance, and, as a Dominion asset, worthy of the deepest scientific consideration.

From the spectacular aspect only a brief mention need be made in this article, as a full description of springs, geysers, and mud-pools has been given in Dr. Herbert's book,“The Hot Springs of New Zealand"—a book that presents a comprehensive and vivid picture of the main manifestations of thermal activity in New Zealand.

Dealing with the medical-scientific aspect of the mineral waters, the space of this article will permit only the shortest account of the treatments; and, as the Rotorua Spa is of premier importance, the article will be confined almost entirely to its operations.

Since and as the result of experience gained during the war, the subject of hydrotherapy has been recreated on modern scientific lines, and the actions of thermal mineral waters have been investigated, both chemically and physiologically, in determining their therapeutic value in the treatment of disease.

TREATMENT ESTABLISHMENTS.

The principal treatment establishments are the Main Bathhouse and the Ward Baths.

In the Main Bathhouse are a series of private bathrooms, slipper and step-down, each with its dressing-room attached, and a couch for packing purposes. The baths are arranged for either “Priest” or “Rachel” waters, with undercurrent douches and showers. There are, also, deep “Priest” pools at suitable temperatures for the treatment of chronic cases.

Off the main hall are treatment-rooms where massage and every variety of physiotherapeutic treatment can be given, and, in either wing of the building, a complete establishment for Aix-Vichy douche massage.

The Ward Bathhouse is a handsome new block of buildings which has replaced the old Pavilion Bathhouse. This building, divided into convenient sections for service and control, consists of a large main hall, swimming-pools, hot “Rachel”pools, “Old Priest,” and “Radium” baths and a block of private “Rachel” baths.

At the back of these buildings is an attractive sunken courtyard, with fountain and formal garden, surrounded on three sides by verandas, and on the fourth by an open pergola facing the lake. In this courtyard garden patients and visitors can bask in the sunshine, protected from prevailing winds.

The swimming-pools, open to the air, are spacious baths lined with white tiles and having douches, showers, and convenient dressing-cubicles. These provide recreational facilities for patients and visitors.

The “Radium” and “Priest” baths, built on the pumice bed of the soil, contain some of the most important therapeutic waters in existence, and are invaluable in the treatment of heart conditions and cases of nervous debility. In connection with these baths are comfortable rest-rooms and convenient massage establishments.

The private baths are of the porcelain, slipper variety, and step-down tiled baths—the latter designed for helpless or crippled patients.

The New Blue bath for mixed bathing is now in the course of construction. This bathhouse will consist of two pools—the larger one, 100 ft. by 40 ft., which will provide facilities for championship sports; the smaller one, 70ft. by 36 ft., of suitable and safe depth for children—will, when completed, he one of the first swimming-baths in the Southern Hemisphere. There will, in addition, be a hand-some rest-room and restaurant, and it is anticipated that this establishment will become the social rendezvous of visitors to Rotorua.

MINERAL WATERS.

The mineral waters which have been harnessed for therapeutic use at the Rotorua Spa are of two main varieties—viz. the “Rachel,” which is an alkaline, sulphuretted water, emollient to the skin, and sedative in reaction; and the “Priest,”or free-acid water, which, due to the presence of free sulphuric acid, is mainly stimulating and tonic in reaction. There is, in addition to the foregoing, a valuable silicious mud similar to that found in Pistany, in Czecho-Slovakia, which, in its own sphere in hydrotherapy, exerts its influence as a curative agent.

However, it is in the “Priest” waters that one finds one's most valuable ally in the treatment of arthritis, fibrositis (the so-called rheumatic affections), and cases of nervous debility. The “Rachel” and mud baths are used mostly in those cases of fibrositis where the condition requires a softening effect; and in the types where pain is a manifest symptom these baths are invaluable as soothing and sedative agents.

REACTIONS IN THE BATH.

In these natural acid—baths the reactions are mainly stimulating, with increased hyperæmia in the parts submerged, and marked lessening of pain and swelling in the affected joints and tissues. Those waters containing free carbonic-acid gas are used for the cases of fibrositis in which the circulation requires the stimulating action of gaseous baths.

The “New Priest” waters, containing approximately 16.80 grains per gallon of free sulphuric acid, are utilized in the form of open pools, deep step-down baths, and slipper baths. They are prescribed at a suitable temperature for the individual case.

The “Old Priest” waters, containing a much lower degree of free acid (3.77 grains to the gallon), and of varying temperatures (from 84° F. to 102° F.), are used for treatment at their source. The waters, percolating through their pumice-bed, are confined in pools, and contain free carbonic-acid gas bubbling through the water.

The very strong “Postmaster” waters are also confined within pools on the natural pumice-bed, and, by a primitive arrangement of wooden sluice-valves, are maintained at three ranges of temperature—viz., 104°, 106°, and 108° F. They contain 22.29 grains of free sulphuric acid to the gallon, and are strongly counter irritant in their reactions.

INDICATIONS AND TECHNIQUE.

In such a brief account as this one can only deal in generalizations, and the forms of treatment mentioned must necessarily be subject to wide variations. In any form of hydro-therapeutic treatment the regime must be adapted to the individual manifestations of the disease, and no routine rules or regulations can be laid down in spa operations.

The “New Priest” waters are, for the most part, prescribed for patients suffering from subacute or chronic fibrositis, subacute or chronic gout, and the various forms of arthritis. Except in cases of marked debility, those patients are given graduated baths, at temperatures ranging from 102° to 104° F., from ten to fifteen minutes daily. Most of the baths are fitted with a subaqueous douche having a pressure of 25 lb. to the square inch, which is directed under water on the affected tissues. The bath is usually followed by a light or hot pack, according to the needs of the case.

The sub thermal “Old Priest” waters (temperature 84° F.), containing a high degree of free carbonic. -acid gas, are particularly valuable in the treatment of functional nervous disease, and the methods of administration are similar to those obtaining at Nauheim. The reactions are markedly stimulating through the sympathetic nervous system, and bring about, by reflex action, a tonic effect on the heart.

The “Postmaster” baths are used in the treatment of the more chronic forms of fibrositis, arthritis deformans, and gout, requiring a more or less heroic type of procedure. They are usually prescribed in combination—i.e., a certain time in each pool, commencing with the lowest temperature. The hyperæmic reaction is most marked, and in many of the cases where pain is a predominant symptom there is a temporary paralysis of the surface nerves, as well as a strong reflex excitation of the heart. For this reason these baths are not given to patients suffering from cardiac weakness.

The mud baths being highly impregnated with silica, which has a bland, sedative effect on the tissues, are particularly indicated in cases of acute or subacute neuritis, gout, and certain skin conditions. The action of those baths is to induce an active hyperemia in the patient with an actual absorption of free sulphur, which is present in considerable quantity. Also the radio-activity of this medium (0-185 per c.c.) is possibly an active factor in the therapeutic action of these baths. In some of the cases undergoing mud-bath treatment the effect has been almost miraculous—instant relief from pain: reduction of swelling caused by inflammatory exudates—and such patients have been able to discard crutches or other adventitious aids and to walk with more or less normal comfort.

Perhaps, of more recent date, the most efficacious effects of mud treatments have been manifested in cases of skin conditions—notably psoriasis: cases which have resisted all forms of drug treatment have cleared up in an almost magical manner: and so frequently have such cures been effected that one believes that the silicious mud of Rotorua has some markedly specific action as a therapeutic agent.

The treatment of gout depends entirely on the individual manifestations. In certain subacute and chronic typos fairly high temperatures (104° to 106° F., with hot packs) of “Priest” water are employed, in order to hasten the absorption of exudates and the elimination of uric acid. In cases of acute gout more sedative measures are pursued, such as“Rachel” baths at neutral temperatures, local mud packs, and rest. As soon as the conditions permit, these patients are changed over to acid water baths. Cases of chronic gout exhibiting metabolic stagnation sometimes receive considerable benefit from the counter-irritant effects of the strongly acid “Postmaster” waters.

ACCESSORY TREATMENTS.

Separate establishments, containing the most modern apparatus of sprays, douches, hot steam, &c., are available for wet massage and treatments of the Aix-Vichy type.

The massage-rooms are fitted with the latest installations of electrical equipment—Bristowe tables, diathermy, high frequency, Bergonie chair, X-ray, Schnée baths, Greville hot air, and other apparatus for carrying out the most up-to-date methods of electrical-therapeutic treatments.

The baths are administered by a trained staff of attendants, and the massage, electrical-therapy, and douches carried out by a qualified staff of operators.

In every respect the hydrotherapy treatments aim at a restoration of function, and the measures employed are, for the most part, re-educative.

SANATORIUM.

In connection with the Rotorua Spa is a sanatorium of seventy beds, where patients whose finances are restricted can receive treatment at an exceedingly moderate cost. The institution consists of cubicles and open wards. Thermal baths and massage-rooms in the building provide for the more helpless typo of invalid.

STATISTICS.

From sixty thousand to eighty thousand baths are given annually, and about thirty thousand special treatments-massage, electrical therapy, &., are administered each year at the Rotorua Spa.

The usual course of treatment, lasts from four to six weeks, and the high percentage of cures and improvements testifies to the value of the thermal, mineral waters and the hydro-therapeutic treatments obtaining in this Dominion.

RIVERS.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand by Professor R. Speight, M.Sc., F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum.

Space in this issue is, however, available only for a list of the more important rivers, with their approximate lengths, the latter being supplied by the Department of Lands and Survey. Figures in parentheses indicate the approximate discharge, in cubic feet, per minute.

NORTH ISLAND.

Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—Miles.
Piako60
Waihou (or Thames)90
Rangitaiki95
Whakatane60
Waiapu55
Waipaoa50
Wairoa50
Mohaka80
Ngaururoro85
Tukituki65
Flowing into Cook Strait—
Ruamahanga70
Hutt35
Otaki30
Manawatu (over 600,000)100
Rangitikei115
Turakina65
Wangaehu85
Wanganui (over 500,000)140
Waitotara50
Patea65
Flowing into the Tasman Sea— 
Waitara65
Mokau75
Waikato (over 800,000)220
Wairoa (over 250,000)95
Hokianga40

SOUTH ISLAND.

Flowing into Cook Strait—Miles.
Aorere45
Takaka45
Motueka75
Wai-iti30
Pelorus40
Wairau105
Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean— 
Clarence125
Conway30
Waiau110
Hurunui90
Waipara40
Ashley55
Waimakariri (low water 80,000 normal flood 500,000)93
Selwyn55
Rakaia95
Ashburton67
Rangitata75
Opihi50
Pareora35
Waihao45
Waitaki135
Kakanui40
Shag45
Taieri125
Clutha (over 2,000,000)210
Mataura120
Oreti105
Aparima65
Waiau115
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
Cleddau and Arthur20
Hollyford50
Cascade40
Arawata45
Haast60
Karangarua30
Cook25
Waiho20
Wataroa35
Wanganui35
Waitaha25
Hokitika40
Arahura35
Taramakau45
Grey75
Buller (nearly 1,000,000)105
Mokihinui30
Karamea45
Heaphy25

LAKES

An article on the lakes of New Zealand, also by Professor R. Speight, will be found in the 1932 Year-Book. The more important lakes are indicated below.

Lake.Length, in MilesGreatest Breadth, in MilesArea, in Square MilesDrainage Area, in Square MilesApproximate Volume of Discharge, In Cubic Feet per SecondHeight above Sea-level, in Feet.Greatest Depth, In Feet.
North Island
Taupo25172381,2505,0001,211534
Rotorua7 ½63215842091584
Rotoiti10 3/42 ¼1426500913230
Tarawera6 ½6 ½1575..1,032285
Waikaremoana126 ¼211287722,015846
Wairarapa104271,250....64
South Island.
Rotoiti522 3/486..1,997228
Rotoroa72 1/28146..1,470..
Brunner5416145..280357
Kanieri51 ¾811..422646
Coleridge1131870..1,007680
Tekapo124325805,0002,323620
Pukaki105315156,0001,588..
Ohau103234245,0001,720..
Hawea205485185,7001,062..
Wanaka30475960..922..
Wakatipu5231121,16213,0001,0161,242
Te Anau3361321,32012,660094906
Manapouri12656410..5961,458
Monowai1211251700600..
Hauroko203251951,800Oil..
Poteriteri1721716296....
Waihola4 ½1 1/83 1/32,200..(Tidal)52
Ellesmerel610107 ½745..(Tidal)45

GEOLOGY.

The following article on the geology of New Zealand was prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.N.Z. Inst., Director of the Geological Survey:—

INTRODUCTION.

New Zealand is a small country, but its geological history is as complex and as ancient as that of a continent. Land, though from age to age it varied greatly in area, outline, and elevation, must have persisted in the New Zealand area from the oldest Palaeozoic or earlier. Long periods during which gentle regional oscillations and warpings, aided by the slow-acting forces of denudation, brought about gradual changes were interrupted by great revolutions, when earth-stresses ridged the crust into mountains and quickly altered the whole configuration of the land and sea-floor. For New Zealand the important geological periods are those that followed the two latest mountain-building movements—the Kaikoura deformation of late Tertiary time, and the Hokonui deformation of the early Cretaceous. The deposits laid down in the intervening period of relative crustal stability cover a large proportion of the land, and contain all the coal and most of the limestone of the Dominion. The soils on which grow the forests, pastures, and crops are of post-Tertiary age, and the great bulk of the gold has been won from deposits formed during the same period.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE STRATIGRAPHY.

The oldest known fossiliferous rocks in New Zealand are the Ordovician slates and greywackes of west Nelson and south-west Otago. Lower unfossiliferous beds of the same great system extend southward from the northern area and outcrop in the Westport, Reefton, Greymouth, Ross, and Okarito districts. Above the fossil-bearing beds, but probably still of Ordovician age, are the black phyllites, quartzites, and marbles which outcrop continuously from Takaka to Mount Owen, and are again exposed in the upper basins of the Matakitaki, Maruia, and Grey Rivers. The similar rocks of western Otago probably also belong to this group. The complex of gneisses and schists of the same region, intruded by acid and basic plutonics, and usually considered of Archæan age, resembles the part of the Ordovician strata of western Nelson that has been similarly invaded and metamorphosed and may well be of early Palaeozoic age. Different authorities assign the mica, chlorite, and quartz schists of Central Otago to ages that range from the Archæan to the Triassic. They are certainly Palaeozoic or older, since they grade upward into greywackes that, at Clinton, contain Permian fossils.

Silurian rocks are certainly known only in the Baton and Wangapeka districts, and Devonian rocks at Wangapeka and Reefton. These beds, fossils from which have lately been examined in England, cover only small areas. But the old Geological Survey mapped wide tracts of country in Nelson and Otago, covered with beds of the Te Anau Series, as Devonian, and the correlation may well be correct, though the rocks are entirely unfossiliferous.

The Maitai Series, that forms the ranges on the south-east side of the Nelson lowlands, are probably of Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous age. Their position in the time scale and their correlation with rocks in other parts of New Zealand have provoked much discussion. Permian strata, as already stated, occur in Otago, where the area they cover may be considerable.

Richly fossiliferous late Triassic rocks are known in the Kawhia-Mokau district, near the City of Nelson, and at several localities in Canterbury and Otago. Except in Nelson and Canterbury, strata that contain fossils referable to several stages of the Jurassic succeed without observed unconformity. The broad belt of greywacke and argillite that forms the mountains of Canterbury and Marlborough, and continues a narrower belt through Wellington to northern Hawke's Bay, is usually referred to the Trias-Jura. Similar rocks outcrop in the centre of the North Island and at many points in North Auckland. There are Upper Triassic molluscs in those beds at several localities, and the vertebra of a saurian with Triassic rather than Permian affinities was found near Wellington. Lithologically the greywackes and argillites of this vast series differ somewhat from the rocks of similar type belonging to the Jurassic and Maitai series; they are therefore thought to be of older Triassic age, but may well range into the Permian. The schists occurring with them in the Kaimanawa, Kaikoura, Moorhouse, and Kirkliston Ranges are probably older.

The thick conglomerates conformably overlying the younger Jurassic shales of the Port Waikato, Kawhia, and Coromandel regions belong to either the youngest Jurassic or the oldest Cretaceous. Strata of early and middle Cretaceous age occur east of the main axis of New Zealand at several points from Marlborough to East Cape. Late Cretaceous beds are much more widely distributed, being known in North Auckland and in many localities along the eastern side of both Islands. They contain thick layers of black shale that give many indications of oil, which, however, has not yet been found in commercial amount. The oldest known workable coal-seams in New Zealand, those at Broken River, Malvern Hills, Shag Point, and Kaitangata, and perhaps some near Greymouth, are in young Cretaceous beds.

Tertiary rocks form the greater part of the North Island and are widely distributed in the South. As a whole they are weaker and more readily weathered than the older strata, and hence have given rise to less rugged country, now mostly-cleared and grassed and forming productive pastoral land.

Eocene rocks are present in North Auckland, and probably also in the Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, and east Wellington districts. In the South Island they occur on the West Coast and in Canterbury and Otago, in which regions they contain valuable coal-seams worked at Westport, Reefton, Greymouth, Mount Somers, and Milton. Of the same age are the auriferous “cements” of the Tuapeka district that greatly enriched the gravels of the neighbouring streams and are themselves worked for gold.

In Oligocene time the maximum subsidence during the Tertiary occurred, and but little of the New Zealand area remained above sea-level at its close. The thick limestones of the Oamaru district and the contemporaneous limestone prominent in many parts of New Zealand are the younger deposits of this age. The older beds contain the extensive coal-measures of the North Auckland, Waikato, Charleston, and other coalfields.

Miocene strata cover large areas in both islands, and also outcrop in the Wanganui, Gisborne, and Hawke's Bay regions, where Oligocene beds are altogether absent. In North Taranaki, the Murchison basin, and parts of the West Coast, thick coal-measures of this age contain workable seams of brown coal.

During the Pliocene the New Zealand area, which had been intermittently rising since the close of the Oligocene, was greatly elevated and deformed. The earth-blocks from which the present mountains have been carved wore uplifted from, or from near, sea-level, and New Zealand as it now is was roughly shaped out. In the South Island the deposits of this period are chiefly gravels deposited in structural depressions; but in the North, and especially in its southern half, there are thick and extensive shoal-water marine sediments. These, and the underlying Miocene strata, are the source of the petroleum found at New Plymouth.

The Pleistocene was a period of regional oscillation. While the land was high the mountains of the South Island were intensely glaciated, and great ice-streams, carrying vast bodies of debris, descended into the low country; after the highlands had been reduced in height through both denudation and decided subsidence the glaciers rapidly retreated, and are to-day represented by comparatively small remnants far in the mountains. While the ice was melting, the rivers of the South Island were unusually active in transporting waste to the lowlands and the sea. At this time, too, as well as somewhat earlier, the volcanoes of the North Island ejected an abundant supply of fragmentary material, much of which was borne away by the streams and used in building plains.

The deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age are in New Zealand of greater economic importance than those of all other ages. The plains, river-flats, and lowlands generally were formed or profoundly modified during this period, and the soils that cover them produced. During the same time practically all the gold won from the gravels of the South Island was liberated from a hard matrix and concentrated into workable deposits, and the rich bonanzas of the lodes of Hauraki were formed by secondary enrichment. The land-oscillations of the period are also of economic importance, for New Zealand's abundant water-power is derived from streams that have not yet, owing to the recency of land-uplift, cut their valleys to grade. On the other hand, land-depression has provided harbours and valuable artesian basins in many parts of the Dominion.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.

Plutonic rocks intrude many of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata, and some of the formations show evidence of contemporaneous volcanic action. Of the plutonic rocks granite is much the most prominent, and it outcrops at many points in West Nelson, Westland, Otago, and Stewart Island. In Nelson there were at least two periods of intrusion, no doubt corresponding with the great mountain-folding movements of the late Palæozoic and early Cretaceous times. The auriferous lodes of Reefton and other localities on the West Coast probably originated from the cooling magmas that formed the younger granites. Basic and ultra-basic rocks, the latter now largely altered to serpentine, occur in Nelson, Westland, Otago, and, to a less extent, in North Auckland.

Though volcanoes are known to have existed in Mesozoic and Palaeozoic times, they seem to have been more active during the Tertiary than in any earlier age. The vast pile of flow and fragmental rocks that form the Hauraki Peninsula and the range that continues it southward to Tauranga belong to this period. The gold -silver veins extensively worked at Coromandel, Thames, and Waihi are in these rocks, which southward are smothered by the rhyolitic pumice that vents in the Taupo-Rotorua zone ejected during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Thick showers of pumice from this region cover a large part of the centre of the North Island and streams have carried the liner material to practically all the low-lying parts of the island. The volcanoes are still alive, as is evidenced by the steam-vents, hot springs, and geysers found in the depressed zone extending from Ruapehu to White Island. The volcanic rocks of Taranaki probably range from the Miocene to the Pleistocene in age. The basalts and scoria cones that occur so abundantly between Kawhia and the Bay of Islands belong for the most part to the late Pliocene and Pleistocene, though cones at Auckland City are probably Recent.

In the South Island the volcanoes appear to be quite dead, for the hot springs at Hanmer and near the alpine chain are due to other causes. In the middle Tertiary, however, there were outbursts at many points, the chief eruptions being at Banks Peninsula and about Dunedin.

CONCLUSION.

In a short article it is impossible to give an adequate idea of what geological workers have accomplished in New Zealand, or of what they have yet to do in order that the wisest use may be made of the country's mineral and agricultural resources. For good general accounts the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall should be consulted, and for more detailed information the bulletins of the Geological Survey and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions of the New-Zealand Institute.”

SEISMOLOGY.

The following article dealing with earthquakes in New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. C. E. Adams, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer and Seismologist, with the assistance of Dr. J. Henderson, Director of the Geological Survey.

Earthquake and volcanic activity are manifestations of the adjustments constantly occurring in the earth's crust. In the not far distant past, geologically speaking, a more or less continuous belt of mountains was raised up round the border of the great sunken area of the Pacific, and this belt as a whole is characterized by “chronic and acute seismicity.” At times the earthquakes occur within the belt itself, though a large proportion have their epicentres on its submerged frontal slope.

The South Island of New Zealand and the eastern part of the North are on the crest of the great mountain ridge or crustal fold which forms a portion of the real border of the Pacific. This ridge maintains a relatively straight course north-north-east for 1,600 miles, nearly to Samoa. The Auckland Peninsula, part of a decidedly weaker fold, meets the main fold nearly at right angles in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic region. The earthquakes of this seismically sensitive district, though they may be locally severe, are not usually felt far from their points of origin. On the other hand, the tectonic earthquakes that occur along the main earth-fold shake large areas, some of them being recorded on instruments through out the world. These are caused by the slipping of earth-blocks against their neighbours along fractures, and, fortunately for New Zealand, the most severe earthquakes have their origin along the great shears that probably cut the submerged flank of the main fold about 200 miles east of the North Island. The crest in New Zealand is not straight or simply curved and the elevation is not constant; elongated uplifted areas, most of them in linear series though some overlap, form a continuous ridge.

Many great faults and fault-zones have been traced for long distances, but a few only have been active since European occupation. Movement along a north-trending fault seven miles west of Murchison raised the ground east of the fault about 15 ft., and caused it to shift north-west about 9 ft. The uplift gradually decreases eastward, and dies out sixteen miles from the fault, facts indicating a slight tilt of the earth-block toward the east. Recent levellings show that the block is sinking somewhat irregularly, a movement, no doubt, causing some of the innumerable local after-shocks still being felt in the area. Other sensible earth-movement occurred in connection with the Taupo earthquake series of 1922,*the Amuri earthquake of 1888, the Wellington earthquake of 1855, and probably the Awatere earthquake of 1848. There is also definite evidence of geologically recent differential movement of earth-blocks at several widely separated points in both Islands.

The origin of the New Zealand seismic region will be seen to arrange themselves in groups as follows:—

Group I.—Earthquakes felt most strongly on south-east coast of North Island; the origins form a strip 180 miles from the coast, parallel to the axis of New Zealand, and to axis of folding of older rocks in Hawke's Bay. Chief shocks: 17th August, 1868; 7th March, 1890; 23rd and 29th July, 1904; 9th August, 1904 (intensity IX on R.-F. scale); 8th September, 1904; prob. 23rd February, 1863 (IX, R.-F.); &c.

According to the late Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., the geological evidence shows that New Zealand rose considerably in the older Pliocene period, and was then probably joined to the Chatham Islands. At a later period subsidence occurred, followed again by elevation in the Pleistocene period, with oscillations of level since. The seismic origins of this group are at the foot of a sloping submarine plateau, about two hundred miles wide, which culminates to the east-south-east in the Chatham Islands. This elevation is separated from the New Zealand coast by a trough from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms in depth, which is widest and deepest between these origins and the mainland.

Group II.

  1. South-east of Otago Peninsula. Shocks: 20th November, 1872, &c.

  2. A strip south-east of Oamaru. Shocks: February, 1870; April, 1876; &c.

  3. Many short and jerky, but generally harmless, quakes felt in Christchurch.

Banks Peninsula, and mid-Canterbury. Chief shocks: 31st August, 1870; 27th December, 1888 (VII, R.-F.); &c. Focus of 1888 shock, sixteen miles long, from west-south-west to cast-north-east, twenty-four to twenty-live miles below surface, being the deepest ascertained origin in the New Zealand region.

These origins form a line parallel to the general axis of the land. It is possible that the loading of the sea-Floor by the detritus brought clown by the rivers of Canterbury and Otago is a contributing cause of the earthquakes of this group.

Group III.—Wellington earthquakes of January, 1855, and Cheviot earthquakes of 16th November, 1901, and of 25th December, 1922 (VIII, R.-F.).

The origin of the earthquake of 1855 was probably the fault that forms the eastern boundary of the Rimutaka Range and the western boundary of the Wairarapa Valley.

The origin of the Cheviot earthquake of 1901 was probably in or near the southern continuation of this fault.

The great earthquakes of October, 1848, probably came from the same region as those of January, 1855. The chief shocks of both series did extensive damage to property, and caused the formation of large rifts in the earth's surface. The Wairau Earthquake on 25th July, 1931 (VII R.-F.), probably belongs to this group.

Group IV.

  1. Region about twenty-Five to thirty miles in length, and ten miles or less in width, running nearly north-north-cast from middle of Lake Sumner, about twenty miles below the surface, whence proceed most of the severer shocks felt from Christchurch to the Amuri, and a large number of minor shocks. Chief earthquakes: 1st February, 1868; 27th August to 1st September, 1871; 14th September and 21st October, 1878; 11th April, 1884; 5th December, 1881 (VIII, R.-F.), when Christchurch Cathedral spire was slightly injured; 1st September, 1888 (IX, R.-F.), when upper part of same spire fell, and still more severe damage was done in the Amuri district; 9th March, 1929 (IX, R.-F.).

  2. A small shallow origin not more than five to ten miles below the surface, a few miles south of Nelson. Earthquake: 12th February, 1893 (VIII to IX, R-F.); chimneys thrown down and buildings injured.

  3. Origin in Cook Strait, north-north-east of Stephen Island, about ten miles wide, and apparently traceable with few interruptions nearly to mouth of Wanganui River; depth, fifteen miles or more. More than half the earthquakes recorded in New Zealand belong to this region; earthquake of 8th December, 1897 (VIII to IX, R.-F.), and other severer ones came from south-south-west end. Probably the first recorded New Zealand earthquake, felt by Captain Furneaux on the 11th May, 1773, belonged to this region. Also 8th May, 1929 (VIII, R.-F.), and 29th May, 1929 (VII, R.-F.).

  4. Taupo Earthquakes.—During June and July, 1922, earthquakes were almost continuous in the Taupo district. The shocks reached intensity VIII on the Rossi-Forel scale, and then gradually subsided. Conditions were practically normal by the end of the year. The shocks were restricted to a small area of country, and were felt most strongly at Taupo, Wairakei, and Oruanui. The disturbances were accompanied by loud rumblings. No effect appears to have been produced on the thermal activities of the region. Considerable subsidence was reported along the north side of Lake Taupo in a general north-easterly direction.

    Former smart shocks in this region were reported in September-October, 1897.

  5. Morrinsville Earthquakes.—During November and December, 1926, earthquakes similar to the Taupo ones of 1922 were felt in and around Morrinsville. The earthquakes were apparently of shallow origin, and were probably caused by a movement along a fault trending west-north-west on the eastern side of the Pakaroa Range. The average intensity of the shocks was about IV, although one shock reached VIII on the Rossi-Forel scale. As in the case of the Taupo earthquakes, there was no evidence of any variation in the thermal activities of the district.

  6. An origin near Mount Tarawera, with a large number of moderate or slight shocks, most, but not all, volcanic and local in character—e.g., those of September, 1866, and those of June, 1886, which accompanied and followed the well-known eruption of Mount Tarawera.

These origins of Group IV are nearly in a straight line on the map; on or near the same line are the origins of earthquakes felt in the Southern Lakes District (15th December, 1883, etc.), the volcanoes Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, Tongariro. Tarawera, and White Island. It is evident that this line, which, like the rest, is parallel or nearly so to the general axis, is a line of weakness or of unstable equilibrium. Hence the adjusting movements that have caused earthquakes may have from time to time relieved the pressure of the rocks that restrained overheated steam and other volcanic agents from bursting out, and so may have led to volcanic eruptions; just as the series of earthquakes in Guatemala and in the Caribbean Sea in April and May, 1902, were the signs of movements in the great folds of that part of the earth's crust, in the course of which, the pressure in the Antillean Ridge being relieved, the volcanic forces below Mount Pelée in Martinique, and Mount Souffriére in St. Vincent, caused the disastrous eruptions of that year.

Group V.—Off the west coast of the North Island near Raglan and Kawhia. Chief shock: 24th June, 1891 (VII to VIII, R.-F.). The line joining this origin to that of the earthquake of 1st February, 1882, is parallel to the other lines of origin (Groups I to IV); but we have no data to establish any connection between them.

* P.G. Morgan: N.Z. Geological Survey; Annual Report for the year 1923, p. 10.

† Alexander McKay: Reports of Geological Explorations during 1888–89. Wellington, 1890.

‡ New Zealand Government Gazette, Wellington, vol. 2, No. 14, 17th October, 1885, p. 116. Sir Charles Lyell, “The Principles of Geology,” tenth edition, 1868, vol. 2, p. 82. London: John Murray.

§ New Zealand Government Gazette, Auckland, vol. 1, No. 27, 13th November, 1848, and vol. 1, No. 29, 20th November, 1848. H. S. Chapman in Westminster Review, vol. 51, 1849.

EARTHQUAKES IN 1931.

The outstanding seismic feature of the year 1931 was the disastrous earthquake which visited Hawke's Bay on the 3rd February. The epicentre of this earthquake was on the coast-line of Hawke's Bay at a distance of from five to fifteen miles north of Napier; whilst a detailed study of the seismograph records indicated that the centre of disturbance was from ten to fifteen miles below the earth's surface.

This shock was felt over practically the whole of New Zealand as a swaying motion. It reached intensity 10 on the Rossi-Forel scale in the Napier-Hastings region, and exceeded intensity 8 at many places in the Gisborne and Hawke's Bay districts. The following is a list of the places, arranged in order of latitude, where the shock reached or exceeded R.-F. 8:—

Station.Intensity (R.-F. Scale).
Opotiki7-8
Gisborne8
Wairakei7-8
Wairoa8
Mohaka10
Ohakune7-8
Patoka8-9
Napier10
Hastings10
Te Aute9
Taihape7-8
Hunterville8-9
Waipawa9
Waipukurau9
Dannevirke7-8
Porangahau8
Woodville8

Aftershocks were frequent immediately following the main earthquake, but, fortunately, the activity subsided fairly rapidly. During the remaining days of February 595 aftershocks were recorded: but in March the number fell to seventy-nine. Immediately after the big earthquake a Milne-Jaggar shock-recorder was installed at Hastings. This recorder has been in continuous operation, and has produced an accurate record of earthquakes in the Hawke's Bay region. The number of shocks recorded at Hastings for each month of 1931 has shown a gradual decline, only twelve being recorded in December.

Epicentres were determined for forty of the principal aftershocks in 1931, the majority of which occurred in February. The positions of the epicentres for 1931 are shown on the accompanying map.

A second severe shock took place on the 13th February, reaching R.-F. 8 at a number of places in Hawke's Bay. The epicentre of this shock was located about thirty miles east of Napier (see map).

A number of other notable earthquakes occurred during 1931; they are included in the following summary:—

SUMMARY OF MOST NOTABLE EARTHQUAKES FELT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1931.

New Zealand Mean TimePosition of Epicentre.Maximum R-F. Intensity as feltStation reporting Maximum Intensity.
South Lat.East Long.
1931.d.h.m.°'°'  
Feb.310163920177..10Hawke's Bay.
1391045..169..4Queenstown.
1312583950177508Hawke's Bay.
16231841..172306Farewell Spit.
2761841..172..6Farewell Spit, Murchison.
Mar.8232039..178..7Hawke's Bay.
13211241..172..6Kahurangi Point.
220540..175..5Wanganui.
26221840..175306Palmerston North.
April495140..174..5West Coast, North Island.
22111039..178..7Hawke's Bay.
2520642..172306Takaka, Murchison
May72263830178309Tiniroto.
752240..175306Waipawa.
7162638..178..6Gisborne.
June223373730179..6Gisborne, Hawke's Bay.
July251454130173407Farewell Spit.
2911434030177..7Porangahau.
Sept.1295340..177..7Porangahau.
168404530169..5Otago.
221537..179..8Opotiki.
Nov.2521174130172..6Murchison.

Several new seismological stations were established in various parts of New Zealand during the year 1931. The purpose of establishing seismographs in different localities is to enable earthquake epicentres to be determined with greater precision, and also to enable some light to he thrown on the velocity of the earthquake waves as they radiate outwards from the origin.

At the Dominion Observatory, Wellington, two Milne-Shaw horizontal seismographs and a Galitzin-Wilip vertical seismograph have been in continuous operation. On the 28th January a Wood-Anderson short-period seismograph was established for the purpose of recording local earthquakes. The Ishimoto clinograph, for recording tilt, has been in continuous operation at the Observatory.

A Milne seismograph which was installed at Arapuni in July, 1930, has given continuous records.

The Imamura strong-motion seismograph was transferred from Wellington to Takaka in January, 1931.

Immediately after the Hawke's Bay earthquake on the 3rd February a Milne-Jaggar shock-recorder was placed at Hastings for recording aftershocks.

On the 6th February a Wood-Anderson seismograph was established at New Plymouth. On the 30th April this seismograph station was discontinued, until August, when it was re-established at the New Plymouth Prison.

In July, 1931, a Wood-Anderson seismograph was installed at the Magnetic Observatory, Christchurch.

A Milne seismograph has continued in operation at the Magnetic Observatory, Christchurch.

A set of Wiechert seismographs with mechanical registration is installed at the Observatory at Apia, Samoa.

One twin-boom Milne seismograph is installed at Suva, Fiji, and by the courtesy of the Government of Fiji the seismograms are forwarded to the Dominion Observatory. The Fiji records are useful in supplementing those of New Zealand.

The records of the New Zealand stations are sent to the General Secretary of the Seismological Committee of the British Association, to the Station Centrale Seismological, Strasbourg, France, and to the principal observatories of the world.

The following table gives the number of earthquakes recorded on the seismographs at the various New Zealand stations:—

Month, 1931.WellingtonArapuni.Takaka.HastingsNew Plymouth.Christchurch.
Near.Distant.Total.
January424284........
February625126372123141179..
March811293877170..
April581472745078..
May5676341044....
June404445342....
July534571629..1
August309396323171
September747814424104
October301444212168
November571976912288
December3625616112..9
Totals1,1441511,296776347936831

NOTE.—The stations at Takaka, Hastings, and New Plymouth were not established in January. The New Plymouth seismograph was not recording during the months of May, June, and July. The numbers given for Christchurch are those from the Wood-Anderson seismograph only, which was established in July.

REPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND EARTHQUAKES.

The following is a complete summary of earthquakes as reported felt in New Zealand for the Year 1931:—

Month.Number of Earthquakes reported.Maximum Intensity R.-F. Scale.Locality of Maximum.
North Island.South Island.Both Islands.Total.
1931.
January441..455Kahurangi Point
February332164810Hawke's Bay.
March24373577Hawke's Bay.
April15243367Waipawa.
May31271578-9Tiniroto.
June269..357Opotiki, Wairoa.
July2993357Hinakura, Porangahau, Farewell Spit.
August12141255Hawke's Bay.
September20121318Opotiki.
October156..215Hawke's Bay.
November9123186Kahurangi Point, Murchison.
December1013..235Taumarunui.
Totals2282252143110Hawke's Bay.

Since 1888 there has been established in New Zealand a system of observing local earthquakes at selected telegraph-stations, and more recently at lighthouses distributed throughout the extent of the Dominion.

Whenever a shook occurs and is felt by an officer in charge of one of these stations he fills up a form giving the New Zealand mean time of the beginning of the shock, its apparent duration and direction, and the principal effects observed by him. Some of the officers exhibit considerable care and skill in making up these returns, and the data have been used to determine principal origins of earthquakes within the New Zealand region. A number of private observers also assist in reporting earthquakes.

The following table gives the number of earthquakes in 1931, in which the maximum intensity reached various numbers in the Rossi-Forel scale of intensity:—

Month, 1931.Rossi-Forel Intensity.Totals.
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.
January..421173..........45
February..217119611..148
March..61520961......57
April....815922......36
May16122593....1..57
June17108621......35
July..4139423......35
August..36124..........25
September1510103..11....31
October17562..........21
November..18513........18
December..21281..........23
Totals44713714660249211431
Per cent. totals0.910.831.733.713.85.52.70.50.20.2l00.0

The maximum intensity experienced in each of the years 1921 to 1931 (inclusive) is given in the following table:—

Year.Maximum Intensity R-F. Scale.year.Maximum Intensity R-F. Scale.
1921819278
1922819288
19236192910
1924719308
19258193110
19268  

Deaths Due to Earthquakes in New Zealand.

Prior to the Hawke's Hay earthquake on 3rd February, 1931, deaths due to earthquakes in New Zealand were very few.

The following table gives the number of deaths due to earthquakes which have occurred since 1848:—

Date of Earthquake.Locality.Resulting Deaths.
* Deaths registered only. The actual total of deaths possibly reaches 260.
1848, OctoberWellington3
1855, January 23rd"1
1901, March 16thCheviot1
1913, April 12thMasterton1
1914, October 17thGisborne1
1929, June 17thBuller17
1931, February 3rdHawke's Bay251*
Total..275

The rapid increase in the number of deaths in recent years must be regarded as a natural consequence of the increase in population and settlement. It is not necessarily due to increasing seismic activity.

An important factor in considering the havoc wrought by an earthquake is the position of the epicentre with regard to the centres of population. The Buller earthquake of June, 1920, and the Hawke's Bay earthquake of February, 1931, are both classed as seismological disturbances of the first magnitude, and both would have been attended by equally disastrous results had they occurred in equally populated districts. This was not the case however: the centre of the Buller earthquake was in a sparsely populated region, whilst that of the Hawke's Bay earthquake was within a few miles of two thickly populated towns. Hence the difference in the number of deaths caused by these two great upheavals.

CLIMATE.

The following article on the climate of New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. E. Kidson, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.N.Z. Inst., Director of Meteorological Services:—

As was the case last year, it has been possible to allot only a small space for the article on climate. The discussion is confined, therefore, to a few aspects. In last year's article data were given for certain stations. This year, in order to extend the information, a somewhat different set will be used. Where data regarding a particular district are found lacking, they will frequently be found on referring to earlier numbers of the Year-Book.

Rainfall.—Of all the climatic elements, probably the one that exerts the greatest influence on our lives is rainfall. It causes us much personal discomfort, but the production of the food by which we live depends directly on the availability of moisture from this source. The distribution of annual rainfall is shown in the accompanying map.

Its control by topography is very conspicuous. Areas exposed to the westerly winds have heavier rains than those protected from them by mountain ranges. Next, the greater the altitude, the greater in general is the precipitation. There must be a limit beyond which precipitation begins to decrease again with altitude, but this has not yet been determined in New Zealand. The indications are that precipitation is heaviest between 3,000 ft. and 4,000 ft. The annual total varies from about 13 in. at Galloway in Central Otago to over 200 in. in parts of the Southern Alps.

The distribution of the precipitation throughout the year is little less important than its total amount, the effect of rainfall in winter, for example, being very different from that in summer. There are three principal factors controlling the annual variation of rainfall in New Zealand. The first of these is the proximity to the high-pressure belt in the subtropics. In this belt the rainfall year is divided into a dry summer and a wet winter season. We will call this distribution type A. As the distance from the high-pressure belt increases, the contrast between summer and winter decreases, so that by the time southern New Zealand is reached the variation due to this factor is small. The next most important factor is the influence of the prevailing westerly winds. These bring rains to the areas exposed to them, while those which are protected from them by mountain ranges have little rain when the westerlies are blowing. Now, the westerly winds are strongest in spring, the maximum How being in October. There is a temporary drop in February, followed by a partial recovery in the autumn, but the How is least in winter. The regime of the westerly winds, therefore, tends to produce a second type of annual variation, type C, in which the rainfall is heaviest in spring, falls somewhat in the late summer, increases again in the autumn, and falls to a minimum in winter.

The third factor is the convection which takes place during periods of light winds, clear skies, and intense sunshine, especially when the preceding winds have brought, cold air over the land from the South. After conditions of the type mentioned have endured for several days, the convection is likely to be so intense as to produce local showers. These are often heavy, sometimes accompanied by thunder, and occasionally of the nature of local cloud-bursts. Rainfall of this type is most common in the interior of continents. Being caused by solar radiation, it is most frequent when solar radiation is strongest—namely, in summer. According to type B. therefore, we would have a relatively wet summer and a dry winter.

Table 1. TABLE 1.—MONTHLY RAINFALLS IN INCHES.

Jan.Feb.Mar.AprilMay.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.NovDec.Year.
Cape Maria van Diemen1.712.882.033.864.834.623.993.732.842.561.611.6536.31
Auckland2.743.043 013.544 664 955.074.233.713.723.312.9144.89
Rotorua4.213.703.514.525.725.235 054.975.135.244.143.7655.18
Tolaga Bay3.214.424.735.497.716.386.706.063.603.262.963.0357.55
Riversdale, Inglewood7.566.077.128.099.7410.2910.218.809.6910.399.227.57104.75
Napier3.022.763.102.783.713.513.823.502.222.232.432.3135.45
Waitatapia, Bulls2.432.502.463 003.533.183.252.682.783.633.222.7135.37
Ditton, near Masterton3.142.963.583.675.454.985.594.783.714.363.563.0148.79
Wellington2.812.673 113.533.984.194.713.823.113.412.902.8441.08
Nelson2.802.592 962.993.063.543.523.033.693.492.992.9837.64
Marshlands, Blenheim2 192.202.252.272.943.193.582.662.712.502.351.9930.83
Hanmer3.933 193.283.304.393.564.443.414.653.873.613.9445.57
Hokitika9.897.149.749.719.719.308.879.279.2111.8310.7310.44115.42
Christchurch2.201.711.981.852.532.682.691.851.741.691.922.1524.99
Peel Forest4.844.054.383.542.512.753.422.573.773.854.014.8544.54
Oamaru2.041.741.801.761.592.011.741.751.661.731.912.2421.97
Clyde1.821 061.501.421.000.930.920.801.051 621.351.7915.26
Dunedin3.422.712.942.743.113.163.013.092.753.123.253.5436.84
Invercargill3.963.113.894.144.343.633.283.253.274.504.414.0745.85

A rainfall régime of type A in a fairly pure form is experienced in the part of the Auckland Province, north, roughly, of Kawhia and Tauranga, and on the eastern side of the main ranges from Cook Strait to East Cape. It is still dominant in the lower country about the Tasman and Golden Bays, and in Marlborough and North Canterbury. Type C is developed strongly in Westland and the south-west Fiord country. It is shown fairly well by Hokitika, but much more distinctly if the data for a number of West Coast stations be combined. It is dominant in the far South, in the mountains of Nelson, and in the portion of the North Island not yet referred to.

In this latter are?, however, types B and C combine in varying proportions. Most districts show the effect of the westerly winds in a relatively high rainfall in October, but this is least noticeable in the low country east of the main ranges. The areas where type C dominates are those with the heaviest rainfall. Type B is dominant in the interior and southern portions of Canterbury and the central and eastern portions of Otago, and is characteristic of the dry areas of the provinces mentioned. The summer rains of this type are of great importance to the farming communities in the interior of Canterbury and Otago. The regime of annual rainfall experienced had an important influence in determining the nature of the primitive vegetation in the various districts.

Table 2. TABLE 2.—DAYS WITH RAIN.

Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.JulyAug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Auckland10.010.310.914.018.219.420.219.017.616.116.011.5186.1
New Plymouth12.111.011.814.317.517.618.217.917.717.816.813.9189.6
Napier7.57.97.57.710.011.111.411.49.58.58.67.4110.1
Wellington10.19.511.012.816.117.117.516.514.913.713.011.8166.7
Marshlands6.65.76.97.28.48.39.58.78.59.08.37.596.1
Hokitika12.612.213.915.415.115.315.515.1178.118.517.815.9187.2
Christchurch9.18.28.99.611.412.612.710.99.99.410.59.5124.6
Clyde7.05.36.26.05.45.54.95.66.17.67.07.675.5
Dunedin13.712.012.512.813.112.812.612.612.913.914.314.1159.7
Halfmoon Bay17.117.417.818.319.719.918.818.919.219.720.718.1229.0

Next to the amount and the annual variation of precipitation, the frequency with which it falls is its most important characteristic. In Table 2 the average number of days with rain in each month is given for some representative stations. A day with rain is one on which 0.005 in. or more is measured. Generally speaking, there is a fairly close relationship in New Zealand between the amount of rain and the number of rain days, but the latter is not directly proportional to the rainfall. There are considerable areas on the west coast of the South Island, for instance, which have ten or more times as much rain as the driest portions of the interior, but only about double the number of rain days. Marlborough seems to have a small number of wet days compared with its rainfall. To the south of New Zealand there is a rapid increase in cloudiness, showers fall with great frequency, and the number of rain days becomes high. This effect begins to be felt at Stewart Island, as can be seen from the data for Half-moon Bay. New Zealand is extremely fortunate in that even where the rainfall is very heavy, intervals between rains are almost everywhere sufficiently frequent and prolonged to ensure adequate drainage, while there is enough sunshine to dry the soil-surface. Otherwise, large areas in the west and south would be covered with peat.

Temperature.—Temperature is no less important in determining the living conditions of a country and the yield from its soil than rainfall. But it is much less variable, and in the Southern Hemisphere, especially, is largely determined by latitude. Its influence is, therefore, taken much more for granted. The specification of the temperature of a place is, however, not so simple a matter as might appear. Many different factors are involved in the determination of the precise temperatures experienced in any locality. The sea, for instance, responds very slowly to both daily and yearly changes in the amount of heat received from the sun, while on the land the response is rapid. Consequently, the nearer a station is to the sea the smaller are its daily and yearly fluctuations of temperature. It is to this effect that the principal difference between a continental and a marine climate is due. Although New Zealand is narrow, the high ranges shield the country to the cast of them to a considerable extent, so that there is a nearer approach to continental conditions than would otherwise be expected, particularly in the interior of Canterbury and Otago. Again, on plain country the air tends to stagnate, especially at night. At night-time the surface layer cools rapidly through radiation from the ground, while during the day it becomes heated by the sun. There is less stagnation in the warm layer of the daytime than in the cold layer of the night. Consequently, stations on level plains or plateaux tend to be subject to frost and to have a relatively low mean temperature. The effect is accentuated near the slopes of hills because the cold air flows away down the slopes to lower levels. The hills, therefore, gain freedom from frost at the expense of the plains. In windy situations, also, the susceptibility to frost is lowered owing to the prevention of stagnation. Apart from the effects due to air-drainage and windiness, the temperature decreases with altitude. In temperate latitudes the fall is about 9° F. per kilometre. It is unsound, therefore, to compare, for example, temperatures recorded at Thorndon, Wellington, which was only 12 ft. above sea-level, with those at the present meteorological station at Kelburn, which is at an altitude of 415 ft., without making allowance for this difference in altitude. Such a procedure would lead to the erroneous conclusion that the climate had become colder. If charts of mean temperature are to be prepared it is clear that they will be very complicated, especially in a mountainous country like New Zealand, owing to this effect of altitude. It is usual, therefore, to simplify matters by applying a correction at the rate of 9° F. per kilometre or approximately 2.7 F. per 1,000 ft. This has been done in Table 3. The Rotorua values, for example, have been increased by 2.5 F., the station being 925 ft. above sea-level. If the actual temperature is required, it can be found by reversing this process.

In New Zealand publications it has been the general practice to derive monthly mean temperatures from the means of the daily maximum and minimum. But, even on the average, the mean of the maximum and minimum differs slightly from the true mean for the day. The correction to the mean for the day has been determined, from the records of thermographs, with fair accuracy at Wellington and more roughly at several other places.

In table 3, therefore, the temperatures are reduced to sea-level and mean of day. For the remainder of the temperature tables the observed readings have been used without-correction. All are in Fahrenheit degrees.

Table 3. TABLE 3.—MEAN TEMPERATURE REDUCED TO SEA-LEVEL.

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Waipoua61.762.260.757.454.151.549.249.751.453.255.858.655.4
Auckland64.965.263.359.656.153.451.551.953.855.958.862.358.0
Rotorua64.764.461.456.752.449.347.848.951.955.358.662.056.1
New Plymouth62.962.961.257.854.451.449.750.152.254.256.860.456.2
Napier64.163.360.957.752.648.847.449.748.451.555.658.655.9
Taihape63.763.260.957.752.648.847.448.451.555.658.661.355.9
Masterton63.162.259.655.150.447.046.047.050.453.856.560.554.3
Wellington61.761.659.756.252.549.447.748.451.253.656.159.554.8
Nelson61.861.458.955.150.146.345.346.349.752.956.060.153.4
Hanmer62.562.359.654.748.344.243.145.150.154.156.560.153.4
Hokitika58.858.857.052.748.945.744.545.648.951.553.456.751.9
Christchurch60.459.957.052.747.743.142.343.948.452.455.759.051.9
Ophir62.061.557.351.442.436.637.541.446.852.154.759.450.3
Dunedin58.157.855.952.448.145.143.845.648.051.453.355.851.4
Invercargill56.656.454.050.345.742.341.343.547.050.451.854.449.5

The stations given in the above table were chosen with a view to illustrating the effect of changing latitude, the difference between east and west coasts, especially in the South Island, and the contrast between coastal and inland conditions. Waipoua is in the Auckland Peninsula, north of Dargaville, and Ophir in Central Otago.

Table 4. TABLE 4.—AUCKLAND (ALBERT PARK, 160 FT.).

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Mean daily maximum72.672.970.966.962.158.657.057.860.163.266.069.364.8
Mean highest maximum78.672.976.472.267.364.062.562.865.468.672.075.779.7
Absolute highest max.81.585.079.077.471.067.065.067.070.072.075.579.085.0
Mean daily minimum59.760.458.555.351.348.146.246.248.951.754.156.853.1
Mean lowest minimum51.853.051.546.442.739.538.139.141.744.347.149.437.3
Absolute lowest min.48.048.046.041.038.036.535.036.437.841.041.043.535.0
Days of frost in screen........................0.0
Days of ground frost..........0.10.70.1........1.0

Table 5. TABLE 5.—TAIHAPE (2,157 FT.).

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Mean daily maximum68.067.364.659.952.848.547.448.852.857.459.664.357.6
Mean highest maximum78.077.374.469.062.258.257.157.462.066.669.974.979.5
Absolute highest max.87.381.078.75.569.863.261.061.867.073.474.282.087.3
Mean daily minimum50.049.848.244.940.737.636.436.639.142.144.047.043.0
Mean lowest minimum39.539.538.234.631.929.228.028.730.032.034.437.026.4
Absolute lowest min.31.932.035.030.027.020.424.025.425.525.031.430.220.4
Days of frost, in screen......0.21.43.66.04.22.50.50.2..18.6
Days of ground frost0.20.50.62.45.38.512.011.26.02.61.00.651.1

Table 6. TABLE 6.—WELLINGTON (ALTITUDES VARIOUS).

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Mean daily maximum69.369.366.962.958.354.853.154.357.560.463.266.761.3
Mean highest maximum78.177.774.970.265.361.359.661.564.568.071.075.079.8
Absolute highest max.85.088.080.574.071.069.066.066.069.075.580.583.088.0
Mean daily minimum55.755.854.251.347.244.142.442.845.748.450.353.849.1
Mean lowest minimum46.446.744.141.237.434.533.333.436.238.440.944.732.3
Absolute lowest min.39.540.539.135.731.929.928.629.231.034.035.838.428.6
Days of frost in screen........0.00.20.40.40.0......1.4
Days of ground frost0.00.10.21.02.65.47.86.73.11.30.50.128.6

Table 7. TABLE. 7—HOKITIKA (12 FT.).

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Mean daily maximum66.466.564.761.256.853.352.653.656.458.760.663.859.5
Mean highest maximum73.572.571.367.763.759.558.659.562.364.767.070.975.9
Absolute highest max.79.082.484.574.071.563.565.067.167.669.074.178.084.5
Mean daily minimum53.253.151.047.141.938.536.838.042.345.747.951.545.6
Mean lowest minimum43.243.540.636.532.129.929.029.832.235.238.441.928.1
Absolute lowest min.35.037.035.031.028.526.025.526.527.030.032.033.025.5
Days of frost in screen......0.00.94.06.94.60.70.1....17.2
Days of ground frost0.20.10.52.46.912.416.113.85.92.40.70.261.9

Table 8. TABLE. 8—CHRISTCHURCH (22 FT).

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Mean daily maximum70.469.266.462.155.851.150.352.357.662.465.869.261.0
Mean highest maximum86.683.781.475.768.762.561.564.970.676.179.884.088.4
Absolute highest max.95.794.189.882.377.869.370.070.081.187.886.892.395.7
Mean daily minimum52.852.549.745.039.936.035.136.340.544.047.150.844.3
Mean lowest minimum41.240.937.232.328.626.126.026.729.432.135.439.024.7
Absolute lowest min.34.334.230.425.621.321.522.723.025.526.030.833.021.3
Days of frost in screen....0.00.74.09.210.18.22.60.50.0..35.4
Days of ground frost0.30.21.45.412.316.917.717.310.46.53.60.992.9

Table 9. TABLE 9.—DUNEDIN (240 FT.).

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Mean daily maximum66.565.963.158.953.349.347.950.355.159.161.664.558.0
Mean highest maximum81.180.577.371.864.459.357.461.566.873.075.378.084.3
Absolute highest max.94.090.085.085.072.068.066.070.077.083.084.088.094.0
Mean daily minimum49.749.547.844.841.038.637.438.240.642.944.948.043.6
Mean lowest minimum41.341.539.136.733.831.230.531.233.034.837.040.029.4
Absolute lowest min.36.037.034.031.029.024.023.027.029.031.032.035.023.0
Days of frost in screen........0.11.41.71.10.2......4.5
Days of ground frost..0.10.00.75.911.012.49.54.71.00.30.145.7

Table 10. TABLE 10.—GORE. (245 FT.).

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum69.068.966.166 153.747.747.151.756.860.963.166.459.3
Mean highest maximum84.984.380.273.864.958.457.162.068.073.077.680.987.9
Absolute highest, max.93.091.589.082.070.067.062.068.076.079.084.095.095.0
Mean daily maximum46.746.044.040.435.732.431.633.237.540.842.244.939.6
Mean lowest, minimum35.134.932.929.225.923.522.924.628.230.832.035.021.4
Absolute lowest mill.30.030 029.025.021.018.020.018.025.027.030.031.018.0
Days of frost in screen0.10.30.51.90.713.115.411.13.71.50.30.154.7
Days of ground frost0.81.43.26 013.022.021.419.911.16.13.21.1109.2

The accompanying tables (Nos. 4 to 10) relate to temperature extremes. The first line gives the average of the maximum temperatures as observed each day, the second the average of the highest temperatures observed in each month and the year, and the third the highest yet recorded. Corresponding information regarding minimum temperatures follows. Next-comes the average number of days on which the minimum temperature in the thermometer screen falls below 32° F. This gives some idea of the susceptibility to severe frosts, such as would affect fruit-trees. The last line gives the number of ground frosts. According to the British Convention, a ground frost is recorded when the grass minimum thermometer falls below 30.4 F., damage being unlikely at higher temperatures. In the preparation of these tables some of the older records have, for various reasons, been discarded.

Table 11. TABLE 11.—BRIGHT S UNSHINE (HOURS).

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Auckland219.4191 9179.5143 9131 8114.1120.9150.4149.7169.2191.9200.61,972.5
Waihi244.5204.4192.6152.6137.7114.8124.9153.5166.3186.5215.2241.22,134.2
Rotorua238.3201.7187.1149.2137.3118.5127.3144.4155.1180.7211.7222.52,073.8
New Plymouth250.0230.7221 6164.9159.8132.0143.0178.2166.0174.3209.2238.72,275.0
Napier261.2212.0211.0189.0150.7140.4144.9180.6212.3228.8242.4262.52,451 4
Masterton226.7210.7180.1157.9120.6104.9110.1144.4170.3187.0215.8224.22,052.7
Wellington227.4211.3188.5154.4130.8106.9107.8140.4163.0177.4203.21225.22,036.3
Blenheim237.0212.3191.7157.8160.5136.8143.1174.1186.2199.9174.0197.72,171.1
Nelson267.6237.1212.4187.7172.3151.7156.5103.7203.3218.3250.8252.72,504.1
Hanmer207.6194.8191.2157.7128.5106.0107.4143.1166.9178.8209.4209.11,991.5
Hokitika213.5189.7183.1138.9130.4114 0127.5152.5146.9163.9175.0200.81,942.2
Lincoln College213.0197.0170.9149.1136.9114.8115.3148.9174.6197.1211.8205.32,040.7
Ashburton191.8173.0158.6122.8124.7106.1109.5127.1153.8158.2182.8180.31,794.7
Timaru203.2181 3173.9132.7148.9130.3129.3147.4169.1174.5197.7169.71,958.0
Lake Tekapo267.3235.2238.6191.5174.7122.7140.7154.2180.3220.0227.0205.52,418.3
Oamaru202.1182.5167.9133.7134.3119.1121.8131.9142.7183.0168.7159.51,847.2
Waimate177.2179.9186.6155.1151.4135.5139.5154.0181.3189.0208.4183.82,041.7
Alexandra230.8223.9217.0172.0130.7108.2118.9149 0174.3219.0198.8223.82,166.4
Dunedin187.9157.3144.6120.6104.488.998.4121 7144.2157.3104.7170.11,660.1
Gore225.7182.8168.4127.7117.2100.6115.8142.6160.3177.0206.0211 41,930.1
Invercargill193.1167.5122.695.784.179.681.9113.0126.7138.2162.4165.71,530.5

Sunshine—In Table II are listed for each month and the year the average number of hours of sunshine at all places from which a sufficiently long record is available. The greatest amounts are recorded at places protected from the prevailing winds by high mountain ranges. The excellence of New Zealand's climate, particularly for the growth of pasture, is undoubtedly due to the abundance of sunshine combined with a high rainfall and an absence of extreme temperatures.

Fog.—Fog does not play an important part in New Zealand weather. Most of the fogs recorded are shallow radiation fogs occurring only in the early morning. During the approach of cyclonic depressions, however, widespread and persistent fog is a frequent occurrence. Occasionally parts of the coast are affected by fog in calm weather. The landlocked harbours and estuaries of North Auckland, as illustrated by the record from Rangiahua on Hokianga Harbour, appear to be unusually susceptible.

Snows.—Snow is rare at sea-level, especially in the North Island. In the interior and at high altitudes it occurs more frequently. On the summits of the ranges in the whole length of the South Island and on the highest peaks in the North Island snow falls, on the average, on over thirty days per annum. In the interior of the South Island there is a considerable area of settled country which is subject to half that, number. Towards the coast, however, the number falls off rapidly. Data regarding snow lying are scanty. In the North Island any snow falling on the low levels almost invariably melts as it falls, but on the high plateaux it may lie, especially in the hollows, for from one to three weeks during the year. In the South Island it practically never lies at low levels on the north or west coasts, but on the east coast does so on a few days in some years. At altitudes between 500 ft. and l.000ft. in the interior of the South Island the average number of days appears to be between seven and fourteen. Railway traffic is interfered with by snow to an almost negligible extent.

Hail.—Hail experienced more frequently as the latitude increases and on the west coast than on the east, the rise in frequency in the extreme south-west and about Foveaux Strait being very marked. It occurs more often in spring than at other times of year. The majority of the hailstorms recorded, however, are harmless, the stones being quite small. Occasionally, severe hailstorms are experienced in New Zealand, the stones reaching a diameter of from 1/2 in. upwards. These are usually associated with thunderstorms, and are probably little less numerous on the east coast than the west and in the North Island as in the South.

Thunder.—Thunderstorms are more numerous in the North than in the South and on the west than on the cast side of the main ranges. They are very rare in eastern districts in winter.

Strong Winds.—The figures in Table 16 include a proportion of high winds (force 7 on the Beaufort scale) as well as gales (force 8 and over). The figures for Wellington show the effect of the concentration of the winds through Cook Strait.

Table 12. TABLE 11.—DAYS WITH FOG.

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Rangiahuam0.51.93.14.64.34.45.33.42.10.60.40.231.2
Auckland0.10.10.20.30.60.80.90.60.40.10.00.04.2
Wellington.0.10.10.20.51.01.52.10.50.20.10.00.16.6
Hokitika1.01.00.90.70.40.50.50.60.30.40.60.87.7
Lincoln College0.10.10.50.51.41.81.31.30.50.20.10.07.9
Dunedin.0.40.40.91.00.71.00.50.60.50.50.50.57.4

Table 13. TABLE 13.—DAYS WITH SNOWFALL.

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Auckland....0.0......0.00.00.0......0.1
New Plymouth......0.0..0.00.10.00.2......0.4
Napier...........0.00.1..0.0......0.2
Taihape......0.40.81.83.32.51.80.80.60.212.3
Wellington......0.00.00.10.20.10.20.1....0.7
Hokitika........0.00.20.10.20.1..0.00.00.6
Mount Somers0.1..0.10.50.70.91.61.61.91.11.00.110.7
Christchurch....0.00.00.30.40.90.40.20.1....2.4
Dunedin.0.00.00.00.10.61.01.21.30.90.50.20.55.9
Tapanui....0.10.60.81.91.91.81.61.00.50.110.3

Table 14. TABLE 14.—DAYS WITH HAIL.

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Auckland0.00.00.00.10.20.40.70.50.50.30.20.13.0
New Plymouth0.10.10.00.20.60.71.00.80.60.40.70.35.7
Wellington0.20.10.10.30.61.01.21.51.10.60.50.17.4
Hokitika0.20.20.30.41.01.20.91.01.01.01.00.89.0
Dunedin.0.20.20.10.10.20.20.10.20.40.50.50.33.0
Half-moon Bay0.50.30.51.31.31.21.50.81.71.21.30.612.2

Table 15. TABLE 15.—DAYS WITH THUNDER.

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Mangonui1.30.90.41.71.82.02.72.72.31.41.91.420.7
Auckland1.20.70.41.31.01.92.41.31.20.71.70.814.7
New Plymouth0.60.60.30.41.41.31.51.01.21.11.00.712.3
G w a v a s (Tikokino, Hawke's Bay)0.50.30.20.00.00.00.00.00.10.50.50.62.9
Wellington0.60.30.30.40.40.40.50.30.50.40.50.55.1
Hokitika1.21.00.91.22.01.71.71.41.71.71.51.217.2
Christchurch1.00.30.10.10.30.00.10.10.20.30.60.63.6
Dunedin.0.70.60.30.10.20.10.00.10.20.50.71.44.9

Table 16. TABLE 16.—DAYS WITH WIND.

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.May.Jun.Jul.Aug.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dec.Total.
Auckland2.41.91.81.92.72.82.82.73.13.13.32.631.5
New Plymouth1.11.72.11.82.82.82.52.52.42.52.61.125.7
Wellington.4.54.04.24.73.93.63.84.45.06.96.05.857.7
Hokitika1.91.71.92.43.12.22.83.03.94.54.64.138.3
Dunedin.1.41.21.11.11.31.31.61.41.21.91.51.416.3

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE WEATHER FOR 1931.

January.—Very dry and cold conditions had been experienced during and until the end of 1930, but in January, 1931, good general rains fell, and a considerable improvement took place in the condition of the land. The month was a stormy one and temperatures were still somewhat below average. The rain was particularly heavy on the west coast of the South Island, the southern half having probably the wettest January since settlement commenced. Some flooding occurred. Parts of the eastern districts in both Islands had less than the average precipitation.

February.—This was another very cold and stormy month. In the strength and frequency of north-westerly winds it resembled one of the spring months. Rainfall was much below normal in eastern and northern portions of the North Island. In the South Island south from Nelson it was above normal, southern districts again having a very wet time. The growth of vegetation was retarded.

March was very dry, but the effect of the dry conditions was mitigated by cool temperatures and an absence of wind. In the Hawke's Bay and Poverty Bay districts the situation was relieved by good rains.

April.—Though the weather was fine and mild during most of April, there were four stormy periods, two being of unusual severity. The first of these occurred on the 2nd and 3rd, and was accompanied by northerly gales, which were very strong about Cook Strait. In parts of the Tararua Mountains and northern Nelson rains of unprecedented amount were recorded. The highest known floods occurred in the Hutt and Otaki rivers. Extraordinary high tides occurred at Nelson. On the coast of Westland there was a remarkable accumulation of foam. In places it was heaped up to a height of 8 f t. This storm occurred, unfortunately, at the beginning of the Easter holidays. Much damage was done and several accidents were caused, two lives being lost. The second period of severe storm was between the 7th and the 12th. The southerly gale on the 11th was only slightly less severe than the northerly previously mentioned. The month was, in the mean, cool, but there was no very severe cold spell. The heavy rains connected with the storms produced a considerable improvement in the condition of pastures in most districts.

May.—Temperatures were again somewhat below normal. The rainfall was approximately normal in Westland and Stewart Island, hut elsewhere only about half the average.

June.—Rainfall and temperature remained much below normal. A number of extensive snowfalls occurred.

July.—Much boisterous weather was experienced, and there were further heavy and widespread falls of snow. That on the 19th to the 20th was in many places the heaviest for the past thirty to fifty years. For the third month in succession rainfall continued to be deficient in South Canterbury and North Otago. Elsewhere precipitation was above normal. Mean temperatures did not depart much from the average.

August.—Rainfall was below average in most of the North Island, Marlborough, and North Canterbury, but elsewhere mainly above. Temperatures were below normal and frosts were numerous. A severe north-west gale occurred on the 12th, damage being done in Canterbury.

September.—Temperatures were again low, and many districts had the coldest September on record. The weather was stormy, southerly winds predominating. Growth of pasture remained backward and there was considerable mortality amongst lambs. Most districts had more than the average rainfall. A widespread fall of snow occurred on the night of the 5th, being particularly heavy in the central portion of the North Island. Another severe northerly gale was experienced in Canterbury on the 8th, trees, fences, and telegraph-lines being damaged. A violent thunderstorm struck Reefton on the night of the 8th. Windows were cracked and the telephone and electric-light systems thrown into confusion.

October provided a marked contrast with the preceding months of the year. The weather was mainly fine, with a prevalence of warm northerly winds and bright sunshine. The 24th was an exception, a bitter cold southerly on that day bringing hail and snow showers to many parts of the South Island and the central portion of the North. In the severe frost which followed, much damage was done to orchards and tender vegetation. Rainfall during the month was almost everywhere below average. On the 10th, for the third time since the beginning of August, a north-westerly gale wrought considerable destruction on the Canterbury Plains. Heavy rain in the Alps caused floods in the Canterbury and West Coast rivers. On the 20th a northerly gale reached its greatest severity at Dunedin, where damage was done to buildings, fences, and gardens. The wind was the strongest experienced in the city for many years.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1931.

The observations were taken at 9 a.m.

Station.Temperatures in Shade.Hours of Sunshine.Rainfall.
Mean Daily Maximum.Mean Daily Minimum.Approx Mean Temperature.Extremes for 1931.Absolute Maximum.Absolute Minimum.Total Fall.Number of Days.
Maximum and Month.Minimum and Month.
* Some data are missing from these stations.
 °F°F°F°F°F°F°F°FInches. 
Waipoua64.047.255.682.4Jan.28.8June....1,757.554.24213
Riverhead64.847.256.084.5Jan.25.8Aug.......50.02187
Auckland64.452.858.681.Jan.37.0Aug.85.033.22,100.349.19183
Waihi64.140 655.484.1Jan.25.0Aug.80.021 02,124.376.6157
Te Aroha66.946.056.486.0Jan.22.0Jun95.021.0..46.44146
Tauranga*65.6....86.2Jan.22.5May87.022.5..40.63145
Ruakura65.243.754.584.0Jan.22.8June92.022.0..44.28153
Cambridge65.444.354.984.2Jan.24.2June....2,193.839.88146
Rotorua63.145.154.185.0Jan.25.8June98.021.02,239.143.87113
Whakarewarewa*..42.7..85.6Jan.25.2June......42.08140
New Plymouth61.548.555.073.7Feb.29.2June89.027.02,271.055.82183
Karioi56.837.040.974.9Jan.17.0June......50.05197
Taihape56.441.849.177.0Dec.20.4June 87820.4..37.12176
Hastings65.942.954.491.0Jan.21.4June......23.38136
Tangimoana61.246.153.780.6Dec.25.4Aug.85.020.5..34.63142
Palmerston North*61.246.353.881.5Dec.27.0July, Aug.91 023.01,756.238.05179
Pahiatua62.544.253.385.8Dec.23.2Aug......55.36197
Masterton63.742.753.287.2Jan.24.0Aug. Sept.95.422.42,206.230 70149
Wellington58.347.552.974.2Dec.32.1Aug.88.628.62,205.239.49163
Nelson62.345.053.680.8Feb.28.2June92 025.02,710.036.35107
Kohatu61.839.550.681.3Nov.20.8Aug......47.9796
Waihopai62.242.452.385.0Jan.2.1.0Aug......27.5999
Hokitika58.044.351.173.0Dec.27.0Sept.84.525.51,740.8105.48190
Hanmer Springs60.937.849.385.2Dec.9.2July97.09.22,097.342.05142
Balmoral Plantation61.7140.151.086.0Nov.12,0July......25.54109
Christchurch60.442.751.687.2Jan.23.5June95.721.32,079.117.81117
Lincoln01.442.451.988.2Nov.20.4June198.420.42,134.920.1996
Lake Coleridge60.540.250.480.0Feb.12.5July93.012.5..34.92127
Rudstone, Methven58.941.850.485.0Feb.25.0July......34.21128
Ashburton61.040.450.787.8Jan. Feb.19.8Aug.94 019.81,936.420.50116
Timaru60.242.151.289.4Jan.23.4July99.023.02,071.915.61108
The Hermitage55.534.344.980.2Jan.13.0Nov., Dec.....1,581.8200.70155
Lake Tekapo56.237 146.780.6Nov.13.4July....2,035.121.0192
Fairlie*61.8....88.8Feb.7.6June......19.1097
Waimate60.941.251.080.3Nov.22.5Aug.94.022.52,092.510.78121
Waipiata57.937.247.081.0Jan.12.0June96.612.02,164.018.74129
Queenstown57.440.148.779.9Jan.22.0June....1,885.837.15130
Ophir59.4130.048.083.5Dec.12.9June89.38.7..14.84101
Alexandra59.839.449 085.5Dee.16.5July....2,201.814.1494
Dunedin58.442.050.581.9Nov.29.0June94.023.0..32.86185
Manorburn Dam51.733.242.476.5Dec.6.8June......22.14127
Invercargill 57 841.149.480.0Jan. Feb. Nov.20.0July90.019.01,445.042.37211

November was another fine and very warm month. Many places had the highest mean temperature recorded for November. Numerous thunderstorms occurred. On the 12th a particularly severe one, accompanied by deluges of rain, affected the Waimarino and Waipukurau districts. On the 24th to the 25th there was another isolated cold snap. Hail was widespread on the 24th and particularly severe at Leeston and Seafield in Canterbury. The frost of the following night caused much damage to orchards and vegetable crops in Canterbury and Otago. The rainfall was again below average.

December.—Fine, mild, and sunny weather continued throughout the greater part of the month. Heavy and general rains in the middle portion were of great benefit to crops and pastures. The rainfall in most eastern districts, however, still remained below normal. Thunderstorms were again frequent.

Year.—In the North Island rainfall was mainly above average in districts with a westerly aspect from the neighbourhood of Auckland southwards, but in the remainder it was very much below. Indeed, east of the main ranges from East Cape to Cook Strait the year was the driest recorded. Feed was very scarce in these districts, and stock in many eases in very poor condition. In the South Island, mainly owing to heavy rains in January and February, there was as great an excess of rain on the west coast as there had been a deficit in 1930. In some of the wettest country the normal was exceeded by as much as 50 in. East of the ranges, practically all the plain country had much less than the average. For most of these parts the driest year known is 1915, and so far as annual totals are concerned, 1931 was not so dry. In South Canterbury and North Otago, however, the cumulative effect of 1930 and 1931 was little less severe. Some wheat crops were entire failures, and in Canterbury, Marlborough, and parts of Otago pastures were generally in a very bad condition by the end of the year. Nevertheless, in all provinces there were areas where conditions were good, and in the country as a whole production was maintained at a high level.

Temperatures were below normal, but not nearly so much so as in 1930.

For 1931 the mean pressure in inches reduced to sea-level and standard gravity was: Auckland, 30.031; Rotorua, 29.984; Wellington, 29.952; Nelson,29.961; Hokitika, 29.082; Christchurch, 29.897; Dunedin, 29.881.

THE FLORA AND VEGETATION.

The. following article on the flora and vegetation of New Zealand is by Dr. L. Cockayne, C.M.O., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Honorary Botanist, State Forest Service):—

For various reasons the plant-life of New Zealand is of peculiar interest, especially its extreme isolation from other land-masses, its flora of diverse origin but with an astonishing number of endemic species and group after group of wild hybrids, the numerous and often peculiar life-forms of its members, its having developed unmolested by grazing and browsing mammals, and its vegetation, so diversified that only a continent extending into the tropics can claim an equality.

The Flora considering in the first place the Ferns, Fern-allies (lycopods, &c.)and Seed-plants (trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, grasses, &c.) consists of about 1,848 species—including under this term a good many well-marked varieties—of which 148 are ferns, 19 fern-allies, 20 conifers (only 1 with a cone in the usual sense), 426 monocotyledons (grasses, sedges, liliaceous plants, orchids, &c.), and 1,235 dicotyledons (mostly trees, shrubs, herbaceous and semi-woody plants), and they belong to 109 families (groups of related genera) and 382 genera (groups of related species). Nearly 79 per cent, of this flora is found wild in no other land (endemic), and the remaining 392 species are chiefly Australian (236), and the balance subantarctic South American (58), Cosmopolitan in a narrow sense (most also Australian), Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island, and Polynesian; while a good many of the families and genera are Malayan, which tropical element found its way to New Zealand during a great extension of its area northwards in the early Tertiary period. The high endemism of the flora is not confined to the species, for there are 39 purely New Zealand genera, some of which are only very distantly related to genera elsewhere—e.g., Tupeia, Dactylanthus, Pachycladon, Ixerba, Carpodetus, Myosotidium, Teucridium, and Alseuosmia. The specially large families and genera, together with the number of species each contains, are as follows: Families—Compositae (daisy family), 258; Filices (ferns), 148; Cyperaceae (sedge family), 133; Gramineae (grass family), 131; Umbelliferae (carrot family), 89; Orchidaceae (orchids), 71; Ranunculaceae (buttercup family), 01; Rubiaccae (coprosma family), 55; Onagraceae (willowherb family), 45; Epacridaceae (Australian -heath family), 44; Leguminosae (pea family), 38; Boraginaceae (forget-me-not family), 33. Genera—Hebe (koromikos), 66 at a low estimate; Carex (sedges), 59; Celmisia (mountain-daisies), 56 at least; Coprosma (karamus), 48; Ranunculus (buttercups),47 at least; Epilobium (willowherbs), 41; Olearia (daisy-trees), 35; Senecio (groundsels, mostly ligneous), 35; Poa (poa grasses), 33; Myosotis (forget-menots), 32; and there are 10 other genera with 20 to 30 species, and 11 with from 13 to 19 species. It is not of necessity the large genera which dominate the landscape, for some of the smallest are of particular moment in this regard— e.g., Arundo (toetoe grass), 2 species; Desmoschoenus (pingao), 1 species, which clothes unstable sandhills in the three main islands and extends to the Chathams; Rhopalostylis (nikau-palm), 2 species; Cordyline (cabbage-trees), 4 species; Phormium (New Zealand flax), 2 species; Nothofagus (southern-beeches), 5 species; Corynocarpus (karaka), 1 species; and Leptospermum (manuka), 4 species.

Besides the species and their varieties, the flora contains, according to recent research, no less than 353 groups of hybrids (some with hundreds of distinct forms) between the species, together with many within the species themselves between their varieties; nor is this all, for there are a few well-marked hybrids between certain genera—e.g., Helichrysum by Ewartia and by Gnaphalium, Hebe by Veronica, Leucogenes by Raoulia (edelweiss X vegetable-sheep), and Nothopanax by Pseudopanax. How widespread in New Zealand is wild hybridism appears from the fact that hybrids are now known to occur in 44 families and 101 genera; and were it not that many species never come into contact there would be still more hybrids, for certain species which never meet in nature have spontaneously given rise to hybrid progenies when planted side by side in gardens. This new knowledge concerning natural hybridism is already making radical changes in the classification of New Zealand plants, and it may also have a profound bearing on plant classification in general and on theories of evolution.

The ferns, fern-allies, and seed-plants by no means make up the whole New Zealand flora, but in addition hundreds of species have been described of the less highly organized plants (the mosses, liverworts, algae, fungi, &c.) but they certainly do not nearly represent the total number of such.

Coming next to the primary biological groups of which the flora is composed, the following gives the name of each class and the number of species it contains: Trees (including 12 tree-ferns), 182; shrubs, 316; semi-woody plants (including 10 ferns with short trunks), 241; herbaceous plants (including 93 ferns which grow on the ground),664; grasslike plants, 255; rushlike plants, 49; climbing-plants (mostly ligneous, and including 7 ferns), 51; perching-plants (both ligneous and herbaceous, and including 26 ferns), 45; parasites (mostly ligneous), 17; water-plants (all herbaceous), 28. These biological classes are made up of many life-forms—i.e., the outward forms of plants, and the shape, structure, &c., of their organs—which enable them to occupy definite habitats. In no few instances a plant can modify its form as its habitat changes or if it moves to a different habitat from that to which it is accustomed. The New Zealand flora is particularly rich in such “plastic species,” as they are called. Further, the flora contains quite a number of life-forms rare or wanting in many other floras. Thus there are climbing-plants with extremely long, woody, ropelike stems; shrubs with stiff, wiry, interlaced twigs forming dense masses number about 51, and belong to flattened or “round” stems (mostly species of Carmichaelia); the cypress form, the leaves reduced to scales, as seen in various species of Hebe and Helichrysum, but a form to be expected in the podocarps; trees with leaves bunched together on long trunks, as in the liliaceous cabbage-trees (Cordyline) and certain species of the Australian-heath family (Dracophyllum); the tussock form, with some -10 species, belonging to 5 families and 19 genera.

Not the least interesting feature in this matter of life-forms is the presence in the flora of 200 or more seed-plants which for a longer or shorter period have a juvenile form quite distinct from that of the adult; while in about 165 species the plant remains for many years—it may exceed fifty—a juvenile, and in these eases such may blossom and produce seed, the tree juvenile below and adult above—two species, as it were, on the one plant. In some instances so different are juvenile and adult-that accomplished botanists have described them as different species. How widespread is the phenomenon stands out clearly from the fact that these 165 species belong to 30 families and 50 genera, and that 51 are trees, 82 shrubs, 19 woody climbing-plants, 10 herbaceous plants, and 3 water-plants; a few ferns exhibit the same peculiarity. Rome of the commonest trees come into the above category—e.g., the kahikatea (Podocarpus dacrydioides), the matai [P. spicatus), the kaikomako (Pennantia corymbosa), the pokaka (Elacocarpus Hookerianus), the lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolium), and others.

Taking the flora as a whole, a large proportion of the species are evergreen; conspicuous flowers are far from common; annuals and plants which die yearly to the ground are rare; water-plants are few in number; turf-making grasses are not abundant; and bulbous plants are almost negligible.

Altitude, on the one hand, and proximity to the coast, on the other, have a profound bearing on the distribution of the species. Thus about 140 species are confined to the coast-lino or its immediate vicinity, and 9 families and 35 genera containing 41 species are virtually coastal. Then there are about 560 species which are confined to the lowlands and lower hills, and there are no less than 24 families and 103 genera which are purely lowland. Finally, there is a plentiful high-mountain Flora, with about 510 species belonging to 38 families and 87 genera, which never descend to the lowlands, but as compared with the lowland flora the number of genera (only 16) confined to the high-mountain-hell is trifling.

Latitude has also a strong bearing on plant-distribution, and, apart from a gradual change, there are three critical parallels of latitude—36° S., 38° S., and 42° S. —near which (it may be somewhat to the north or south of the line) many species attain their southern limit. On the other hand, Cook Strait and Foveaux Strait are of but little moment as barriers to advance or retreat. Far greater is the influence of wet and dry local climates, which is most striking; when two such areas impinge on one another as in the case of the wet area which extends from the Tasman Sea to near the eastern base of the Main Divide, which is forest-clad to the timber-line, and the dry area extending thence to the east coast, which is clothed with tussock-grassland. In the dry area of Marlborough and the contiguous wet western area of north-western Nelson, there are 36 species confined to the dry area (locally endemic) and 39 to the wet area. So, too, dry Central Otago possesses 15 locally endemic species. Speaking of the distribution of the species in a wide sense, there is every transition, from those which extend continuously from the north of the North Island to Stewart Island to those found in only one limited area (e.g., Cassinia amoena, near the North Cape; Xeronema Callistemon, on the Poor Knights; Dracophyllum Townsoni, on the Paparoa Range), or those occurring only in two or three distant localities (e.g., Metrosideros Parkinsonii, in north-western Nelson and Great Barrier Island; Pittosporum patulum, near Lake Hawea and in north-western Nelson; Adiantum formonsum, near Dargaville and in the Manawatu Gorge and its immediate neighbourhood).

The physical features of New Zealand; its many types of climate, especially with regard to the annual rainfall and the number of rainy days; its varied altitude, ranging from sea-level to the snowfields of the Southern Alps; its many kinds of soils, particularly their water-holding capacity; the diverse frost-tolerating ability of the species; their aggressive powers—largely a matter of their life-forms and inherent plasticity—all these and other factors have led to a most varied vegetation made up of a host of plant communities, some of which appear out of place in the Temperate Zone. Thus between tide-marks in the northern rivers and estuaries there is a true mangrove community—an unexpected occurrence outside of the tropics; and even so far south as north-western Nelson groves of tall palm trees are a striking feature. But, more than all else of an unexpected character— though familiar enough to all New-Zealanders—is the lowland forest, which resembles in no whit the forests of temperate Europe, Asia, or America, but is a true tropical rain-forest. This tropical character is shown in its groups of tall tree ferns, which may exceed 40 ft. in height; in its wealth of ferns of all kinds; in the abundance of woody, ropelike climbing-plants and huge perching-plants far up in the forest canopy; in the several tiers of undergrowth, consisting of low trees and tall shrubs with smaller shrubs and ferns beneath, and the ground clothed with a deep carpet of filmy ferns, liverworts, and mosses, while the tree-trunks are similarly clad: in short, the forest exhibits prodigal luxuriance of growth, and Nature, as it were, runs riot. Rarely does one tall canopy tree dominate, but the uppermost story of the forest is constructed out of the crowns of various kinds of trees growing side by side, just as the undergrowth is composed of many species. But no forest is homogeneous in its structure, for differences in the topography of the area, in the water content of the soil, and in the relative amount of light in the interior of the forest, lead to various combinations of species. All the same, especially so far as the tall trees are concerned, there is an advance towards stability and uniformity, so that all the forests if not interfered with are progressing towards a “climax association,” as it is named, with (as a rule) the tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) dominant to the north of latitude 42, and the kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa) dominant southwards.

Taking the New Zealand forests of all kinds for the whole of the region, their species number 498 (ferns and their allies 121, conifers 19, monocotyledons 70, dicotyledons 288), and they belong to 70 families and 167 genera, the largest of which are: Families — Ferns, 114; Rubiaceae, 34; Compositae, 32 (but most are confined to subalpine scrub-forest); Cyperaceae, 25; Orchidaceae, 23; Pittosporaceae, 21; Myrtaceae, 18; Araliaceae, 14. Genera — Coprosma, 32; Pittosporum, 21; Hymenophyllum, 19; Blechnum, Uncinia, and Olearia, each 12; Metrosideros, 11. As for the biological groups of forest, they are as follows: Trees, 151 (but a good many are frequently shrubs also); shrubs, 84; herbaceous and semi-woody plants 56; grasslike and rushlike plants, 29; climbing-plants, 33; perching-plants, 17; parasites, 14; and ferns, 114.

The considerable number of species for the whole New Zealand community may easily lead to an exaggerated estimate of the number of species to be found in any ordinary piece of forest, even though of considerable extent. Thus extensive pieces of lowland forest to the north of latitude 42° may possess from 150 to 180 species, and to the south of this parallel from 140 to 100 species, while 125 species is a fairly high estimate for Stewart Island

Another class of forest, though usually possessing many rain-forest characteristics, is that where one or more species of southern-beach (Nothofagus—there, are 5 species and very many hybrids) dominate. Such forests extend—but not continuously— from somewhat south of latitude 37° almost to the shore of Foveaux Strait. Generally they are restricted to the mountains, but in places they descend to sea-level in southern Wellington, northern Marlborough and Nelson, and to the west of the coastal mountains of western Nelson and of the Southern Alps. Throughout the high mountains the southern-beech forests generally form the uppermost forest belt

Nothofagus forest differs from lowland rain-forest in possessing about one-half the number of species and in lacking the exuberant richness of the forest interior, due largely to its comparative poverty in small trees, diversity of shrubs, climbing plants, perching-plants, and ferns, as also to the forest-floor and tree-trunks being but scantily covered, or draped, with filmy ferns, mosses, and the like. A fundamental difference, and one of great economic importance, is that southern-beach forest regenerates into forest of the same class, while rain-forest proper slowly changes into forest dominated by trees of small commercial value, such replacing the valuable timber-trees (kauri, podocarps) when those die; also, all the southern-beeches, as compared with other tall New Zealand trees, are of far more rapid growth.

Where water lies hero and there in shallow pools and the soil is always saturated with moisture there is semi-swamp forest which is of a true rain-forest character, though not directly dependant on a heavy rainfall, its composition depending upon the ability of many rain-forest species to tolerate a constantly wot substratum. Its most marked characteristic is the overwhelming dominance of one tall tree, the kahikatea (Podocarpus dacrydioides), the tall mast-like trunks of which, standing closely side by side, and their absurdly small crowns, stamp the community as absolutely distinct in appearance from any other typo of forest; while in the North Island its physiognomy is made still more remarkable by the astonishing number of asteliads perched on its branches, and resembling gigantic birds' nests. To the north of latitude 42° the pukatea (Laurelia novae-zelandiae) is a common lofty tree. The florula for semi-swamp forest, as a whole, consists of about 138 species, but of these only 4 species are confined almost exclusively to the community. The forest under consideration bids fair in a few years to become almost a thing of the past, since the dominant tree is being rapidly converted into timber for butter-boxes, and the ground occupied by the forest is usually of a high class for dairy-farms

Proximity to the sea leads to a class of forest distinct from the usual lowland type in its composition, in the much lower stature of its members, and in the extreme density of its roof, the last two characters induced by the frequent more or less salt-laden winds. The maritime climate favours the presence of trees which will not tolerate frost, so that a number of well-known trees and shrubs are confined, or nearly so, to coastal forest— e.g., the kawakawa (Macropiper excelsum), the large-leaved milk-tree (Paratrophis opaca), the karo (Pittosporum crassifolium), the haekaro (P. umbellatum), the karaka (Corynocarpus laevigata), the akoake (Dodonaea viscosa), the pohutukawa (Metrosideroa tomentosa abut the name has recently been altered to excelsa, which by the “Rules of Botanical Nomenclature” is correct for the time being, notwithstanding that tomentosa has boon the sole name for nearly a hundred years !), and the ngaio (Myoporum laetum). Several of the above do not extend beyond latitude 38°, and the ngaio alone reaches Southland, so that coastal forest in the southern part of the South Island is made up of those ordinary lowland trees, &c., which can tolerate coastal conditions.

In addition to forest, the other great New Zealand plant-community dependent on climate is tussock-grassland. This community is of but little moment in the North Island except on the volcanic plateau and the highest mountains, but in the South Island it was the original plant-covering of most of the country to the east of the Divide of the Southern Alps, excepting northern Marlborough, northern Nelson, and parts of Southland. It extends from sea-level to the upper subalpine belt of the mountains, but is loss continuous at high than at low levels. It also occupies some of the lowland and montane river-valleys of north-western Nelson and Westland, and ascends to the subalpine western slopes of the mountains.

There are two distinct types of tussock-grassland—" “low” and “tall” the former distinguished by the dominance of the medium-sized tussocks of Poa caespitosa and Festuca novae-zelandiae (one or both), and the latter by the dominance of one or both of the much taller and more massive tussocks of red-tussock (Danthonia Raoulii var. rubra), or snow-grass (D. Raoulii var. flavescens), and the numerous hybrids between them. Taking lowland and montane low tussock-grass land together, and excluding tall tussock-grassland, since they occupy a far more extensive area, and leaving out of the estimate the 74 or so exotic species now firmly established, the number of species they contain for the whole area is 216 (ferns and fern allies 10, monocotyledons 66, dicotyledons 140), which belong to 38 families and 104 genera, the largest being: Families - Gramineae, 36; Compositae, 35; and Cyperaceae, Leguminosae, and Onagraceae, each 11. Genera Poa and Epilobium, each 11; Carmichaelia, 9; and Carex, Acaena, and Raoulia, each 7. As for the biological groups, they and the number of species to each are as follows: Trees, 2; shrubs, 31; tussocks, 13; other plants of the gras3 form, 43; herbaceous plants, 90; semi-woody plants, 30; and ferns, 7. About 85 of the species are drought-tolerating

Where water can accumulate and remain fairly permanent, yet not too deep to hinder land-plants rooting in the mud, there is swamp. Except forest, no class of vegetation has been so greatly altered by man, or even destroyed, so that really primitive swamps are almost unknown. The florula consists of about 74 species, which belong to 18 families and 37 genera. The following are specially common species: Raupo (Typha angustifolia), frequently dominant; New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax), dominant in drained swamp; niggerheads (Carex secta, C. virgata); toetoe grass (Arundo conspicua); cabbage-tree (Cordyline australis); common koromiko (Hebe salicifolia); karamu (Coprosma robusta); common coprosma (C. propinqua); and many hybrids between the last two. When, as frequently happens, the swamp gradually dries up, the number of shrubs increases and an early stage of semi-swamp forest is produced.

At the present time, especially in the North Island and the north of the South Island, wide areas are occupied by bracken-fern (Pteridium esculentum) or by manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), for the most part caused by fire; yet as fire was a natural agency in primitive New Zealand in the vicinity of active volcanoes, there would be natural communities of the above character. Both communities if left alone would in time change into forest. Manuka shrubland is a common feature of the Auckland gumlands, where also, in hollows, bogs are abundant, which, as for lowland New Zealand in general, are distinguished by pale hummocks of bog-moss (Sphagnum), a small umbrella-fern (Gleichenia circinata), and a wiry rushlike plant, the wire-rush (Hypolaena lateriflora). On these bogs grow several kinds of sundew (Drosera) and bladderwort (Utricularia).

The vegetation of the high mountains is both of great scientific interest and full of rare beauty. It is composed of no less than 966 species, and it is certain that a good many more species will be discovered. How strongly of New Zealand origin is the flora is revealed by the fact that of the 514 purely high-mountain species all except 16 are endemic, and probably 5 of those are endemic also. The headquarters of the true high-mountain species is in the South Island, their total being 473, as compared with 105 for the North Island, a matter which should cause no surprise since the area for plants above the forest-line is far and away less than in the South Island, where also the average height of the mountains is much greater

Though the high mountains contain only 16 genera which do not descend to the lowlands, 8 of them are endemic. But there are 40 genera which, possessing but few truly lowland species, are well represented by purely high-mountain species, e.g. (to cite some of particular importance): Danthonia, Colobanthus, Ranunculus, Nasturtium, Geum, Acaena, Pimelea, Drapetes, Schizeilema, Aciphylla, Anisotome, Dracophyllum, Gentiana, Myosotis, Hebe, Veronica, Ourisia, Euphrasia, Plantago, Lobelia, Forstera, Olearia, Celmisia, Raoulia, Helichrysum, Abrotanella, and Senecio.

With but few exceptions the most beautiful flowers of New Zealand belong to the high-mountain flora, so that in due season many plant-communities are natural flower-gardens of extreme loveliness. There are the giant buttercups, white and yellow—but nearly all the flowers are of these colours—which may be seen by the acre; the lovely ourisias, with the flowers in whorls round the stem, tier above tier, as in some of the Asiatic primulas, or the glistening green leaves, as in O. caespitosa, may form mats on stony ground bearing multitudes of delicate blossoms; the eyebrights—true alpine gems—their flowers white with a yellow eye or purple throat, or yellow altogether; forget-me-nots, yellow, bronze, purplish, or white; the snow-groundsel, its large marguerite-like flowers produced in such profusion that the mountain-meadow glistens like a snowfield; the two kinds of edelweiss, far surpassing their Swiss elder sister in beauty, the flowers of the “everlasting” kind, their outer leaves flannelly and snow-white. But above all other plants of the mountains, not only for their beauty of flower, leaf, and form, but for their abundance in all situations, come the various species of Celmisia. “Go where you will"—to quote from “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” (ed. 2, p. 238)— "on subalpine and alpine herb-field and their silvery foliage strikes the eye, it may be in stately rosettes of dagger-like leaves, in circular mats trailing over the ground, or in dense cushions. Their aromatic fragrance fills the air; from early till late summer some of their white heads of blossom may be seen, while in due season, gregarious species clothe both wet herb-field and dry, stony slopes with sheets of white

The life-forms of the high-mountain plants are in great variety and frequently of striking appearance. Cushion-plants, rosette-plants, mat-forming plants, and stiff-stemmed shrubs are greatly in evidence. Hairiness, leathery texture, and surprising rigidity, perhaps accompanied by needle-like points, as in the giant spaniards (Aciphylla Colensoi, A. maxima, &c.), are common characteristics of leaves.

There are many plant-communities composed of combinations of tussock-grasses, herbaceous plants, semi-woody plants, dwarf or creeping shrubs, and cushion-plants which are sometimes dense enough, and sometimes so open that there is more stony ground than vegetation. The most surprising community is that of unstable stony debris—the “shingle-slips" of the shepherds—which covers the slopes of certain dry mountains for some thousands of feet, particularly in Marlborough and Canterbury. No loss than 33 species occupy this inhospitable station, 25 of which are confined thereto. So far apart do the species grow—frequently many yards— that they bear no relation to each other. Their life-forms are clearly in harmony with the peculiar environment. All have thick fleshy or leathery leaves, frequently of the grey colour of the stones. In 16 species the part above the ground is annual; the shoots nearly always lie close to the stones, but if buried they have the faculty of growing upwards again. One species, Cotula atrata, has a jet-black flower-head, with stamens like tiny golden pin-heads

Shrubland is common in the mountains, the most characteristic being the subalpine scrub, which on many mountains forms a dense belt above the timber-line. That typical of a wet climate consists of rigid or wiry-stemmed shrubs which grow into one another, and the main branches of many are parallel to the slope and project downwards. The scrub may be so dense that one must either crawl beneath it or walk on its treacherous roof. For the whole of the region the community consists of about 122 species, belonging to 28 families and 49 genera. The chief groups of plants which compose the scrub are shrubby composites and epacrids, wiry shrubs with densely entangled twigs (mainly species of Coprosma), species of Hebe, Phormium Colensoi, various podocarps, and giant spaniards. On river-terraces scrubs with species of Hebe dominant are frequent, and fringing stony river-beds there is often an open scrub of wild-irishman (Discaria toumatou)—one of the few spinous plants in the flora.

Rock-vegetation is always of interest, and this is particularly so in the high mountains. The number of species occurring on rocks is about 190 (families, 36; genera, 74). About 44 species are virtually confined to rocks, and such include a dwarf fern (Polypodium pumilum), certain rosette plants at present referred to the genus Nasturlium, one or two dwarf spaniards and a few forget-me-nots, hebes, celmisias, and raoulias

The floras of the following groups of islands, far distant from the mainland, are distinctly part of that of New Zealand. The Kermadecs contain 117 species of ferns, fern-allies, and seed-plants, 10 of which are endemic, while 89 belong also to New Zealand proper. The largest island (Sunday Island) is covered with forest in which a variety of Metrosideros collina, a near relative of the pohutukawa, is the principal tree. The Chatham Islands possess at least 257 species, of which 36 are endemic, though several of the latter are trivial varieties merely, while the remainder of the flora is, with one exception, found on the mainland. Forest, moor, and heath are the principal plant communities. The leading tree is the karaka, but by the Moriori called kopi. On the moors are great, thickets of a lovely purple-flowered shrub, Olearia semidentata. There are two remarkable endemic genera, Coxella and Myosotidium, the former belonging to the carrot family, and the latter a huge forget-me-not, now nearly extinct. The subantarctic islands (Snares, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Macquarie) have a dense vegetation made up of 193 species, no fewer than 60 of which are endemic, the remainder being found in New Zealand, but chiefly in the mountains. Forest is found only on the Snares and the Aucklands, with a species of Olearia and the southern-rata as the dominant trees respectively. Extremely dense scrubs occur on the Auckland and Campbell Islands, and moor sometimes with huge tussocks, is a characteristic feature of all the islands, thanks to the enormous peat deposits and the frequent rain. Several herbaceous plants of stately form (species of Pleurophyllum, Anisotome, Stilbocarpa, and Celmisia) and with flowers of extreme beauty—some of them purple in colour—occur in great profusion.

The Cook Islands, though a part of the Dominion, possess a Polynesian flora quite distinct from that of New Zealand, and are excluded form this notice, while, on the contrary, the flora of the Macquarie Islands (belonging to Tasmania) is a portion of that of New Zealand.

Besides the indigenous, an important introduced element, consisting of about 520 species, mostly European, has followed in the wake of settlement. These aliens are in more or less active competition with the true natives. There is a widespread but quite erroneous opinion that the latter are being eradicated in the struggle. This is not the case. Where the vegetation has never been disturbed by man there are no foreign plants; but where man, with his farming operations, stock, and burning, has brought about European conditions, then certainly the indigenous plants have frequently given way before artificial meadows and arable land, with their economic plants and accompanying weeds. But in many places associations not present in primitive New Zealand have appeared, owing to man's influence, composed principally, or altogether, of indigenous species. On the tussock-grassland invader and aboriginal have met, and though the original vegetation is changed there is no reason to consider the one class or the other as the conqueror. Finally, partly of exotic plants and partly of those indigenous to the soil, will occupy the land, and, save in the national parks and scenic reserves, but only if these and kept build up a vegetation different from that of primeval New Zealand.

The above brief sketch of the flora and vegetation is obviously most incomplete. Those wishing to dive deeper into the fascinating subject can consult the following books: “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora,” ed. 2, by T. F. Cheeseman, 1925; “New Zealand,” by R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell, ed. 3, 1927; “New Zealand Trees and Shrubs and how to identify them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips Turner, 1928; “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” ed. 2, by L. Cockayne, 1928; “The New Zealand Nature Book,” Vol. 2, by W. Martin, 1929; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbie, ed. 3, 1931. Also (but now out of print) “The Forest Flora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889, must not be overlooked.

THE FAUNA.

The fauna of New Zealand is briefly described in the following article by Mr. James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S.: —

New Zealand's native fauna has attracted the attention of investigators in nearly all parts of the world. Its special interest lies in its manifold peculiarities, V in the incongruous characters possessed by some of its members, and in the ancient types found in different classes of its animals

Beginning with the mammalia, the Dominion is surprisingly inadequately represented. Its only land-mammals, except seals, are two bats. One of these, the long-tailed bat, belongs to a genus (Chalinolobus) which is found in the Australian and Ethiopian zoological regions, and to a species (morio) found in the south-east of Australia as well as in New Zealand; but the other, the short-tailed bat (Mystacops tuberculatus), belongs to a genus peculiar to this Dominion. At one time it was believed that the Maori dog (Canis familiaris, variety maorium, the “kuri" of the Maoris) and the Maori rat (Mus exulans, the Maoris' “kiore”) were indigenous to New Zealand, but it is now generally believed that these two animals were introduced by the Maoris when they made their notable migrations from their legendary Hawaiki. The dog was highly prized as a domestic pet, and the rat as an article of diet. Both could easily be taken across the sea in the large canoes used in those days. The dog, without doubt, is extinct. Statements by Captain Cook, J. R. and G. Forster, Sydney Parkinson (the artist), the Rev. W. Colenso, and early visitors to New Zealand show that the Maori dog was a very ordinary animal. It was small, with a pointed nose, pricked ears, and very small eyes. In colour it was white, black, brown, or parti-coloured, and it had long hair, short legs, a short bushy tail, and no loud bark, but only a whine. The Maoris lavished upon it an abundance of affection. When dead its flesh was used for food, its skin for clothing, and its hair for ornaments. Opinions differ in regard to the approximate date of its extinction, and investigations in this respect are made somewhat difficult by the fact that for some years “wild dogs,” as they were called—probably a cross between the Maori dog and dogs brought by Europeans—infested several districts in both the North Island and the South Island, and were confused with the Maori dog. It is probable that the pure Maori dog became extinct about 1885. The Maori rat, a forest-dweller, is not as plentiful as it was when Europeans first came to New Zealand, but it still lives in the forests.

The long-tailed species of bat was once fairly plentiful, especially in the forests, where it makes its home in hollow trees. Large numbers also at one time were found under old bridges across streams, notably at the River Avon, in Christchurch. It is not very rare now, and specimens sometimes are found in the forests and in caves. The short-tailed species is not extinct, but rare. Most bats are exceptionally well adapted for life in the air, feeding on flying insects, and even drinking on the wing. But the short-tailed species of New Zealand possesses peculiarities of structure which enable it to creep and crawl with ease on the branches and leaves of trees, and probably it seeks its food there as well as in the air. Few naturalists, however, have had opportunities to observe it, and little is known of its habits.

The sea-lion, the sea-elephant, the sea-leopard, and the fur-seal are found on islands within the Dominion's boundaries. In the early days of colonization sealing was a great industry, and yielded large profits to some of the adventurous men who took part in it.

Amongst the sea-mammals whales are the most important. At one time extensive whaling was carried on in New Zealand waters, three hundred vessels, chiefly from America, sometimes visiting the country in one year. The industry began about 1795, reached the height of its prosperity between 1830 and 1840, and then began to dwindle. In recent years there has been an effort to revive the industry, but it will never attain the position it held in former years. Porpoises are plentiful, and the dolphin (Delphinus delphis) also is found in these waters. Mention should be made here of “Pelorus Jack,” a solitary whale which for some years met vessels near Pelorus Sound, and which was protected by an Order in Council under the name of Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus). He was the only member of the species reported from New Zealand waters.

In contrast with the species of land-mammals, the members of the next class, Aves, were remarkably plentiful when settlement began. Bush and grass fires, cats, stoats, and weasels, and the ruthless use of the gun have reduced their numbers, but they still stand as probably the most interesting avifauna in the world. They include a comparatively large number of absolutely flightless birds. No living birds in New Zealand are wingless, but the kiwi (Apteryx), the weka (Gallirallus), the kakapo parrot (Strigops), and the takahe (Notornis hochsletteri)* cannot use their

* This bird is better known as Notornis mantelli. That name was first given by Sir Richard Owen to an extinct bird, represented by a fossil found at Waingongoro, in the North Island, by Mr. W. Mantell in 1847. When the first living specimen of the takahe was found in 1849 scientists concluded that it was identical with the fossil, and it was accordingly given the same name of Notornis mantelli; but when Dr. Meyer, of Dresden, examined the skeleton of the third specimen he found that it was different, from the fossil, and he changed the specific name from Mantelli to Hochstetteri, thus honouring Dr. Hochstetter, a naturalist who visited New Zealand in the early days. Messrs. G. M. Matthews and T. Iredale, in their “Reference List “of 1913, give Mantellornis hochstetteri as the name of this interesting rail.

wings for flight, while a duck belonging to the Auckland Islands (Nesonetta) is practically in the same plight. There are also several species of birds whose wings are so weak that they can make only short flights. Other notable birds are the kea (Nestor notabilis), which is accused of killing sheep on stations in the South Island; the tui (Prosthemadera novae-zealandiae), which affords one of the most beautiful sights in the New Zealand forests, and charms visitors with its silvery notes; the huia (Heteralocha acutirostris), the only species known in which there is a wide divergence in the shape of the bills in the two sexes, the male's being short and straight, while the female's is curved, pliant, and long; and the wry-billed plover (Anarhynchus frontalis), the only bird known to possess a bill turned to one side. Cormorants or shags (Phalacrocorax) and penguins (impennes) are exceptionally well represented in the avifauna. New Zealand, indeed, may be regarded as the headquarters of the penguins, as all the genera except one are found within the boundaries of this Dominion. The oldest fossil penguin known is from the Eocene and Oligocene rocks of New Zealand. New Zealand probably was the centre from which penguins were dispersed to other countries.

Several species of birds make notable migrations to New Zealand. The godwit (Vetola lapponica baueri) breeds in the tundras of Eastern Siberia and in Kamchatka and Western Alaska, and spends the summer months in New Zealand, arriving about October, and leaving in March or April. The knot (Canutus canutus) breeds in circumpolar regions and migrates to New Zealand; and two cuckoos—the shining cuckoo (Lamprococcyx lucidus) and the long-tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis taitensis)—come from Pacific islands in the spring, and leave for their northern homes about April. Both, like most members of the Cuculida? family, are parasitical, and impose upon small native birds the duty of hatching and rearing young cuckoos. The kiwi, already mentioned, belongs to the same subclass as the ostrich, the emu, and the cassowary, all struthious birds, and has several peculiarities besides its flightlessness. One of these is the position of its nostrils at the tip of its bill, instead of at. the base as in all other birds. Its plumage is peculiarly hair-like in appearance. It possesses a very generalized structure; as Sir Richard Owen once suggested, it seems to have borrowed its head from one group of birds, its legs from another, and its wings from a third. It was once believed to be almost extinct, but in recent years has been shown to be fairly plentiful in some districts where there is little settlement

The takahe (Notornis) is one of the world's very rare birds. Only four specimens have been found. Two of the skins are in the British Museum, one is in the Dresden Museum, and one in the Otago Museum, in Dunedin. The fourth specimen was caught by two guides (Messrs. D. and J. Ross) at Notornis Bay, Lake Te Anau, in 1898. There is reason to believe that the takahe still exists in the wild districts of the southern sounds

The interest of the living avifauna is surpassed by the interest of the extinct birds. These include the great flightless moa (Dinornis), a goose (Cnemiornis minor), a gigantic rail (Aptornis otidiformis), and an eagle (Harpagornis moorei). Reptilian life is restricted to about fifteen species of lizards, and to the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). This is a lizard-like creature, the only surviving representative of the order Rhynchocephalia, otherwise extinct. The tuatara is found in no other country. Its nearest ally is Homoeosaurus, whose remains have been found in Jurassic rocks in Germany. The tuatara has been destroyed to a large extent by wild pigs, cats, and dogs, and is now seldom found except on a few islands off the coast of the mainland.

The amphibians are represented by two species of frogs. One, Liopelma hochstetteri, has been recorded from only a few districts in the Auckland Province. The other, Liopelma hamiltoni, has been recorded from only Stephen Island, a small island in Cook Strait, notable as one of the refuges of the tuatara.

About 250 species of fish have been found in New Zealand waters. Many of those are used for food. Several species, notably the mudfish (Neochanna apoda), which is sometimes discovered buried 4 ft. deep in clay in places where rivers have overflowed in flood, and in swampy places, are interesting. Some of the genera are peculiar to New Zealand, but some also occur in Australian and South American waters.

Amongst the invertebrates one of the peculiarities is the fact that the Dominion has few butterflies, although it is well supplied with moths. It has a red admiral butterfly (Vanessa), named after the European species, which it resembles, and a copper butterfly (Chrysophanus), which is very plentiful. In the forests there is that strange growth the “vegetable caterpillar.” The Dominion has native bees and ants, dragon-flies, sober-coloured beetles, and representatives of other orders of insects. The katipo spider (Lairodectes katipo), which lives mostly on or near the sea-beach, is well known locally. Amongst the mollusca there is a large and handsome land-snail (Paryphanta), and Amphibola, an air-breathing snail, peculiar to the Dominion, which lives in brackish water, mainly in estuaries. There are about twenty species of univalves and twelve of bivalves in the fresh-water shells, and about four hundred species in the marine shells, including the paper nautilus (Argonauta). Perhaps the most interesting of all the invertebrates is the Peripatus, an ancient type of creature which survives in New Zealand and in parts of Australia, Africa, South America, the West Indies, New Britain, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. Zoologically, it belongs to the air-breathing division of the phylum Arthropoda, and has been placed in a special class, Prototracheata or Onychophora. It is about 3 in. long, has many feet, loves moisture, shuns light, and moves slowly. Two gonera have been found in New Zealand. One genus, Peripatoides, contains two species, novae-zealandiae and suteri, and the other, OÖperipatus, contains only one species, viridimaculatus. The Peripalus is viviparous. It is claimed that one New Zealand genus, OÖperipatus, is oviparous, but that has not been fully proved.* Professor A. Dendy, F.R.S., has made special investigations in regard to the New Zealand species.

With the arrival of Europeans the whole face of the fauna was changed. The first European animal introduced wits the pig, liberated by Captain Cook in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773. With settlement, sheep, cattle, horses, and other domestic animals were brought, some for utility, some for pleasure, such as song-birds, and some for sport, such as deer, trout, pheasants, and quail. In the work of acclimatization several great and irretrievable blunders were made. The worst of these was the introduction of rabbits, stoats, and weasels.

* Professor Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S., late Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, in the Encyclopedia Britannica.

Chapter 2. SECTION II.—HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND ADMINISTRATION.

EARLY HISTORY.

THE history of New Zealand prior to the seventeenth century is shrouded in mythology and tradition. When the country was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had discovered these islands many centuries previously. At what time the discovery of New Zealand was made by the Maoris, and from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, much having been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything of record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they found inhabitants of the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, many generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from those traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less variation, in all the eastern Pacific islands.

DISCOVERY BY EUROPEANS.

It was of the 11th December, 1642, that Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, discovered New Zealand. Tasman left Batavia of the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskereq,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea-hen”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius and discovered Tasmania, of steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country.” Tasman finally departed without having set foot in the country.

There is of record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who sighted land of the 6th October, 1769, at Young Nick's Head, and of the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the South and Stewart Islands— which last ho mistook for part of the South Island —he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770. for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned M. de Surville (December, 1769), M. Marion du Fresne (1772), Captains Vancouver and Broughton (1791), Captain Raven (1792-93), Alejandro Malaspina and José de Bustamente y Guerra (1793), Lieutenant Hanson (1793)

SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION.

So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven, of the “Britannia,” landed a sealing-party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over twelve months before being called for.

The next few years saw the establishment of whaling-stations at several points on the coast, and in 1814 the first missionaries—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—arrived in New Zealand. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government. He returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall, Kendall, and King, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands

In 1825 three separate attempts were made to found colonies in various parts of New Zealand, but none of those was successful, and for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling-stations. A number of Europeans gradually settled in different parts of the country, and many of these married Native women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonization arrived in Port Nicholson on the 22nd January, 1840, and founded the town of Wellington. During the few succeeding years the settlements of Nelson, Taranaki, Otago, and Canterbury were formed by immigrants sent out by associations in the United Kingdom

Auckland, where the seat of Government was established in 1840, was not specially colonized from the United Kingdom, but attracted population mainly from Australia and from other parts of New Zealand

BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY.

As early as 1833 a British Resident (Mr. Busby) was appointed, with headquarters at Kororareka (now called Russell), on the Bay of Islands. Seven years later—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30th January, 1840, and on 6th February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi* was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were coded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. Originally signed by forty-six chiefs, the treaty (or copies of it) was taken to various parts of the country and signed by other chiefs, so that in a period of less than six months 512 signatures were affixed.

On 21st May, 1840, Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. On the treaty being signed in the South Island, formal proclamation of British sovereignty over that island in accordance with the consent of the Maoris was made at Cloudy Bay on 17th June 1840, by Major Bunbury.

New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until the 3rd May, 1841. when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated the 16th November, 1840.

CONSTITUTION.

The government of the colony was first vested in a Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown: there was an Executive Council, with advisory powers only, as well as a Legislative Council.

*The historic site of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, together with 1,000 acres of the adjoining estate, was purchased and presented to the nation as a national monument by Their excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe in May, 1932.

An Act granting representative institutions to the colony was passed by the Imperial Parliament on the 30th June, 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on the 17th January, 1853. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives.

The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the House of Representatives, who, however, held no portfolios. The first Ministers under a system of responsible government were appointed in the year 1856.

By Order in Council dated 9th September, 1907, and by Proclamation issued 10th September, 1907, the style and designation of the Colony of New Zealand was altered to “The Dominion of New Zealand,” the change taking effect from Thursday, the 26th September, 1907.

By Letters Patent dated 11th May, 1917, the designation of Governor and Commander-in-Chief which had hitherto been hold by the Royal representative in New Zealand was altered to “Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.”

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor -General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of the 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of the 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council, but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exorcise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to His Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded upon the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The present Executive Council consists of ten members in addition to the Governor -General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Since the 10-per-cent, reduction in 1931, and the 15-per-cent, reduction in 1932 (National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932), the Prime Minister receives £1,377 per annum, other Ministers with portfolios receiving £895 Is. per annum. House allowance of £153 per annum is paid in addition in eases where a Government residence is not provided.

The Civil List Act, 1920, provides for His Excellency the Governor-General to receive £5,000 per annum, and £2,500 per annum allowance. His Excellency has elected voluntarily to subject these amounts to an annual deduction of £2,250.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

The Imperial Act under which the earliest appointments were made to the Legislative Council under a system of responsible government provided that the first appointees should be not less than ten in number. The number actually summoned for the first session (held at Auckland from 24th May, 1854), was sixteen, of whom only fourteen attended. The number increased irregularly for thirty years. In 1885 and 1886 it stood at fifty-three, but has not since reached that limit. The number on the roll at present is twenty-six.

An Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1868 provided that future appointments of Councillors should be made by the Governor (not by the Sovereign). Until 1891 members were appointed for life, but since that year appointments have boon made for seven years only, members, however, being eligible for reappointment. Prior to 1891 the Speaker was appointed by the Governor, but the Council now elects its own Speaker, who holds office for five years. The Chairman of Committees was formerly elected every session, but in 1928 the standing orders were amended to provide for a three years' term of office. Speaker and Chairman are both eligible for re-election.

Provision for an elective Legislative Council is contained in the Legislative Council Act, 1914, which is to be brought into operation at a date to be specified by Proclamation.

Before the year 1892 the honorarium of Councillors was understood to be for the session, not for the year, and formed the subject of a special vote every session, the amount varying in different sessions. By the Payment of Members Act, 1892, the honorarium was made annual, not sessional, and was fixed at £150 a year. The amount was raised in 1904 to £200, and in 1920 to £350, but was reduced in 1922 to £315, in 1931 to £283 10s., and in 1932 to £255 3s. The Speaker now receives £583 4s. per annum, and the Chairman of Committees £364 10s. Besides the honorarium, members are allowed travelling-expenses actually incurred in going to and from Parliament at the opening and closing of each session.

Subject to certain exemptions, members not attending the Council are liable to be fined.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty— seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are now designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act, 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

After each population Census the Dominion is divided anew into seventy-six European electorates, according to population distribution, with an allowance for rural population. The “country quota” is computed on the basis that 28 per cent, is added to the rural population, which for electoral purposes means population other than that contained in a city or borough of over 2,000 inhabitants or in any area within five miles of the chief post offices at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, or Dunedin. The “country quota” first appeared in 1881, to the equivalent of an addition of 33 1/2 per cent, to the country population. It was reduced in 1887 to 18 per cent., but was increased in 1889 to the present 28 per cent

Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with the exception that the term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the Great War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth Parliament to four years on account of the financial conditions arising out of the world-wide depression

Every registered elector of either sex who is free from the disqualifications mentioned in the Electoral Act, 1927, is eligible for membership. All contractors to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly, in any one financial year, as well as the public servants of the Dominion, are incapable of being elected as, or of sitting or voting as, members

The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £364 10s. per annum, subject to certain deductions for absence not duo to sickness or other unavoidable cause. Travelling-expenses to and from Wellington at the opening and closing of each session are also allowed. The rate of payment for several years prior to 1920 was £300 per annum, but was increased in that year to £500, 10-percent. reductions, however, being made in 1922, 1931, and 1932.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a now House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon after as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £70S 15s. per annum, plus sessional allowance of £7S 15s. and free sessional quarters, and that of the Chairman of Committees £546 15s. per annum.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum

THE FRANCHISE

The three cardinal principles of the franchise in New Zealand are (1) one man one vote, (2) female suffrage, and (3) adult suffrage.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the last -mentioned, the following classes of persons not being entitled to register as electors or to vote:—

To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924

The system of “one man one vote” has been in operation since 1889, and women's suffrage since 1893. The qualifications for registration are the same for both sexes.

  • An alien:

  • A mentally defective person:

  • A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of His Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1927, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence

To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924

The system of “one man one vote” has been in operation since 1889, and women's suffrage since 1893. The qualifications for registration are the same for both sexes.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

Side by side with the general government of the country, but subordinate to it there has existed a system of local government since the early years of New Zealand's annexation as a British colony. The history of local government divides naturally into two periods representing two distinct systems—viz., the provincial, which was in operation up to 1876, and the county, which superseded the provincial in that year.

The Provinces.

On the 23rd December, 1847, a Charter was signed dividing the colony into two provinces—New Ulster and New Munster—and this was proclaimed in New Zealand on the 10th March, 1848

Under the constitution of 1853 the Provinces of New Ulster and New Minister were abolished and the colony was divided into six provinces—Auckland, New Plymouth (later altered to Taranaki), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. Each province was to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine by the formation of Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Southland, later reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with Otago, and again increased to nine by the formation of Westland, remained as integral parts of the constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, and re-created as provincial districts

Early Boroughs and Town Districts

Even before the division of New Zealand into the two provinces of Now Ulster and New Munster, local government had its inception, Wellington having been created a borough in 1842 under the authority of the Municipal Corporations Ordinance of that year. The Ordinance was disallowed by the Imperial Government, but was re-enacted, with necessary alterations, in 1844. Wellington, which lost its status on the original Ordinance being disallowed, did not become a borough again until 1870, Auckland (constituted in 1851) remaining the only borough in New Zealand for several years.

Wellington, which had been the first borough in the country, also became the first town district, with a form of government not differing greatly from that of a municipality. Gradually the more important towns adopted the status of boroughs, while the less important remained town districts. In Otago, however, between 1865 and 1875, several small towns were created boroughs under the authority, of an Ordinance of the Otago Provincial Council, nineteen of the thirty-six boroughs in existence at the date of the abolition of the provinces being in Otago.

The Road and Highway Districts.

Another form of local government which came into existence in the provincial days was that of the road districts, or, as they were called in certain parts of the country, highway districts. As the names imply, the road and highway districts were formed for the purpose of extending and maintaining roads. Each district was controlled by an elected Board, which had power to levy rates. The first Road Boards were formed in 1863, and by 1875 their number had risen to 314.

The Counties.

Among the instructions given Captain Hobson on his appointment as the first Governor of New Zealand was one directing that the colony was to be divided into counties, hundreds, and parishes. In accordance with this instruction, the boundaries of the County of Eden, in which Auckland—then the capital—is situated, were proclaimed in 1842, and some years later the county was divided into hundreds. Very little further was done towards giving effect to the instructions, and the first administrative county was Westland, separated from Canterbury Province in 1867, and granted a system of local government in the following year

It was not until the abolition of the provinces in 1876 that a scheme of division of the whole country into counties was introduced. The Counties Act, 1876, which, in conjunction with the Municipal Corporations Act of the same year, provided a comprehensive scheme of local government in lion of the provincial governments, divided New Zealand into sixty-three counties. With the exception of six, which were exempted from the operations of the Act, each county was placed under the control of an elected Chairman and Council, possessed of fairly full powers of local government—considerably loss, however, than those formerly enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. The Counties Act specially excluded boroughs from the counties within which they geographically lie, and a similar enabling provision has since been made in the case of town districts having a population of over 500.

Extension of Local Government

Since the abolition of the provinces and the passing of the Counties and Municipal Corporations Acts of 1876 there has been considerable extension of local government. Many of the road districts have merged with the counties within which they lie, while others have become boroughs or town districts. On the other hand, counties, boroughs, and town districts have increased in numbers, while several entirely new classes of local districts, formed for definite purposes—as, for instance, land drainage or electric-power supply—have come into existence. In most cases the Boards of those districts have borrowing and rating powers.

Much fuller information concerning the origin, development, constitution, functions, &c., of local governing bodies than can be given here will be found in the Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand. The reader is also referred to the section of this book dealing with Local Government.

Chapter 3. SECTION III.—OFFICIAL.

GOVERNOR—GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND.

His Excellency, the Right Honourable Lord Bledisloe, P.C., G.C.M.G., K.B.E., D.Sc.

Official Secretary—Sir Cecil Day, C.M.G., C.B.E.

Aides-de-Camp—Lieutenant J. C. Elworthy, R.N.; Captain J. W. Tweedie.

Honorary Aides-de-Camp—Naval: Captain C. Sinclair Thomson, R.N.; Commander

V. A. C. Crutchley, V.C., D.S.C., R.N. Military: Colonel (temp. Brigadier) J. H.

Whyte, D.S.O.; Lieutenant-Colonel J. E. Duigan, D.S.O.; Colonel H. C. Hurst.

D.S.O., V.D.; Colonel W. H. Cunningham, D.S.O., V.D.; Lieutenant-Colonel

R. G. Milligan, D.S.O., V.D.: Colonel J. N. McCarroll, C.M.G., D.S.O., V.D.

Honorary Physician—Colonel J. L. Frazerhurst, V.D., M.D.

Honorary Surgeon—Colonel H. T. D. Acland, C.M.G., C.B.E., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

His Excellency assumed office on the 19th March, 1930. A complete list of successive vice-regal representatives since 1840 will be found in the 1931 issue (pp. 59-60) of the Year-Book.

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS.

Since the Establishment of Responsible Government in New Zealand in 1856.

Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May, 18562 June, 1856.
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 July, 18616 Aug., 1862
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug., 186230 Oct., 1863
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct., 186324 Nov., 1864
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov., 186416 Oct., 1865
8.Stafford Edward William Stafford16 Oct., 186528 June, 1869.
9. FoxWilliam Fox 28 June, 186910 Sep, 1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford 10 Sept 187211 Oct., 1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct.,18723 Mar., 1873.
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar., 18738 April, 1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 April, 18736 July, 1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 July, 187515 Feb., 1876.
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb., 18761 Sept., 1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sept., 187613 Sept., 1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sept., 187615 Oct., 1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct., 18778 Oct., 1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct., 187921 April, 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker. M.L.C.21 April, 188225 Sept., 1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep., 188316 Aug., 1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug., 188428 Aug., 1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Aug., 18843 sep., 1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep., 18848 Oct., 1897
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct., 189724 Jan., 1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan., 18911 May, 1893.
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.1 May, 1893.21 June., 1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 June., 19066 Aug., 1906
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C., K.C.M.G.6 Aug.,190625 Mar., 1912

30. Mackenzie

Thomas Mackenzie28 Mar., 191210 July, 1912.
30. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.10 July, 191212 Aug., 1915.
31. NationalRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.12 Aug., 191525 Aug., 1919.
32. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.25 Aug., 191914 May, 1925.
33. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May. 192530 May, 1925.
34. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, P.C., M.C.30 May, 192510 Dec., 1928.
35. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C.G.C.M.G.10 Dec., 192828 May, 1930.
36. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.28 May, 193022 Sept., 1931.
37. CoalitionRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.22 Sept., 1931..

FORBES MINISTRY.

(Assumed Office, 28th May, 1930; resigned, 22nd September, 1931.)

Name.Office.From*

* To 22nd September, 1931, in each case, except in the two instances noted.

† Died 8th July, 1930.

‡ Succeeded by Mr. Veitch, 25th August, 1931.

Right Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.Prime Minister28 May, 1930.
Minister of Finance28 May, 1930.
Minister of External Affairs28 May, 1930.
Minister of Customs28 May, 1930.
Minister of Stamp Duties28 May, 1930.
Right Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C., G.C.M.G.Member of Executive Council without portfolio28 May, 1930.
Ethelbert Alfred RansomMinister of Lands28 May, 1930.
Commissioner of State Forests28 May, 1930.
Sir Apirana Turupa Ngata, Kt.Native Minister28 May, 1930.
Minister of Cook Islands28 May, 1930.
Harry AtmoreMinister of Education28 May, 1930.
William Andrew VeitchMinister of Railways28 May, 1930.
Minister of Transport25 Aug., 1931.
Sir Thomas Kay Sidey, Kt., M.L.C.Attorney-General28 May, 1930.
William Burgoyne TavernerMinister of Public Works28 May, 1930.
William Burgoyne TavernerMinister of Transport28 May, 1930.
Philip Aldborough de la PerrelleMinister of Internal Affairs28 May, 1930.
Minister of Industries and Commerce28 May, 1930.
John George CobbeMinister of Defence28 May, 1930.
Minister of Justice28 May, 1930.
James Bell DonaldPostmaster-General28 May, 1930.
Minister of Telegraphs28 May, 1930.
Minister of Marine28 May, 1930.
Arthur John StallworthyMinister of Health28 May, 1930.
Sydney George SmithMinister of Labour28 May, 1930.
Minister of Immigration28 May, 1930.
Alfred James MurdochMinister of Agriculture28 May, 1930.
Minister of Mines28 May, 1930.
Robert Masters, M.L.C.Member of Executive Council without portfolio20 Aug., 1930.

COALITION MINISTRY.

(Assumed Office. 22nd September, 1031.)

Name.Office.From
Resigned 8th January, 1932; succeeded by Mr. Macmillan.
Right Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.Prime Minister22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Railways22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of External Affairs22 Sept., 1931.
Right Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, P.C., M.C.,Minister of Public Works22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Transport22 Sept., 1931.
Ethelbert Alfred RansomMinister of Lands22 Sept., 1931.
Commissioner of State Forests22 Sept., 1931.
William Downie StewartMinister of Finance22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Customs22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Stamp Duties22 Sept., 1931.
Attorney-General22 Sept., 1931.
Sir Apirana Turupa Ngata, Kt.Native Minister22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of the Cook Islands22 Sept., 1931.
James Alexander YoungMinister of Health22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Immigration22 Sept., 1931.
Robert Master, M.L.C.Minister of Education22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Industries and Commerce22 Sept., 1931.
David JonesMinister of Agriculture*22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Mines*22 Sept., 1931.
John George CobbeMinister of Defence22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Justice22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Marine22 Sept., 1931.
Adam HamiltonMinister of Labour22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Internal Affairs22 Sept., 1931.
Postmaster-General22 Sept., 1931.
Minister of Telegraphs22 Sept., 1931.
Charles Edward de la Barca MacmillanMinister of Agriculture13 Feb., 1932.
Minister of Mines13 Feb., 1932.

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1932.

Rt. Hon. G. W. FORBES, P.C., Prime Minister, Minister of Railways, Minister of External Affairs, and Minister in Charge of Scientific and Industrial Research, Public Trust, Electoral, and High Commissioner's Departments.

Rt. Hon. J. G. COATES, P.C., M.C. Minister of Public Works. Minister of Transport. Minister of Employment, and Minister in Charge of Roads and Public Buildings.

Hon. E. A. RANSOM, Minister of Lands, Commissioner of State Forests, and Minister in Charge of Land for Settlements, Scenery Preservation, Discharged Soldiers' Settlement. and Valuation Departments.

Hon. W. D. STEWART, Minister of Finance. Minister of Customs, Minister of Stamp Duties, Attorney-General, and Minister in Charge of State Advances and Land and Income Tax Departments.

Hon. Sir Apirana Ngata, Kt., Native Minister, Minister for the Cook Islands, Minister in Charge of Native Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Fire Insurance, Legislative, Public Service Superannuation, Friendly Societies, and National Provident Fund Departments, and Member of the Executive Council representing the Native Race.

Hon. J. A. YOUNG, Minister of Health, Minister of Immigration, and Minister in Charge of Mental Hospitals and Printing and Stationery Departments.

Hon. R. MASTERS, M.L.C., Minister of Education and Minister of Industries and Commerce.

Hon. J. G. COBBE, Minister of Defence, Minister of Justice, Minister of Marine, and Minister in Charge of Pensions, Police, Prisons, Registrar-General's, and Inspection of Machinery Departments.

Hon. A. HAMILTON, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, Minister of Labour, Minister of Internal Affairs, and Minister in Charge of Tourist and Health Resorts, Publicity, Census and Statistics, Audit, Museum, and Advertising Departments.

Hon. C. E. MACMILLAX, Minister of Agriculture and Minister of Mines.

Clerk of the Executive Council—F. D. Thomson, C.M.G., B.A.

SUCCESSIVE PARLIAMENTS SINCE 1900.

(For particulars of Parliaments and sessions prior to 1900, see pp. 59 and 60 of the 1930 number of the Year-Book.)

Parliament.Dates of Opening of Sessions.Dates of Prorogation.Dates of Dissolution.
Fourteenth22 June, 190022 Oct., 19005 Nov., 1902.
1 July, 19018 Nov., 19015 Nov., 1902.
1 July, 19024 Oct.,5 Nov., 1902.
Fifteenth29 June, 190325 Nov., 190315 Nov., 1905.
28 June, 19048 Nov., 190415 Nov., 1905.
27 June, 190531 Oct., 190515 Nov., 1905.
Sixteenth27 June, 19063 July, 190629 Oct., 1908.
21 Aug., 190629 Oct., 190629 Oct., 1908.
27 June, 190725 Nov., 190729 0ct., 1908.
Seventeenth10 June, 190917 June, 190920 Nov., 1911.
7 Oct., 190929 Dec., 190920 Nov., 1911.
28 June, 19105 Dec., 191020 Nov., 1911.
27 July, 191130 Oct., 191120 Nov., 1911.
Eighteenth15 Feb., 19121 Mar., 191220 Nov., 1914.
27 June, 19128 Nov., 191220 Nov., 1914.
26 June, 191316 Dec., 191320 Nov.,1914.
25 June, 19146 Nov., 191420 Nov., 1914.
Nineteenth24 June, 191515 Oct., 191527 Nov., 1919.
9 May, 19169 Aug., 191627 Nov., 1919
28 June, 19172 Nov., 191727 Nov., 1919.
9 April, 191817 April, 191827 Nov., 1919.
24 Oct., 191812 Dec., 191827 Nov., 1919.
28 Aug., 19197 Nov., 191927 Nov., 1919.
Twentieth24 June, 192012 Nov., 192015 Nov., 1922.
10 Mar., 192124 Mar., 192115 Nov., 1922.
22 Sept., 192113 Feb., 192215 Nov., 1922.
28 June, 19221 Nov. 192215 Nov., 1925.
Twenty-first14 June, 192330 Aug., 192314 Oct., 1925.
26 June, 19247 Nov., 192414 Oct., 1925.
25 June, 19253 Oct., 192514 Oct., 1925.
Twenty-second16 June, 192614 Sept., 192618 Oct., 1928.
23 June, 19277 Dec., 192718 Oct., 1928.
28 June, 192811 Oct., 192818 Oct., 1928.
Twenty-third4 Dec., 192819 Dec., 192812 Nov., 1931.
27 June., 192911 Nov., 192912 Nov., 1931.
26 June., 19305 Nov., 193012 Nov., 1931.
11 Mar., 19317 May., 193112 Nov., 1931.
25 June., 193111 Nov., 193112 Nov., 1931.
Twenty-fourth23 Feb., 193211 May, 1932..

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND, JULY, 1932.

Speaker—Hon. Sir W. C. F. CARNCROSS, Kt.

Chairman of Committees—Hon. E. H. CLARK.

Clerk of the Legislative Council—E. W. KANE, C.M.G.

Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.
Allen, Colonel the Hon. Sir James, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.Otago1 June, 1927.
Bell, Right Hon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon, P.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.Wellington21 May, 1926.
Buddo, Hon. DavidCanterbury11 June, 1930.
Carncross, Hon. Sir Walter Charles Frederick, Kt.Taranaki17 March, 1931.
Carrington, Hon. Carey JohnAuckland17 June, 1926.
Clark, Hon. Edward HenryOtago25 June, 1927.
Collins, Colonel the Hon. William Edward, C.M.G.Wellington14 July, 1928.
Fagan, Hon. MarkWellington11 June, 1930.
Hall-Jones, Hon. Sir William, K.C.M.G.Wellington6 October, 1927.
Hanan, Hon. Josiah AlfredOtago17 June, 1926.
Isitt, Hon. Leonard MonkCanterbury28 October, 1925.
McCallum, Hon. RichardMarlborough11 June, 1930.
MacGregor, Hon. JohnOtago14 July, 1928.
Mclntyre, Hon. William HendersonNelson3 September, 1928.
Masters, Hon. RobertTaranaki11 June, 1930,
Mitchelson, Hon. Sir Edwin, K.C.M.G.Auckland25 June, 1927.
Moore, Hon. RichardCanterbury.14 July, 1928.
Parr, Hon. Sir Christopher James, K.C.M.G.Auckland9 October, 1931.
'Rhodes, Hon. Sir Robert Heaton, K.C.V.O.,Canterbury28 October, 1925.
K.B.E. Scott, Hon. RobertOtago25 June, 1927.
Sidey, Hon. Sir Thomas Kay, Kt.Otago10 December, 1928.
Smith, Colonel the Hon. George John, C.B.E.Canterbury25 June, 1927.
Snodgrass, Hon. William Wallace, M.B.E.Nelson3 September, 1928.
Stevenson, Hon. WilliamOtago11 June, 1930.
Trevethick, Hon. JonathanAuckland11 June, 1930.
Witty, Hon. GeorgeCanterbury28 October, 1925.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, JULY, 1932.

Speaker—Hon. Sir C. E. STATHAM, Kt.

Chairman of Committees—S. G. Smith.

Clerk of the House—T. D. H. HALL, LL.B.

Name.Electoral District.
* Vacant through death of Tuiti Makitgnara on 24th June. 1932. At the consequent by-election on 3rd August, Eruera Tirikatene was elected.
For European Electorates.
Ansell, Alfred EdwardChalmers.
Armstrong, Hubert ThomasChristchurch East.
Atmore, HarryNelson.
Barnard, William EdwardNapier.
Bitchener, JohnWaitaki.
Black, George Charles CecilMotueka.
Bodkin, William AlexanderCentral Otago.
Broadfoot, Walter JamesWaitomo.
Burnett, Thomas DavidTemuka.
Campbell, Hugh McLeanHawke's Bay.
Carr, Rev. Clyde LeonardTimaru.
Munro, James WrightDunedin North
Chapman, Charles HenryWellington North.
Murdoch, Alfred JamesMarsden.
Clinkard, Cecil HenryRotorua.
Nash, James AlfredPalmerston.
Coates, Right Hon.Kaipara.
Nash, WalterHutt.
Joseph Gordon, P.C., O'Brien, JamesWestland.
M.C. Parry, William EdwardAuckland
Cobbe, Hon. John George Oroua.Central.
Coleman, David WilliamGisborne.
Polson, William JohnStratford.
Connolly, JeremiahMid - Canterbury.
Ransom, Hon. Ethelbert AlfredPahiatua.
De la Perrelle, PhilipAwarua.
Reid, Daniel StewartRaglan.
Aldborough Richards, Arthur ShaptonRoskill.
Dickie, Harold GaitPatea.
Rushworth, Harold MontagueBay of
Endean, William Phillips Parnell.Islands.
Field, William HughesOtaki.
Samuel, Albert MoellerThames.
Forbes, Right Hon. GeorgeHurunui.
Savage, Michael JosephAuckland
William, P.C.West.
Fraser, PeterWellington Central.
Schramm, Frederick WilliamAuckland East.
Hamilton, Hon. AdamWallace.
Semple, RobertWellington
Hargest, James Invercargill.East.
Harris, AlexanderWaitemata.
Smith, Sydney GeorgeNew Plymouth.
Hawke, Richard WilsonKaiapoi.
Healy, Edward FrancisWairau.
Stallworthy, Arthur JohnEden.
Holland, HenryChristchurch North.
Statham, Hon. Sir Charles Ernest, Kt.Dunedin Central.
Holland, Henry Edmund Buller.Stewart, Hon. William Dunedin
Howard, Edwin JohnChristchurch South.
DownieWest.
Stuart, AlexanderRangitikei.
Jones, FrederickDunedin
Sullivan, Daniel GilesAvon.
South.Sykes, George Robert Masterton.
Jordan, William JosephManukau.
Veitch, William AndrewWanganui.
Jull, Albert EdwardWaipawa.
Wilkinson, Charles AndersonEgmont.
Kyle, Herbert SetonRiccarton.
Stewart Williams, Kenneth StewartBay of Plenty.
Langstone, FrankWaimarino.
Lee, John AlexanderGrey Lynn.
Wright, Robert AlexanderWellington
Linklater, Joseph Manawatu.Suburbs.
Lye, FrederickWaikato.
Young, Hon. James AlexanderHamilton.
McCombs, JamesLyttelton.
McDougall, DavidMataura.
McKeen, RobertWellington South.
McLeod, Hon. AlexanderWairarapa. For Maori Electorates.
Donald Tau HenareNorthern
Macmillan, Hon. Charles Tauranga.Maori.
Edward de la BarcaNgata, Hon. Sir Apirana Eastern
Macpherson. John AndrewOamaru.
Turupa, Kt.Maori.
McSkimming, PeterClutha.
Taite te TomoWestern
Mason, Henry GreatheadAuckland Maori.
RexSuburbs.
(Vacant)Southern
Massey, John Norman Franklin.Maori.*
Massey. Walter WilliamHauraki.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

List of Departments of the New Zealand Government, with Titles and Names of Permanent Heads.

DepartmentPermanent Head.
Title.Name.
AgricultureC. Director GeneralC. J. Reakes, C.B.E., M.R.C.V.S., D.V.Sc. Melb.
AuditController and Auditor GeneralG. F. C. Campbell, C.M.G.
Cook Islands Crown LawSecretaryS. J. Smith.
Crown LawSolicitor GeneralA. Fair, LL.B., K.C.
CustomsComptrollerG. Craig, C.M.G., LL.D.
DefenceCommandant, N.Z. Military ForcesMajor General W. L. H. Sinclair Burgess, C.B.,
 Under SecretaryH. Turner.
EducationDirectorT.B. Strong, M.A., B.Sc.
External AffairsSecretaryC. A. Berendsen, LL.M.
Friendly Societies and National ProvidentRegistrar and Deputy Superintendent11. Witheford.
Government InsuranceCommissionerA. E. Allison
HealthDirector GeneralM.H. Watt, M. IX, D.P.H.
ImmigrationUnder SecretaryH. D. Thomson.
Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and PublicitySecretary for Industries and Commerce, General Manager for TG.W. Clinkard, M. Com.
Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ.W. Butcher.
Internal AffairsUnder SecretaryM. Eraser, O.B.E.
Dominion MuseumDirectorW.R.B. Oliver, M.Sc.
Government Actuary'sGovernment ActuaryC. Gostelow, F.I.A. Lond.
JusticeUnder Secretary and Registrar General, Births, Deaths, and MarriagesI.P. Ward.
ElectoralChief Electoral OfficerG. G. Hodgkins.
LabourSecretary, and Commissioner of UnemploymentG.C. Godfrey.
Lands and Deeds and Stamp DutiesSecretary for Land and Deeds and Commissioner of Stamp DutiesJ. Murray.
Land and Income TaxCommissioner of Taxes 
Lands and SurveyUnder Secretary and Land Purchase ControllerW. Robertson
Law DraftingLaw DraftsmanJ. Christie, LL.M.
MarineSecretaryG.C. Godfrey.
Mental HospitalsInspector GeneralT.G. Gray, M.B., Bac. Surg.
MinesUnder SecretaryA.H. Kimbell.
Native.Under SecretaryR.N. Jones, C.B.E.
Native TrustNative TrusteeW.E. Rawson.
NavalFirst Naval MemberCommodore F. Burgos Watson, D.S.O., R.N.
PensionsCommissionerJ. H. Boyes.
PoliceCommissionerW.G. Wohlmann.
Post and TelegraphSecretaryG. McNamara, C.B.E.
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadF.D. Thomson, C.M.G., B.A.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterW. A. G. Skinner
PrisonsController GeneralB. L. Dallard.
Public Service SuperannuationSecretary(Vacant).
Public TrustPublic TrusteeJ. W. Macdonald,
Public WorksUnder Secretary and Engineer in chef 
RailwaysGeneral Manager 

Scientific and Industrial Research

SecretaryE. Marsden, D.Sc.
Dominion LaboratoryDominion AnalystW. Donovan, M.Sc. F.I.C.,
Dominion ObservatoryDominion Astronomer and SeismologistC. E. Adams, D.Sc F.R.A.S., A.I.A. (Lond.).
Geological SurveyDirectorJ. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc., B.E., A.O.S.M.
MeteorologicalDirectorE. Kidson, M.A., D.Sc.
State AdvancesSuperintendentE. O. Hales.
State Fire and Accident InsuranceGeneral ManagerJ. H. Jerram.
State Forest ServiceDirectorA. D. McGavock.
TransportCommissionerJ. S. Hunter.
TreasurySecretaryA. D. Park, C.M.G.
ValuationValuer-GeneralT. Brook.

By an Act passed during the year 1912 and intituled the Public Service Act, 1912, the Public Service of New Zealand was placed under the direct and sole control of a Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners, who are appointed for a term of seven years, are responsible only to Parliament, and can be dismissed from office only for misbehaviour or incompetence.

The Act, which became operative on the 1st April, 1913, applies to all members of the Public Service with the exception of the Controller and Auditor General, officers of the Railways Department, members of the Police and Defence Forces, Judges and Magistrates, officers of the House, certain officers of the Legislative Departments, and persons paid only by fees or commission, as well as any officer to whom the Governor General in Council declares the Act shall not apply.

By the Post and Telegraph Department Act of 1918 the Post and Telegraph Department was exempted from the control of the Commissioner, with the exception that the Commissioner makes all appointments other than to positions carrying a salary of over 619 13s. per annum.

Public Service Commissioner: P.D.N. VERSCHAFFELT, C.M.G., LL.B

Assistant Public Service Commissioner: B.L.DALLARD.

HIGH COMMISSIONER'S OFFICE, LONDON.

High Commissioner for New Zealand Sir Thomas M. Wilford, K.C.M.G., K.C.

Secretary, and Loan and Stock Agent F.T. Sandford.

Publicity and Exhibition Officer H.T.B. Drew.

Trade and Produce Officer (Vacant).

Officer in Charge Immigration C.B. Burdekin.

Finance Officer, Accountant, and Loan and Stock Agent E. Toms.

Audit Officer Arnold Hore.

Customs Department Representative F.W. Lawrence.

Dairy Produce Officer W. Wright.

Offices New Zealand Government Offices, 415 Strand, London W.C.2. Code address Deputy, Westrand.

OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES IN DOMINIONS AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

New Zealand Tourist and Trade Commissioner in the Commonwealth of Australia L. J. Schmitt, 14 Martin Place (G.P.O. Box 365F), Sydney, with branch office at 50 William Street, Melbourne, Code addresses Zealandia, Sydney; Aotearoa, Melbourne.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent, Brisbane T. G. Dewar, King's Building, 79 Queen Street, Brisbane.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Adelaide South Australian Intelligence and Tourist Bureau (P.O. Box 6640), Adelaide.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Perth Western Australian Government Tourist Bureau, 62 Barrack Street, Perth. Code address Tourist.

Commissioner for New Zealand in Canada and United States J. W. Collins, Canada Permanent Building, 320 Bay Street, Toronto, 2. Code address Maoriland.

New Zealand Government Agent, Vancouver—W. A. James, 1017 Metropolitan Building, 837 Hastings Street West (P.O. Box 747), Vancouver. Code address Wajames.

Resident Agent for New Zealand, San Francisco— H. Stephenson Smith, 311 California Street, San Francisco. Code address Yerba.

Official Representative of Customs Department in Canada and United States W. J. Stevenson, 44 Whitehall Street, New York. Code address Betcustoms.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent in India T. C. Buddie, New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd., 26 Dalhousie Square West, Calcutta. Code address Newzico.

Honorary New Zealand Representative in India—R. L. B. Gall, 11 Clive Street, Calcutta.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Colombo—A. R. Hughes, Hong Kong Bank Buildings (P.O. Box 328), Colombo.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, North China L. A. L. Moore, 171 Victoria Road, Tientsin. Code address Court.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent Shanghai S. Hutchison, Room 506, 23 Yuen Ming Yuen Road (P.O. Box 1568), Shanghai.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Johannesburg B. R. Avery, 8 Natal Bank Chambers, 90 Market Street, Market Square (P.O. Box 1378), Johannesburg.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Durban H. Middlebrook, 3 Natal Bank Buildings, West Street (P.O. Box 1822), Durban. Code Address Midstream.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Honolulu H. C. Tennent, First National Bank Building (P.O. Box 44), Honolulu.

Honorary New Zealand Representative, Marseilles The Secretary, British Chamber of Commerce, 2 Rue Beauvau, Marseilles. Code Address Britcom.

TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF OVERSEAS COUNTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND.

United Kingdom.—H.M. Trade Commissioner: L. A. Paish, O.B.E., T. and G. Buildings, Grey Street (P.O. Box 369), Wellington.

Canada.—Trade Commissioner: C. M. Croft, Yorkshire House, Shortland Street, Auckland.

United States of America.—Trade Commissioner: J.B. Foster, Dominion Buildings, Wakefield Street, Wellington.

FOREIGN CONSULS.

OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OR WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, JULY,1932.

Argentine Republic.—Argentine Republic. Vice Consuls: F.S. Battley, Auckland; E.S. Baldwin, Wellington; J.A. Johnstone, Dunedin.

Belgium.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Armand Nihotte, Wellington.

Consuls: A.M. Ferguson, Auckland; Sir J.J. Kinsey, Christchurch; G.L. Denniston, Dunedin. Vice Consuls: Sir C.R.J. Ward, Bart., Christchurch;

R.A. Anderson, C.M.G., Invercargill.

Brazil.—Consul: George Robertson, Wellington.

Chile.—Consul General for Australia and New Zealand: R. Dundas Smith, Sydney

Consuls: E.A. Craig, Auckland; Thomas C. Ross, Dunedin.

China.—Consuls: Ou Tsin-Shuing, Wellington. Vice Consuls: Yue H. Jackson,

Wellington; Cheng Fu Pan, Western Samoa.

Czecho-Slovakia.—Consul General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Dr. It. Kuraz,

Sydney. Honorary Consul: E.J. Hyams, Wellington. Honorary Vice Consul:

C.P. Agar, Christchurch.

Denmark.—Consul General for Australia and New Zealand: Georg Lyngbye Host, Sydney.

Consul for South Island: H.D. Acland, Christchurch. Honorary Consul:

Stronach Paterson, Wellington. Vice Consuls: S.P. Anderson, Auckland; W.

Perry, Hokitika.

Ecuador.—Consul: William Birss, Auckland.

Finland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Harald Tanner, Sydney.

Vice Consuls (honorary): Robert Burns, Auckland; Vaino Sarelius, Christchurch.

France.—Consul for New Zealand and Western Samoa: E.M.V.M Joubert, Auckland.

Consular Agents: George Humphreys, Christchurch; O. It. Bendall, Wellington;

S.E.D. Neill, Dunedin.

Germany.—Consul General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Dr. Hans Busing

Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, also.

Western and American Samoa): W. Penseler, Wellington.

Greece.—Honorary Consul for New Zealand: J.F. Dyer, Wellington.

Honduras.—Consul General for Australia and New Zealand: Frederic Walsh, Sydney.

Italy.—Consul General for Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, and New Guinea: Commendatore Nob. A. Grossardi, Melbourne. Consul: Signor Giovanni Formichella, Wellington. Consular Agents: Joseph Wallace, Christchurch; J.A. Roberts, Dunedin; Geraldo G. Perotti, Greymouth.

Japan.—Consul General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, excluding Western Samoa), S. Ohta (acting), Sydney. Honorary Consuls: A.B. Roberton, Auckland; N.S. Falla. Wellington.

Latvia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): C.L. Seya, London.

Hon. Consul: N.E. Heath, Auckland.

Mexico.—Hon. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Don Carlos Zalapa, Sydney.

Netherlands.—Consul General for Australia and New Zealand: P.Staal. Sydney.

Vice Consuls: George Ritchie, Dunedin; F. Bauer (acting), Auckland; N. Francis, Christchurch.

Norway.— Consul General for Australia and New Zealand: H.H.T. Fay, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over Western Samoa also): A.W. Newton, Wellington. Vice Consuls: Robert Millar, Auckland; V.E. Hamilton, Christchurch (honorary); M.E. Wiig, Invercargill; J.H. Enright, Westport; W.F. Edmond, Dunedin (honorary).

Paraguay.—Consul: A.E. Kernot, Auckland.

Peru.—Consul General for Australia and New Zealand: J.M. Paxton, Sydney. Consul: G.H. Baker, Auckland.

Poland.—Consul General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Hon. George Earp, Sydney.

Portugal.—Consul: David L. Nathan, Auckland. Hon. Vice Consul: Alfred Nathan, Auckland. Vice Consuls: A.D.S. Duncan, Wellington; C.W. Rattray, Dunedin.

Spain.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies): Sir Stephen Morell (acting), Melbourne. Hon. Vice Consul: A.K.S. Mackenzie, Wellington.

Sweden.—Consul General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: E.H. Lindquist, Sydney. Consul: J.T. Martin, Wellington. Vico Consuls: J.T.F. Mitchell, Auckland; W. Machin, Christchurch; J.S. Itoss, C.M.G., Dunedin.

Switzerland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): M.Stahel, Sydney. Gerant of the Consulate: J.A.C. Allum, Auckland.

United States of America.—Consul General: Calvin M. Hitch, Wellington. Consuls: B. Gotlieb, Wellington: W.F. Boyle, Auckland. Vice Consuls: Geo.D. Reuther, L.A. Bachelder (honorary), Auckland; L.W. Johnson, Wellington: Q.F. Roberts, Apia (in charge). Consular Agents: H.P. Bridge, Christchurch; H. Reeves, Dunedin.

Yugoslavia.—Hon. Consul: John Totich, Dargaville

Chapter 4. SECTION IV.—POPULATION.

METHOD OF COMPILATION.

IN common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country is taken quinquennially. The minutiæ of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics, compiled from census data will be found in the census publications listed at the front of this volume. Owing to the high standard of education of the population, and to the political, geographical, and social conditions prevailing in the Dominion, the data compiled as a result of the census are remarkably complete and reliable.

The financial stringency resulting from the severe decline in the prices of primary products caused by the world wide economic depression led to the first interruption in the sequence of New Zealand censuses. By the Census Postponement Act, 1930, the census due to be taken in 1931 and proclaimed for 21st April of that year was postponed until 1936.

The basis adopted for the census and indeed, practically universally throughout population statistics in New Zealand is that of the population de fait, all persons being counted as at the place of enumeration, irrespective of habitual residence, legal domicile, and so forth.

Intercensal figures of total population are based on the customary equation:

Population = Population (census) + Births and immigration - Deaths and emigration.

The comparative shortness of the interval between the census enumerations, combined with New Zealand's insular position and the high standard of her registration system, has hitherto prevented serious intercensal errors in statements of population of New Zealand as a whole. This remark applies to Europeans only, as the same standard of accuracy cannot be claimed for Maori registrations. A point of minor importance which may be noted is that births and deaths registered during a year are considered as actually occurring during that year.

The fact that all migration to and from the Dominion must be waterborne over lengthy distances, and that it centres in a few ports, facilitates the compilation of accurate statistics of external migration. Records of passenger traffic between the North and South Islands are also maintained. Population statistics of lessor internal divisions and of towns are based upon a variety of data collected annually.

Residents of the Cook Islands, Niue, Western Samoa, and the Tokelau Group are not included in the population statistics quoted throughout this section, except in the first table on the next page and in the paragraphs devoted to these islands at the end of the section. A similar course was followed formerly in regard to Maoris, but figures are now given inclusive of Maoris where possible, in accordance with a decision of Cabinet.

For the 1926 census all half-caste European Maoris were included with the Native population in lieu of the previous practice of treating as Europeans such half castes as were living in European fashion. Numbers so treated were as follows: 1921, 4,230; 1916,3,221; 1911,2,879; 1906,2,578; 1901,2,407.

Separate statistics of the Maori population are given towards the end of the section.

GENERAL POPULATION.

The population of the Dominion of New Zealand and its dependencies and the mandated territory of Western Samoa at the 1st April, 1932, exceeded one and a half millions. The Ross Dependency is uninhabited.

MalesFemalesTotal
Population (exclusive of Maoris) of New Zealand proper742,258712,9091,455,167
Maori population of New Zealand proper36,10733,29969,466
Population (inclusive of Maoris) of New Zealand proper778,425746,2081,524,633
Population of Cook Islands and Niue7,7827,46515,247
Population of Tokelau Islands (August, 1931)5285201,048
Population of the mandated territory of Western Samoa23,93622,21446,150
Totals 1st April, 1932810,071776,4071,587,078

INCREASE OF POPULATION

The outstanding note of the history of population movement in New Zealand is that of unbroken growth. That it has not been invariably regular is well attested by the accompanying table setting forth the increase at successive census enumerations from the first general census onwards.

Date of Enumeration.Population (excluding Maoris).Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.Average Annual Percentage Increase.
* Based on population excluding half-castes living as Europeans, who are included in population totals in 1921, but not in 1926.
December, 185126,707......
December 185859,41332,706122.4612.14
December, 186199,02139,60866.6718.70
December, 1864172,15873,13773.8620.54
December, 1867218,66846,51027.028.15
February, 1871256,39337,72517.255.11
March, 1874299,51443,12116.825.32
March, 1878414,412114,89838.368.43
April, 1881489,93375,52118.225.58
March, 1886578,48288,54918.073.39
April, 1891626,65848,1768.331.61
April, 1896703,36076,70212.242.33
March, 1901772,71969,3599.861.91
April, 1906888,578115,85914.992.79
April, 19111,008,468119,89013.492.60
October, 19161,099,44990,9819.021.57
April, 19211,218,913119,46410.872.32
April, 19261,344,469129,792*10.692.05

The European population now looks in retrospect down a vista of well over one hundred years. At the opening of the nineteenth century there existed a more or less fluctuating population of perhaps one hundred; by 1839 it had swelled to a total of about a thousand whalers, sealers, traders, missionaries, adventurers, and settlers. Activities of the colonizing companies and societies in the “forties brought rapid changes and swiftly rising numbers, to be enhanced in the sixties” by the gold rushes of the period.

The most significant period is possibly that of the “seventies,” marked by a vigorous developmental policy of public works and assisted immigration. The record year 1874, which saw a rise in population of 46,000 (including 32,000 assisted immigrants), was, and still is, the high water mark of population gains. Both 1874 and 1875 showed a ratio of growth far in advance of any level subsequently attained.

In the late “eighties” and early “nineties” came the blight of economic depression and comparative stagnation in population. In 1888, 1890, and 1891 emigrants exceeded immigrants which were the only occasions in the history of the country until 1931, when a small excess of departures was recorded.

In the middle “nineties” rising world prices and the now frozen meat trade brought a return of prosperity and moderate, but steady, increase of population. Development of secondary industries and the remarkable expansion of dairying in recent years provided a substantial foundation for increasing numbers.

The average annual population increment during the ton post war years, 1919-28. exceeded 30,000. In 1928 the population gain fell to 16,071, but showed slight rises to 17,442 in 1929, and 19,325 in 1930, with a fall to 14,508 in 1931. Apart from war years, which were affected by movements of troops, these are the lowest absolute increases since 1900, and the lowest relative increases, with the exception of 1885, ever recorded. Contributing causes are the continued fall in the birthrate, which has now reached a level below half that of fifty years ago, and the shrinkage of the normal excess of overseas arrivals over departures.

The final criterion of the Dominion's growth in respect of population is supplied by a comparison of the rates of increase of other portions of the British Empire and of various foreign countries.

Country.Population (Latest Census).Intercensal Increase per cent. in Decennial Periods approximating to.
NumberYear.1920-19301910-19201900-19101800-19001880-18001870-1880
* Excluding Maoris †Europeans only; statements of increase are for Province of cape of Good Hope only. ‡Decrease.
New Zealand *1,344,469192619.8420.8730.5123.3125.8791.09
Great Britain44,748,00019314.704.7410.3612.0311.1713.95
Australia5,436,794192119.6822.0418.0818.8841.0732.30
Canada10,374,196193118.0421.9534.1711.1311.7617.23
Union of South Africa†1,827,166193112.688.496.4457.79111.82
Norway2,890,00019306.0312.386.1411.02....
Sweden6,141,57119304.026.927.517.354.789.53
Netherlands7,920,388193015.3717.1914.7713.1412.4312.10
France41,834,92319316.700.031.930.831.953.61
Germany62,539,09819255.22—7.8115.0114.049.2810.17
Italy41,220,43419316.3212.016.45....6.19
United States122,775,046193016.1414.9421.0220.7325.5030.08

Up to the “seventies” New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since then natural increase i.e., excess of births over deaths has been the principal factor.

Over the whole period 1861-1931 migration accounted for 36 per cent, of the total increase, excess of births over deaths accounting for 64 pet cent. From 1901 to 1931 the former is responsible for 30 per cent, and the latter for 70 per cent, of the increase of population.

A table is appended showing for each five yearly period from 1861 the excess of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration. Maoris are not included.

Period.Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.

* Decrease.

† Departure and return of troops of Expeditionary Force not included in migration figures.

1861-657,6258,98516,61063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1866-7015,00317,77933,44211,1679,36920,53620,83027,14853,978
1871-7519,40921,12940,53846,50135,44581,94665,91056,574122,484
1876-8030,14332,80362,95131,87022,91754,78762,01355,725117,738
1881-8532,36235,04667,40815,95813,00128,95948,32048,01796,367
1886-9030,78133,54464,325-4,911*-3,791*-8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891-9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40315,32037,17236,03373,205
1896-190028,09731,43759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901-0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,44663,73850,446114,184
1906-1038,68143,06781,74825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
1911-1512,32346,68289,00517,65617,90535,56159,97964,587124,566
1916-2035,24841,35976,6076,9797,87514,85442,22749,23491,461
1921-2541,87644,86886,74126,73223,25649,98868,60868,124136,732
1926-3030,88540,45577,34214,7588,86924,02751,04450,325101,969
19317,0957,48014,575165-232*-67*7,2607,24814,508
Totals, 1861-1931425,959471,493897,452304,074203,954508,028730,033675,4471,405,480

The table shows clearly the irregularity of the migration increase and the comparative steadiness of the natural increase. The most fruitful quinquennium in respect of population gained through migration was that of the gold rush period nearly seventy years ago. With a stable birth rate the natural increase would show mounting numbers, whereas actually the peak occurred in 1911-15 and the shrinking birth rate has reduced numbers accruing from this source.

SEX PROPORTIONS.

The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand. The figures quoted are exclusive of Maoris.

Year.Arrivals.Departures.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192218,81116,42235,23315,64312,74628,389
192319,44517,04336,48816,03713,63129,668
192421,71918,09639,81516,48914,10430,593
192523,32818,51841,84615,90713,26529,172
192625,50820,17745,65818,64915,17633,825
192721,16517,51138,67620,34915,89936,248
192819,18016,29835,47818,98716,04835,035
192918,75215,68734,43916,93714,70631,643
193017,73814,82132,55915,36312,95828,321
193110,9149,31120,22512,0569,57821,634

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless due to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe were such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries. Gold mining and coal mining, for instance, would attract large numbers of men, but few women. The effect of this early preponderance of males no doubt still exists, but in an ever diminishing degree, its gradual elimination being effected by the passing of the earlier settlers. In recent years there has been a considerable approach towards equality in the increase of males and females by migration, and in some years the female increase from this source has exceeded the male.

Of the two sources from which the Dominion's population has been recruited viz., migration and natural increase the effect of the former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, and of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females. In the period 1861 1931 the gain of males by migration totalled 100,120 more than that of females. This excess was only partly offset numerically by a female surplus of 45,534 in the figures of natural increase, but the net excess of 54,586 males is not nearly sufficient to maintain the former high ratio of males to females in the population. The surplus of males at present, exclusive of the Native population, is some 29,000. The effect of the natural increase of population is in the direction of eliminating this surplus at the rate of about 700 per annum.

INTERCENSAL ESTIMATES.

As already noted, the intercensal estimates of Dominion population prepared from the records of vital statistics and of migration are, by virtue of the favourable position of the Dominion in this respect, remarkably accurate. Indeed, as regards the statistics of total population the term “estimate” is scarcely correct, for the system in use should give, and to a great extent does give, the actual figures. With the exception of the years of the Great War, when the movement of troops was not ascertained exactly, the census totals invariably showed the quarterly returns of population to be highly accurate. There is always a difference in date between the census enumeration and the nearest quarterly statement, for no two of the eighteen general census enumerations in the history of the Dominion have been taken on the same day of the year, and this in itself usually accounts for the greater part of what disparity actually is shown

The population at the end of each of the last ten years is quoted in the appended table, together with the movement in each year and the mean population for the year:—

Calendar Year.Estimated Population (Excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent.
*See letterpress following
1922645,524619,8731,265,39725,4312.051,251,895
1923657,561631,6601,289,22123,8241.881,274,551
1924671,452644,7221,316,17426,9532.091,298,635
1925687,287658,7891,346,07629,9022.271,329,759
1926697,113668,3041,365,41729,054 *2.171,352,927
1927707,008678,3931,385,40119,9841.461,374,439
1928714,928686,5441,401,47216,0711.161,390,684
1929723,691695,2231,418,91417,4421.241,406,942
1930733,398704,8501,438,23919,3251.361,425,084
1931740,649712,0981,452,74714,5081.011,444,901

The actual increase of population (excluding Maoris) during the calendar year 1931 was 14,508, as compared with 19,325 in 1930. The increase for 1926 was 29,054, although from the figures shown for population at 31st December, 1925 and 1926, the increase would appear to have been much less. The population at 31st December 1925, however, was the official estimate for that date, arrived at, incidentally, on the old basis of including with the European population half castes living as Europeans.

As the year ended 31st March is for most of the administrative functions of the Government the period most in use, similar figures are given for March years:—

Year ended 31st March,Estimated Population (Excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent.
*See letterpress above
1923648,545623,1961,271,74123,5431.881,258,017
1924659,570634,3331,293,90322,1621.741,280,299
1925676,477648,5601,325,03731,1342.411,305,896
1926691,910662,3821,354,29229,2552.211,337,155
1927701,774671,9721,373,74629,382 *2.181,357,777
1928708,568680,1321,388,70014,9541.091,378,806
1929716,678688,2831,404,96116,2611.171,394,726
1930724,978696,6001,421,57816,6171.181,411,198
1931735,965706,7811,442,74621,1681.491,430,143
1932742,258712,9091,455,16712,4210.861,448,267

Of the total estimated population of 1,455,167, excluding Maoris, at 31st March, 1932, adults numbered 896,698 (males, 456,745; females, 439,953).

The figures given in the two preceding tables show the population exclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population inclusive of Maoris at 31st December and at 31st March of the last ten years with the means for the various twelve monthly periods:—

Estimated Population (including Maoris) at End of Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.
Years ended 31st December.
1922673,772645,1121,318,8841,305,126
1923685,951657,0701,343,0211,328,193
1924700,033670,3701,370,4031,352,618
1925716,371684,8591,401,2301,384,428
1926730,603698,9521,429,5551,413,700
1927740,782709,3081,450,0901,438,814
1928749,125717,8271,406,9521,455,734
1929758,490727,0741,485,5641,472,925
1930768,746737,3411,506,0871.492,376
1931776,660745,2281,521,8881,513,416
Years ended 31st March.
1923676,825648,4761,325,3011,311,381
1924688,020659,8331,347,8531,334,029
1925705,161674,3261,379,4871,359,995
1926721,173688,6391,409,8121,392,073
1927735,338702,6421,437,9801,420,762
1928742,396711,1211,453,5171,443,323
1929750,974719,6801,470,0541,459,983
1930759,963728,0321,488,5951,477,494
1931771,491739,4491,510,9401,497,732
1932778,425746,2081,524,6331,517,103

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.

Records of external migration have been kept in New Zealand since 1860. Prior to the 1st April, 1921, the statistics were compiled from returns furnished monthly by Collectors of Customs, but since that date they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving the Dominion, and much detailed and important information is consequently now available.

Including crews of vessels, 64,105 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year 1931, which, compared with 1930, shows a decrease of 16,710. During the same period 04,176 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1930, shows a decrease of 11,892.

Migration in 1931, therefore, showed an excess of departures of 71 compared with a surplus of arrivals of 4,747 in 1930. Only in three years previously in the history of New Zealand have a year's departures exceeded the arrivals, this occurring during the economic upheaval of the late “eighties” and early “nineties,” the years being' 1888, 1890, and 1891.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last ten years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels have not been taken into account.

Year.Arrivals.Departures.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192218,81116,42235,23315,64312,74628,389
192319,44517,04336,48816,03713,63129,668
192421,71918,09639,81516,48914,10430,593
192523,32818,51841,84615,90713,26529,172
192625,50820,17745,65818,64915,17633,825
192721,16517,51138,67620,34915,89936,248
192819,18016,29835,47818,98716,04835,035
192918,75215,68734,43916,93714,70631,643
193017,73814,82132,55915,36312,95828,321
193110,9149,31120,22512,0569,57821,634

The monthly figures for 1930 and 1931 are as follows, the excess of arrivals or departures for each month being also shown:—

Month.Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals.Excess of Departures.
1930.1931.1930.1931.1930.1931.1930.1931.
January3,4322,9442,8532,052570892....
February3,0612,1803,0352,35926....179
March2,3481,8994,0452,830....1,697931
April2.4051,1943,5882,661....1,1831,467
May2,0531,1153,0511,883....998768
June2,0931,2702,0831,85510....585
July1,8908642,1591,433....269569
August2,1491,0861,5971,174552....88
September2,2671,5451,4411,235826310....
October3,3721,3091,3011,2432,07166....
November3,4732,5511,2601,3942,2131,157....
December4,0162,2681,9081,5152,108753....
Totals32,55920,22528,32121,6344,238....1,409

In general, arrivals exceed departures in the spring and summer months, while the contrary holds for the autumn and winter periods. Excluding crews of vessels, the arrivals for the first and last quarters of 1931 formed 65 per cent, of the total arrivals, and the six months ended June accounted for 63 per cent, of the total departures, for the year. Figures for the corresponding periods in 1930 were 61 per cent, and 66 per cent.

CLASSES OF ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES

During the calendar year 1931, 20,225 persons, excluding members of crews of vessels, arrived in the Dominion. Of these, 3,236 were immigrants intending permanent residence in the country, as compared with 6,917 of a similar class in 1930. The remainder of the arrivals, 16,989 in number, were classified as shown below. Corresponding figures for the four preceding years are also given.

1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Immigrants intending permanent residence11,3276,3396,3436,9173,236
New Zealand residents returning from abroad14,27115,49715,10814,3629,366
Tourists9,1059,5979,5938,4845,187
Persons on commercial business1,9731,8711,8721,6811,226
Persons visiting the Dominion in connection with entertainments, sports, &c.782931741295369
Others (officials, &c., of other countries)430243296236442
Persons in transit557946468507441
Not stated2315418778
Totals38,67635,47834,43932,55920,225

The New Zealand Government temporarily suspended from early in 1927 the major portion of its scheme of granting assisted passages to migrants from the British Isles, and this is largely responsible for the decreases shown in regard to immigrants. The number of assisted immigrants for 1931 is 489 as against 1,405 in 1930 and 10,766 in 1926: while the numbers of those who migrated to New Zealand without State assistance amounted to 2,747, 5,512, and 7,10 2 for the years 1931, 1930, and 1926 respectively.

The departures recorded during 1931 numbered 21,634, as compared with 28,321 in 1930. Of these, 2,692 were shown to be New Zealand residents departing permanently, 8,437 New Zealand residents departing temporarily, and 10,441 visitors to the Dominion departing. The figures which follow show the different classes of emigrants for each of the last five years:—

1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
New Zealand residents departing permanently4,1453,9543,0932,4492,692
New Zealand residents departing temporarily16,65916,07514,61412,5408,437
Visitors to the Dominion departing15,41414,98913,89313,27310,441
Persons regarding whom no information is available3017435964
Total36,24835,03531,64328,32121,634

Ages.

Of the total arrivals recorded during the year 1931, 9.8 per cent, were under fifteen years of age. Among the immigrants intending permanent residence, however, the proportion was much higher viz., 18.8 per cent. The corresponding percentages for all departures and for New Zealand residents departing permanently were 9.9 and 19.5 respectively. The higher percentages under fifteen years of age in the case of permanent settlers and emigrants are, of course, due to the fact that this class of person brings or takes his family, if any, with him, whereas the remainder of persons coming to and going from the Dominion consisting for the most part of tourists and persons on business, travel almost exclusively without at least the younger members of their families. The higher percentage of persons of forty five years and over amongst the departures would appear to confirm to a certain extent the general impression that many immigrants return to their native land later in life.

Origin and Destination

Of the 3,236 new immigrants during 1931 intending to settle in the Dominion, the vast majority, 3,036, or 93.8 per cent., came from British countries, mainly from the British Isles, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Fiji, and India. The majority of immigrants from foreign countries came from Yugoslavia, the United States of America, China, and Italy.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the principal countries whence arrived new immigrants who intended permanent residence in the Dominion:—

Country of Last Permanent Residence.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
British Isles8,7034,0633,6332,8431,190
India86105978069
Union of South Africa6752402120
Canada37824520714161
Australia1,3701,4121,8593,2081,563
Other of British countries168110187225133
Denmark3426952
Italy6333404322
Switzerland21131012..
Yugoslavia18167726721
China3029283523
United States of America11682968865
Other foreign countries and unspecified1101026514967
Totals11,3276,3396,3436,9173,236

With the exception of 205 persons (of whom 63 departed for the United States,54 for China, and 64 for European countries), the whole of the New Zealand residents who permanently left the Dominion During 1931 went to British South Africa, 52; Fiji 34; Canada 27; other British countries, 103.

Nationalities.

During the year 1931 some 139 persons (males 85, females 54) of foreign nationality, out of the total of 3,236 arrived as new immigrants intending permanent residence in the Dominion. The chief nationalities represented among the alien immigrants for the last five years were as follows:—

Country of Nationality.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Italy6548435731
Switzerland22121316..
Denmark423216144
Russia8185175
Yugoslavia17768717228
Greece122814166
China84464
United States of America403038304
Other countries6876548157
Totals442316258309139

Yugoslavia in 1927 accounted for approximately 40 per cent. of the immigrants of foreign nationality, but the numbers have dwindled considerably since then, although in 1931 they represented 20 per cent, of the foreign arrivals.

The sex constitution of foreign nationals has altered considerably of recent years. Although females among alien immigrants have always been relatively fewer than among immigrants of British nationality, the proportion of females in the former case rose rapidly from 15 per cent, in 1925 to 43 per cent, in 1929 with a decline to 39 per cent, in 1931, while that of females to total British immigrants has maintained a steady level, the percentage in 1931 being 47.

The number of foreign nationals among New Zealand residents departing permanently during 1931 was 128 (108 males and 20 females), or 4.8 per cent, of the total.

RACE ALIENS.

Although race aliens comprise comparatively small proportions of the total arrivals and departures, they are by no means unimportant. The principal race aliens with whom New Zealand is concerned are Chinese and Indians, and these are shown separately from other race aliens. The definition of the term “race alien,”as used in connection with these statistics, is “a person of other than European race.”

The following table shows the permanent increase in the Dominion's race alien population through migration for the years 1930 and 1931:—

1930.1931.
Chinese.Indians.Others.Total.Chinese.IndiansOthers.Total.
*Decrease
Immigrants intending permanent residence73431723161938
New Zealand residents departing permanently35718604431562
Permanent increase of race aliens in New Zealand through migration28 *27131241 *13424 *

It should be noted that the figures quoted above include half castes. There has been a substantial decrease in the number of Chinese immigrants during the last few years, and this, coupled with increases in the number departing permanently, makes an actual reduction in the Chinese population through migration during the last five years. The permanent increase in the number of Indian immigrants remains at a fairly stationary figure.

The total arrivals and departures of race aliens during each of the last ton years are as follows:—

Year.Arrivals.Departures.
Chinese.Indians.Others.Total.Chinese.IndiansOthers.Total.
192234532172549362125213700
192336511524972937866188632
19245481283411,017451128332911
19255172163231,056524165216905
19266132393471,1995411643081,013
1927542151270963587135184906
19284191733078996801402841,104
1929504233246983531143232906
1930353152263768552185252989
193135290154596463163165791

At the census of 1881, the year in which taxation was first imposed on Chinese landing in New Zealand, the Chinese population numbered 5,004 persons, which fell to 4,542 in 1886, and further to 3,711 in 1896. During the period 1881-96 the poll tax was £10 per head, and this seemed sufficient for the purpose of preventing a large influx of Chinese. During the years 1894 and 1895, however, the arrivals shown by the Customs returns were found to be somewhat greater than the departures, and in 1896 an Act was passed raising the poll tax on Chinese immigrants to £100 per head, and limiting the number of Chinese passengers that may be carried by vessels to New Zealand to one for every 200 tons burthen. According to the census of 1901, the Chinese population was 2,857; in 1906 it was 2,570; in 1911, 2,630;in 1916, 2,147; in 1921, 3,266; and in 1926, 3,374. At the 31st March, 1932, the approximate numbers of the principal alien races present in New Zealand were,: Chinese, 2,719; Indians, 1,144; and Syrians, 987.

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.

The general scheme of Governmental assistance to immigrants is based on nomination by a person who is already domiciled in New Zealand, and who under takes to find employment for his nominee and guarantees that such nominee will reside at least five years in New Zealand. Further details will be found in the 1931 or preceding issues of the Year-Book.

Since about May, 1927, the system of assisted immigration has been temporarily suspended except in regard to (1) single women under forty years of age, (2) juveniles, and (3) wives, &c., of immigrants who had arrived previously.

Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). The numbers of assisted immigrants during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Number.
19227,773
19236,181
19248,091
19258,277
192610,766
19275,899
19282,220
19291,878
19301,405
1931489

The total to 31st December. 1931 is 226 142 of which number all have from the United Kingdom with the exception of 3,909 from the Continent of Europe spread over the five years 1874 to 1878 (inclusive).

PASSPORTS.

Permission to Enter New Zealand.

With certain specified exceptions, no person over the age of fifteen years may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a passport or some other document satisfactorily establishing his or her nationality and identity. Exemption from this requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of internal Affairs.

In the case of a person coming from a foreign country the passport must, with certain exceptions, have been issued or viséd by the British Ambassador or a British Consul in that country, and in the case of a person coming from any part of the British dominions the issue or visée must have been by some public official duly authorized in that behalf.

Certain exceptions are made with respect to persons coming to New Zealand from the Cook Islands and Western Samoa. In their case the only requirement is the possession of a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or the Administrator of Samoa, as the case may be. The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject arriving in New Zealand as the master or a member of the crow of the vessel in which he arrives, or to a British subject arriving from the Commonwealth of Australia.

Departure From New Zealand

With the exception of British subjects travelling to the Commonwealth of Australia, the Cook Islands, or Western Samoa, all persons travelling to places beyond the seas are required to be in possession of a passport or similar document to facilitate landing thereat. British passports are issued, under the direction of His Excellency the Governor General, by the Department of Internal Affairs. They are valid for five years and may be renewed for any number of years not exceeding five. Subject to the Immigration Regulations in force in the various countries of the Empire, they are valid for travelling anywhere within the British Empire, including territories under British protection or mandate, but not Palestine or Mesopotamia unless specially endorsed for those countries.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION

The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908, and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919. It is administered by the Customs department.

Subject to certain exemptions, the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

  1. Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Customs Department. (Note.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage by reason that he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject, or by reason that he is an aboriginal Native or the descendant of an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of His Majesty

  2. Idiots or insane persons

  3. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  4. Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.

  5. Persons who are considered by the Attorney General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the Dominion.

  6. Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath (or make an affirmation) of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons covered by clause (1) above to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to a period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit of £10 is required in respect of such temporary permits, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit are complied with. The Collector of Customs may also require, if he so decides, a deed to be entered into by some person or persona resident in New Zealand approved by him guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Chinese entering New Zealand to become permanent residents are required, in addition to being in possession of the permit indicated in clause (1) above, to pay 100 poll-tax.

Under the provisions of the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act, 1931, restrictions upon the landing in New Zealand of persons of British birth and parentage may be imposed, on account of any economic or financial conditions affecting trade and industry in New Zealand, or any other conditions which render it expedient to impose such restrictions. The Act ceases to be in force after 31st December, 1933.

Restricted Immigrants.

When persons arrive in New Zealand who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm, and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons come to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond for £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for his support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

NATURALIZATION.

The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Act, 1928, which was reserved for Royal assent, came into force on the 1st July, 1929. This Act made important alterations in the naturalization law of New Zealand, and made provision for the adoption of Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1914 (Imperial). A fairly detailed account of its effects will be found on pp. 92-95 of the 1931 Year Book.

During the year 1931 letters of naturalization in New Zealand were granted to 84 persons of the undermentioned birthplaces, as compared with 73 in the previous year. In addition, 42 children were included in the certificates of their parents, and certificates under the new legislation were issued to six males and one female previously naturalized in New Zealand. These were Russia, Netherlands, Austria, Yugoslavia, Poland, and Western Samoa one male each and New Zealand one female. Three children also were covered in respect of Western Samoa.

Country of Birth.Males.Females.Total.Children *
*Children included in certificate of parent; additional to preceding figures
Norway6..67
Sweden9110..
Denmark8210..
Finland2..2..
Russia2..24
Poland1..1..
Germany5271
France123..
Switzerland6..63
Austria2..2..
Yugoslavia17..173
Italy1021213
Greece1..1..
Syria2..28
United States1..13
Japan1..1..
Western Samoa1..1..
Total7598442

In the last ten years 1,976 subjects or citizens of other nations obtained letters of naturalization in New Zealand. The following table exhibits the principal countries involved. For the last seven years concerned the basis is the country of birth, for the remaining three the previous nationality.

Country.No.
Yugoslavia568
Germany223
Denmark198
Italy151
Sweden138
Norway92
Switzerland87
Russia83
United States65
Poland51
Finland50
Syria36
Western Samoa31
Greece31
France28
Austria27
Holland24
Belgium15
Portugal7
Czecho-Slovakia7
Other countries64
Total1,976

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.

North and South Islands.

In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, this position being reversed at the succeeding enumerations until 1901, in which year the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total, a position which it has since considerably improved upon. The Maori War which broke out in 1860 retarded settlement in the North, while a large area of land reserved for the Maoris was for many years a serious hindrance to the development of this portion of the Dominion. The South Island was practically free from Maori troubles, and settlement was more rapid, though much of the land was disposed of in large areas. The discovery of gold in Otago in 1861 and on the West Coast in 1864 attracted to these localities considerable numbers of miners.

Census Year.Population (Excluding Maoris).Proportions Per Cent.
North Island.South Island. *Total.North Island.South Island. *
*Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
1881193,047296,886489,93339.4060.60
1886250,482328,000578,48243.3056.70
1891281,474345,184626,65844.9255.08
1896340,638362,722703,36048.4351.57
1901390,579382,140772,71950.5549.45
1906476,737411,841888,57853.6546.35
1911563,733444,7351,008,46855.9044.10
1916651,072448,3771,099,44959.2240.78
1921741,255477,6581,218,91360.8139.19
1926831,813512,6561,344,49661.8738.13

A feature of recent years has been the steady trend of population to the North Island, although the tide was reversed in 1931. The natural increase of population (i.e., excess of over deaths) for the South Island in 1931 was 5,199, and the total increase 5,800. A net “gain” of 601 is therefore disclosed. For the North Island the natural increase was 9,376. yet the total increase was only 8,708, disclosing a net “drift” of 668.

Provincial Districts.

The populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts, as disclosed by the censuses of 1901, 1911, 1921, and 1926, with the estimate for the current year, are as follows:—

Provincial District.Census Population.Estimated Population as at 1st April, 1932.
1901.1911.1921.1926.
*Includes certain Maori wives of Europeans, provincial district not specified.
Auckland204,899298,872408,351469,458517,100
Hawke's Bay39,60453,09863,62870,35375,900
Taranaki40,46554,16065,24471,84876,800
Wellington146,326204,325254,695281,020312,802
Marlborough13,74616,47418,28918,79319,300
Nelson38,06748,68547,73450,87853,200
Westland14,56615,79614,25315,26016,700
Canterbury144,195174,513199,969215,079229,431
Otago portion125,782132,881137,062149,921154,200
Southland portion48,01659,34962,43965,52969,200
Totals815,862 *1,058,312 *1,271,6641,408,1391,524,633

Urban and Rural Population.

On 20th April, 1926, somewhat over one third (38.5 per cent.) of the population of the Dominion (excluding Maoris) was included in the four principal urban areas Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and over one half (51.6 percent.) in these and in the ten secondary urban areas. The urban areas are not homogeneous local governing bodies, but were formed for statistical purposes, with a view to obviating difficulties formerly experienced through alterations of boundaries of cities and boroughs. Each urban area contains, in addition to the central city or borough and any suburban borough, town, or road districts, a considerable non-municipalized area adjacent to and contingent on the centre. The boundaries, which were designed to remain unaltered for a long period, thus allowing of definite comparisons being made over a series of years, were fixed with a view to providing for probable expansion.

For population purposes dependent town districts have their figures included in the totals of the counties within which they lie, while independent town districts are excluded, as is also in the case boroughs. Under the old method of computing urban and rural population, however, both classes of town districts are included in the county totals, as in the following table showing the urban and rural population at each census since 1881:—

Census Year.Countries.Boroughs.Percentage.
Countries.Boroughs.Shipboard,&c
1881291,238194,98159.4439.800.76
1886327,328245,61256.5842.460.96
1891352,097270,34356.1843.140.68
1896391,735307,29455.6943.690.62
1901417,596350,20254.0445.320.64
1906458,797424,61451.6347.790.58
1911496,779505,59849.2650.140.60
1916501,259585,30645.5953.241.17
1921530,852681,98843.5555.950.50
1926551,457785,04041.0258.390.59

Urban Drift.

It is not altogether correct to regard the county population as rural and the borough population as urban. It is perhaps preferable to consider the question in the light of the following figures, in the computation of which the urban population is considered as that living in cities, boroughs, or town districts of over 1,000 inhabitants in 1881, 1,200 in 1886, 1,300 in 1891, 1,450 in 1896, 1,600 in 1901, 1,800 in 1906, 2,050 in 1911, 2,250 in 1916, and 2,500 in 1921 and 1926. Here the basic town has been given a rate of increase approximately equivalent to that of the country as a whole, it being assumed that a town of 2,500 bears much the same relationship at the present day as one of 1,000 inhabitants did in 1881. The results are as under:—

Census.Rural Population: Per Cent.Urban Population: Per Cent.
188162.3437.66
188660.4739.53
189161.1638.84
189661.9538.05
190160.8739.13
190657.9642.04
191157.0742.93
191654.1845.82
192151.2348.77
192648.3851.62

The increasing proportion of urban population in recent years is plainly manifest. It is noteworthy that the “urban drift,” either non existent or quiescent up to 1906 in that year commenced a swift rise, which is rapidly gaming in momentum.

An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population as in the case of the Australian States e.g., Victoria, whose capital city, Melbourne, contains over 50 per cent, of the total population of the State the more highly urbanized portion of the community localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island. Of the Northern provincial districts Taranaki is the only one in which rural population predominates. New Zealand is not alone in experiencing the modern tendency towards urban aggregation: it is, in fact, occurring in almost all countries.

Current Population Estimates.

Estimates of population for the administrative or geographical units of the Dominion fall into a different category from those previously given for the Dominion as a whole or for the North and South Islands. Figures given for all lesser districts are literally estimates.

The distinction acquires special significance this year. Never before has a period of six years elapsed since a census was taken; and, probably, never before has such a widespread depression (with its inevitable reactions on population)

Care has been taken with the resources available, and it is believed the results are sufficiently near the truth to usefully serve the many administrative, commercial, and statistical purposes to which they are put but, nevertheless, the possibility of occasional serious variations from fact must not be overlooked

Urban Areas.

The population of each of the fourteen urban area (cities boroughs plus their suburbs) as estimated annually since 1st April 1927 is as follows:—

URBAN AREAS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), 1927-32.
Urban Area.1st April, 19271st April, 19281st April, 1929.1st April, 1930.1st April, 1931.1st April, 1932.
Auckland202,400206,810209,800213,330217,000218,400
Wellington126,750130,120133,770138,510143,000144,800
Christchurch122,000123,370125,410126,040127,300128,900
Dunedin83,25084,06082,08085,42086,50087,400
Wanganui27,18027,51027,63027,80027,85027,800
Invercargill22,59022,91023,31023,59024,00024,350
Palmerston North20,54020,94021,28021,92022,80023,200
Napier18,68018,87019,06019,22019,30019,300
Timaru17,33017,54017,89018,03018,35018,650
New Plymouth16,79017,35017,46017,74018,20018,650
Hamilton17,14017,35017,46017,74018,10018,250
Hastings15,05015,29015,50015,93016,75016,750
Gisborne15,37015,54015,67015,86016,25016,400
Nelson12,01012,08012,25012,32012,50012,700

The population of each county, borough, and town district as at 1st April, 1932, is given in the schedules which follow.

(Note—The column headed “Administrative” does not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but includes dependent town districts. The heading “Geographic” includes all cities, boroughs, or town districts geographically situated in a county.)

COUNTIES AREAS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), 1927-32.
CountyPopulation (including Maoris)
Administrative.Geographic
North Island—
Mongonui7,4808,050
Whangaroa2,1302,130
Hokianga7,3207,320
Bay of Islands7,6908,550
Whangarei11,35020,830
Hobson6,2008,200
Otamatea4,4704,470
Waitemata10,41040,490
Eden8,950181,400
Great Barrier400400
Manukau8,78019,890
Franklin12,11016,190
Raglan8,1108,110
Waikato10,06029,650
Waipa10,67014,370
Otorohanga4,3205,010
Kawhia2,0102,010
Waitomo7,0609,590
Taumarunui3,1505,670
Matamata8,30010,340
Piako8,27012,520
Ohinemuri3,0107,990
Hauraki Plains4,4004,400
Thames2,6207,330
Coromandel2,0902,090
Tauranga8,94012,970
Rotorua3,9709,120
Taupo2,5502,550
Whakatane6,4007,930
Opotiki4,1805,490
Matakaoa1,6401,640
Waiapu5,4205,420
Uawa1,7501,750
Waikohu3,6303,630
Cook7,08021,430
Wairoa5,5608,080
Hawke's Bay15,47045,940
Waipawa3,5004,690
Waipukurau1,0603,060
Patangata2,8102,810
Dannevirke5,0209,570
Woodville1,8502,970
Weber470470
Ohura2,9102,910
Whangamomona1,3801,380
Clifton2,5802,580
Taranaki6,85024,950
Inglewood3,1604,440
Egmont4,0705,
Stratford5,3308,920
Eltham3,4605,470
Waimate West3,0103,730
Hawera5,55010,280
Patea3,5805,390
Kaitieko2,0503,800
Waimarino3.0006,820
Waitotara3,50028,500
Wanganui3,0703,970
Rangitikei10,00010,840
Kiwitea2,3102,310
Pohangina1,3301,330
Oroua3,8508,300
Manawatu5,0700,820
Kairanga5,40026,750
Horowhenua6,98012,490
Pahiatua2,0004,400
Akitio1,1701,170
Eketahuna2,0502,820
Mauriceville850850
Masterton3,70012,400
Castlepoint020620
Wairarapa South3,3105,230
Featherston3,0807,280
Hutt8,42039,590
Makara4,390118,690
Total369,600977,320
South Island—
Sounds930930
Marlborough7,78014,390
Awatere1,8001,800
Kaikoura2,2502,250
Amuri2,1302,130
Cheviot1,4701,470
Waimea9,35023,810
Takaka2,0702,070
Collingwood1,1101,110
Buller6,68010,680
Murchison1,4501,450
Inangahua3,5203,520
Grey5,51015,190
Westland4,3607,780
Waipara2,5302,530
Kowai2,0002,000
Ashley680080
Rangiora2,8505,030
Eyre1,9003,050
Oxford1,0501,650
Tawera760760
Malvern2,8802,880
Paparua5,3505,350
Waimairi13,16018,360
Heathcote5,590108,140
Halswell1,9101,910
Mount Herbert540540
Akaroa1,9002,500
Chatham Islands620020
Wairewa1,1001,100
Springs1,9401,940
Ellesmere3,3404,000
Selwyn1,7101,710
Ashburton12,79018,940
Geraldine5,8108,710
Levels5,05022,880
Mackenzie3,1003,100
Waimate7,3309,030
Waitaki9,79017,640
Waihemo1,4802,280
Waikouaiti4,3709,640
Peninsula2,9702,970
Taieri6,22087,950
Bruce4,5507,500
Clutha7,1308,740
Tuapeka4,9106,280
Maniototo2,9203,120
Vincent3,7404,990
Lake1,6102,760
Southland25,30056,510
Wallace9,37011,050
Fiord4040
Stewart Island060000
Total221,900539,920
Grand total591,0201,517,240
BOROUGHS—ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), 1ST APRIL, 1932.
BoroughPopulation (including Maoris).
North Island—
Whangarei7,700
Dargaville2,000
Birkenhead3,400
Northcote2,540
Takapuna7,000
Devonport10,400
New Lynn3,290
Auckland (City)100,300
Newmarket3,250
Mount Eden20,100
Mount Albert20,750
One Tree Hill8,050
Onehunga11,200
Otahuhu5,050
Pukekohe2,520
Huntly1,940
Ngaruawahia1,200
Hamilton15,500
Cambridge2,150
Te Awamutu1,870
Te Kuiti2,530
Taumarunui2,520
Morrinsville1,740
Te Aroha2,510
Paeroa1,940
Waihi3,040
Thames4,710
Tauranga3,000
Rotorua5,150
Whakatane1,530
Opotiki1,310
Gisborne14,350
Wairoa2,520
Napier10,200
Hastings12,000
Waipawa1,190
Waipukurau2,000
Dannevirke4,550
Woodville1,120
Waitara1,850
New Plymouth10,250
Inglewood1,280
Stratford3,590
Eltham2,010
Hawera4,730
Patea1,150
Ohakune1,420
Raetihi1,080
Taihape2,450
Wanganui (City)25,000
Marton2,850
Feilding4,450
Palmerston North (City)21,350
Foxton1,750
Shannon1,170
Levin2,710
Otaki1,630
Pahiatua1,500
Eketahuna770
Masterton8,700
Carterton1,920
Greytown1,140
Featherston1,120
Martinborough1,040
Upper Hutt3,700
Lower Hutt14,250
Petone11,150
Eastbourne2,070
Wellington (City)112,700
Total576,960
South Island—
Picton1,310
Blenheim5,300
Nelson (City)10,950
Richmond1,160
Motueka1,590
Westport4,000
Brunner720
Runanga1,470
Greymouth6,250
Kumara450
Hokitika2,520
Ross450
Rangiora2,180
Kaiapoi1,750
Riccarton5,200
Christchurch (City)90,700
Sumner3,250
Lyttelton3,740
Akaroa600
Ashburton5,450
Geraldine1,000
Temuka1,900
Timaru17,250
Waimate2,300
Oamaru7,600
Hampden250
Palmerston800
Waikouaiti600
Fort Chalmers2,570
West Harbour2,100
Dunedin (City)69,000
St. Kilda8,250
Green Island2,400
Mosgiel2,080
Milton1,570
Kaitangata1,380
Balclutha1,610
Tapanui290
Lawrence650
Roxburgh430
Naseby200
Alexandra050
Cromwell600
Arrowtown280
Queenstown870
Gore4,260
Mataura1,320
Winton930
Invercargill (City)20,750
South Invercargill1,070
Bluff1,670
Riverton930
Total311,460
Grand total888,420
TOWN DISTRICTS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS ), 1ST APRIL, 1932.
Town districtPopulation (including Maoris).
Parent county shown in parentheses.
(a)Town Districts not forming Paris of Counties.
North Island—
Kaitaia570
Kaikohe590
Hikurangi1,260
Kamo520
Warkworth480
Helensville1,020
Henderson1.110
Glen Eden1,320
Ellerslie2,800
Howick650
Papatoetoe2,130
Manurewa1,500
Papakura1,780
Waiuku880
Tuakau680
Leamington570
Otorohanga690
Manunui850
Putaruru870
Matamata1,170
Te Puke1,030
Taradale1,170
Havelock North1,100
Opunake1,020
Manaia720
Rangataua420
Mangaweka350
Hunterville640
Waverley660
Bulls550
Johnsonville1,600
Total30,700
South Island—
Tahunanui760
Cobden1,240
Leeston660
Tinwald700
Pleasant Point580
Lumsden530
Wyndham680
Otautau650
Nightcaps700
Total6,500
Grand total37,200
(b) Town Districts forming Parts of Counties.*
North Island—
Kohukohu (Hokianga)540
Rawene (Hokianga)430
Russell (Bay of Islands)400
Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)400
Onerahi (Whangarei)530
Mercer (Franklin)340
Raglan (Raglan)360
Te Kauwhata (Waikato)480
Ohaupo (Waipa)240
Kihikihi (Waipa)320
Kawhia (Kawhia)230
Turua (Hauraki Plains)280
Mt. Maunganui (Tauranga)440
Patutahi (Cook)290
Te Karaka (Waikohu)400
Norsewood (Dannevirke)180
Ormondville (Dannevirke)290
Ohura (Ohura)420
Kaponga (Eltham)410
Normanby (Hawera)360
Rongotea (Manawatu)280
Total7,620
South Island—
Havelock (Marlborough)230
Takaka (Takaka)430
South bridge (Ellesmere)430
Outram (Taieri)340
Clinton (Clutha)370
Edendale (Southland)470
Total2,270
Grand total9,890

TOWNSHIPS.

New Zealand has many townships with considerable population, but without local self government as boroughs or town districts. Details will be found in Volume I of the 1926 Census Results.

ADJACENT ISLANDS.

Adjacent to the main Islands are many smaller islands, some of which are of considerable area and are under cultivation; others are but islets used as sites for light houses, while others again are barren and unfitted for human habitation. Some of these islands are included within the boundaries of counties, and their populations are included in the county figures. The following adjacent islands not attached to any county were inhabited at the census of 1926:—

Island.Population (including Maoris)
M.FTotal.
Kokutango510
Pakatoa12526
Rotoroa63669
Little Barrier123
Tiritiri5712
Rakino325
Brown's213
Pahiki4..4
Mokohinau325
Ponui111728
Waiheke204217421
Rangitoto24327
Motutapu639
Motuihi437
Kawau161632
Motuhora617
Motuketekete2..2
Slipper2..2
Wanganui112
Cuvier448
Great Mercury3..3
Motiti513889
White22224
East4610
Kapiti9514
Somes224
Arapawa404181
Forsyth4711
Blumine123
Brothers3..3
D'Urville593493
Stephen51015
Rangitoto448
Quarantine224
Dog336
Centre426
Totals5834691,052

DENSITY OF POPULATION

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand is approximately 104,015 square miles. Omitting the annexed islands and certain uninhabited outlying islands, the area of the land mass remaining is 103,415 square miles. This calculation, it should be explained, includes all inland waters.

Using the latter figure as a base, the density of population in 1932 may be quoted as 14.07 persons to the square mile, or, if Maoris be included, 14.74 persons to the square mile.

A truer statement of average density can be ascertained by subtracting from the total area that occupied by rivers, lakes, roads, State forests, higher portions of mountain ranges, and c. The remaining area, amounting to about 84,500 square miles, which may be considered as the utmost total inhabitable or usable land, carries a population of 17.22 (or, including Maoris. 18.04) persons to the square mile.

The various cities, boroughs, and town districts in New Zealand occupy a total of approximately 508 square miles. Considering their population as “urban,” the urban population (1932) had a density of 1,841 persons per square mile, and the rural population a density of 6 persons per square mile.

Attention may be drawn to the necessity for the exercise of discretion in the use of data concerning density of population, particularly in comparing one country with another. Areas may be calculated in many ways, while area itself may have little relationship to potentiality of use. In the case of urban population, it is impossible to obtain the aggregate area of sites actually in occupation by business promises, residences, c. Many boroughs contain within their boundaries large reserves which, with farming and other unbuilt-on land, tend to disguise the actual relation of population to area.

MAORI AND HALF-CASTE POPULATION.

A record of early statistics of Maoris is given in Vol. XIV of the 1926 Census Results. The first official general census was taken in 1857-58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy, and even some later enumerations hardly claim to be more than approximations which approach the truth as nearly as possible.

Available statistical evidence points to a decline in the numbers of the Native race since the advent of Europeans, but this decline was commonly exaggerated by early writers. Of later years an unmistakable increase has been noted. This gain, however, has been accompanied by a very considerable dilution of blood. The census record is as follows:—

Year.No.
* Includes half-castes, ride introduction to section.
1857-5856,049
187445,470
187843,595
188144,097
188641,969
189141,993
189639,854
190143,143
190647,731
191149,814
191649,776
192152,751
192663,670*
1932 (estimate, 1st April)69,466*

The estimated number of Maoris at 1st April, 1932, was 69,460, of which 66,432 were in the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk (49,900), particularly in the Auckland Peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. Hawke's Bay contains some 5,300; Taranaki, 4,200; and Wellington, 7,032. In the South Island Maoris do not attain any numerical significance. During 1931 32 the Maori population increased by 1,272.

During the last few years the natural increase ratio of the Maori population has exceeded that of the European. Heavy fluctuations, however, occur in the Native data, and the completeness of registration is not yet beyond suspicion.

The (arithmetic) mean age of Maoris in 1926 was males, 23.88; females, 22.95 years. The Maori population is a younger one than the European, and possesses higher ratios at all ages up to twenty five years.

The 1926 Census Results, of which Volume XIV is devoted to a more comprehensive statistical survey of the characteristics of the Maori population than has hitherto been possible, show that a total of 69,780 persons possessed some degree of Maori blood. Of these, 45,429 were classed as of full Maori blood, this term including all persons ranging from over seven eighths Maori blood to unmixed native descent. As noted in the Census Results, the degree of miscegenation is probably understated, and the number of Maoris of pure Maori descent is unlikely to greatly exceed 50 per cent, of the total. The 1926 census analysis is as follows:—

Counted in the Maori population—
Full Maori45,429
Three-quarter-caste6,632
Half-caste11,306
Maori-European, n.o.d303
Total63,670
Counted in the non-Maori population—
Quarter-caste6,053
Maori-Polynesian39
Maori-Japanese9
Maori-Chinese9
Total6,110

POPULATION OF COOK AND OTHER ANNEXED ISLANDS.

During the year 1901 the boundaries of the Dominion were extended to include the Cook Group and certain other of the South Pacific islands. No record of the population of these islands was then obtainable, but at each subsequent census a record of various particulars was obtained. In April, 1932, the population was estimated at 15,247 of which Europeans comprised over 300. The movement of population is in the direction of a gradual increase. The figures for each census from 1906 onwards are as follows:—

Census YearMalesFemalesTotal
19066,2246,11612,340
19116,4490,14912,598
19166,5536,24412,797
19216,6926,51713,209
19267,0476,83013,877

The population of the various islands in 1926 was as follows, non-Native population being mentioned first: Aitutaki (14, 1,417): Atiu (9, 924); Mangaia (8, 1,241); Manihiki (3, 413); Manuae and Te Au-o-tu (2, 21); Mauko (15, 496); Mitiaro (2,236); Palmerston (0, 97); Penrhyn (5, 390); Pukapuka (16, 510); Rakahanga (2, 325); Rarotonga (202, 3,682); shipping at Rarotonga (3, 49); Niue (32, 3,763).

POPULATION OF WESTERN SAMOA.

At 1st April, 1932, the population of the mandated territory of Western Samoa was estimated at 46,150, made up as follows:—

MalesFemalesTotal
European and half-caste population1,4381,1092,547
Native Samoan population21,61021,09642,736
Chinese labourers (and families)7388746
Melanesia n and Polynesian1201121
Totals23,93622,21446,150

The population at the census of 1926 (40,229) was 3,886 in excess of that disclosed by the census of 1921 (36,343). A full comparison with enumerations prior to 1921 is not possible, owing to indentured-contract labour not having been included in these. A census taken in July, 1917, showed the European population to then number 1,927, and the native Samoans 35,404. The latter are now steadily increasing in number.

WORLD POPULATION.

The sources of the data quoted herein comprise official publications, bulletins issued by the League of Nations, International Institute of Statistics, and the Statesman's Year-Book. So far as can be ascertained with some pretension to comparative accuracy—the various estimates of the population of the Chinese Empire, for instance, vary to the extent of considerably over 100 millions—the world population is now nearly 2,000 millions. The inhabitants of the Dominion therefore comprise about one thirteen-hundredth part of the population of the world. Details for continents are:—

19131930
Europe498,000,000485,000,000
Asia978,000,0001,102,000,000
Africa134,000,000143,000,000
North America134,000,000167,000,000
South America56,000,00081,000,000
Oceania8,000,00010,000,000
Totals1,808,000,0001,988,000,000

As a useful indication of the comparative size of various countries, the following index of population has been prepared:—

Country.Population (000 omitted).Year.Index of Population (New Zealand= 1).CountryPopulation (000 omitted)YearIndex of Population (New Zealand= 1).
England and Wales39,948193120France41,835193127
Scotland419313Germany64,294193042
Northern Ireland1,24019310.8Greece619304
Irish Free State2,94019302Hungary8,68419316
India (including Native States)352,9871931232Italy41,220193127
Ceylon5,31319313Latvia1.90019301
Union of South8,01419305Lithuania2,36719312
Union of South Africa8,01419305Netherlands7,92019315
Canada10,37419317Norway2.81019302
Newfoundland27219300.2Poland31,928193121
Australia6,52619324Portugal6,65519304
New South Wales2,51819322Rumania18.025193012
Victoria1,80119321Russia (soviet union)161,0061931106
Queensland96419320.6Sweden6,14219314
South Australia58519320.4Switzerland4.06619303
Western Australia42219320.3Spain22,940193115
Tasmania22319320.1Turkey14.20019309
New Zealand1,52519321Yugoslavia13,93119319
Austria6,72219314China474,4871931311
Belgium8,09219315Japan65,367193143
Bulgaria6,00619314Mexico16,404193011
Czecho-Slovakia14,726193010United States123,113193081
Denmark3,55119302Argentina11.44219318
Estonia1,11719310.7Brazil40,273193026
Finland3,65819312Chile4,28719303

Chapter 5. SECTION V.—VITAL STATISTICS.

SUBSECTION A.—BIRTHS.

REGISTRATION.

REGISTRATION of births in New Zealand dates as far back as 1848, consequent upon the passing, in 1847, of a Registration Ordinance which made provision for a record of births and deaths being kept by the State. Under this Ordinance many registrations were effected, some of births as far back as 1840. Compulsory registration did not, however, come into force until 1855.

The earlier Registration Acts and their amendments provided for very little information being given in the case of births, the register containing merely date and place of birth, name and sex of child, names of father and mother, and occupation of father. In 1875, however, a more comprehensive Registration Act was passed, under which information was recorded as to ages and birthplaces of parents, and in 1912 the sexes and ages of previous issue of the marriage wore added to the items required to be shown in the birth entry.

The law as to registration of births is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within sixty two days without fee. After sixty-two days and within six months a birth is registrable only after solemn declaration made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of a late fee of 5s., which may, however, be remitted at the discretion of the Registrar-General. When six months have elapsed a birth may be registered with a Registrar of Births within one month after conviction of one of the responsible parties for neglect, but an information for such neglect must be laid within two years of date of birth. Power is given by the Act of 1924 for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed, a fee of 5s. being payable and satisfactory evidence on oath and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary being required.

There is also provision in the Births and Deaths Registration Act for the re-registration of the births of adopted children, with particulars of the adopting parents in place of these of the natural parents. Registration of still-births, previously not provided for, was made compulsory from the 1st March, 1913.

Although sixty-two days are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval-viz., forty-eight hours if in a city or borough, and twenty-one days in every other case.

Registration of Maori Births.

In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912 (now section GO of the Births and Deaths Registration Act,1924), empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in the Dominion is over 200, most of those being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Native settlement of any size is within easy reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the figures of births given in the following pages do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with towards the end of this subsection.

Numbers and Rates.

The number of births registered in 1931 (26,622) is 175 less than the total for 1930 and 1,313 less than the figure for 1913, in spite of an increase of over 375,000 in population during the eighteen years. The rate per 1,000 of mean population (18.42) is the lowest ever recorded in the Dominion, being 0.38 per 1,000 lower than in 1930, which represented the previous lowest level.

The numbers and rates of births in each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

YearNumberRate per 1,000.
191227,50826.48
191327,93526.14
191428,33825.99
191527,85025.33
191628,50925.94
191728.23925.69
191825,86023.44
191924,48321.42
192029,92125.09
192128,56723.34
192229,00623.17
192327,96721.94
192428,01421.57
192528,15321.17
192628,47321.05
192727,88120.29
192827,20019.56
192926,74719.01
193026,79718.80
193126,62218.42

There is a noticeable fall in the rate in the later years of the period covered by the table, as compared with the earlier. This fall, however, is small when compared with the tremendous decline between the “seventies” and “nineties” disclosed by the following diagram, which shows also the course of the rates of deaths, natural increase, and marriages from 1855 to 1931

Comparisons of birth-rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the crude rates i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The crude rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of 'interest to supplement the table of crude rates with a computation of the legitimate birth-rate per 1,000 married women between 15 and 45 years of age, or the total birth-rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand in each census Year from 1878 to 1926.

YearNumber of Women 15 and under 45Number of Births.Birth-rate per 1,000 Women 15 and under 45.
MarriedTotalLegitimateTotalLegitimateTotal
187850,99980,31317,34117,770340,0221,.3
188157,46196,14418,19818,732315,0194.8
188662,709117,89518,69719,299298,2163.7
189163,172131,27117,63518,273279,2139.2
189669,816158,21417,77818,612254,6117.6
190179,420183,38719,55420,491246,2111.7
190698,249212,59823,12024,252235,3114.1
1911119,390240,71425,27626,354211,7109.5
1916141,322267,30027,36328,509193,6106.7
1921150,400288,47727,30928,567181,699.0
1926161,739313,36326,49427,881163,889.0

The legitimate rate pre 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 is seen to have fallen by over 50 per cent. between 1878 and 1926, while an even greater fall is shown for the total rate on the basis of all women of the ages mentioned. The greater fall in the latter rate than in the former is due to the fact that among women of the child-bearing ages the proportion of married women is considerably lower nowadays than in the earlier years covered.

Women formerly married at younger ages in general than they do at present, and a study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age-constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth-rate varies with age, the change in age-constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account. For recent years statistics are available from which to calculate the birth-rate for women of different ages, and by applying the 1926 rate for each quinquennial age-group to the numbers of women in the corresponding groups in earlier years it is possible to ascertain the total births that would have been recorded in these years on the basis of the rates ruling in 1926. From a comparison of the resultant figures with the numbers of births actually recorded in the respective years weighted index numbers can be compiled, taking the year 1926 as base. Index numbers are given below, together with the corresponding unweighted index numbers and those representing the crude rates.

INDEX NUMBERS OF BIRTH-RATES, 1878-1926

(Base: 1926 = 1000.)

INDEX NUMBERS OF BIRTH-RATES, 1878-1926
(Base: 1926 = 1000.)
Year.Crude RateLegitimate Rate on Basis of Married Women 15 and under 45.Total Rate on Basis of all Women 15 and under 45.
UnweightedWeightedUnweightedWeighted
18782,0682,0761,7472,4872,416
1881187019231,6642,1892,179
18861,63418211,60018391880
18911,4301,7051,5351,5641,574
18961,2981,5541,4291,3211,321
19011,2981,5031,3831,2551,223
19061,3351,4371,3121,2821,210
19111,2801,2921,2101,2301,153
19161,2781,1821,1591,1991,146
19211,1501,1091,1171,1121,100
192610001000100010001000

NATURAL INCREASE.

The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been partially compensated for by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31.19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 10.08 in 1931. The following table shows the fall in all three rates:—

PeriodAnnual Rates per 1,000 living.
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
1871-187539.8812.6727.21
1876-188041.2111.8029.41
1881-188536.3610.9525.41
1886-189031.159.8521.30
1891-189527.6810.1517.53
1896-190025.759.5516.20
1901-190526.609.9116.69
1906-191027.069.7517.31
1911-191525.989.2216.76
1916-192024.3210.7313.59
1921-192522.228.6213.60
1926-193019.748.6011.14
193118.428.3410.08

In spite of the fact that the birth-rate in New Zealand is now low compared with most other countries, yet so low is the Dominion's death-rate that New Zealand still ranks midway among the nations as regards the rate of natural increase.

BIRTH NATURAL-INCREASE RATES.
Country.Quinquennium.Annual Rates per 1,000.
Births.Natural Increase.
* Registration area.
Costa Rica1926-3042.522.5
Salvador1926-3036.818.4
Chile1927-3139.917.5
Egypt1925-2943.617.3
Jamaica1926-3036.116.7
Argentina1925-2929.516.4
South Africa1926-3026.116.4
Philippine Islands1926-3034.816.1
Poland1927-3131.715.3
Bulgaria1926-3032.615.0
Ceylon1926-3039.114.9
Japan1926-3033.614.2
Portugal1926-3034.114.1
Iceland1926-3025.413.9
Uruguay1926-3024.613.8
Rumania1926-3034.413.7
Greece1926-3029.613.3
Canada1926-3024.513.2
Netherlands1927-3122.913.1
Lithuania1927-3127.811.6
Australia1927-3120.311.2
Trinidad1926-3031.011.2
Spain1926-3028.910.8
New Zealand1927-3119.210.7
Italy1927-3125.910.7
Denmark1926-3019.48.3
Hungary1927-3125.18.2
United States*1925-2920.08.1
Czecho-Slovakia1926-3023.27.9
Finland1926-3021.57.4
British Guiana1926-3032.27.0
Norway1926-3017.86.9
Northern Ireland1926-3021.26.5
Straits Settlement1926-3036.56.5
Germany1927-3117.66.0
Scotland1927-3119.55.9
Latvia1926-3020.75.9
Irish Free State1926-3020.15.7
Switzerland1926-3017.55.5
Belgium1926-3018.54.8
England $ Wales1927-3116.34.1
Sweden1926-3016.03.9
Austria1926-3017.62.4
France1927-3117.91.3
Estonia1927-3117.51.0

BIRTH-RATES OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The Australian birth-rate has been consistently higher than that of New Zealand for very many years, but in 1931 the position was reversed. The rates of the two countries have shown practically the same movement. New Zealand, however, reaching in 1899, and Australia not till four years later, the temporary limit of the rapid fall which had been steadily in progress since the “seventies.” In each country the check in the decline of the birth-rate was succeeded by a moderate but steady rise for ten years, followed by a fall commencing in New Zealand in 1909 and in Australia in 1913, an interval of four years again separating the movements of the two countries. The rates for the last ten years are as follows:—

BIRTH-RATES PER 1,000 OF POPULATION.
State1922.1923.1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Queensland25.5924.8923.8723.8222.5822.2421.7619.9920.1418.62
New South Wales25.6724.6824.1124.0122.8922.6922.6021.3920.9519.02
Victoria23.1022.3122.0121.4920.8420.3019.7018.9918.5616.88
South Australia23.7122.6021.8821.0620.5520.1219.7618.4017.1915.56
Western Australia23.9422.5523.0922.2322.1422.0321.7922.0021.9820.32
Tasmania27.0826.2725.0724.2423.6223.0122.1322.4422.1121.65
Commonwealth24.6923.7723.2422.8922.0221.6721.3320.3119.9318.23
New Zealand23.1721.9421.5721.1721.0520.2919.5619.0118.8018.42

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.

An examination of the figures shows that, with the exception of one year, there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as l ow as 991 (in 1860).

But little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibits violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which tend to disappear as the total of births grows larger. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923.

Year.Number of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births.
191213,99613,5121,036
191314,43313,5021,069
191414,53513,8031,053
191514,41513,4351,073
191614,66913,8401,060
191714,32913,9101,030
19181,12412,7361,030
191912,58711,8961,058
192015,43414,4871,065
192114,57613,9911,042
192214,89714,1091,056
192314,53113,4361,081
192414,29513,7191,042
192514,51813,6351,064
192614,64913,8241,060
192714,29113,5901,052
192814,08213,1181,073
192913,64513,1021,041
193013,71313,0841,048
193113,76612,8561,071

The gradual increase in the proportion of males born is illustrated by taking the average ratios of successive decennial periods. The apparent cessation in the increase, as shown by the figures for the period 1916-25 as compared with the preceding decennium, is due to the low masculinity recorded in the last two war years, when (it may be remarked in passing) the proportion of first births to total births was abnormally low.

PeriodMale Births to 1,000 Female Births.
1856-18651,062
1866-18751,043
1876-18851,045
1886-18951,045
1896-19051,054
1906-19151,055
1916-19251,053
1926-19311,057

It would appear that the proportion of males is somewhat higher for first births than for the general average of all children. Of 82,081 legitimate first births registered during the ten years 1922-31 (excluding plural births), 42,207 were of males and 39,874 of females, the proportion of males per 1,000 females being 1,059. The high proportion does not appear to be due to the youth of the mothers, there being a lower rate in coses where the mother was under twenty-five than where the mother was between twenty-five and thirty-five

The figures for various age-groups for the ten years in conjunction are as follows

Age of Mother, in Years.Male.FemalesMales per 1,000 Females.
Under 203,4443,3361,032
20 and under 2516,67415,7111,061
25 and under 3013,49312,8641,049
30 and under 355,8745,3911,090
35 and under 402,1272,0151,056
40 and over5955571,070
Totals42,20739,8741,059

In the ten years covered there were 699 plural first births, and in 228 cases the children wore both males, in 243 both females, and in the remaining 228 of opposite sex. Two cases of triplets (one case two females and one male and the other two males and one female) were recorded as first births during the period.

Further light on the question of sexes of children may be thrown by some figures extracted from the records of births registered in the ten years 1922-31 in cases where the child was shown to be the fourth-born of a family in which the three previously born children were still living. In New Zealand the birth entries give particulars of numbers and sexes of previous issue of the parents, with the ages of the living issue, and the following interesting statement showing the sex-nativity order up to the fourth child has been compiled. Families in which plural births occurred among the first four children have been excluded.

First-born.Second-bornThird-born.Fourth-bornNumber of Cases.
MaleMaleMaleMale1,556
MaleMaleMaleFemale1,444
MaleMaleFemaleMale1,271
MaleMaleMaleFemale1,353
MaleFemaleMaleMale1,335
MaleMaleMaleFemale1,168
MaleMaleFemaleMale1,300
MaleMaleMaleFemale1,224
FemaleFemaleFemaleFemale1,170
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,273
FemaleFemaleMaleFemale1,264
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,270
FemaleMaleFemaleFemale1,181
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,324
FemaleFemaleMaleFemale1,257
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,201

Of the 20,591 families covered, in 10,651 the first child was a male and in 9,940 a female, the number of males per 1,000 females being thus 1,072. The proportion is reduced for subsequent births, being apparently lowest in the case of third-horn infants. The figures are as follows: —

Child.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
First10,6519,9401,072
Second10,58710,0041,058
Third10,49510,0961,040
Fourth10,53010,0611,047

The fact that there is a higher masculinity rate among first-born children than among later issue serves to explain the increasing masculinity of births in successive decennia referred to previously, when it is remembered that the average number of children to a family has fallen heavily during the period, and the proportion of firstborn children correspondingly increased.

The sex-proportions of illegitimate births are generally supposed to be more nearly equal than those of legitimate births. However, although little reliance can be placed on the figures for New Zealand by reason of the small numbers represented, it may be stated that the average for the period 1922-31 was 1,055 males per 1,000 females-a rate slightly below that for all births (1,059) for the same period.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 288 cases of twin births (570 children) registered in 1931. There was also one case of triplets. The number of accouchements resulting in living births was 26,332, and on the average one mother in every 91 gave birth to twins (or triplets)

When still-births are taken into account, however, the total number of accouchements for the year 1331 is increased to 27,098, and the number of cases of multiple births to 332. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 82.

The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total cases of births, in cases of living births only, during the last ten years were

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Multiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases.
192229,00628,678328..11.44
192327,96727,672289310.55
192428,01427,712296310.79
192528,15327,848301210.88
192628,47328,111358212.81
192727,88127,548331112.05
192827,20026,919273410.29
192926,74726,470275110.43
193026,79726,488305211.59
193126,62226,332288110.98

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of twin births for the same decade: —

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
192232811490124
19232891109089
192429677108111
19253018386132
1926358114111133
1927331112104115
19282739571107
1929275959288
193030510197107
19312881018998

During the ten years 1922-31 there were nineteen cases of triplets. In three cases all three children were males, in seven eases all were females, in five cases there were two males and one female, and in four cases two of the three children were females.

AGES OF PARENTS.

Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1931 is shown in the following table:—

Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father, in Years.
Under 21.21and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and over.Total.
* Including Thirty-six cases where plural births would have been registered had not one child been still-born.
Single Births.
Under 211487645091482497....11,610
21 and under 25521,3072,63288923574318625,236
25 and under 3043513,2092,626938303119371527,604
30 and under 35..326002,2231,624732271832315,589
35 and under 40..2653641,2009975071654733,350
40 and under 45....8211264783901745171,255
45 and over......12114626171104
Totals2042,4567,0236,2724,1492,6041,3714931591724,748*
Multiple Births.
Under 212221............7
21 and under 25282471..........42
25 and under 30..528311331......81
30 and under 35....930257911..82
35 and under 40......51118923..48
40 and under 45....1..4734....19
Totals415647454352274..279
Grand totals2082,4717,0876,3464,2032,6391,3935001631725,027*

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.

Information as to the previous issue of the parents, which is required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the Annual Report on Vital Statistics containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in connection with (1) age of mother, and (2) duration of marriage. The former table is here summarized.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1931. NUMBER OF PREVIOUS ISSUE.
Age of Mother.Number of Previous Issue.Total.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.
* This number represents 24,748 single cases and 270 multiple cases.
Under 211,259315367..........1,617
21 and under 252,9551,4636181864763....5,278
25 and under 302,6402,3741,378772325123712..7,685
30 and under 351,0961,3721,16380753433535212..5,671
35 and under 403905356065174282955567013,398
40 and under 458910313616416315435710251,273
45 and over8585101033233105
Totals8,4376,1673,9452,4581,5079231,372209925,027*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue but also for children covered by the 1931 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

LIVING LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1931.—ISSUE ACCORDING TO AGE OF MOTHER.
Age of Mother, in Years.Total Mothers.Total Issue.Average Issue.
15-199261,0911.18
20-245,9699,7541.63
25-297,68517,6092.29
30-345,67118,1543.20
35-393,39814,6094.30
40-441,2737,3925.81
45-491057757.38
Totals25,02769,3842.77

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1931) born to the present time to those mothers of legitimate, children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. The averages for the last five years were as follows: 1927, 2.90; 1928, 2.88; 1929, 2.84; 1930, 2.78; and 1931, 2.77. This falling trend in the average issue of mothers giving birth to children in each successive year is an indication of the growing tendency towards small families.

FIRST BIRTHS.

Of a total of 126,938 legitimate births registered during the five years 1927-31, no fewer than 41,732, or 33 per cent., were of first-born children, and of these 20,325, or 49 per cent., were born within twelve months, and 31,687, or 76 per cent., within two years after the marriage of the parents., In the remaining 24 per cent, of cases where there was any issue to the marriage, two years elapsed before the birth of the first child.

The percentage of first births to total births and the proportions occurring within the first and second years after marriage have shown remarkably little variation in recent years. The figures for each of the hist five years arc: —

Year.Total Legitimate Cases.Total Legitimate First Cases.Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases.First Cases within One Year after Marriage.First Cases within First Cases within Two Year after Marriage.
Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.
   Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
192726,0788,34331.994,17850.086,48477.72
192825,5538,08731.653,96449.026,10875.53
192925,1558,20532.624,03749.206,24876.15
193025,1258,66034.474,11847.556,50375.09
193125,0278,43733.714,02847.746,34475.19
Totals for five years126,93841,73232.8820,32548.7031,68775.93

During the five years there were 9,333 registrations of legitimate births within seven months after marriage. Also 6,720 cases of illegitimate births were registered, and if these latter are all regarded as first-births (which is not entirely the case) a total of 16,053 extra-marital conceptions is recorded, which represents 33 per cent, of the total of legitimate first births, plus illegitimate births. The figures for each of the last five years are

Year.Total Legitimate First Cases. (a)Illegitimate Cases. (b)Legitimate Cases within Seven Months after Marriage. (c)Proportion of (c) to (a).Proportion of (b) + (c) to Total of (a) +(b).
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
19278,3431,3711,87522.4733.42
19288,0871,3661,80222.2833.51
19298,2051,3151,87322.8333.49
19308,6601,3631,91222.0832.67
19318,4371,3051,87122.1832.60
Totals for five years41,7326,7209,33322.3633.13

ILLEGITIMACY.

The births of 1,315 children (658 males, 657 females) registered in 1931 were illegitimate. The numbers for each of the last ten years, with the percentages they bear to the total births registered, are as follows: —

Year.Number.percentage to Total Births.Year.Number.Percentage to Total Births
19221,2244.2219271,3874.97
19231,2604.5119281,3835.08
19241,3384.7719291,3274.96
19251,3324.7319301,3715.12
19261,4735.1719311,3154.94

It is only natural to expect that, as the birth-rate falls, the proportion of illegitimate to total births will tend to increase. Probably a better criterion is afforded by the following table, which shows the proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women at the reproductive ages in each census year since 1891.

Year.Unmarried Women aged 15-45 Years.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Kate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,9906389.25
189689,7228349.30
1901105,4209378.89
1906116,5061,1329.72
1911116,7261,0789.24
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926151,6241,4739.71

Included in the total of 1,315 illegitimate births in 1931 were 10 eases of twins, the number of accouchements being thus 1,305, including 1 case registered with the Registrar-General. From the following table it will be seen that of the 1,305 mothers 452, or 35 per cent., wore under twenty-one years of age.

ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS. 1931. AGES OF MOTHERS.
Age.Cases.
Years. 
143
1514
1654
1773
1898
19114
2649
2750
2096
21107
22101
2383
2464
2573
2845
2936
3029
3128
3230
3317
3421
3522
3620
3715
3819
3914
407
416
425
433
446
451
461
491
Total1,305

The rates of illegitimacy in Australia and New Zealand are quoted. The average rate for New Zealand for the ten years 1921-30 (4.79 per 100 of all births) is somewhat higher than that of the Commonwealth (4.66 per 100), and the New Zealand rate has been the higher during each of the last seven years.

Proportion of Illegitimate Births in every 100 Births.

PROPORTION OF ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS IN EVERY 100 BIRTHS.  
Year.Queensland.Now South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.Commonwealth.New Zealand.
19215.224.834.853.154.035.534.754.40
19224.664.534.412.974.144.564.494.22
19235.404.954.453.083.634.444.644.51
19245.344.824.623.063.944.244.624.77
19255.105.064.303.134.094.734.644.73
19265.065.174.533.073.924.634.725.17
19275.365.004.443.153.955.304.704.97
19285.204.954.713.313.875.054.725.08
19295.215.184.342.994.084.924.704.96
19305.074.874.483.384.054.724.625.12

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1930, directs the omission of the word “illegitimate” from the register when the birth of an illegitimate child is registered. The word “illegitimate” appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

The Legitimation Act.

An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock whose parents afterwards intermarry is deemed to be legitimized by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes a Registrar must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and must also produce evidence of marriage between himself and the mother of the child.

Prior to the passing, on the 6th February, 1922, of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921-22, legitimation could be effected only if at the time of the birth of the child there existed no legal impediment to the intermarriage of the father and mother, but the legal-impediment proviso was repealed by that amendment.

The amendment of 1921-22 also provides for legitimation by the mother in the event of the death of the father after the intermarriage of the parents. In such a case the application for legitimation is heard by a Magistrate, and upon his certifying that it has been proved to his satisfaction that the husband of the applicant was the father of the child, the child is registered as the lawful issue of the applicant and her husband.

The number of legitimations in each of the last ten years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are:

Year.Number of Children legitimized.
Previously registered.Not previously registered.Total.
1922193106299
192321199310
192419481275
192517297269
1926230115345
1927204108312
1928247102349
192926166327
1930234111345
193129292384
Totals to 19314,3252,2976,622

ADOPTIONS.

The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. If the child's birth has been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on it, and a new entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being substituted for those of the natural parents.

During the year 1931 the registration of 329 adopted children (150 males and 179 females) was effected, as compared with 385 in 1930, 402 in 1929, 409 in 1928, and 421 in 1927.

STILL-BIRTHS.

The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each of the last ten years are as follows: —

Year.Male.Female.Not stated.Total.Male Stillbirths per 1,000 Female Still-births.Percentage of Still-births to
Living Births.All Births.
192246936498421,2882.902.82
192348740078941,2183.193.10
1924495348128551,4223.052.96
192548137828611,2723.062.97
1926470416..8861,1303.113.02
1927506372..8781,3603.153.05
1928424415..8391,0223.082.99
1929501369..8701,3583.253.15
1930470395..8651,1903.233.13
1931430379..8091,1353.042.95

It is a well-known fact that masculinity is in general much higher among still-births than among living births, though an exception to the rule occurred in 1928, when actually a lower rate of masculinity was recorded for still-births than for living births. The figures for the ten years covered by the above table show the rate for still-births to have been 1,240 males per 1,000 females. The rate for individual years has ranged between 1,726 (in 1914) and 1,022 (in 1928).

Tabulation of the relative ages of the parents of the still-born children in 1931 does not appear to disclose any significant features. The median age of the mothers was 30, as compared with 28 in the case of living births. The percentage of illegitimates among still-born infants (5.32) was higher than among infants born alive (4.94).

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1931, 34 per cent, were first births, while of legitimate still-births no less than 41 per cent, were first births. It would thus appear that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring at the first accouchement than at the average of subsequent accouchements.

The following table, based on the figures for the five years 1927-31, indicates that this is so, and further demonstrates the effect of the increasing age of the mother in the causation of still-births. While for women between 20 and 25 the proportion of still-births to living births was under 25 per cent, for all births and a little higher for first births, for women over forty it was over 6 per cent, for all births and over 12 per cent, for first births.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1927-31. PERCENTAGE OF STILL TO LIVING 
Age of Mother, in Years.All Births.First Births.Percentage of Still to Living.
Living.Still.Living.Still.All Births.First Births.
Under 204,3721083,7171032.472.77
20 and under 2526,40466216,9614612.252.72
25 3038,3151,06513,2465582.784.21
30 35 29,3619005,3633153.075.87
35 4018,0467641,9051684.238.82
40 and over7,440473540666.3612.22
Totals126,9383,97241,7321,6713.134.00

The next table shows the percentage of still-births to living births according to nativity order of legitimate births registered in the five years 1927-31. The column for mothers of all ages shows a fairly definite gradation, the second child having the best chance of being born alive, and the probability of a still-birth increasing thereafter.

Legitimate Births,1927-31.—Percentage of Still To Living.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1927-31. PERCENTAGE OF STILL TO LIVING 
Nativity Order.Living Births.Still -births.Percentage of Still to Living.
Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35 -40.Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35 -40Mothers of Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35 -40
First41,7321,9051,6711684.008.82
Second30,4862,894610882.003.04
Third20,3813,1964861092.383.41
Fourth12,6832,7733801043.003.75
Fifth8,9992,306267882.973.82
Sixth5.0201,696177033.533.71
Seventh3,1951,275119453.723.53
Eighth2,09385182343.924.00
Ninth1,34161657234.253.73
Tenth80833345175.575.11

The column for mothers aged 35 to 40 indicates that continued child-bearing after the first two or three accouchements has some small effect on the still-birth probability. There can be no doubt, how ever that age of the mother is the principle factor in the case of accouchements subsequent to the first. This being so it is of some significance that even when no allowance is made for the younger age-constitution in general of mother of first-born child as a greater probability of being still born that have subsequent children.

MAORI BIRTHS.

The number of births of Maoris registered with Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths during 1931 was 2,221 (1,134 males, 1,087 females). The births of forty-seven males and forty-four females were registered under the main Act, and the total of 2,312 represents a rate of 34 per 1,000 of Maori population, a rate 83 per cent, higher than the general birth-rate for the year. Registrations in each of the five years 1927-31 were as follows:—

Year.Number of Births.Rate per 1,000 Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.
19277607291,49523.22
19289678781,84528.36
19291,1831.0332,21633.58
19301,0461,0782,12431.56
19311,1811,1312,31233.74

BIRTHS IN COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE.

Regulations under the Cook Islands Act, 1915, providing for compulsory registration of births and deaths in the Cook Islands and Niue from the 1st July, 1916, were gazetted on the 29th June, 1916.

In the case of a birth a month is allowed in which to furnish the following particulars to a Registrar: The place and date of birth; the Christian name and sex of the child; the names and residence of both father and mother, and also (if Natives) whether of full blood, or quarter-, half-, or three-quarter-caste.

Duplicates of all entries are kept by the Registrars of the High Court at Rarotonga and Niue respectively. A fine not exceeding £5 is imposed on person supplying false information. No fees are payable for registration.

The following are the birth-registrations during 1931 or 1931-32:—

IslandNumber of Births.
Rarotonga213
Aitutaki88
Mangaia55
Atiu41
Mitiaro10
Pukapuka34
Manihiki13
Rakahanga10
Mauke9
Penrhyn15
Niue120
Palmerston (no return)
Total608

BIRTHS IN WESTERN SAMOA.

Regulations providing for the registration of births and deaths of Samoans Western Samoa were brought into force on the 1st January, 1923.

Within seven days after the birth of any Samoan child the following particulars must be furnished to the Registrar of the village and also to the Registrar of the district in which the child was born: The place and date of birth; the Christian of first name and the sex of the child; and the names and residence of birth father and mother. The father and the mother are jointly responsible for the registration of birth.

Duplicate entries are taken and are kept on record by the secretory of the native Affairs at Apia. A fine not to exceed £5, is imposed on persons not complying with the, regulations and fine not exceeding 20 for the persons who knowingly furnish false particulars. No fees are payable for registration.

Registrations for each of the four years 1923-26 reveal every high birth-rate for the Samoan people, the rate not falling below 50 per 1000 of population during that period. Unfortunately the registration requirements appear to have been ignored in a high proportion of cases during the last four are five years, the figures are which are of little value except as a reflex of the political situation in the territory. Numbers and rates of registration of Samoan births in each year since 1923 are: —

Year.Number of Native Samoan Births registered.Rate per 1,000 of Native Samoan Population.
Males.Females.Total.
19238588431,70150.49
19249649361,90055.38
19251,0459882,03356.30
19261,0569091,96552.62
19278168201,63642.37
192845341086321.82
19297156931,40834.94
19306686491,31731.97
19317356371,37232.68

During the year 1931, 49 children were born to Europeans and half-castes.

SUBSECTION B. MARRIAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

MARRIAGE may be solemnized in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnized only between 8 o'clock in the forenoon and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act,1920, the limits in all cases were 8 a.m. and -4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be solemnized. In the case of a person under twenty-one, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1926, sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section 8 provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If a declaration is made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in the Dominion, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has obtained in New Zealand since 1855.By this system it is ensured not only that marriages are in order, but that no legally solemnized marriage escapes registration. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnized, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrar's lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether solemnization has been effected.

The marriage of a man with his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased husband's brother in 1901. Marriage with a deceased wife's niece or a deceased husband's nephew was gendered valid in 1929.

An important provision is contained in section 7 of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, which reads as follows:

  1. Every person commits an offence against this Act, and is liable on summary conviction to a fine of one hundred pounds, who

    1. Alleges expressly or by implication, that any persons lawfully married are not truly and sufficiently married; or

    2. Alleges expressly or by implication, that the issue of any lawful in this section means making any verbal statement, or publishing or issuing any printed or written statement, or in any manner authorizing the making of any verbal statement, or in any manner authorizing or being party to the publication or issue of any printed or written statement.

  2. A person shall not be deemed to make an allegation contrary to the provisions of this section by reason only of using in the solemnization of a marriage a form of marriage service which at the commencement of this Act was in use by the religious denomination to which such person belongs, or by reason only of the printing or issue of any book containing a copy of a form of marriage service in use at the commencement of this Act by any religious denomination.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The movement of the marriage-rate since 1855 is shown by the diagram on p. 79. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given: —

Year.Number.Rate per of 1,000 Population.Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
19129,1498.8119229,5507.63
19138,8138.25192310,0707.90
19149,2808.51192410,2597.90
191510,0289.12192510,4197.84
19168,2137.47192610,0807.90
19176,4175.84192710,4787.62
19186,2270.65192810,5377.58
19199,5198.33192910,9677.78
192012,17510.21193011,0757.77
192110,6358.6919319,8176.79

The rapid fall in the marriage-rate after 1915 was compensated for, to a large extent, by the high figures for 1919, 1920, and 1921. The number of marriages celebrated in 1920 still easily holds the record, while the rate for that year is the highest experienced since 1804. The low rate for 1931 and the decrease of 1,258 in number as compared with the previous year is indicative of the effect of the period of financial stringency and depression.

STANDARDIZED MARRIAGE-RATE.

In a country like New Zealand, where the age-constitution of the population has altered considerably, the crude marriage-rate based on the total population does not disclose the true position over a period of years. Even if only the unmarried (including widowed and divorced) population over twenty in the case of men and over fifteen in the case of women be taken into account, the rates so ascertained would still not be entirely satisfactory for comparative purposes, owing to differences in sex and ago constitution, divergences between rates for different age-groups, and variations in the proportions of marriageable persons in the community. A better plan is to ascertain the rate among unmarried females in each age-group and to standardize the results on the basis of the distribution of the unmarried female population in a basic year.

This has been done for each census year from 1881 to 1926, the year 1911 being taken as the standard. The course of the standardized rates as shown in the following table varies materially from that of the crude rates:—

Year.Marriage-rate per 1,000.Index Numbers of Marriage-rates taking 1911 as base = 100.
Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.
Crude.Standardized.Crude.Standardized.
18816.673.980.776125137
18866.055.160.46993102
18916.048.350.3698285
18966.847.348.0788081
19017.850.249.0908583
19068.555.653.7989491
19118.759.159.1100100100
19167.550.754.3868692
19218.759.763.9100101108
19267.953.162.69190106

The index numbers of the three classes of rates over the series of years enable the effect of standardization to be shown at a glance. Comparing, for instance, the years 1881 and 1911, it is seen that whereas the crude rate per 1,000 of total population was nearly one-fourth less in 1881 than in 1911, the crude rate when only' the unmarried female population of fifteen or over is considered was one-fourth greater, and the standardized rate more than one-third greater. Similar though less noticeable results are recorded for years subsequent to 1881

The standardized rate for 1926 is slightly less than that recorded for 1921, although the figure is considerably higher than for any other census year subsequent to 1881.

RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

Prior to 1929, the Commonwealth marriage-rate was in excess of the New Zealand rate, but a reversal of this position has taken place in the last three years.

MARRIAGES PER 1,000 OF MEAN POPULATION IN A USTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.Commonwealth.New Zealand.
19277.048.457.887.888.076.827.957.62
19286.958.287.527.188.297.097.737.58
19296.677.937.316.428.188.017.457.78
19306.596.996.525.707.666.706.717.77
19316.216.135.675.266.516.825.986.79

A comparison of the latest available rates in various countries is given in the next table. Of the thirty-nine countries shown, New Zealand occupies a position about midway. The New Zealand marriage-rate differs but little from that of England and Wales, although it is higher than that of Scotland, and markedly of the United States of America, which has also a high ratio of divorces (in 1930,17.0 per 100 marriages, compared with 5 6 in New Zealand).

MARRIAGE-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
Country.Quinquennium.Average Yearly Rate.Country.Quinquennium.Average Yearly Kate.
United States1925-2910.32Switzerland1926-307.49
Bulgaria1926-309.55Portugal1926-307.48
South Africa1926-309.28Canada1926-307.45
Czecho-Slovakia1926-309.27Spain1926-307.35
Poland1927-319.23Australia1927-317.16
Rumania1926-309.16Italy1927-317.08
Belgium1926-309.01Argentina1925-297.06
Hungary1927-319.00Greece1926-306.99
Chile1927-318.97Finland1926-306.90
Germany1927-318.69Scotland1927-316.79
Latvia1926-308.42Sweden1926-3045.67
France1927-318.13Iceland1925-296.45
Japan1926-308.01Uruguay1926-306.26
Lithuania1927-317.99Norway1926-306.02
Estonia1926-307.83Northern Ireland1926-305.87
England and Wales1927-317.83 1Ceylon1926-305.54
Denmark1926-307.77Irish Free State1926-304.60
Netherlands1927-317.68Jamaica1926-304.39
Austria1926-307.52Salvador1926-303.45
New Zealand1927-317.51   

DISTRIBUTION OF MARRIAGES OVER THE YEAR

Normally the quarter ending in June is apparently considered the most propitious for the solemnization of marriage. Annual averages for the decade 1922-31 give marriages as follows: March quarter, 2,434; June quarter, 2,935; September quarter, 2,2S6; December quarter, 2,731

The Easter and Christmas seasons are apparently regarded as the most suitable times of the year for entering the matrimonial state, and, judging by the quarterly figures for an average year, Easter would appear to predominate slightly.

The marriages contracted in each month of the five years were as follows:—

Month.1927.1023.1920.1930.1931.
January774780906874747
February790804762842779
March8207691,029819738
April1,3211,3551,1621,5381,265
May635697708722628
June1,0411,0581,0451,066959
July768738812807751
August824777792807716
September764693765766732
October708801912836726
November847792813755664
December1,1861,2731,2611,2431,112
Totals10,47810,53710,96711,0759,817

Wednesday claims two-fifths of the total marriages, the 1931 proportions per cent, of the total marriages for the various days of the week being Sunday,0 5; Monday, 12-3; Tuesday, 14-4; Wednesday, 34-9; Thursday, 15-3;Friday, 5-0; Saturday, 17-6.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.

The total number of persons married during the year 1931 was 19,634, of whom 17,882 were single, 1,063 widowed, and 689 divorced. The figures for each of the last ten years, but showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following:—

Year.Single.Widowed.Divorced.Total Persons married.
Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.
19228.5818,66271459826129619,112
19239,0689,14874262126030120,140
19249,2629,38073257526530420,518
19259,3839,48973360130332920,838
19269,6869,30468952130535521,360
19279,4889,64769649429433720,956
19289,5709.74265847130932421,074
19299,94410,17972145830233021,934
193010,03810,23070947632836922,150
19318,8569,02664441931737219.634

The figures reveal an increasing tendency in the number of divorced persons remarrying, while, on the other band, those for widowed persons have declined over the period. The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Single.Widowed.Divorced.Single.Widowed.Divorced.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
192287.807.472.7390.646.263.10
192390.057.372.5890.846.172.99
192490.287.142.5891.435.612.96
192590.067.032.9191.075.773.16
192690.096.452.8691.804.883.32
192790.556.642.8192.074.713.22
192890.826.252.9392.464.473.07
192990.676.582.7592.814.183.01
193090.646.402.9692.374.303.33
193190.216.563.2391.944.273.79

During the period 1922-31 the number of divorced persons remarrying increased from 29 per 1,000 persons married to 35, a considerable advance, and corresponding approximately to the largely increased number of divorces granted since 1918. The fall in the number of widowed persons remarrying from 69 per 1,000 persons married the direct outcome of the war and, to a certain extent, of the influenza epidemic.

The relative conjugal condition of bridegrooms and brides for each of the last ten years is next given: —

Year.Marriages between Bachelors andMarriages between Widowers andMarriages between Divorced Men and
Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.
19228,018364199474197431703754
19238,479381208489200531804040
19248,708337217473199601993927
19258,813336234471205572056038
19269,164280242428193682124845
19279.025244219419199782035140
19289,112249209409183662213949
19299,478234232477192522243246
19309,540245253446191722444044
19318,379217260415159702324342

Taking the whole period covered by the foregoing table, it is found that, while 2,944 divorced men remarried, the corresponding number for women was 3,317. In the case of widowed persons, however, in spite of the fact that the number of widows caused by the war and the epidemic must greatly have exceeded the widowers caused by the latter, only 5,234 widows remarried, as compared with 7,038 widowers. It would appear that in the case of divorced persons women are more likely to remarry than men, while in the case of widowers and widows the converse holds.

Included amongst widows in 1931 were fourteen women, and amongst the widowers seven men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 224, subsection (5), of the Crimes Act, which reads: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

During the last ten years the numbers of persons married under the protection of the above subsection was 197, comprising 64 men and 133 women.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.

Of the 19,634 persons married in 1931 2,318, or 12 per cent., were under twenty one years of age; 6,556, or 33 per cent., were returned as twenty-one and under twenty-five; 5,804, or 30 per cent., as twenty-five and under thirty; 3,161, or 16 percent., as thirty and under forty; and 1,795, or 9 per cent., as forty years of age or over.

A table is given showing relative ages of bridegrooms and brides in groups of years: —

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED, 1931.  
Age of Bridegroom, In Years.Age of Bride, In YearsTotal Bridegrooms.
Under 21.21 and Under 25.25 and Under 30.30 and Under 35.35 and Under 40.40 and Under 45.45 and Under over.
Under 2123699113......349
21 and under 259601,4423273484..2,775
25 and under 305901,6171,11118129713,536
30 and under 35141449516226731061,421
35 and under 40289917015477336567
40 and under 4510507687666928386
45 and over42557102133147315783
Total brides1,9693,7812,2687873862703569,817

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of men and women marrying at the various age-periods. To give an idea of the extent to which these figures have varied during the last three decades, a table is given showing the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in quinquennia from 1900 to 1929, and for the years 1930 and 1931: —

Period.Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.Total.
Males.
1900-041.6724.7538.4218.638.053.584.90100.00
1905-091.7923.4239.2518.788.473.384.91100.00
1910-141.9422.0438.0420.758.543.904.79100.00
1915-193.2621.4033.0419.6710.475.027.14100.00
1920-243.1324.6632.2117.7310.245.436.60100.00
1925-293.4928.0434.1914.337.704.487.47100.00
19303.5028.3036.1714.236.833.707.27100.00
19313.5528.2736.0214.475.783.937.98100.00
Females.
1900-0416.9239.7527.339.263.401.531.81100.00
1905-0916.1537.1028.5310.184.211.802.03100.00
1910-1415.6034.9028.5211.575.042.052.32100.00
1915-1915.2135.0126.1711.396.062.983.18100.00
1920-2415.9935.4726.2110.665.532.983.16100.00
1925-2918.6137.8823.678.934.652.823.44100.00
193017.9539.5624.218.164.082.373.67100.00
193120.0638.5123.108.023.932.753.63100.00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are now being celebrated at both the younger and the older age-groups.

For many years the average age at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, after reaching its maximum in the three years 1917, 1918, and 1919, the average age has since decreased considerably, in spite of the effect of the increase in the proportion of widowed and divorced persons among the brides and grooms. The decrease is especially noticeable in the last five years, when an abnormal number of persons married under the age of twenty-live. The figures for each of the last ten years are given.

MEAN AGE MARRIAGE
Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
192230.4926.83
192330.4926.74
192430.2426.56
192530.3926.56
192629.8926.18
192729.9226.25
192829.8726.17
192929.8026.10
193028.4726.13
193129.8326.02

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which cover all parties and are naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides of the various conditions in each of the last five years were: —

MEAN AGE MARRIAGE
Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Bachelors.Divorced.Widowers.Spinsters.Divorced.Widows.
192728.2641.1147.9625.0336.6342.94
192828.2340.9248.4524.9936.4343.51
192928.1140.8348.4525.0135.7043.33
193026.6239.6449.4024.9236.2044.33
193128.0542.1548.2824.7835.5144.39

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age 26 held pride of place for bridegrooms and age 21 for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1931without alteration, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age is now 25. The median age for all bridegrooms in 1931 was 27 bachelors 26 while for all brides the figure was 23spinsters 23 also.

MARRIAGES OF MINORS.

Of every 1,000 men married in 1931, 36 were under twenty-one years of age, while 201 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 236 marriages in 1931 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 1,733 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 113 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult

Year.Age in Years.Total.
14.15.16.17.18.19.20.Number.Rate per 100 Marriages.
Bridegrooms.
1927......1141952143613.45
1928....13361182113693.50
1929......542991973433.13
1930....29381142253883.50
1931....1641922093493.55
Brides.
1927112642314075357051,95518.66
1928110701924196377092,03819.34
1929311852434115797592,09119.07
1930216881984165517171,98817.95
1931215982084035456981,96920.06

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

Of the 9,817 marriages registered in 1931, Church of England clergymen officiated at 2,535, Presbyterians at 2,524, Methodists at 941, and Roman Catholics at 1,053, while 2,221 marriages were celebrated before Registrars

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the last nine years: —

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.
1923.1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.19291930.1931.
Church of England28.3327.6827.2627.5327.6827.0327.1826.9325.82
Presbyterian25.7725.8126.1926.3126.7726.9127.1326.4725.71
Methodist10.7911.039.909.689.739.7710.199.899.59
Roman Catholic10.9310.7911.3311.6811.1911.4511.3411.0610.73
Other denominations4.974.964.635.075.575.264.845.165.53
Before Registrars19.2719.7320.6919.7319.0619.5819.3220.4922.62
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that one or both of the parties are members of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any of the denominations.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS

The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (June, 1932) 1,986, and the denominations to which they belong are shown here under: —

Denomination.Number.
Church of England476
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand412
Roman Catholic Church335
Methodist Church of New Zealand283
Salvation Army104
Baptists71
Church of Christ44
Congregational Independents32
Brethren14
Seventh-day Adventists12
Latter-day Saints10
Lutheran Church2
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference5
Hebrew Congregations5
Catholic Apostolic Church3
Liberal Catholic Church6
Unitarians5
Assemblies of God12
United Evangelical Church3
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand5
Ratana Church of New Zealand104
Ringatu Church25
Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah5
Others16
Total1,986

The Ringatu Church, the Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah, and the Ratana Church of New Zealand are Maori denominations

MAORI MARRIAGES.

In cases where both parties to a marriage are of the Native race there is no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the revisions of that Act, though the parties are at liberty to take advantage there of. Considerable inconvenience, however, was found to exist on account of the non-registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Native Land Act, 1909, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Marriage Act. Ministers solemnizing the latter class of marriages must send returns to the Registrar-General.

Returns of 437 marriages in which both parties were of the Native race were received during the year 1931. Of these 79 were in accordance with the provisions of the Marriage Act. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows: —

Year.Under Native Land Act.Under Marriage Act.Total.
192224830278
192326220282
192419548243
192535642398
192626153314
192723187318
192828597382
1929315121436
193034574419
193135879437

Maori marriages are not included in the numbers shown elsewhere in this subsection, nor are they taken into account in the computation of marriage-rates.

MARRIAGES IN COOK ISLANDS

The following are the figures of marriages solemnized in the Cook Islands during 1931 or 1931-32: —

Island.Number of Marriages.
Rarotonga25
Aitutaki16
Mangaia9
Mauke8
Atiu5
Mitiaro2
Manihiki4
Penrhyn2
Rakahanga1
Pukapuka2
Niue36
Total110

The remaining islands of the group either had no marriages or did not furnish returns.

MARRIAGES IN WESTERN SAMOA.

During the twelve months ended 31st December, 1931, 172 marriages were registered in the mandated territory of Western Samoa. Of these, 26 were between members of the European (or half-caste) population, the balance of the marriages being between native Samoans.

The following figures, taken from successive annual reports on the mandated territory, indicate wide variations either in actual marriages or in registrations, the 1925 total for Samoans representing a rate of 22 per 1,000 of Samoan population and that for 192S a rate of only 2-6 per 1,000.

Year.Samoans.Others.Total.
192585434888
192627015285
192713512147
192810116117
192920713220
193018224206
193114626172

SUBSECTION C.—DEATHS.

COMPULSORY registration of deaths was instituted in New Zealand in 1855. As in the case of births, a system of non-compulsory registration had obtained since 1818.

Until the year 1870 the only-information provided for in the death-registration entry was the date, place, and cause of death, and the name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act. 1875, required information to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars as to burial had also to be entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act have made it requisite to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is requited to be registered within three days after the day of the death if in a city or borough, or seven days in any other case. There is a penalty up to 10 for neglect, the undertaker in charge of the funeral being solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the undertaker was primarily looked to for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at the death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. It is not necessary to effect a death-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, though an entry must be made in the register of births.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of, the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, a Coroner's order to bury the body, or a Registrar's certificate of registration of the death, renders himself liable to a fine of 10.

NUMBERS AND RATES

The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
19129,2148.87
191310,1199.47
191410,1489.31
19159,9659.06
191610,5969.64
191710,5289.58
191816,36414.84
191910,8089.46
192012,10910.15
192110,6828.73
192210,9778.77
192311,5119.03
192410,7678.29
192511,0268.29
192611,8198.74
192711,6138.45
192811,8118.49
192912,3148.75
193012,1998.56
193112,0478.34

The death-rate for 1931 was remarkably low, especially in view of the fact that an exceptionally severe earthquake, with a high mortality and a recrudescence of influenza, were experienced during the year.

The fall in the birth-rate (resulting in fewer infants at risk relatively to total population) combined with the fall in the rate of infant mortality, is largely responsible for the position disclosed by the crude death-rate figures. As will be seen farther on, however, there has been an actual fall in the already low standardized rate, which is not affected by the fall in the birth-rate, though it is very materially affected by the decline in the rate of infant mortality.

Male and Female Death-Rates

The death-rates of males and females for the last ten years are shown separately in the next table.

Year.Deaths per 1,000 of Population.Males Deaths to every 100 Female Deaths.Male Rate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (=100).
Males.Females.Total.
19229.607.908.77127122
19239.918.129.03127122
19249.227.328.29131126
19259.097.468.29127122
19269.667.778.74130124
19279.287.588.45128123
19289.247.728.49125120
19299.657.828.75128123
19309.407.698.56127122
19319.057.598.34124119

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR

An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the years 1922-31 gives the following annual averages: March quarter. 2,532; June quarter, 2,734; September quarter, 3,456; and December quarter, 2,787.

High figures in September quarter of each of the years 1923, 1926, and 1929 were due in the main to slight epidemics of influenza.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1931 the most deaths occurred during September, July, and February, with totals of 1,243, 1064, and 1,060 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January), April had the least number of deaths (831), followed by November and March, with 920 and 929 respectively.

The least number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 16, this number occurring on the 27th April. With the exception of 263 on the 3rd February, the day of the Hawke's Bay earthquake, the greatest number (59) occurred on the 30th September.

AGES AT DEATH.

The deaths occurring during 1931 are tabulated below: —

Ages.Males.Females.Total.
* Includes 12 earthquake deaths (sex unknown).
Under 1 month371233604
1-3 months622486
3-6 months322759
6-12 months6146107
1-2 years6047107
2-3 years402868
3-4 years282553
4-5 years222648
5-10 years9784181
10-15 years8642128
15-20 years136115251
20-25 years172122294
25-30 years158166324
30-35 years154180334
35-40 years199186385
40-45 years233189422
45-50 years338285623
50-55 years466310776
55-60 years512362874
60-65 years5704561,026
65-70 years6064821,088
70-75 years6535381,191
75-80 years7305441,274
80-85 years467417884
85-90 years272292564
90-95 years116110226
95-100 years173451
101 years123
103 years..11
108 years..11
Unspecified*122*14
Totals*6,6715,376*12,047

Some remarkable changes in the age-distribution of persons dying have occurred daring the last fifty years. The total deaths in 1931 were more than twice as numerous as in 1881, but the number of deaths under one year in 1931 was little more than half of the corresponding number recorded in 1881. This is an eloquent tribute to the efficacy of the steps taken to preserve infant life (a subject which is dealt with later on in tins subsection), as during the fifty years the annual number of births increased by 42 per cent.

Turning now to deaths at ages 80 and over, a remarkable difference between the earlier and later years covered by the figures is apparent. In 1881, deaths in this group numbered only 85 or just over 1 1/2 per cent, of the total of 5,491, while in 1931, 1,730 deaths of persons over 80 years of age were recorded, this number representing just over 14 per cent, of the total deaths in that year. In 1911 the corresponding percentage was only 6 1/2. The figures are a reflex of the changes in the age-constitution of the population, combined with the great improvement in the death-rate at the earlier ages.

Furthermore, in 1931 the number of deaths in individual age-groups shows a gradual increase for every consecutive group from " 10 and under 15 " to " 80 and over,” where the maximum is recorded. The experience of 1881, on the other hand, is very different, the number showing u continuous decline after the " 40-45 "age-group till the minimum is attained at the final age-group.

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred over a period of fifty years:

DEATHS BY AGE-GROUPS, 1881-1931.
Ages, in Years.Number of Deaths.Percentage to Total.
1881.1891.1901.1911.1931.1881.1891.1901.1911.1931.
Under 11,7311,6671,4631,48485631.5225.5819.1615.567.11
1 and under 570952641349627612.918.075.415.202.29
5 and under 102302401672021814.193.682.192.121.50
10 and under 151611601381361282.932.451.811.431.06
15 and under 201592232611952512.893.423.422.052.08
20 and under 251992953402852943.624.534.452.992.44
25 and under 302342152873923244.263.303.764.112.69
30 and under 352352182614093344.283.343.424.292.77
35 and under 402762762743793855.034.233.593.983.20
40 and under 453112432713684225.663.733.553.863.50
45 and under 502692963173686234.904.544.153.865.17
50 and under 552193963774417763.996.084.944.636.44
55 and under 601723624244738743.135.555.554.967.25
60 and under 651673465465581,0263.045.317.155.858.52
65 and under 701293106327851,0882.354.768.288.239.03
70 and under 751073005638681,1911.954.607.79.109.89
75 and under 80872214058191,2741.583.395.318.5910.58
80 and over852174958761,7301.553.336.499.1914.36
Unspecified117....140.220.11....0.12
Totals5,4916,5187,6329,53412,047100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The next table shows that the fall in the death-rate during recent years has been common to all ages, and to both sexes.

The table is further of interest as showing that the female rate for the various age-groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The rapid increase in the death-rate at successive age-groups is well exemplified.

DEATH-RATES PER 1,000, BY AGE-GROUPS.
Year.Under 1.1 and Under 5.5 and under 15.15 and under 25.25 and under 35.35 and under 45.45 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and under 75.75 and under 85.85 and over.
Males.
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59126.26280.00
191163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22116.21281.21
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17102.84257.70
192643.553.601.302.323.334.989.3019.1549.43128.13330.54
193138.212.831.352.282.774.648.6918.2544.18111.00269.13
Females.
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32107.02285.30
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44104.84221.90
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.8194.42230.05
192635.734.001.301.953.143.987.3415.0239.26109.48284.72
193125.672.470.971.853.203.816.8415.3636.8398.31270.44
Both Sexes.
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87117.97282.52
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74111.73251.81
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.9099.00245.21
192639.763.801.302.143.234.488.3717.2244.64119.19308.76
193132.152.651.172.072.984.227.8016.8840.56105.02269.75

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex in each of the ten years 1922-31 was as follows:

Year.Males.Females.
192250.1649.69
192350.0650.33
192451.0549.87
192551.4450.15
192652.9451.14
192752.5952.35
192852.3352.68
192953.1554.27
193054.2354.47
193154.1455.48

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

The following figures showing the expectation of life at various ages are based on the experience of the two years 1921-22, and are as computed by Mr. L. S. Polden, A.I.A.

EXPECTATION LIFE AFTER-LIFETIME NEW ZEALAND
Age.Males.Females.
 Years.Years.
062.76465.433
562.17164.050
1057.72659.497
2048.66250.364
3039.98141.761
4031.56033.225
5023.50824.913
6016.03017.286
709.90610.570
805.3275.780
902.3112.524
1000.7500.917

The expectation of life at age 0 has been as follows at successive periods

Period.Males. Years.Females. Years.
1891-189555.29458.087
1896-190057.37359.952
1901-190558.09260.549
1906-191059.16561.764
1911-191560.96063.482
1921-192262.76465.433

DEATH-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

From the following table it will be seen that New Zealand has the lowest death rate in the world, Australia ranking second in this respect.

Country.Quinquennium.Average Rate per 1,000.
*Registration area.
New Zealand1927-318.5
Australia1927-319.1
Union of South Africa1926-309.7
Netherlands1927-319.8
Uruguay1926-3010.8
Norway1926-3010.9
Denmark1926-3011.1
Canada1926-3011.3
Iceland1926-3011.5
Germany1927-3111.6
United States*1925-2911.9
Switzerland1926-3012.0
Sweden1926-3012.1
England and Wales1927-3112.2
Argentina1925-2913.1
Scotland1927-3113.6
Belgium1926-3013.7
Finland1926-3014.1
Irish Free State1926-3014.4
Northern Ireland1926-3014.7
Latvia1926-3014.8
Austria1926-3015.2
Italy1927-3115.2
Czecho-Slovakia1926-3015.3
Lithuania1927-3116.2
Greece1926-3016.3
Poland1927-3116.4
Estonia1927-3116.5
France1927-3116.6
Hungary1927-31-16.9
Bulgaria1926-3017.6
Spain1926-3018.1
Salvador1926-3018.4
Philippines1926-3018.7
Japan1926-3019.4
Jamaica1926-3019.4
Trinidad1926-3019.8
Portugal1926-3020.0
Costa Rice1926-3020.0
Rumania1926-3020.7
Chile1926-3122.4
Ceylon1926-3022.4
British Guiana1926-3025.2
Egypt1925-2926.3
Straits Settlements1926-3030.0

STANDARDIZED DEATH-RATES.

For the purpose of ascertaining the true movement of the death-rate in New-Zealand, a system of standardization was introduced some years ago. the age-and sex-constitution of the population as disclosed at the census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The population and deaths of each year are divided, each sex separately, into live-yearly groups of ages (with one group only for ages 80 and over), and the rates for the various age-groups ascertained and weighted according to the proportion which the respective groups bore to the total population at the census of 1911. The following table gives both crude and standardized rates for each fifth year from 1875 onwards, and for the year 1931.

Year.Crude Rates.Standardized Rates.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
187516.5615.0715.9219.0315.3617.30
188012.0510.7311.4613.8111.4712.70
188511.519.6710.6713.3810.0613.36
189010.518.689.6612.2610.1111.25
189510.818.899.9112.2610.0711.22
190010.338.439.4311.049.2910.21
190510.188.249.2710.498.619.60
191010.678.639.7110.678.469.62
191510.197.879.0610.197.879.09
192011.119.1510.1510.838.849.89
19259.097.468.298.686.779.09
19309.407.698.568.646.487.62
19319.057.568.348.266.277.32

For purposes of international comparisons, a standard population, based on the age-distribution of the population of 19 European countries at their censuses nearest to the year 1900, has been compiled by the International Institute of Statistics, and is used in the following table of New Zealand rates.

Year.Crude Rate.International Standardized Rate.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Without Distinction between Sexes.With Distinction between Sexes.
190110.808.719.8111.8111.2111.6411.51
19111.468.219.3910.799.7410.4010.26
19219.757.668.739.658.639.239.14
19269.667.778.749.518.669.179.09
19279.287.588.458.988.178.658.57
19289.247.728.498.938.208.638.57
19299.657.828.759.288.398.868.78
19309.407.698.568.948.118.588.52
19319.057.598.348.557.858.248.20

An interesting point brought out by the use of the new standard in New Zealand is that the male standardized rate is actually lower than the corresponding crude rate, thus indicating that the age-constitution of the male population of the Dominion is now less favourable to low death rates.

ORPHANHOOD.

The table following shows the number of living issue left by married men whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1922-31, the information being given according to age of father and of issue.

Taking all deaths of married men or widowers, whether leaving issue or not, it is found that the average living issue is 3-70, as compared with 3-97 for the period 1912-21.

Average numbers of issue left by married men or widowers during the decade 1922-31 were: Fathers aged under 30, 1.11; aged 30-39, 1-99; 40-49, 2-70;50-59, 3-14; 60-69, 3 03; 70-79, 4-44; 80 or over, 4.62. Averages are universally lower than in the preceding decade.

NUMBER AND AGES OF ISSUE LEFT BY MARRIED MEN, 1922-31.
Age of Issue, in Years.Number of Issue left by Fathers, aged—
Under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and over.Totals.
Under55931,8281,5865391131114,671
5 and under101061,7822,7801,5443837086,673
10 and under 1558233,2872,8511,039253398,297
15 and under 2141203,1085,3233,1921,02517512,947
21 and over121,0919,42025,36742,13234,415112,428
Unspecified2433422312107
Totals7114,55911,88519,71930,11743,49234,640145,123
Married men who died—
Leaving issue4331,8463,6425,2247,0868,5156,56733,313
Without leaving issue1924457551,0611,2101,2849335,880
Totals6252,2914,3976,2858,2969,7997,50039,193

In 1931 among men who left any under age 16 the average number of such issue was 2.12.issue. The average for all married men or widowers who died during the year was, however, only 0-57.

Of 967 cases where issue under 16 years of age was left by married men or widowers during 1931, a widow was also left in 914 cases, the aggregate children under 16 in those 914 cases being 1,952, and the average per widow 214. By the deaths of their fathers, children under 16 to the number of 85 were left without either parent, and for 10 children there was no information as to whether the mother was alive or dead.

WIDOWS LEFT BY MARRIED MEN.

Of the 39,193 married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ton years 1922-31, 10,063 were shown to have been widowers, and 28,529 to have loft widows; while in the remaining 601 cases there was no information on the point. Of the married men leaving widows, 24,534 had living issue also at time of death, and 4,008 had no living issue. In 8,467 cases widowers left issue, and in 1,596 cases no issue. In 325 of the 601 cases where no information was given as to whether a widow was left there was living issue, in 220 eases no living issue, and in 56 cases no information as to issue was given.

INFANT MORTALITY

New Zealand has the lowest rate of infant mortality in the world, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of large industrial undertakings, and c., and partly to legislative and educative measures, the latter both by the State and by various organizations

The following table, giving infant mortality rates in various countries for the latest available quinquennial period, clearly shows the favourable position occupied by New Zealand:

Country.Quinquennium.Deaths under One Year per 1,000 Births.
* Registration area.
New Zealand1927-3135
Australia1927-3149
Norway1925-2951
Switzerland1926-3053
Iceland1926-3053
Netherlands1926-3056
Sweden1926-3059
England and Wales1926-3067
South Africa1926-3068
United States*1926-3068
Irish Free State1926-3070
Northern Ireland1926-3078
Denmark1925-2982
Scotland1926-3085
Finland1926-2088
France1926-3089
Canada1926-3093
Germany1926-3094
Belgium1926-3095
Greece1926-3096
Latvia1923-2796
Uruguay1926-3098
Estonia1926-30108
Argentina1926-29117
Austria1926-30117
Italy1926-29123
Spain1926-30124
Trinidad1926-30129
Japan1926-30136
Salvador1926-30141
Bulgaria1926-30147
Czecho-Slovakia1926-30148
Egypt1925-29152
Lithuania1926-30155
Philippines1926-30157
British Guiana1926-30158
Hungary1926-30173
Jamaica1926-30174
Ceylon1926-30174
British India1926-30177
Rumania1926-29196
Chile1926-30229

Not has New Zealand had for many years the lowest rate of infant mortality in the world, but the rate for the Dominion has shown steady and rapid improvement, more particularly during the last twenty years. Much of the success achieved has been due to the activities of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children. Founded at Dunedin in 1907 this society has since extended its Plunket system throughout New Zealand, and its methods are being adopted to an ever-increasing extent in other countries

The deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the last ten years are shown in the following table:

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 Births.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19227184971,21548.2035.2341.89
19237205051,22549.5537.5943.80
19246444831,1274,50535.2140.23
19256394861,12544.0135.6439.96
19266384941,13243.5535.7339.76
19276104701,08042.6834.5838.74
192860937598443.2528.5936.18
192954836491240.1627.7834.10
193052539992438.2130.5034.48
193152633085638.2125.6732.15

Since 1924 the infant mortality rate in New Zealand has exhibited a rapid decline, and the unprecedentedly low level of 32.15 per 1,000 live births was recorded for 1931. A temporary cessation in recorded progress took place in 1930, but the downward movement was resumed in 1931. Just as in 1930, the temporary rise in the infant-mortality rate was due to the upward movement of the female rate, so in 1931, the decided improvement may be assigned to the substantial reversal of the previous trend in the female rate. The male rate was maintained on approximately the same level as in 1930

The pronounced fall in New Zealand's infant mortality rate during the last two decades has not been accompanied by an increase in the death-late of children between the ages of one and ten years. There has, on the contrary, been a substantial fall, as is shown by the following figures. The numbers and rates given refer to annual averages for the quinquennia mentioned.

Quinquennium1 and under 5.5 and under 10.
Numbers of Deaths.Rate.*Numbers of Deaths.Rate.*
* Per 10,000 children at ages shown.
1894-18984406818622
1899-19035047619423
1904-19084443717219
1909-19134474919318
1914-19185475326622
1919-19234654424519
1924-19284033820315
19293893721416
19303273216712
19312762718114

The increase in 1914-18 as compared with 1909-13 is due to the fact that during the latter period New Zealand experienced several minor epidemics, principally of diphtheria. The influenza epidemic in 1918 also somewhat affected the rate.

Since1921 a distinction has been made between legitimate and illegitimate children in the New Zealand statistics of infant mortality. The proportion of illegitimate infants among those dying within the first year of life has been found to be greater in some years substantially so than the proportion of illegitimate births to total births, in spite of the fact that legitimations and adoptions would tend to reduce the number who would be termed illegitimate in the death entries. The year 1930 constitutes an exception.

Year.Total Deaths under One Year.Deaths of Illegitimate Infants under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Deaths under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Births.
   Per Cent.Per Cent.
19221,215867.084.22
19231,225826.694.51
19241,127968.524.78
19251,125585.164.73
19261,132615.395.17
19271,080777.134.97
1928984565.695.08
1929912727.894.96
1930924475.095.12
1931856607.014.94

Except for the year 1930, the excess of the male over the female rate of infant mortality holds for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table. The discrepancy is, however, somewhat greater in the first half of the year than in the second.

Year.Male Deaths per 1,00 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
192231.557.523.635.5022.684.682.984.89
192333.037.233.106.1924.785.962.764.09
192426.376.725.116.8521.433.864.235.69
192529.895.993.724.4122.735.062.575.28
192628.744.783.686.3521.994.413.545.79
192727.925.394.135.2423.624.272.434.26
192830.464.623.984.1920 052.672.523.35
192927.484.842.864.9818.853.512.063.36
193026.765.832.193.5021.173.222.293.82
193126.954.502.334.4318.121.872.103.58

Even when the effect of the male excess among infants born is eliminated, the number of male deaths per 100 female deaths in the first month of life during the ten years 1922-31 is found to be 134; between one and three months, 145; between three and six months, 126; between six and twelve months, 117; and for the whole of the first year, 137.

The rates for the two sexes in conjunction are now given for each of the last five years.

Year.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Total under 1 Year.
192725.834.843.304.7738.74
192825.443.683.273.7936.18
192923.264.192.464.1934.10
193024.034.552.243.6634.48
193122.693.232.214.0232.15

If the deaths under one year of age are divided into two groups viz., those occurring during the first month of life and those during the remainder of the twelve months it will be found that the decrease disclosed for recent years when compared with earlier is almost entirely confined to the latter class; the explanation being that with premature birth, congenital debility, and other causes of death due to pre-natal influences (which are responsible for the great majority of deaths during the first month), it has not hitherto been found possible to effect the great improvements which have been brought about in regard to complaints arising from post-natal causes.

The next table shows that, whereas in the quinquennium 1920-30 the death-rate under one month of age was 17 per cent, lower than in the quinquennium 1881-85, the rate for children who have survived the first month of life was only one-fifth as high as in the " eighties.” In other words, where the Dominion formerly lost between the ages of one month and one year sixty children out of every thousand it now loses only twelve.

Period.Deaths per 1,000 Births.Deaths between 1 and 12 Months per 1,000 Children who survive 1 Month.
Under 1 Year.Under 1 Month.Between 1 and 12 Months.
1881-188590.6029.7760.8362.70
1886-189084.0927.5756.5258.131
1891-189587.6030.3457.2658.93
1896-190080.0630.3849.6851.24
1901-190574.7730.6444.1345.54
1906-191069.6230.2839.3440.57
1911-191553.6329.2824.3525.05
1916-192048.6228.1620.4621.05
1921-192542.7527.4815.2715.70
1926-193036.7024.8211.8812.18
193132.1522.699.469.69

The decrease by more than half in the general rate, and four-fifths in the rate between one and twelve months, and the comparatively stationary position of the rate under one month, are well indicated in the accompanying diagram.

As stated above, the death-rate for infants under the age of one month has shown little improvement in recent years, while a heavy reduction has taken place in the mortality-rate after the first month of life. It would appear, therefore, that on the one hand the diseases that can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases, and diseases due to faulty nourishment, and c. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them; while, on the other hand, many infants are evidently non-viable at birth. This point is accentuated by the following table, which shows the rates for further divisions of the first month of life.

Deaths Under 1 Month per 1,000 Live Births.

DEATHS UNDER 1 MONTH PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS
Year.Under 1 day.1 Day and under 2 days.2 Days and under 1 weekTotal under 1 week.1 week and under 2 weeks.2 weeks and under 3 weeks.3 weeks and under 1 month.Total under 1 Month.
19228.763.897.7620.413.482.141.2127.24
19238.443.938.2620.634.182.541.6529.00
19247.893.357.5018.742.251.681.2823.95
19258.353.518.4220.283.021.741.3936.43
19268.573.548.3620.472.111.651.2325.46
19278.033.627.7119.363.271.721.4825.83
19288.463.718.2420.412.941.100.9925.44
19297.373.377.6618.401.831.531.5023.26
19308.363.287.4619.102.761.310.8624.03
19317.143.796.7617.692.741.470.7922.69

The rate for under one month has shown a considerable improvement during the period covered, and, indeed, all the divisions of the first month of life record a decrease.

Nearly one-third (190) of the 604 deaths under one month in 1931 occurred within twenty-four hours of birth, and four-fifths (471) within one week. The following table gives, for each of the last five years, detailed information as to the number of deaths at various periods of the first year of life:

INFANT MORTALITY.—DETAILED AGES.
Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Total.
Males.
1927115541274433264829594431610
1928148621424218173629563326609
1929113561193130264422394226548
1930121431294218145030302424525
1931116641114224143824323130526
Females.
192710947884715153424332929470
19288239823812102114332222375
19298434861811142818271925364
19301034571321791923303119399
193174376931157159272224330
Both Sexes.
192722410121591484182539273601,080
19282301012248030275743895548984
1929197902054941407240666151912
1930224882007435236953605543924
19311901011807339215333595354856

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial groups over a period of sixty years. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last periods covered 1872-70 and 1927-31 it is found that the general infant mortality rate shows a decline of 68 per cent., while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (95 per cent.), convulsions (95 per cent.), gastric and intestinal diseases (93 per cent.), epidemic diseases (89 per cent.), and respiratory diseases (71 per cent.). The rate for diseases of any infancy shows a decrease of only 22 per cent, in 1927-31 as compared with 1872-76. but of 26 per cent, as compared with 1917-21, and the figures indicate that some measure of success his already attended the steps taken in recent years to cope with ante-natal conditions.

The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The most striking features of the figures for the years 1927-31 in the table are the continuation of the upward trend in the death-rate for malformations, and a further drop in the rate from diseases peculiar to early infancy.

INFANT MORTALITY RATES FOR PRINCIPAL CAUSES, 1872—1931.
Period.Epidemic Diseases.Tuberculosis.Infantile convulsions.Respiratory Diseases.Gastric and Intestinal Diseases.Malformations.Early Infancy.Other Causes.Totals.
1872-187613.55.59.712.924.21.225.017.3109.3
1877-188110.25.27.512.319.81.421.915.393.6
1882-18869.34.77.911.819.11.225.512.391.8
1887-18918.93.76.310.518.51.324.78.882.7
1892-18969.83.36.611.016.61.424.911.284.8
1897-19016.12.65.610.017.21.526.29.778.9
1902-19065.51.54.19.715.31.327.67.972.9
1907-19115.91.33.37.615.51.926.76.368.5
1912-19163.60.62.25.17.43.926.23.552.5
1917-19213.20.51.94.74.54.326.12.948.1
1922-19261.80.41.34.32.84.822.43.341.1
1927-19311.50.30.53.71.75.019.43.135.2

Two out of every three deaths of infants under one year of age are due to causes coming within the groups “Early Infancy” and “Malformations,” and premature birth alone is responsible for approximately one-third of the total infant mortality.

In accordance with international practice, New Zealand's infant mortality rate represents the number of deaths of infants actually born alive expressed as a proportion per 1,000 live births. This method, however, takes no account of still-births. Reference has been made in an earlier paragraph to the effect on the infant mortality rate of efforts made towards the reduction of those ante-natal influences which generally cause death to ensue during the early weeks of the first year of life. The fact that still-births are also the result of such ante-natal influences should not be lost sight of, and for this and other reasons it is of interest to compute rates for infant mortality and still-births in conjunction, as in the following table. In the computation of the rates for numbers inclusive of still-births, the latter are taken into account in both births and deaths.

DEATHS INFANTS UNDER ONE YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS
Year.Exclusive of still-births.Inclusive of still-births.
 Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192248.2035.2341.8977.5559.7568.92
192349.5537.5943.8080.6265.6173.42
192445.0535.2140.2377.3959.4868.65
192544.0135.6439.9674.7361.7268.45
192643.5535.7339.7673.2963.9068.74
192742.6834.5838.7475.4260.3168.08
192843.2528.5936.1871.2158.3865.01
192940.1627.7834.1074.1654.4164.53
193038.2830.5034.4870.1558.9164.67
193138.2125.6732.1567.3453.5760.80

The still-birth rate in New Zealand shows a rising tendency, but this is not sufficient to reverse the trend of the declining infant-mortality rate when still-births are taken into consideration with this latter figure. Indeed, the unusually large decrease in both the number of infant deaths and of still-births for 1931 has had the effect of reducing the combined rate or " total infant-mortality " rate to an unprecedentedly low level. Whereas, however, the rate computed on the usual method indicates a decrease of 33 per cent, during the period covered by the table, the inclusion of still-births reduces the improvement to 21 per cent.

CAUSES OF DEATH.

Since 1908, the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon and used by the principal European and American countries and the Commonwealth of Australia.

A comparison of the causes of deaths in 1931, arranged according to an abridged classification, and the proportion per 10,000 of population of each sex, are given in the following table. The classification adopted is in accordance with the Fourth Revision (1929) of the International List of Causes of Death.

ClassNumber of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
*Includes 12 earthquake deaths (sex unknown).
I. Infectious and parasitic diseases5764991,0757.827.057.44
I I. Cancer and other tumours8097791,58810.9811.0010.99
I I I. Rheumatic diseases, diseases of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases1292313601.753.262.49
IV. Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs07531200.910.750.83
V. Chronic poisonings and intoxications122140.100.030.10
IV. Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs07531200.910.750.83
V. Chronic poisonings and intoxications122140.100.030.10
VI. Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense4115139245.587.250.39
VII. Diseases of the circulatory system1,8011,4513,25224.4420.5022.51
VIII. Diseases of the respiratory system5203819017.065386.24
IX. Diseases of the digestive system3312485794.493.504.01
X. Diseases of the genito-urinary system4453167616.044.465.27
XI. Pregnancy, labour, and the puerperal state..127..1271.790.88
XII. Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue1519340.200.270.23
XIII. Diseases of the bones and of organs of locomotion2214300.300.200.25
XIV. Congenital malformations80041441.080.911.00
XV. Early infancy3041754794.122.473.31
XVI. Senility2232034263.022.872.95
XVII. Violence or accident882*2831,165*11.974.008.06
XVIII. Causes not determined4418620.600.250.43
Total6,571*5,37612,047*90.5275.9483.38

Class VII, diseases of the circulatory system, the principal of which diseases of the heart—rank easily first among individual causes of death in New Zealand, is the most important as regards numerical strength. Next in order comes Class II (cancer and other tumours), followed in 1931 by Classes XVII, I, and VI. Classes V, XII, and XIII are responsible for very few deaths.

The next table shows the number of deaths from certain principal causes for the five years 1927-31, and the proportion per 10,000 of the population:—

Cause.Numbers of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1927.1928.1920.1960.1931.
Typhoid fever111622780.080.120.160.050.06
Measles291212..0.210.090.010.01..
Scarlet fever16552716110.120.400.190.110.08
Whooping-cough41261733360.300.190.120.230.25
Diphtheria58729258550.420.520.650.410.38
Influenza1312422971312210.951.742.110.921.53
Infantile paralysis7177550.050.120 050.040.03
Tuberculosis of respiratory system5335695245295013.884.093.723.713.47
Other forms of tuberculosis1351301181201160.980.930.840.840.80
Cancer1,3241,3741,4071,4521,4939.639.8810.4310.1910.33
Diabetes1881672012232271.371.201.431.571.57
Anæmia, chlorosis78674938500.570.480.350.270.35
Exophthalmic goiter57515551540.410.370.390.360.37
Meningitis (all forms)63405970410.460.290.420.490.28
Apoplexy, cerebral hæmorrhage7716436346596345.614.624.514.624.39
Epilepsy40604656550.290.430.330.390.38
Convulsions of children under 5 years of age26151313140.190.110.090.090.10
Diseases of the heart2,1502,3152,5332,8972,81715.6416.6518.0020.3319.50
Diseases of the arteries1793944284324201.302.833.043.032.91
Bronchitis3032283142682032.201.642.231.881.40
Broncho-pneumonia2072302512181801.511.651.781.531.25
Pneumonia3134224644293262.283.033.303.012.26
Diarrhœa and enteritis911108277740.670.790.580.540.51
Appendicitis92107100991050.670.770.720.700.73
Hernia, intestinal obstruction10910010795840.790.720.760.670.58
Cirrhosis of liver47513644430.340.370.260.310.30
Simple peritonitis46264535260.340.190.320.250.18
Nephritis, Bright's disease4094555375675792.983.273.823.984.01
Diseases and accidents of puerperal state1371341291361271.000.960.920.960.88
Malformations1611701771701441.171.221.261.191.00
Congenital debility112575953320.810.410.420.370.22
Premature birth3303242783072912.402.331.982.152.01
Injury at birth56838262780.410.600.580.440.54
Other diseases of early infancy88788190770.640.560.580.630.53
Senility8065445184184265.863.913.682.932.95
Violence (1) suicide1992022211932261.451.451.571.351.56
Violence (2) accident6567447257739264.775.355.155.426.41
Violence (3) homicide2210911130.160.070.060.080.09
Other causes1,5921,4711,5091,3621,32911.5810.5810.719.559.19
Totals11,61311,81112,31412,19912,04784.4984.9387.5285.6083.38

Detailed information concerning the various causes of death is given in the " Annual Report on Vital Statistics.” The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violence—causes which are of special interest and significance—are discussed in the following pages.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Tuberculosis of the respiratory system takes sixth place in point of the number of deaths resulting therefrom during 1931, ranking after heart-disease, cancer, accidents, cerebral hemorrhage and apoplexy, and nephritis, in that order. The remarkably low level of 3.47 per 10,000 was reached in 1931, the lowest ratio yet attained in this country.

A graph on the succeeding page illustrates the decline in the tuberculosis death-rate since 1875.

Of the 501 persons who died from tuberculosis of the respiratory system in 1931. 362, or 72 per cent., were known to have been born in the Dominion. In 10 cases-the country of birth was not known or not stated, and in the remaining 129 cases the deceased person had been born outside New Zealand. One of the last-mentioned had been in New Zealand less than two years, and 5 less than five years.

In addition to the 501 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1931, there were 116 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, including

Tuberculosis of meninges and central nervous system 52

Tuberculosis of intestines and peritoneum 15

Tuberculosis of vertebral column 13

Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system 13

Disseminated tuberculosis 18

Tuberculosis claims its victims at comparatively early age. Of those dying from this cause in 1931, persons under the age of twenty years formed 13 per cent., and those under forty-five years 70 per cent.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM TUBERCULAR DISEASES, 1931.
Ages, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
Under 512820
5 and under 109514
10 and under 15459
15 and under 20132336
20 and under 25334578
25 and under 30325789
30 and under 35343266
35 and under 40333770
40 and under 45351651
45 and under 50272249
50”55261137
55 and under 6028836
60 and under 6524630
65 and under 707916
70 and under 7510212
75 and under 804..4
80 and over......
Total331286617

The average annual death-rate from tubercular diseases in most of the principal countries of the world during the latest available period of five years is next shown.

Country.Period.Death-rates (per 10,000)
* Registration area.
Salvador1926-303 .6
New Zealand1927-314.7
Union of South Africa1925-295.1
Australia1926-305.5
Ceylon1926-306.8
Denmark1925-298.0
Canada1926-308.2
United States*1925-298.2
Netherlands1925-299.2
England and Wales1926-309.4
Scotland1926-309.6
Belgium1925-299.7
British Guiana1926-3010.0
Germany1924-2810.0
Trinidad1926-3012.0
Italy1925-2912.9
Sweden1925-2913.5
Jamaica1925-3013.5
Switzerland1926-3013.6
Northern Ireland1926-3013.7
Irish Free State1926-3013.8
Uruguay1925-2914.3
Lithuania1925-2914.5
Spain1925-2914.5
Greece1923-2715.4
Austria1925-2916.4
France1925-2916.5
Norway1924-2817.4
Czechoslovakia1925-2918.9
Japan1926-3019.1
Iceland1925-2920.0
Hungary1925-2923.0
Estonia1925-2923.2
Finland1924-2824.4
Chile1925-2924.5

CANCER.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. The increasing prevalence of cancer is causing no little concern in the Dominion, as indeed it is throughout the civilized world.

The following diagram illustrates, on the one hand, the increase in the cancer death-rate, and, on the other, the decrease in the rate of deaths from tuberculosis:—

In 1931 there were 1,493 deaths from cancer in the Dominion, a proportion of 10.33 per 10,000 of population. The standardized cancer death-rate for 1931 shows a reduction of 0.02 while the crude death-rate shows an increase of 0.14 per 10,000.

DEATHS FROM CANCER, WITH CRUDE AND STANDARDIZED DEATH-RATES, 1922—31.
YEAR.NUMBER.CRUDE death-rate.Standardized death-rate.*
* On Basis of Age Distribution in 1911.
19221,0668.527.58
19231,1158.757.76
19241,2459.598.49
19251,2079.087.88
19261,3419.918.62
19271,3249.638.16
19281,3749.888.18
19291,46710.438.53
19301,45210.198.16
19311,49310.338.14

The following table shows the proportion of deaths from cancer to the 10,000-of mean population in some of the principal countries of the world. The rates are an annual average of the latest available period of five years. Of the countries covered by the table, thirteen had higher and twenty lower rates than New Zealand.

CANCER DEATH-RATES IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES
Country.Period.Death-rate per 10,000 of population.
*Registration area.
Ceylon1926-301.0
Salvador1926-301.3
Jamaica1926-302.3
British Guiana1926-302.4
Greece1923-272.4
Lithuania1925-293.0
Trinidad1926-304.0
Chile1925-294.8
Italy1925-296.0
Spain1925-296.8
Japan1926-307.0
Union of S. Africa1925-297.4
Uruguay1925-297.7
Estonia1925-297.8
Canada1926-308.7
Belgium1925-298.9
France1925-298.9
Hungary1925-299.2
United States*1925-299.5
Australia1926-309.5
New Zealand1927-3110.1
Czecho-Slovakia1927-3110.6
Irish Free State1926-3010.7
Sweden1925-2911.5
Germany1924-2811.6
Northern Ireland1926-3011.7
Norway1924-2811.8
Netherlands1925-2911.8
Iceland1925-2913.0
Switzerland1926-3013.9
England and Wales1926-3014.1
Denmark1926-3014.1
Scotland1926-3014.3
Austria1925-2914.8

The international table shows very clearly the comparative immunity from cancer enjoyed by the coloured races, and the much smaller liability of Southern than Northern Europeans to the disease.

The following summary shows the types of cancer returned in the death entries for the year 1931:—

 Deaths.
Type.Males.FemalesTotals
Carcinoma6616371,298
Adeno-carcinoma81119
Sarcoma191837
Lympho-sarcoma516
Melanotic sarcoma1..1
Spindle-celled sarcoma2..2
Fibro-sarcoma336
Osteo-sarcoma..22
Myxo-sarcoma..11
Epithelioma411558
Hypernephroma628
Scirrhous cancer..33
Rodent ulcer6814
Endothelioma145
Cancer91120
Malignant tumour235
Malignant papilloma6..6
Malignant disease..11
Malignant growth213
Totals7727211,493

The parts of the body most commonly affected in New Zealand are the stomach and liver. Among females the genital and mammary organs rank high as the seat of the disease. Full details of location are published in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.”

Ninety-one per cent, of the deaths from cancer during 1931 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 62 per cent. at ages 60 years and upwards. Females predominate generally at the younger, and males at the older ages.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, 1931.
Ages, in Year.Males.Females.Total.
Under 52..2
5 and under 10415
10 and under 153..3
15 and under 20145
20 and under 25336
25 and under 303611
30 and under 3551924
35 and under 40122234
40 and under 45153146
45 and under 504753100
50 and under 558283165
55 and under 607981160
60 and under 6510893201
65 and under 7012182203
70 and under 759797194
75 and under 8010773180
80 and under8173154
Total7727211,493

Exhaustive statistical inquiry covering the period from 1872 to date has shown that in New Zealand death from cancer is, on the average, now occurring later in life than formerly. It would seem that this is the case even if allowance be made for the fact that the age-constitution of the Dominion is increasing—i.e., that the average citizen of New Zealand is now older than the average citizen of ten, twenty, or fifty years ago.

PUERPERAL CAUSES.

In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance.

During the 44-year period from 1872 to 1915 the death-rate from puerperal causes exceeded 5 per 1,000 live births on only 14 occasions, but after 1915 did not fall below this figure until 1925. The rate for 1920 (when the proportion of first births was high) was the third highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885, but the highest rate since 1920 1ms been 5.14 per 1,000 recorded in 1922. The rate for each of the last twenty years is as follows:—

Year.Proportion per 1,000 Live Births.
19123.64
19133.58
19144.16
19154.70
19165.86
19175.98
19185.18
19195.06
19206.48
19215.08
19225.14
19235.11
19245.00
19254.65
19264.25
19274.91
19284.93
19294.82
19305.08
19314.77

Commencing with 1916, special inquiry has been made in all eases where a woman of child-bearing age has been returned as having died of such causes as septicaemia, peritonitis, nephritis, &c. (without qualification), with the result that in each year several of such cases are found to be puerperal, and are now so classed. During 1928 the system of investigating possible puerperal cases was still further extended, and this would tend to maintain the death-rate from these causes on the high level attained in 1927. The reduction of the rate in 1931 to a figure comparable with the low rate for 1925 indicates perhaps a relatively greater achievement than the unqualified figures suggest.

The rate of deaths from puerperal causes is frequently, though not quite accurately, referred to as "the maternal death-rate.” It should be noted, however, that the class provided for puerperal causes in the international classification covers all deaths from accidents and diseases of pregnancy and parturition, and is not limited to deaths resulting from accouchements of normal women after more or less normal pregnancies. If it were possible to exclude certain types of puerperal cases a true maternal death-rate would result—considerably lower than that shown for all puerperal accidents and diseases. Full distinction cannot, however, be made, but it may be mentioned that the 127 deaths from puerperal causes during 1931 included 36 from abortion or miscarriage, of which 29) became septic cases. Including these 29 deaths from septic abortion or miscarriage, there were 47 deaths from puerperal septicemia in 1931.

The next table shows the deaths from puerperal causes during each of the last five years, classified in the divisions into which such causes are divided in the international classification. An important feature of the table is the marked increase in the number of deaths from septic abortion in recent years, whereas deaths from puerperal septicemia, exclusive of septic abortions, show a definite fall. In 1927 only 14 deaths were recorded from septic abortion, but in 1930 the total reached 30, while in 1931 it was still as high as 29. Puerperal septicemia is a notifiable disease in New Zealand, and the figures for 1930 show that the case-fatality rate for puerperal fever (excluding abortion) was 17-2 per cent., and for septic abortion 18-5 per cent. The corresponding figures for 19.31 were 11-3 per cent, and 21-7 per cent, respectively. The death-rate for all puerperal septicemia cases (including septic abortions) was 1-77 per 1,000 live births in 1931 us against 2-13 per 1,000 in 1930, a reduction of 17 per cent. Over the whole period puerperal septicemia, including septic abortion, was responsible for 42 per cent, of the total deaths from puerperal causes.

Group.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 Live Birth.
1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Abortion with septic conditions14141930290.50 0.520.711.121.09
Abortion without septic conditions specified347670.110.150.260.220.26
Ectopic gestation354460.110.180.150.150.22
Other accidents of pregnancy....5........0.19....
Puerperal hemorrhage171561160 .610 .550 .230 .410 .23
Puerperal septicemia56423027182 .011.551.121.010.68
Puerperal albuminuria and eclampsia18242728320.640.881.011.051.20
Other toxemias of pregnancy9167860.320.590.260.300.23
Puerperal phlegmasia alba dolens, embolus, sudden death691415110.210.330.520.560.41
Other accidents of childbirth823440.290.070.110.150.15
Other conditions of the puerperal state337380.110.110.260.110.30
Totals1371341291361274.914.934.825.084.77

A table showing the rate per 1,000 births of deaths from puerperal septicemia (including soptic abortion) and other puerperal causes separately in some of the principal countries of the world is given in the following table. New Zealand now occupies a much more favourable position in the international comparison than was the case a few years ago.

DEATHS FROM PUERPERAL CAUSES IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES
Country.PeriodDeath-rate per 1,000 Births from
Puerperal Septicaemia.Other Puerperal Causes.All Puerperal Causes.
* Registration area.
Uruguay1925-291.660.842.50
Japan1926-300.891.792.68
Italy1925-291.081.622.70
France1925-291.071.652.72
Denmark1925-291.041.742.78
Sweden1924-281.361.452.81
Norway1924-281.011.862.87
Netherlands1925-290.992.033.02
Hungary1925-291.621.563.18
Iceland1925-291.082.603.68
Spain1925-292.231.623.85
Czechoslovakia1925-292.311.633.94
England and Wales1926-301.742.544.28
Switzerland1925-291.852.434.28
Estonia1925-290.693.634.32
Irish Free State1926-301.533.154.68
Jamaica1926-300.893.984.87
New Zealand1927-312.062.844.90
South Africa1925-292.282.765.04
Northern Ireland1926-301.603.575.17
Germany1924-282.712.475.18
Lithuania1925-290.365.005.36
Salvador1926-301.274.245.51
Australia1926-301.893.635.52
Canada1926-301.933.735.66
Belgium1925-293.142.705.84
Chile1925-292.094.046.13
Scotland1926-302.154.586.73
Greece1923-273.773.457.22
United States*1925-292.784.687.46
Trinidad1926-302.686.268.94
British Guiana1926-302.3511.3113.66
Ceylon1926-307.1412.3619.50

DEATHS FROM VIOLENCE

Deaths from violence, apart from suicide, claim approximately 6 per cent, of the total deaths. The number and rate of the various forms of violent deaths in 1916,1921, 1926, and 1931 are given in the next table.

DEATHS FROM VIOLENCE
Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000,000 of Mean Population.
1916.1921.1926.1931.1916.1921.1926.1931.
* The number and rate under this heading is accentuated by the inclusion of 249 deaths caused by the earthquake of 3rd February, 1931.
Homicide121514131112109
Accidental causes—
Poisoning151413271411919
Conflagration151714111414108
Burns and scalds2839313425322323
Died under anaesthetic, asphyxia, &c.29102011268158
Drowning17213016512615610612287
Firearms2119142319161015
Falls4349819839406068
In mines and quarries2561712235138
Crushing1145173293515*132141356*
Injuries by animals12106311852
Fractures (causes not specified)3241241629341812
Other4654305042442235
Totals595577722939541471534650

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes m 1931 was 926, corresponding to a rate of 6-41 per 10,000 of population. The substantial increase in the number of accidental deaths is largely accounted for by the earthquake of 3rd February, no fewer than 249 deaths being registered as due there to. Excluding these as abnormal, the total of accidental deaths recorded for 1931 was 677, a figure 94 above that for 1916, while the death-rate works out at 4-69. This is remarkable when it is seen that the death-rate from crushing (excluding earthquake deaths in 1931), which includes accidents arising from the use of railways, motor-cars, and other vehicles, rose during the same period from 132 to 184 per 1,000,000 living. There is no doubt that the rise in the rate of deaths from this class is due to the increasing congestion of the public streets and the increased use of motor-cars and other motor-vehicles. On (the other hand, noticeable decreases are shown for drowning, burns and scalds, injuries by animals, and fractures (causes not specified). Part of the large increase between 1910 and 1931 in the death-rate from accidental falls is due to fuller information being obtained in a proportion of cases formerly classified under the heading of " fractures (causes not specified).”

In view of the steady rise in the number of deaths attributable to transport accidents, it is advisable to reduce the figures and rates to their respective headings. In classifying deaths under these, various subheadings the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway-trains and electric tram-cars with motor-vehicles the death is assigned to the railway-train or electric tram-car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor-vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles the death is assigned to the motor-vehicle.

In the following table the number and rate of deaths from traumatism by railways, tramways, and motor-vehicles during each of the last ten years are given.

Year.Deaths from Traumatism byRate per Million of Population.
Railways.Tramways.Motor-vehicles.Railways.Tramways.Motor-vehicles.
19224596136749
1923691459541146
192440109431872
192543810832681
192653171493913110
1927428138316100
19284410176327127
1929495178354127
1930638220446154
1931409159286110

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents record an appreciable increase in recent years. It is unusual, therefore, but nevertheless extremely gratifying, to find a substantial decrease in the number of such deaths registered during 1931, the total of 159 being 61, or 28 per cent., fewer than in 1930. These figures are exclusive of such accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor-vehicles and trains or trams. For 1931 there were 11 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of cases in which death occurred where a motor-vehicle was an agent up to 170. The corresponding figure for 1930 was 246. Thus the total reduction for 1931 in the number of deaths in which a motor-vehicle was involved was 76. Probably the diminished use of vehicles for economic reasons was an important factor.

SUICIDES.

The suicidal deaths in 1931 were 226—males 196, females 30—the death-rate per 10,000 of mean population being 1,56.

Year.Number of Suicidal Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
1927171281992.440.421.45
1928154482022.170.701.45
1929173482212.410.701.57
1930156371932.150.531.35
1931196302262.650.421.56

The rate for 1931 is appreciably higher than that for 1930, and also that for the average of the live preceding years—1.48 per 10,000.

A comparison of the average annual rates for the latest quinquennial periods available for the undermentioned countries is as follows:—

Country.Quinquennium.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
* Registration area.
Salvador1920-300.10
Jamaica1926-300.13
Trinidad1926-300.30
Chile1925-290.32
Irish Free State1926-300.33
British Guiana1926-300.34
Ceylon1926-300.52
Northern Ireland1926-300.54
Spain1925-290.57
Norway1924-280.59
Iceland1925-290.62
Netherlands1925-290.67
Lithuania1925-290.67
Canada1920-300.83
Italy1925-290.96
Scotland1920-300.98
South Africa1925-291.12
Uruguay1925-291.13
England and Wales1926-301.23
Australia1926-301.26
United States*1925-291.32
Sweden1924-281.44
New Zealand1927-311.48
Belgium1925-291.52
Denmark1925-291.60
Finland1925-291.65
France1925-291.90
Japan1926-302.09
Germany1924-282.45
Estonia1925-292.48
Switzerland1920-302.53
Czecho-Slovakia1925-292.70
Greece1923-272.72
Hungary1925-292.95
Austria1925-293.45

New Zealand compares favourably with most of the foreign countries shown in the above table, but somewhat unfavourably with other British countries.

CONTRIBUTORY CAUSES.

The statistical necessity of assigning every death to one cause only has the effect of obscuring the total incidence of many relatively unimportant diseases as a cause of death. From information compiled relating to associated causes of death, however, it is possible to measure the part played by the principal of such causes during the year 1931.

The various diseases of the heart, for instance, not only claim the greatest toll of deaths as assigned causes, but also play the largest part as contributory causes of death. In 1931, in no fewer than 675 deaths assigned to other causes, some disease of the heart was also specified, bringing the total of cases where diseases of the heart contributed towards the death up to 3,492.

Cerebral hemorrhage ranks next in order as a contributory cause, claiming 346 cases, chiefly, of course, in conjunction with the other principal degenerative diseases, such as heart-disease, arterio-sclerosis, chronic nephritis, &c.

Broncho-pneumonia comes next, with 203 contributory cases, as against 180 eases as an assigned cause. This disease is found in frequent association with the principal epidemic diseases. Pneumonia also ranks high as a contributory cause, with 149 cases, principally in association with influenza.

Intestinal obstruction was assigned as a cause of death in only 53 cases during 1931, but appeared in conjunction with other causes in as many as 132 instances, making a total incidence of 185 deaths. The various diseases of the alimentary canal, particularly cancer, were the principal assigned causes with which intestinal obstruction was associated.

Peritonitis plays a very small part as a primary cause of death, but owing to its extremely fatal nature as a complication of other diseases principally of the digestive system, and particularly appendicitis, it looms fairly large as a contributory cause. In 1931 only 20 deaths wore assigned to peritonitis, but in as many as 160 cases this disease was specified as a terminating cause.

MAORI DEATHS.

Deaths of Maoris are not included in the statistics quoted throughout this subsection, their omission being due to the fact that a considerably lower standard of accuracy and completeness of data exists in the case of Maori registrations than in the general death records. Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last five years have been as follows:—

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Maori Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19275464871,03316.1415.8416.05
19285855391,12417.2317.3317.28
192950440290614.6312.7513.73
193049345394614.0514.0714.06
19315284871,01514.8014.8314.81

The average annual rate over the period was over 15 per 1,000, as compared with less than 9 per 1,000 in the case of the non-Maori population.

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in 1928 and 1931. Over the average of the five years the male rate among Maoris was only 2 1/2 per cent, higher than the female, as compared with a corresponding percentage excess of 18 among the non-Maori population.

Until recently, the only statistics available concerning Maori deaths were merely numbers of deaths according to sex. A tabulation was, however, made in 1925 for the five years 1920-24 on the basis of age and cause of death, and summarized statistics were prepared and published in the 1920 and 1927 numbers of the Year-Book. A similar tabulation has now been compiled for years 1925-31 and the summarized statistics are given below. The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the seven years are as follows:—

Age, in Years.Males.FemalesTotal.
Under 17586441,401
1 and under 5416416832
5 and under 10176169345
10 and under 15152174326
15 and under 20242238480
20 and under 25159180339
25 and under 30159147306
30 and under 3597101198
35 and under 40109116225
40 and under 45110104214
45 and under 50113100213
50 and under 5512689215
55 and under 6014181222
60 and under 65140100240
65 and under 70159110269
70 and under 75152107259
75 and under 8011083193
80 and under 8510887195
85 and under 90534194
90 and under 95393776
95 and under 100122941
100 and over263460
Unspecified303767
Totals3,5873,2236,810

With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever (only 5 deaths of Maoris from this disease being recorded during the last ten years), epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the general population, the most note worthy example being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhœal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the European population. Principal among these are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis, the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral hemorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many infants may be partly responsible. The proportion between European and Maori deaths from malformations and the group "early infancy" taken in conjunction (the pre-natal causes) works out at 14 to 1, which indicates a much higher rate for Maoris from these diseases as a whole than for Europeans.

A summary is here given showing deaths from the principal causes and groups of causes.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Date per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Typhoid fever25332012143.885.073.031.782.04
Measles167..1..2.491.08..0.15..
Whooping-cough5348598.230.61.210.741.31
Diphtheria321140.460.310.150.150.58
Influenza35744124415.4411.386.213.575.98
Dysentery52331280.780.315.001.781.17
Pulmonary tuberculosis20520119319122231.8530.9029.2528.3832.40
Other forms of tuberculosis35383938295.755.845.915.654.23
Cancer19222319212.953.383.492.823.07
Cerebral hæmorrhage1013106141.552.001.520.891.90
Convulsions (under five years)1515815232.332.311.212.233.36
Heart-diseases44364569616.845.536.8210.258.90
Bronchitis43331931156.685.072.884.612.19
Broncho-pneumonia37434246395.756.616.376.845.69
Pneumonia10212597838915.8519.2214.7012.3312.99
Diarrhœa and enteritis44362637256.845.533.945.503.65
Nephritis5115860.781.690.761.190.88
Senility889172797813.6713.9910.9111.7411.38
Violence—
Suicide3527120.470.770.301.041.75
Accident52623259588.089.534.858.778.47
Homicide..1........0.15......
Cold, cough, chest trouble, &c.10953141.551.380.760.451.46
Stomach trouble, internal trouble, &c.342....0.470.620.30....
Ill-defined or not specified20293715573.114.465.612.238.32
Other causes16122814618517624.6735.0522.1327.4926.42
Totals1,0331,1249069461,015160.47172.79137.31140.58148.14

Attention has frequently been drawn to the unsatisfactory state of the Maori records of births and deaths, and particularly as regards causes of Maori deaths. In this connection it should he mentioned that considerable improvement has been effected in recent years, although the Maori registrations are as yet by no means up to the standard of the European. In illustration of the improvement so far obtained it may be cited that in the quinquennium 1920-24 there were no fewer than 485 deaths attributed to ill-defined or not stated causes, and such indefinite causes as cold, cough, chest trouble, stomach and internal trouble, &c. This was equivalent to an average annual death-rate of 18-57 per 10,000 of Maori population during the period. The corresponding figures for the succeeding quinquennium 1925-29 were improved to 189 and 0-11 per 10,000 respectively.

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or Coroner's inquest. As a further indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925. out of a total of 867 deaths, 446 or 51 per cent, were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1931 the proportion so certified was 581 out of 1,015 registrations, equivalent to 57 per cent.

As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher than the European, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhœal diseases. The infant mortality rate for the first year of life was, for the seven years 1925-31, 109 per 1,000 births in the case of Maoris, as compared with 36 per 1,000 among European infants, and this in spite of the fact that for the first month of life the Maori rate (24) was lower than the European rate (25). Among Maori infants who survived the first month, the death-rate during the succeeding eleven months was 85 per 1,000, as compared with only 11 per 1,000 in the case of Europeans.

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last seven years are given in the next table, together with a comparison with the European figures.

Year.Maoris.Europeans.
Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Births.Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000, Births.
1925184107.231,12539.90
1926180117.191,13239.76
1927236157.861,08038.74
1928218118.1698436.18
192917478.5291234.10
193018888.5192434.48
193122195.5985632.15

The next table shows principle causes of deaths of Maori infants under 1 year, classified according to age.

CAUSES OF DEATHS OF MAORI INFANTS, BY AGES, 1925-31.
Cause of Death.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Total.
Typhoid fever........1......11..3
Measles............2..13915
Whooping-cough......1329614151363
Diphtheria..............13....4
Influenza......1227425231882
Dysentery........1..2327419
Tuberculosis........111414172563
Venereal disease................2114
Infantile convulsions..13..2254824655
Bronchitis..1..2225423152175
Broncho-pneumonia....1..11126283837124
Pneumonia....23411115686657227
Other respiratory diseases......7212357633
Diseases of the stomach..........113641025
Diarrhœa and enteritis....1123910331935113
Hernia, intestinal obstruction............2142..9
Congenital malformations..223313..41120
Congenital debility, &c.13141213149241223209163
Injury at birth5..31..11......213
Premature birth41222714855..41..127
Other causes peculiar to early infancy88512231....131
Accident......3....2468629
Other defined causes......2218612281675
Unspecified or ill-defined1....3......1146429
Totals684856554936114882973062841,401

DEATHS IN COOK ISLANDS

As explained in the Births subsection of this section, a system of compulsory registration of deaths is now in force in the Cook Islands.

Particulars required are much the same as in New Zealand proper, but the onus of registering is thrown on the occupier of the house where the death took place, or on any person present at the time of death. If the deceased in his or her last illness was attended by a medical practitioner, a medical certificate must be supplied to the Registrar. Any person conducting a burial or a religious service thereat must notify the nearest Registrar in writing within one week.

The following are the death-registrations during 1931 or 1931-32.

Island.Number of Deaths.
Rarotonga80
Aitutaki23
Mangaia30
Atiu19
Manihiki2
Mauke3
Mitiaro2
Rakahanga9
Penrhyn6
Pukapuka20
Niue133
Total327

DEATHS IN WESTERN SAMOA.

From the 1st January, 1923, the registration of deaths in Western Samoa was made compulsory, and the regulations issued provided for very complete particulars being furnished to the Registrars. Accurate information of the total deaths, and also of the deaths under one year of age, is available for each of the four years 1923-26, but the figures for 1927 and subsequent years (particularly 1928) given in the following table are obviously deficient, the registration requirements having been ignored in so many cases that the statistics are almost valueless. The very high death-rate shown for the year 1923 was due to a severe epidemic of dysentery.

Year.Number of Deaths.Deaths under One Year of Age.Deaths per 1,000 of Population.Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 Births).
* Incomplete.
19231,39834941.5200
192476629522.5155
192585737923.7186
192672320819.4106
1927*49516512.8101
1928*219505.558
1929*5999814.970
1930*4799011.661
1931*58715314.0111

In addition to the 587 deaths of Samoans registered in 1931, the deaths of 13 Europeans and half-castes, 6 Chinese labourers, and 2 Melanesian labourers were also registered.

SUBSECTION D.—MORBIDITY

INTRODUCTORY

DEATH-RATES are of great value as indicating the relative healthiness of different countries or for different years. The statistics of causes of registered deaths are of further use as showing the incidence of fatal diseases or accidents, and as indicating in a general way the relative rise or fall of diseases over a series of years. For instance, the fall in the incidence of tuberculosis and the increase in cancer (discussed in Subsection C of this section) can be readily traced from the records of deaths attributed to these causes in different years.

In comparisons of healthiness based on death-rates, however, the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years is not taken into account. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now give a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally.

Of recent years much attention has been devoted in different countries to the possibility or otherwise of obtaining reliable statistics of sickness. In New Zealand certain diseases are notifiable, but beyond this the only record other than that of fatality is the information ascertainable from the returns of discharges from public hospitals. In the absence of full statistics of sickness, however, information from the two sources mentioned is of considerable value, and gives a fair indication of the prevalence -of the more important diseases.

NOTIFICATIONS OF DISEASES.

Notifications of notifiable diseases during 1931 are shown for each month of the year in the following table:—

Diseases.January.February.March.April.May.June.July.August.September.October.November.December.Total.
Scarlet fever85109101127127118121125107101761071,304
Diphtheria576210612616311912018410874841241,327
Enteric fever21131781191769111227161
Pulmonary tuberculosis929696907674958111311394891,109
Cerebro-spinal meningitis2..123241122222
Acute poliomyelitis2121..142344125
Pneumonic influenza3..21535410396169247
Erysipelas22132317223321221424148233
Puerperal fever—
Ordinary111322910126151516813160
Following abortion2017151227166710147133
Eclampsia71067551185126284
Tetanus6421..11......4221
Hydatids57338365348459
Trachoma......1111....3..29
Ophthalmia neonatorum71242213312533
Lethargic encephalitis222....11..2..2..12
Food poisoning5....1..........113424
Dysentery..48436....41..131
Leprosy................1......1
Undulant fever2....1111..131213
Actinomycosis..................1....1
Anthrax....1..................1
Beriberi..................1....1
Lead poisoning......1..............12
Totals3403524094164393984414624994783604105,013.

A quinquennial summary of notifications of certain principal diseases is now given. A noteworthy feature is the exceedingly high figure for scarlet fever in 1928 and 1929.

Disease.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Scarlet fever2,1856,1274,8482,2441,304
Diphtheria1,4461,6001,6871,4401,327
Enteric fever270290278149161
Pulmonary tuberculosis1,3431,5121,3741,2441,109
Cerebro-spinal meningitis2223283022
Acute poliomyelitis2947551225
Erysipelas244385341322233
Puerperal fever and septic abortion328297290319293

Information as to case-fatality in regard to the three first-mentioned diseases above is given in the next table for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Diphtheria.Scarlet Fever.Enteric Fever.
Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case fatality.
   Per Cent.  Per Cent.  Per Cent.
19221,989783.921,449100.695396712.43
19231,951663.381,201131.08276238.24
19242,717802.941,176131.11354195.37
19251,518523.431,02570.68278165.76
19261,975663.341,58380.50302196.29
19271,446584.102.185160.73270114.07
19281,600724.506.127550.90290165.52
19291,687925.454,848270.56278227.91
19301,440584.032,244160.7114974.70
19311,327554.141,304110.8416184.97

PUBLIC HOSPITALS: PATIENTS TREATED.

During the year 1931 the total admissions to public hospitals (other than maternity hospitals) in New Zealand numbered 74,477. There were 4,699 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year being thus 79,176, equal to 523 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris: or, in other words, one person out of every nineteen in the Dominion received some degree of medical treatment in public hospitals in 1931.

These figures reveal a considerable decrease over those for the previous year, principally accounted for by decreases in the number of patients treated for scarlet fever and most of the respiratory diseases. These decreases were offset to a certain extent by an increase of over 117 per cent, in the number of cases treated for influenza during 1931. A table is appended showing for each of the last five years the total number of patients treated, and the proportion of population:—

Year.Total Patients treated.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Populations.
192772,755506
192880,407552
192983,812569
193081,065543
193179,176523

The figures of patients treated in public hospitals disclose the extent to which the public generally are taking advantage of the facilities for medical treatment which are placed at their disposal by the various public hospitals.

The above figures relate only to indoor patients treated in public hospitals, and if there be added the number of out-patients treated by the public hospitals (75,406 during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1931), the number of patients treated in private hospitals, and those persons receiving medical treatment in their own homes, it will probably be found that at least one out of every ten persons in the population was under medical treatment during the year. These figures do not cover the whole field of sickness, as there is also to he considered the large number of minor complaints the condition of which did not warrant the calling in of a medical practitioner.

From figures given in the Appendix to the Annual Report of the Department of Health, it would appear that the average duration in hospital in respect of each admission was approximately 23 days. On this basis, sickness as represented by treatment in the public hospitals alone aggregated approximately 260,000 weeks for the year 1931. This aggregate, however, represents only a little more than one day for each person in the Dominion.

CONDITION ON DISCHARGE.

Of the 79,176 persons treated in public hospitals in 1931, 49,438 were discharged as recovered, 17,931 as relieved, and 3,431 as unrelieved. Deaths in hospital numbered 3,822, and 4,554 patients were still in hospital at the end of the year.

The numbers of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the last five years are

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—ADMISSIONS, DISCHARGES, AND DEATHS.
Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharge and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
192768,30347,75313,8472,5853,78267,967
192875,62051,69816,7072,9253,93275,262
192978,66751,93919,3473,3604,12578,771
193076,02449,94818,7753,5423,97976,244
193174,47749,43817,9313,4313,82274,622

The following table gives the percentages of recovered, relieved, unrelieved, and deaths to total cases dealt with during each of the five years:—

Year.Discharged asDied.Remaining at End of Year.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
192765.6419.033.555.206.58
192864.3020.783.644.896.39
192961.9723.084.014.926.02
193061.6123.164.374.915.95
193162.4422.654.334.835.75

The percentage of patients recovered shows a downward trend in recent years, while the proportions discharged as relieved and unrelieved record a steady upward movement. The general trend, however, was reversed during 1931 in each instance. The proportion of deaths among patients shows a definite tendency to fall.

SEXES OF PATIENTS.

From the following table it will be seen that males considerably outnumber females among hospital patients. During the last ten years the number of males to every 100 females has ranged from 103 in 1931 to 127 in 1922 and 1923. The death-rate is also invariably higher among male than among female patients.

Year.Discharges and Deaths.Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000 Cases.
Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.
192226,51920,8421271,8611,1231667054
192328,03822,1561272,0461,2541637357
192430,01524,7721212,0391,2211676849
192531,36526,0221212,1681,3151656851
192634,44329,5941162,3831,4521646949
192736,29031,6771152,3521,4301646545
192838,82436,4381072,3331,5991466044
192940,98537,7801082,5691,5561606341
193039,55736,6871082,4711,5081646241
193137,86736,7551032,3131,5091536141

AGES OF PATIENTS.

The ages of patients who were discharged from or who died in public hospitals during 1930 and 1931 are as shown in the following summary:—

PUBLIC HOSPITALS—AGES OF PATIENTS DISCHARGED OR DYING.
Ages of Patients, in Years.1930.1931.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 53,7532,7376,4903,5872,5086,095
5 and under 104,4133,6038,0164,1273,3277,454
10 and under 152,7432,3845,1272,7572,3225,079
15 and under 257,3618,51615,8776,9288,56715,495
25 and under 355,7257,92113,6465,4618,21013,677
35 and under 454,6415,0099,6504,3775,1629,539
45 and under 554,5603,1017,6614,2933,3187,611
55 and under 653,0621,8174,8792,9931,7434,736
65 and over3,2091,4844,6933,2601,4774,737
Unspecified9011520584115199
Totals39,55736,68776,24437,86736,75574,622

SUMMARY OF DISEASES, ETC.

As explained in the preceding subsection, the international classification of diseases and causes of death is used in New Zealand.

The following table shows that Class IX, “Diseases of the digestive system,” comes first on the list as regards the total cases treated, followed by “Violence or accidents,” “Infectious and parasitic diseases,” and “Pregnancy, labour, and puerperal state, in that order. Classes I and VII come first and second respectively as regards deaths, the next on the list being Class II, “Cancer and other tumours.”

PUBLIC HOSPITALS—CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES, 1931.
Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I. Infectious and parasitic diseases5,1312,0944853582614,4503,879
II. Cancer and other tumours1,1271,0244933422011,5281,659
III. Rheumatic diseases, diseases of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases9611,05215349768571,434
IV. Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs55132362922126148
V. Chronic poisonings and intoxications17390147124936
VI. Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense1,4941,7815721901602,2741,923
VII. Diseases of the circulatory system1,0101,149923821961,7081,121
VIII. Diseases of the respiratory system2,6721,0911052461232,7191,518
IX. Diseases of the digestive system16,2022,3723852141479,9169,404
X. Diseases of the genito-urinary system3,5771,836278181892,1353,826
XI. Pregnancy, labour, and puerperal state6,089475183..84..6,831
XII. Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue2,3126363414141,8881,122
XIII. Diseases of the bones and of the organs of locomotion       
 1,1379209423121,554632
XIV. Congenital malformations108114332116163129
XV. Early infancy6115317145753
XVI. Senility..10590462618978
XVII. Violence or accident6,3742,506128193647,2082,057
XVIII. III-defined diseases95553925313846905
Totals49,43817,9313,4312,311,50937,86736,755

In the succeeding table the data contained above are reproduced in percentage form, and, in addition, the ratio of deaths to total eases is given.

Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.Percentage of Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I10.3811.6814.1415.4817.2911.7510.557.43
II2.285.7114.3714.7813.324.034.5117.04
III1.945.874.462.125.042.263.905.46
IV0.110.741.051.261.460.330.4018.61
V0.350.500.410.300.070.660.102.81
VI3.029.9316.678.2110.606.015.238.34
VII2.046.412.6816.5212.994.513.0520.43
VIII5.4160.83.0610.648.157.184.138.71
IX32.7713.2311.229.259.7426.1925.5918.69
X7.2410.248.107.835.905.6410.41.4.53
XI12.322.655.33..5.57..18.591.23
XII4.683.550.990.610.934.993.050.93
XIII2.5.132.740.990.794.101.721.60
XIV 0.630.960.911.060.430.3512.67
XV 0.080.090.730.930.150.1528.18
XVI..0.582.631.991.720.500.2126.97
XVII12.8913.983.738.344.2419.045.602.77
XVIII1.933.017.370.040.202.232.460.23
Totals1000.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.005.12

PRINCIPAL DISEASES.

A summary is now given of the principal diseases treated in public hospitals during the year 1931, showing respectively for each such disease the total deaths registered in the Dominion, the total cases treated in public hospitals, the number of deaths occurring in public hospitals, and the proportion of such deaths to the total deaths in the Dominion and to the total cases treated in public hospitals. All figures given are inclusive of Maoris.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for the treatment of which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in the death statistics. Cystitis, for instance, ranks comparatively high in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some more important disease, which would take precedence of cystitis in the statistics of causes of death. Generally speaking, the hospital returns show only the disease or condition for which the patient is treated.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL DISEASES TREATED IN HOSPITALS DURING 1931.
Diseases.Total Deaths registered in Dominion.Total Cases in Public Hospitals.Deaths in Public Hospitals.
Number.Proportion of Total Deaths in Dominion.Proportion of Total Cases in Public Hospitals.
* See letterpress ante.
Typhoid fever22981881.8218.37
Measles..14......
Scarlet fever121,072650.000.56
Whooping-cough451111328.8911.71
Diphtheria591,1584881.364.15
Influenza2621,3348632.826.45
Erysipelas2150......
Infantile paralysis651233.333.92
Pulmonary tuberculosis7231,57225735.5516.35
Tuberculous meningitis60493965.0079.59
Other forms of tuberculosis856975261.187.46
Venereal diseases358662674.293.00
Septicæmia (non-puerperal)2478530*3.82
Hydatids12111975.008.11
Other infectious or parasitic diseases602613355.0012.64
Cancer1,5141,91548732.1725.43
Non-malignant tumours991,2725656.574.40
Rheumatism and gout629262540.322.70
Diabetes2295187432.3114.29
Exophthalmic goiter544541731.483.74
Other goitres11324436.361.23
Other general diseases1769529.417.25
Anæmias521601834.6211.25
Leukæmia (Hodgkin's disease)55692240.0031.88
Other diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs18451161.1124.40
Alcoholism13260753.852.69
Chronic poisonings225150.004.00
Diseases of the spinal cord561111832.1416.22
Cerebral hæmorrhage, apoplexy65652523235.3744.19
Other nervous diseases2602,2589034.623.99
Diseases of the eyes..7604*0.53
Diseases of the ears and mastoid process15543640.001.10
Diseases of the heart2,8781,38050617.5836.67
Diseases of the arteries4202175813.8126.73
Diseases of the veins65940100.001.01
Other diseases of the circulatory system13638861.541.25
Bronchitis2188605022.945.81
Broncho-pneumonia2193297433.7922.49
Pneumonia4151,10118945.5417.17
Pleurisy355411440.002.59
Asthma37335616.221.79
Other diseases of the respiratory system1471,0713624.493.36
Diseases of the mouth41,169375.000.26
Diseases of pharynx and tonsils248,202625.000.07
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1188518168.649.52
Other diseases of the stomach22660627.270.91
Diarrhoea and enteritis996782828.284.13
Appendicitis1084,1086762.041.63
Hernia, intestinal obstruction871,5407990.805.13
Other diseases of the intestines177671058.821.30
Diseases of the liver52881630.7718.18
Peritonitis342042161.7610.29
Other diseases of the digestive system661,0534466.674.18
Nephritis58546314925.4732.18
Other diseases of the kidneys658543756.924.33
Urinary calculi15266640.002.26
Diseases of the bladder154121493.333.40
Diseases of the urethra22252100.000.89
Diseases of the prostate703264260.0012.88
Diseases of other male genital organs..7652*0.26
Diseases of the female genital organs202,4151680.000.66
Diseases of the breast..2352*0.85
Normal labour..3,380......
Septic abortion and miscarriage291702068.9711.76
Puerperal septicaemia231602191.3013.13
Other puerperal diseases and accidents913,1214347.251.38
Diseases of the skin363,0102877.780.93
Osteomyelitis294972379.314.63
Other diseases of the bones. &c.111,68912*0.71
Malformations1492923724.8312.67
Early infancy525110315.9028.18
Senile debility, &c.5042677214.2926.97
Burns and scalds1,2354543020.816.61
Fractures, dislocations, &c.1,2353,90515320.813.92
Other external causes1,2354,9067420.811.51
Unspecified or ill-defined1191,75143.360.23
Totals13,06274,6223,82229.265.12

Nearly one-third of the deaths during 1931 occurred in public hospitals, according to the foregoing table. The proportions for the various diseases range from 100 per cent, for diseases of the veins and diseases of the urethra to 3-30 percent, or unspecified or ill-defined diseases. The proportions are governed to a certain extent, of course, by the nature of the particular disease. Typhoid fever, scarlet fever, and diphtheria, for instance, record high percentages partly on account of the fact that isolation, which is compulsory with these diseases, is extremely difficult to carry out effectively at home or in private hospitals, and partly because of their serious nature requiring special attention. Similarly, with tuberculosis, meningitis, and puerperal septicaemia, all of which record figures of over 65 per cent., special conditions operate whereby the majority of cases are treated in public institutions. On the other hand, most of the degenerative diseases, and those of a chronic though perhaps minor nature, have a comparatively small proportion of cases dying in public hospitals.

Many of the diseases which have a low proportion of deaths in hospital record a high case-fatality rate, indicating that in most instances with these diseases the patients are admitted more or less in extremis.

Chapter 6. SECTION VI.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—PUBLIC HEALTH.

PUBLIC HEALTH ADMINISTRATION.

THE law relating to public health in New Zealand is contained in the Health Act,1920, which repealed the consolidated Public Health Act, 1908, and its amendments. A full account of the Act was given in the 1927 issue of the Year-book

For the administration of the Act There is established a Department of Health, with a Director-General of Health as chief administrative officer. The Department comprises Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, School Hygiene, Child Welfare, and Maori Hygiene, each of which is under the supervision of a Director.

For purposes of local administration The country is divided into health districts, each of which is under the charge of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health. These officers are entrusted with wide powers, and act as advisers of The local governing bodies in matters affecting the public health.

In addition to being charged with The administration of the Health Act, the Department controls The registration of medical practitioners, nurses, midwives and maternity nurses, opticians, masseurs, and plumbers. It supervises the sale of food and drugs, and protects the public against exploitation by fraud in connection with alleged remedies. The Department also administers the law covering the control of cemeteries and crematoria.

The medical and dental inspection and treatment of school —children are carried out by special divisions of the Department.

NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

The system of notification of certain diseases has been in force in New Zealand for many years, and The list of notifiable diseases has undergone several alterations. The list at present is as follows:

A. Notifiable infectious diseases mentioned in Part I of First Schedule of Health Act, 1920: —

Anthrax.Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).
Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinalPuerperal fever (puerperal septicemia
meningitis).and puerperal sapraemia)
Cholera.Scarlet fever (scarlatina).
Dengue.Smallpox (variola, including varioloid,
Diphtheria.alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch, and
Erysipelas.Philippine itch).
Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paraTyphus.
typhoid fever).Yellow fever.
Leprosy 

B. Notifiable infectious diseases declared by Gazette notice: —

* In certain circumstances
Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary).Tuberculosis (pulmonary).
Encephalitis lethargica.Septicemia consequent on abortion or
Fulminant influenza.miscarriage.
Pneumonic influenzaSyphilis.*
Septicaemic influenza.Gonorrhoea.*
Ophthalmia neonatorum.Soft chancre.*
Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis).Undulant fever
Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids). 

C. Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, mentioned in Second Schedule: —

Actinomycosis.Food poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine
Ankylostomiasis (hookworm disease).poisoning).
Bilharziosis (endemic haematuria,Chronic lead poisoning.
Egyptian haematuria).Phosphorus poisoning.
Beriberi.Tetanus.
Hydatids. 

D. Notifiable disease, other than infectious, declared by Gazette notice: —

Eclampsia.

SOCIAL HYGIENE REGULATIONS.

By Gazette notice dated the 29th November, 1924, syphilis, gonorrhoea, and soft chance were declared to be infectious diseases within the meaning of the Health At,1920. On the 9th July, 1925, regulations were made under the Health Act, 1920, and the Social Hygiene Act, 1917, providing for the compulsory notification of these diseases in certain circumstances, and for the treatment of These affected by venereal disease in a communicable form.

Under these regulations it is incumbent upon a medical practitioner, or a medical officer of a hospital, who has been treating any person suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form to notify the Director-General of Health if such person fails for more than two weeks (after the date fixed in that behalf by the medical practitioner or medical officer) to attend for treatment, unless he is known in the meantime to have placed himself under treatment by some other qualified person.

If the Director —General of Health has reason to believe (either from a notification as provided for above, or otherwise) that any person is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, he may require such person to submit himself for examination to some medical practitioner, and to supply a medical certificate as to the state of his health in relation to venereal disease. If a medical certificate is not supplied within the time specified, or if The certificate does not definitely disclose whether or not the person to whom it relates is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Director-General of Health may authorize two medical practitioners to examine such person.

In cases where a medical certificate is not obtainable, or where The certificate shows the person to be suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Director -General of Health may, if he thinks such a course necessary or expedient in the public interest, authorize a Medical Officer of Health to make an order, under section 84 of the Health Act, 1920, for the removal of such person to a hospital or other place where he may be effectively isolated. On the other hand, on application being made to a Magistrate, an order for examination by two medical practitioners (to be named in the order) is made, and if their report shows that the person is free from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Magistrate then makes an order for his release.

Where treatment is not conveniently obtainable at a public hospital or public clinic, the Director-General of Health may authorize a registered medical practitioner to administer free treatment if the patient is unable to pay. In such cases fees for service are paid by the State according to a scale laid down.

It is an offence for any person, while suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to engage in any employment, or to act in any capacity, in or about any factory, shop, hotel, restaurant, house, or other place, if by reason there of any food intended for consumption by any other person is exposed to infection from venereal disease or is likely to be so affected. If any person suffering from the disease knowingly infects, or does or suffers any act likely to infect, any other person, ho is liable to imprisonment for twelve months, together with a fine of £100.

It is The duty of every medical practitioner who is consulted by any person, sixteen years of age or over, suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to give such person a notice setting forth the requirements for treatment and for not infecting others, and expressly warning him or her against marrying until medically certified as cured.

Every precaution is taken for the maintenance of secrecy and the avoidance of publicity in the carrying-out of the regulations. Every person concerned in the administration of the regulations is liable to a penalty of 50 if he divulges any information which comes to his knowledge in respect of any person suffering, or suspected to be suffering, from venereal disease.

DIPLOMAS IN PUBLIC HEALTH.

In addition to the powers of conferring degrees of Bachelor and Master of Surgery and Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine, the Senate of the New Zealand University has power to grant, diplomas in public health, and to make regulations for the examination of candidates for such diplomas. The examination for the diploma in public health is held in two parts, which may be taken separately or at the same time.

REGISTRATION OF MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS.

Under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1914, as amended by the Medical Practitioners Amendment Act, 1924, is constituted The Medical Council of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health and six other registered medical practitioners. One of the six members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which enacts that every person shall be entitled to registration who satisfies the Council that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in The United Kingdom, or eligible for registration on such last-mentioned register; or the holder of a foreign diploma approved by The Council, and granted by any university or institution other than the University of New Zealand or a university or institution situated in the United Kingdom, after a course of not less than five years' study of the subjects pertaining to a medical and surgical degree or license. The Council may, however, refuse to approve any diploma (even in the case of persons registered or eligible for registration in the United Kingdom)unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma. It may also require the holder of a foreign diploma to pass an examination in medicine and surgery to be prescribed and conducted by the Senate of The New Zealand University.

Applicants who are refused registration have the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. The fee for registration is £6, payable on deposit of evidence of qualification.

The Medical Council is vested with disciplinary powers, including the suspension of a medical practitioner order the removal of a name from the register in cases where a medical practitioner is guilty of grave misconduct or is convicted of an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term of two years or upwards. The number of medical practitioners on the register at the end of 1931 was 1,435. During 1931, 20 names were removed and 42 added, of whom 27 had New Zeal and qualifications.

REGISTRATION OF DENTISTS.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist in New Zealand who is the holder of a degree in dental surgery of the University of New Zealand, or a certificate of proficiency in dentistry obtained from the Senate of the University, or is the holder of a degree or diploma in dental surgery approved by the Senate and conferred by a University or dental college in the United Kingdom, or is the holder of a degree in dentistry granted in a British possession or a foreign country and recognized by the Senate. Evidence of good character is required in every case.

Application for registration is made to the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, Wellington, the fee for registration being £1.

The number on the register at the end of 1931 was 924, 24 names having been added and 5 removed during the year.

REGISTRATION OF NURSES, MIDWIVES, AND MATERNITY NURSES.

The Nurses and Midwives Registration Act, 1925, as amended in 1930, provides for a Nurses and Midwives Registration Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health or his deputy; the Director of the Division of Nursing (who is Registrar of the Board); a registered medical practitioner; a. registered nurse and a registered midwife, and one other person recommended by the New Zealand Trained Nurses' Association or a similar body; and one person nominated by the Hospital Boards'Association.

Every person who has attained The age of twenty-two years and is certified as having undergone not less than three years' training in a general hospital "approved " by the Board as a training-school under the Act, and who has passed the prescribed hospital and State examination, is entitled to registration. There are new (5,100 nurses on the register.

The Act also provides for the registration of midwives and maternity nurses.—

The requirements for training are as follows:

Maternity Nurses.—In the case of a person who is a registered nurse The period of training is six months, and in the case of any other person is a period of eighteen months. At the end of this time the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Maternity Examination.

Midwives.—No person shall be accepted for training as a midwife until such person has been registered as a maternity nurse; the duration of the course of training will be then a period of six months, at The end of which the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Midwifery Examination.

The number of registered midwives on the 31st March, 1932, was 2,989, and the number of registered maternity nurses 1,320.

REGISTRATION OF OPTICIANS.

The Opticians Act, 1928, provides for The constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), two persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of The eye.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act. On payment cf the prescribed fee (£5), every person is entitled to registration as an optician who satisfies the Board that

(a) He has received satisfactory training qualifying him to practise as an optician, and is the holder of a certificate of qualification recognized by the Board pursuant to regulations in that behalf as sufficient for the purpose of the Act;

or

(b) He has passed an examination under the Act, both, theoretical and practical, in methods of estimating errors of refraction of the human eye and in prescribing and adapting lenses to correct such, after a course of not less than three years' training in New Zealand prescribed by regulations.

Regulations pursuant to the Opticians Act, 1928, have been prepared, prescribing the conditions and period of training and the syllabus for The examination conducted by the Opticians Board.

Two hundred and seventy-two names have been entered upon the Register of Opticians to date. Registered opticians who so apply may have their names published annually in the New Zealand Gazette, a fee of one guinea being payable.

REGISTRATION OF MASSEURS.

Under the Masseurs Registration Act, 1920, and the Masseurs Registration Amendment Act, 1924, there is constituted The Masseurs Registration Board of New-Zealand, consisting of The Director-General of Health, a registered medical practitioner, and two persons engaged in the practice of massage in New Zealand.

The Board deals with all applications for registration (fee, 2) under the Act. It is necessary for applicants to he in possession of approved certificates for the three branches of massage:—

  1. Massage.

  2. Medical electricity.

  3. Remedial exercises and other branches of physiotherapy.

The number of masseurs on the Register at 30th June, 1932, was 513.

REGISTRATION OF PLUMBERS.

The Plumbers Board of New Zealand, constituted under the Plumbers Registration Act, 1912, consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman); the Director of Education; a city or borough engineer nominated by the cities and boroughs which have a population of over 5,000 inhabitants; a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The functions of The Board are to decide what persons may be registered under The Act, and in what districts sanitary plumbing may be performed only by registered plumbers. It also decides the scope of the examinations to be held as a part of The process of securing registration.

The main principle underlying the Act is that of securing trained and certificated sanitary plumbers, and that such registered plumbers shall not be required to pay any license fee or pass any examination under any local authorities controlling sanitary-plumbing works.

At the examination held under the Act in May and October, 1931, 284 candidates presented themselves, The results being as follows: Ninety qualified in the theoretical part, 84 in the practical part, and 92 qualified or completed in both parts of the examination and were duly granted registration. The total of names entered in the register to date is 2,286.

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS.

In order to make better provision for the sale of food and drugs in a pure state, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was passed by the Legislature, and came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The Act is administered by the Health Department, and provides for the analysis, by public analysts, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for The inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption, or likely to cause injury to health if consumed, heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such things are manufactured or packed. The selling of light-weight bread is an offence under the Act, as is also The taking back of bread after it has been in the possession of the purchaser for more than an hour.

Considerable progress has been made in following out the purposes of the Act, all The commonly used foodstuffs being standardized, and the labelling of packages being controlled by regulations, which are revised and added to as The necessity arises. However, it was found that the efforts made to ensure pure quality and truthful labelling as a guide to purchasers were being negatived to a considerable extent by the reputation given to or assumed for an article as a result of advertising. Suggestive references to fruit and orchards and the like would have considerable effect, for instance, in creating a desire for a certain beverage, but would make no reference to the fact that, judged by regulation standards, the beverage may require to be labelled “artificial” Coffee and chicory mixtures have been described as “Coffee,” with free use of superlatives to indicate a pure and high class article.

This was met by an amendment of the Act in 1924, which marks a note worthy advance in legislation of this kind, and has already been used to good effect in controlling all kinds of publicity concerning any food of drug whereby a purchaser is likely to be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether it is dealt with by a regulation or not.

The definition of “drug”includes medicines used externally or internally by man, anaesthetics, soaps, ointments, disinfectants, and tobacco.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food or drug and to submit it for analysis.

Statistics compiled by the Department of Health show that during the year 1931, 7,102 samples of milk were examined, resulting in 313 warnings and 9S prosecutions. The figures for the previous year were 0,379, 229, and 108 respectively. Other foodstuffs sampled: 1030 figures in brackets-numbered 1,151 (1,133), warnings being 115 (G7) and prosecutions 30 (35). Convictions during the year were as follows: Adulterated milk 51, fines totalling 255; butter 4, fines 17; whisky 3, fines 70; other offences 23, fines 110.

The weighing of bread, butter, and other foodstuffs is attended to by the Department of Labour in conjunction with its duties' under the Weights and Measures Act.

QUACKERY PREVENTION.

Section 2 of the Quackery Prevention Act, 1908, enacts that every person commits an offence who publishes or causes to be published any statement which is intended by the defendant or any other person to promote the sale of any article as a medicine, preparation, or appliance for the prevention, alleviation, or cure of any human ailment or physical defect, and which is false in any material particular relating to the ingredients, composition, structure, nature, or operation of that article, or to the effects which have followed or may follow The use thereof.

The penalty inflicted is a fine not exceeding £100 in the case of a first conviction, and not exceeding £200 for every subsequent conviction. The object of the Act is to prevent the exploitation of the public by means of medicines or treatment alleged to cure all and sundry complaints and ailments.

DANGEROUS DRUGS.

In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under the Geneva Convention (League of Nations), the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1927, was enacted. The dealing in and use of prepared opium is prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are subject to a license granted by the Director-General of Health or some other lawful authority. Provisions are made to prevent illicit traffic in drugs of a habit-forming nature. Suitable regulations are now in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and follow lines similar to the regulations in England and Australia.

PHARMACY

The Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, constituted by the Pharmacy Act, 1908, consists of 655 members, whose names were published in the Gazette of 4th February, 1932. These are known as " registered chemists,” and no chemist shop may be opened in the Dominion except under the charge of one of these.

The society is governed by the Pharmacy Board, set up by Act, consisting of ten members elected by members of the society. The main function of The Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and its amendments in the interests of the public and of the members of the society; also to watch such other legal provisions generally as may have a bearing upon pharmacy.

The society has reciprocity agreements with the societies of Great Britain and all the Australian States: that is to say, a member registered after passing the full examination of a reciprocating country can be registered in any other on payment of the fees.

The Pharmacy Board holds examinations twice annually for These who wish to obtain the necessary qualifications entitling them to registration, who also have to serve four years' apprenticeship.

The Society has a Benevolent Fund, which is used for the relief of members who may be in needy circumstances, or of their relatives who may be unprovided for.

In addition to the statutory organization set up by the Pharmacy Act, members of the Pharmaceutical Society have another organization known as the Chemists' Defence Association, Limited, which provides an indemnity guarantee for its members, deals with matters of general interest of a business nature not covered by the Act, and governs ethical questions as between pharmacists and medical men and the public generally. It may be said that the profession of pharmacy in New Zealand is at least on as high a level and as well administered as in any other part of the British Empire.

CEMETERIES.

By the Cemeteries Amendment Act of 1926 The administration of cemeteries is placed under the control of the Minister of Health. The Department of Health, with its Inspectors always in the field, is able to give The various matters closer attention than had been possible previously. Steps are being taken to ensure proper methods of plotting and keeping records, The importance of which has not been sufficiently recognized in the more sparsely populated areas, but The necessity for which will become more apparent as time goes on.

Regulations are in force to facilitate the procedure in cremations, providing also for special methods as carried out according to the rites of any religious denomination elsewhere than in a crematorium. Due precautions are provided for in all eases to ensure against any untoward development in connection with The cremation of any body.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

The School Medical Service in New Zealand was placed on a definite basis in 1912, when three full-time School Medical Officers were appointed. Prior to that date regular examinations were restricted to some of the larger secondary and private schools. There is now a permanent staff consisting of a Director, eleven School Medical Officers, and twenty-seven school nurses. In addition two Medical Officers of Health act as part-time School Medical Officers.

The Health Act, 1920, section 139, gives the necessary authority for the medical examination of children attending the primary schools, but the duties and powers of The School Medical Officers are defined in the Education Act, 1914, section 134.

The School Medical Service aims at securing for each child three complete physical examinations during his school-life, but special examinations are carried out when parents, teachers, or the School Medical Officers consider them necessary. Children found to be suffering from defect are kept under observation until the necessary treatment is obtained. It is recognized that medical treatment must be available for every child in need of it, and that adequate provision must be made for the ill-nourished and neglected. Mentally backward and feeble-minded children are given special consideration, arrangements being made for their entrance to special classes, special schools, or other institutions as circumstances indicate.

School Medical Officers work in association with the Physical Instructors of the Education Department with regard to children requiring special measures of physical education. The School Medical Service also works it close co-operation with the Child Welfare Branch of the Education Department, under the supervision of which are all measures for the protection of destitute and neglected children, also the regulations governing juvenile employment. It also co-operates with the officers of the Education Department in the supervision of school-buildings and sanitation.

The work of The service is also being extended to include the examination of the pre-school child.

Until 1927 the work of the Division was confined, with a few exceptions, to the State primary schools, comprising approximately some 250,000 pupils: but, as the result of the medical examination of entrant teachers indicating the desirability of examining candidates and giving vocational guidance at an early stage of their educational career, arrangements have been made by which all applicants for entrance to the teaching profession are examined one or two years before the termination of their secondary-school life. By this means unsuitable candidates are rejected at a time when they are able to devote themselves to preparing for another means of livelihood.

The results of examinations of school-children have amply demonstrated the necessity for the work of inspection. Though it has been clearly shown that the average of defect found in New Zealand children is less than in countries of older civilization, still there is a great deal to be achieved, and the work of the service is essentially preventive and educational. The latter aspect is particularly important, as the object is to instruct the pupil while at his most impressionable age as to the essential principles of correct living. Many Thousands of pamphlets giving advice in simple language on health topics are distributed annually, and many popular lectures on health matters are given by the School Medical Officers in various districts to teachers, parents, and children.

If defects are found, the practice of the School Medical Officer is to notify the parents of their existence, the choice of medical attendant being left entirely to the parents. If the parents are unable for financial reasons, or are too apathetic, to obtain the necessary advice and treatment, it is the duty of the School Medical Service to see that it is carried out. This is done through the medium of the school nurse, who acts as a link between the school and the home, The treatment being given at the nearest hospital. A great number of operations for minor defects are carried out at the public hospitals throughout New Zealand. Where the parent, either from homo ties or physical disability, is unable to take the child to the hospital for necessary treatment, the school nurse is available tor undertaking this duty. In cities the percentage of treatment obtained is from GO per cent, to 90 per cent, of the number recommended, but in the country where facilities are fewer it is much less. It is the aim of the service to secure the interest and co-operation of the parents, as it is realized that only in this way can the work be made effective. In pursuit of this aim, parents are invited to be present at the examination of their children.

NUTRITION CLASSES AND HEALTH CAMPS.

For The benefit of children suffering from subnormal nutrition, special classes have been established in several schools. The daily regime for children in these classes is supervised, special attention being given to the character of the food, The amount of rest taken, The time spent out of doors, &c. Good results have been obtained.

A successful feature of the work for The benefit of delicate and undernourished children has been the holding of annual health camps. The great improvement in physical and mental vitality of the children attending such camps affords evidence of their value.

GOITRE-PREVENTION.

It was realized some years ago that goitre was unduly prevalent in some parts of New Zealand, and to the School Medical Officers was entrusted the duty of carrying out a survey throughout the Dominion in order to ascertain The distribution of the disease, the Professor of Preventive Medicine at the Otago Medical School acting in co-operation. In the schools of These areas where goitre was found to he endemic, preventive and curative treatment was inaugurated. When iodized salt became available school treatment of goitre was discontinued. Parents of children showing definite goitre are advised to consult the family medical practitioner.

THE CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE.

For the purpose of lessening The incidence of, if not eradicating, diphtheria, a considerable amount of work has been done, firstly, by popular education as to the value of preventive treatment, and, secondly, by the inoculation of several Thousands of children with toxin anti-toxin mixture. Immunization along these lines is being extended yearly.

SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.

The School Medical Officers in the course of their duties have made special studies of various aspects of child-welfare. Since the year 1926 the following special investigations were carried out among others:—

  1. An inquiry into the condition of rural school-children.

  2. An inquiry into the incidence of tuberculosis among children of New Zealand.

  3. An investigation into the physical growth and mental attainment of New Zealand school-children was carried out in co-operation with the Education Department.

  4. Maori and Pakeha: A study in comparative health.

  5. The posture of New Zealand school-children.

  6. Observations on physical condition and postural deformities of New Zealand school-children.

  7. Nutritional value of milk.

  8. Maori susceptibility to certain diseases.

DENTAL TREATMENT OF SCHOOL-CHILDREN.

The New Zealand School Dental Service, instituted in 1921, is conducted by the Dental Division of the Department of Health. By the end of 1931 school dental clinics had been established at 203 centres in the Dominion. Each clinic deals with the children of certain schools in its vicinity, and these are organized into a "dental group,” the local administration of which is in the hands of a dental clinic committee composed of local residents. Besides undertaking various duties in connection with local administration, these committees have to undertake the important task of raising funds to meet a certain proportion of the cost of operating the clinics. Treatment of the children in the clinics is carried out by dental nurses specially trained for the work by the Department.

There were (December, 1931) 147 trained dental nurses in the service, and in addition there are fifty-six probationer dental nurses in training. Some 69,000 children, belonging to 1,120 schools, are under systematic treatment at the various clinics. These children are kept under constant observation, and are being maintained dentally fit from the time they enter school until they pass out of the Fourth Standard. For this purpose they are re-examined at frequent and regular intervals (approximately twice a year), and necessary treatment is carried out.

Particular attention is given to instructing the children in the principles of dental hygiene, an 1 the Department aims at securing the co-operation of both the children and their parents in the endeavour to reduce the prevalence of dental disease.

The following is a summary of the treatment performed in The service during the year 1931: Fillings, 334,827; extractions, 80,389; other operations, 147,534: total operations, 562,750.

SUBSECTION B.—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

INTRODUCTORY.

PRIOR to the abolition of the provinces in 1876 hospital maintenance was left to the care of the several Provincial Councils, each of which had a system of its own. On the change-over to the county form of government in the following year all of these diverse systems came under the charge of the Central Government, and many difficulties and incongruities occurred. Gradually there grew up a system of excessive demands upon the Government, and in 1885 an attempt to reduce a somewhat chaotic state of affairs to some semblance of order and uniformity took shape in the Hospitals Act of that year, which provided for the constitution of special hospital districts and Boards. Several amendments based on the result of experience were passed in later years, and the present law relating to the subject is embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, as amended in 1928 and 1929.

HOSPITAL BOARDS

The management of affairs in each hospital district is entrusted to a Hospital Board, consisting of one or more representatives of each of the local-governing districts comprising the hospital area, the total membership of the Board being not less than eight nor more than twenty. Members are elected at the ordinary general election of the contributory authorities.

A Hospital Board has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: Hospitals, charitable institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, habitual inebriates' homes, reformatory institutions for the reception of women and girls, and any other institutions for any purpose which The Governor-General by Order in Council may declare to be a public charitable purpose. It may grant charitable aid to indigent, sick, or infirm persons; may provide medical, surgical, and nursing attention for persons not. inmates of an institution; and may grant financial assistance to medical and nursing associations and private philanthropic institutions approved by the Minister

It is the duty of every Hospital Board to provide and maintain such hospitals as the Director-General of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for (a) the reception, relief, See., of any persons suffering from infectious diseases; (b) the reception, &c., of persons suffering from other than infectious diseases.

PROVISION OF FINANCE.

No rating -powers are given to Hospital Boards, but under the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act the estimated net expenditure of a Board is apportioned by The Board among the contributory local authorities within its district in proportion to the capital value of the rateable property in each contributory district.

At the beginning of each financial year the Hospital Board prepares an estimate of its payments for the year, deducting there from all estimated receipts by way of patients fees, voluntary contributions, bequests, subsidy* on voluntary contributions and bequests (£1 for £1), income from endowments, and, generally, deducting all other estimated receipts except the amount to be raised by levy on the contributory local authorities and Government subsidy on such levies. The levies on contributory local authorities are apportioned in relation to the rateable capital value of each local

*The Government subsidy on voluntary contributions and bequests was discontinued (under the Finance Act. 11132) on contributions, &c., received by Hospital Boards after 31st March, 1932, and by separate institutions after 31st October, 1932.

district. On levies for maintenance purposes a scale is in operation ranging from 14s. to 26s. per £1, and averaging throughout the Dominion £1 for £1. The principle of the scale is to give relatively greater assistance where the requirements are high in proportion to the rateable capital value of the hospital district. To this end the levy of each Board for maintenance purposes is determined as sixteen-fortieths of its estimated maintenance requirements plus the amount bearing to four-fortieths of the net estimated requirements of all Boards the same proportion as the rateable capital value of the hospital district bears to the aggregate rateable capital value of all hospital districts. After The levy of each Board is thus determined, the remainder of the Board's requirements is met by Government subsidy, with the limitation of fourteen thirty-fourths as the minimum subsidy and twenty-six forty-sixths as the maximum subsidy.

Levies on contributory local authorities and Government subsidy each form about one-third of the total receipts of Hospital Boards, the remainder being chiefly patients' fees and other recoveries on account of relief.

The above remarks apply to levies for maintenance purposes. As regards capital works, the net requirements are met by levy and by subsidy in equal amounts; the subsidy, in other words, being at the rate of 1 for 1. Whore the expenditure is very heavy, Boards may have recourse to loans; but, generally speaking, loans for long periods are discouraged, even the largest works being often arranged by the spreading of the expenditure over two or three years with the-assistance of bank overdraft if necessary.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The following is a summary of the receipts and payments of Hospital Boards for The years ended 31st March, 1930 and 1931.

1920-30.1930-31.
Receipts.££
Voluntary contributions and bequests37,05623,566
Levies683,816693,131
Subsidies733,363670,464
Patients' payments and charitable-aid recoveries427,732419,733
Rent, interest, and dividends27,57928,223
Loans99,226208,278
Sale of capital assets9,3042,301
Miscellaneous receipts37,58941,222
Totals2,055,6652,086,918
Expenditure.  
Hospital maintenance1,139,0771,135,790
Charitable aid261,654314,954
Medical associations or medical men in outlying districts12,23612,832
District nursing11,11710,460
Administration72,59773,231
Amounts paid to other Boards or separate institutions53,55855.294
Rents, rates, and taxes1,5201,625
Interest81,95385,912
Contributions to National Provident Fund for super animation of employees18,37219,739
Capital works165,491244,734
Loan-repayments or payments to sinking fund89,25287,096
Miscellaneous payments20,91930,301
Amounts invested on account of funds for special purposes18,23612,037
Totals1,951,9822,084,005

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Although the figures in the last preceding statement relate to receipts and payments, the official returns of Hospital Board-have since 1016-17 been supplied on the basis of an Income and Expenditure Account and balance-sheet. Alterations in the system of presentation of the accounts were made in 1926-27 with a view to showing the position more suitably for statistical purposes. Under the new system the revenue shown covers the amounts receivable and expendable for the year under review as represented by amounts which for the year require to be met by actual cash, including, in the case of revenue, both capital and maintenance, but excluding excess of income or expenditure from previous year. In the case of expenditure, in addition to similar departures from the form of the Income and Expenditure Account, are excluded such expenditure as the writing-off of or reductions in patients' fees. " Fees receivable,” which in a great many cases there is no probability of being received, is a more or less fictitious item of revenue. For statistical purposes, therefore, " fees received " has been substituted for this item on the receipts side.

It must be noted, however, that the result has nothing in common with a Receipts and Payments Account, but is derived entirely from The Income and Expenditure Accounts and balance-sheets forwarded by the Boards.

Revenue.

The following, showing the sources of revenue for the years 1929-30 and 1930-31 relate not only to Hospital Boards, but also to Government institutions and the Mercury Bay Hospital.

 1929-30.1930-31.
 Amount.Percentage of Total.Amount.Percentage of Total.
 £ £ 
Contributable by Government804,7483.95794,53139.5
Levies on local authorities688,27933.8693,26934.4
Voluntary contributions32,1881.628,8571.4
Recoveries from These assisted447,5992.20441,41921.9
Rents, interest, and dividends28,2461.429,2681.5
Miscellaneous revenue35,0861.726,7641.3
 2,036,146100.02,014,108100.0
Cash in bank (other than loan-money)229,182..102,925..
Totals2,265,328100.02,117,033100.0

To ascertain The total receipts for the year 1930-31 the sum of £224,794 (receipts from loans for capital purposes) should be added, making the aggregate £2,341,827.

The amount contributable by the Government consists of subsidies on maintenance levies, £612,810; subsidies on capital levies, £85,861; subsidies on voluntary contributions and bequests, for maintenance, £8,254; for capital, £7,257; cost of maintaining Government institutions, £40,035; patients' fees paid to Boards or remitted in respect of Government institutions, £37,433; and special payments to Boards, £2,881, making a total of £794,531.

Expenditure.

The maintenance expenditure for the years 1929-30 and 1930-31 was 1,727,492 and 1,804,517 respectively, made up as follows:—

 1929-30.1930-31.
-Amount.PercentageAmount.Percentage of Total.
Hospital maintenance1,253,38772.51,262,79870.0
Charitable relief—    
Indoor114,5326.6119,7746.6
Outdoor140,0658.1192,07310.6
Medical associations11,8000.711,8770.7
District nursing9,8670.69,8300.6
Ambulances8,1770.58,7270.5
Miscellaneous maintenance expenditure8.0790.511,3700.6
Administration82,5484.883.5614.6
Interest on loans81,5884.785,2264.7
National Provident Fund17.4491.019,2811.1
Totals1,727,492100.01,804,517100.0

Capital expenditure for the year 1930-31 totalled £364,419, this amount including £96,978 in respect of repayments of loan-money. The total expenditure for the year, excluding amounts paid from one Board to another, was thus £2,168,936.

The average annual cost of maintenance of general hospitals per occupied bed was as follows in the years shown:—

Hospital Maintenance Expenditure.

HOSPITAL MAINTENANCE EXPENDITURE
Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Miscellaneous.Total Maintenance
 ££££££
1910-1122.78.726.738.83.799.6
1914-1525.010.727.043.51.9108.1
1919-2040.415.443.252.40.3151.7
1924-2540.914.950.477.08.4191-6
1926-2741.716.951.680.19 61999
1927-2841.315.350.281.610.5198-9
1928-2941.717.949.285.41.1195-3
1929-3042.318.452.790.21.4205.0
1930-3140.718.052.691.441.8204.5

Charitable-aid expenditure has been as follows during the last five years:—

CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE
Year.indoor ReliefOutdoor Relief.Total.
 £££
1926-27112,72692,922205,648
1927-28112,755112,519225,274
1928-29110,874134,864245,738
1929-30114,532140,065254,597
1930-31119,774192,073311.S47

Cost to Government and Local Authorities.

The following shows for triennial periods the average annual net maintenance requirements of Hospital Boards—i.e., the average estimated deficit which is provided for by levies on the local authorities and Government subsidy thereon.

AVERAGE ANNUAL MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS OF HOSPITAL BOARDS.
Triennium.Amount.
 £
1912-15275,823
1913-16302,214
1914-17353,508
1915-18365,763
1917-20466,002
1918-21586,418
1919-22680,570
1920-23751,713
1921-24745,543
1922-25758,518
1923-26803,245
1924-27875,485
1925-28979,333
1926-291,074,138
1927-301,156,254
1928-311,193,380
1929-321,156,699

The following shows the total cost to the public funds of hospitals and charitable aid for past decades, as represented by levies and subsidies for both capital and maintenance purposes; including also subsidies on voluntary contributions and expenditure out of the Health Department's own vote:—

Year.Levies made.Subsidies payable.Expenditure out of Department's Vote.Total.Cost per Head of Mean Population (including Maoris).
 ££££s. d.
1921-22500,241430,153132,6311,069,02516 8
1922-23480,672403,561141,1841,025,41715 8
1923-24503,113423,066100,3211,026,50015 4
1924-25497,272559,493138,5461,195,31117 7
1925-26547,570597,132174,5251,319,22718 11
1926-27562,718602,267132,5681,297,55318 3
1927-28626,127654,902158,1651,439,19419 11
1928-29675,238698,105158,0401,531,38321 0
1929-30688,279718,025177,4651,583,76921 5
1930-31695,264707,581188,6701,591,51521 3

The increase of hospital and charitable-aid expenditure as represented by levies, subsidies, and expenditure by the Health Department for the decade ended 1930-31 averaged 49 per cent, per annum. The increase in levies and subsidies alone for the same period was 5.0 per cent. per annum.

The large increase which has taken place during the ten years is due, inter alia, to the following causes: Increased number of hospital beds; increase in staff required owing to The more complicated methods of hospital treatment, including the employment of a greater proportion of trained nurses; interest on loans: the institution of Hospital Board employees' superannuation; and a small general all round increase in charitable aid and other items.

Interest on loans has added to the burden of Hospital Boards' expenditure, but as the policy of short-dated loans has been followed the present, high rate of interest will not have to be paid for many years.

There has been a great improvement in the methods of fees collection, and the percentage increase in patients' fees has been considerably more than the percentage increase in The cost of the hospitals. It cannot be expected, however, that anything like the cost of The hospitals will ever be recouped by patients' payments; but the Department and the Hospital Boards' Association are giving attention to the question as to whether a satisfactory solution is to be found by any contributory schemes which not only would relieve The patient of financial anxiety but would provide assured and tangible revenue to the Boards.

PATIENTS' PAYMENTS.

The amount of patients' fees received per occupied bed in Hospital Boards' Hospitals in 1913-14 was £23.4; in 1930-31, exclusive of fees received from other Boards, it was £60.3

Year. Total Amount Occupied per bed
 ££
1925-26288,314 62.8
1926-27300,563 62.7
1927-28303,935 60.5
1928-29323,974 58-5
1929-30347,502 63.7
1930-31322,635 60.3

Included in these fees are amounts paid by the Government, which in 1930-31 amounted to £21,104.

Loans.

The following shows in respect of Hospital Boards the amount and periods of loans approved during the year 1930-31:—

Year.Amount.
 £
Five19,500
Seven5,000
Twenty137,900
Twenty-one10,700
 173,100

The amount of loans outstanding at the 31st March, 1931, was £1,455,152. This amount, however, is reduced by a sum of £278,334 standing to the credit of sinking funds, making the net amount of loan-money £1,176,818. The amount set aside last year either by way of actual payments of principal or by way of payment to sinking fund, with interest accrued thereon, was £105,520.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.

Subsection D of the preceding section contains statistics of patients treated at public hospitals other than maternity hospitals. In the following table the figures are inclusive of maternity hospitals, and relate to the financial year instead of to the calendar year:

YearPersons under Treatment.Average Number of Occupied Beds.Beds available.
 Total Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.
1910-1125,19124.092,0251.943,2223.08
1914-1533,37529.152,6522.323,9563.45
1923-2459,25644.42.4,5643.426,8535.14
1924-2563,06846.374.8863.597,2205.31
1925-2668,46149.185.1113.677.5015.39
1926-2775,70853.295,3183.747,8475.52
1927-2879,50055.085,6083.888,0075.55
1928-2987.88860.206,1344.208,4575.79
1929-3089,76160.756,0574.108,5775.81
1930-3189,14759.525,9123.958,8035.88

A highly significant feature is the enormous increase in the proportion of the population availing themselves of hospital facilities. The proportion under treatment at a given time is well over double the pre-war ratio, due probably in the main to increase in the number of hospitals.

The number of institutions coming under the head of public hospitals at 31st March, 1931, was 141. Included in this total were 77 general hospitals (2 of which were also old people's homes), 1 chronic hospital, 3 convalescent hospitals, 45 maternity hospitals, 6 tuberculosis sanatoria, 1 tuberculosis prevention institution, 3 chronic-tubercular hospitals, and 5 infectious-diseases hospitals. A comparison of beds and patients between the last five years is given:—

 1926-271927-281928-211929-301930-31
Number of institutions129132138139141
Number of beds     
General4,2044,2344,4354,4834,611
Children's cots9019041,0431,0911,045
Maternity9019041,0431,0911,045
Tuberculosis1,0651,1371,0901,1261,214
Infectious disease1,2051,1621,2501,2151,234
Totals7,8477,9498,3936,5138,740
Average number of occupied     
beds per diem5,3185,5656,0876,0105,869
Patients under treatment during75,70879,50067,49089,35188,759
Deaths during year3,8143,7903,9894,0273,976
Out-patients     
Number50,37771,98773,95277,60175,918
Attendances261,9G4364,014387,228425,225403,673

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.

The Private Hospitals Act, which came into force on the 1st January, 1907, is now embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, Part III of which provides for the licensing, management, and inspection of private hospitals. All such institutions must be licensed, and every' application for a license must be accompanied by a full description and plan of the house proposed to be used, together with a statement showing the number and class of cases proposed to be received. The license shall state\whether it is in respect of a lying-in private hospital or a surgical and medical private hospital, or if for both classes of cases; and no private hospital may be used for any purpose other than that in respect of which the license is granted and purposes reasonably incidental thereto.

For every private hospital there must be a resident manager, either the licensee or some person appointed by the licensee, and in every case the manager must be a legally qualified medical practitioner or a registered nurse in the case of a surgical and medical hospital, or a registered midwife in the case of a lying-in hospital, or a registered nurse and midwife, or a registered nurse having as resident assistant a registered midwife, in the case of a hospital licensed for both purposes. No license may be granted in respect of a house not previously licensed until such house and annexed buildings have been approved by the Director-General of Health, and no addition may be made to any private hospital until it has been so approved. No license may be granted until the character and fitness of the applicant have boon proved satisfactory. The license must be renewed on the 1st January of each year.

In every private hospital There must be kept a register of patients showing particulars as to name, age, abode, and date of reception of each patient, date when such patient left, or, in the event of death, the date thereof, name of medical practitioner attending, and such other details as may be prescribed. Inquiry may be made at any time as to the management, conduct, and equipment of any private hospital, and if such inquiry prove unsatisfactory the license may be revoked.

Provision is made for the inspection of private hospitals in the same manner as for public institutions of the like nature, a specially qualified medical practitioner and trained nurses with midwifery certificates being appointed for the purpose

The total number of private hospitals licensed in the Dominion is 282, of which 07 are medical and surgical hospitals, 31 medical, surgical, and maternity institutions, and 151 maternity hospitals. These hospitals provide 1,333 beds for medical and surgical cases, and 852 beds for maternity cases.

MATERNITY SERVICES.

State Maternity Hospitals.

There are seven State maternity hospitals now open for the use of women in cases where the husband's income does not exceed 350 per annum. The charge for this service is 5, which includes a midwife's and maternity nurse's attendance at the confinement and a fortnight's hospital treatment. This service is given under the supervision of the Medical Superintendent, who is also responsible for the conduct of all abnormal cases and for the supervision of the ante-natal and post-natal care of all patients attending. There is also an out-patient department attached to each hospital, which provides (at a charge of 2) nursing services for patients not entering the institution. If the patient is confined by the District Midwife the charge is £2 10s.

ST. HELENS HOSPITALS, 1931.
Hospital, and Year of Opening.Number of beds.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended Outside.
Total Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
Auckland (1906)30552220177
Gisborne (1915)15197..73
Wanganui (1921)1118511013
Wellington (1905)2653132177
Christchurch (1907)12307..17155
Dunedin (1905)15175..230
Invercargill (1918)12234..84
Totals1212,181685459
ST. HELENS HOSPITALS, 1922-23 TO 1931.
year.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended Outside.
Total Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
1922 -231.531318570
1923 -241.724737600
1924 -252.015525702
1925 -262.060736644
19262.155550598
19272.275550598
19282.378596586
19292.398593469
19302.4859107524
19312.181685459
19322,209383252
19332,238631260
19341998631233

Public Maternity Hospitals.

Seventy-four public maternity hospitals or maternity wards attached to public hospitals under control of Hospital Boards or Hospital Trustees have been established. These maternity hospitals and wards provide 505 beds. They are open to any district residents irrespective of income, the charges varying from £2 2s. to £5 5s. per week for These who are able to pay. At most of these institutions patients may be attended by the midwives in charge of the institution, under the supervision of the medical superintendent of the hospital, or in some instances may engage their own medical attendants.

For the reception of single girls there are special charitable institutions at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Invercargill, in addition to These established by the Salvation Army at the four chief centres and at Napier and Gisborne.

District Midwives and Maternity Nurses.

Twenty -three Hospital Boards have midwives doing district work, in most cases in conjunction with other health work.

In addition, there are twenty-one District nurses appointed for the purpose of attending the Maori population, part of whose work is the attendance of Maori women in confinements.

Ante -Natal Services.

Twenty -eight free public ante-natal clinics have been established in various parts of New Zealand in connection with State or public maternity hospitals or maternal welfare societies, such as the Plunket Society. These clinics are conducted by registered midwives and registered nurses who have been specially trained for this purpose, and they work in conjunction with the medical attendant or midwives engaged to attend the patients during labour. The training of midwives in New Zealand includes training in ante -natal work. The total attendances at the various free clinics in New Zealand during 1931 were 22,869. Several Thousand copies of the pamphlet " Suggestions to Expectant Mothers" have been distributed free, mainly through these clinics. This pamphlet gives simple instructions for the maintenance of health during pregnancy and information regarding the necessary preparation for confinements to be conducted in private houses.

BENEVOLENT AND ORPHAN ASYLUMS.

One hundred and seventeen institutions classed under the heading of benevolent and orphan asylums furnished returns to the Census and Statistics Office for the year 1031 These institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide free accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons 10 whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and refuge home for unfortunate women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “prison gate” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of the orphanages deal with cases similar to These dealt with by the special schools under the control of the Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Court.

ADMISSIONS, DISCHARGES, ETC. 1931.
Controlling Authorities.Number of institutionsInmates at 1st JanuaryAdmissions during yearBirths in institutions during yearDischarges during yearDeaths in institutions during yearInmates at 31st DecemberTotal inmates during year
Hospital Boards281,6412.0852842.1043411,5654.010
Church of EnglandI87932943537917421.122
Roman Catholic Church151,620689 569701,6702,309
Presbyterian Church15471128 1068485599
Methodist Church416742 441164209
Baptist Church16910 12 6779
Salvation Army218932,7364223,1711017794,051
Undenominational associations. &c.155866823891.047385721,657
Totals1176.2406,6661,1307,4325006.04414.036

At the end of the year 1931, 25.56 per cent, of the total number of inmates in benevolent and orphan asylums came under the supervision of the various Hospital Boards, and 27.68 per cent. under that of the Roman Catholic Church. The Salvation Army cared for a further percent., the Church of England for 12.28 per cent., and undenominational associations for 9'46 per cent. Of the remaining authorities, the Presbyterian Church catered for 8.02 per cent, of The total inmates, The Methodist Church for 2.71 per cent., and Hie Baptist Church for 1.12 per cent. When examining the above, cognizance must be taken of the fact that in many cases there is a variation in the class or type of inmate provided for by the different controlling bodies. For instance, none of the homes under The supervision of the Roman Catholic Church, the Presbyterian Church, the Methodist Church, or the Baptist Church are maternity homes of any description. The three last-mentioned churches control children's homes and orphanages only, while the Church of England does not cater for old people, although some maternity cases are dealt with. Again, the Hospital Boards concentrate chiefly upon old people's homes, while the Salvation Army deals with all types and is the only body that conducts extensively the “prison gate” or industrial type of institution. Factors such as these affect the demands made upon the different institutions for accommodation or relief.

The ages and sexes of all inmates in the institutions at any time during the year were as follows:—

Age-group.Males.Females.Total.
Under 51.0069701,976
5 and under 109056811,586
10 and under 159078521,759
15 and under 256581,2911,949
25 and under 357397531,492
35 and under 458771971,074
45 and under 558861721,058
55 and under 65712150862
65 and over1,6845692,253
unspecified21627
Totals8,3955,64114,036

It would appear that proportionately males are a greater burden than females upon the charitable institutions, the rates for the two sexes being 10.87 and 7.62 respectively per 1,000 of the mean population.

Some remarkable differences in the sex proportions at the various age-groups are apparent in the foregoing table. The first-three groups, which relate to infants and young children, are naturally in close proximity as regards sex. The next group, ages “15 and under 5years,” shows a large excess of females. The female figures for this group, of course, are greatly swollen by the inclusion of girls and young women seeking refuge in maternity homos. The figures are also affected by the fact that the majority of boys who have spent most of their lives in orphanages obtain outside employment at these ages. From 35 onwards, a distinct male excess is observed.

The overwhelming majority of males dependent upon charitable aid at these later ages is indeed remarkable, although the " prison-gate " and industrial type of home no doubt swells the numbers at this stage.

The next table contains information concerning inmates of orphanages and of a few other institutions which provide for both children and older people. The figures relate to inmates under The age of twenty-one who were remaining in the institutions at 31st December, 1931.

ORPHAN ASYLUMS. —AGE, LEGITIMACY, AND ORPHANHOOD OF INMATES AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1931.
Age, in Years.Legitimate.No information as to legitimacyIllegitimateTotal
Father and Mother both Alive.Father Dead. Mother Alive.Father Alive, Mother Dead.father and mother Deadno information as to orphanhood
03..1......1822
17..6......2922
216211..1..2050
33621832..2586
453102322..14104
563164752236171
686225251515186
7882368124325223
81033180118131265
91143389132625282
101113186234125281
119842100165532298
12944585206223275
13503863263429213
14473778263227220
15262133296..16131
1618142813..2681
17561491..1045
18429512528
19..224..1211
201212....28
Totals1,02337989422551364153,023

Contrary to what might generally be expected, the above figures reveal that the largest group is that covering children both of whose parents were shown to have been alive. Cases whore both parents were dead were in The minority as regards the four legitimate classes whore full information as to orphanhood is available.

SUBSECTION C.—MENTAL HOSPITALS.

THERE are seven public mental hospitals in the Dominion maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The patients on the register at the end of 1931 were distributed as shown below. Numbers given throughout this subsection are inclusive of Maoris. Figures for Maoris are given separately toward the end of the subsection.

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland (Avondale)7546031,357
Tokanui305275580
Porirua8486221,470
Nelson (Stoke)366135501
Hokitika (Seaview)178112290
Christchurch (Sunnyside)5995701,169
Dunedin (Seacliff and Waitati)6895621,251
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)142943
Totals3,7532,9086,661

The number of patients remaining at the end of each of the last live years is shown in the following table:—

Year.Patients remaining at 31st December.Proportion per 10,000 of Total Population.
 Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19273,1472,5265,67342.0435.6139.12
19283.2742.6285.90243.7036.6140.23
19293.3992.6946.09344.8137.0541.01
19303.5722.8116.38346.4638.1242.76
19313.7532.9086.66148.3239.0243.76
Means of five years3.4292.7136.14245.0737.2841.30

The total number of patients under oversight, care, or control during 1931 was 7,545 (males 4,249, females 3,296), as against 7,303 in 1930. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 5,932 in 1930 and 6,199 in 1931.

ADMISSIONS.

The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1931 were 1,063 (587 males and 476 females), this number not including 99 transfers from one institution to another. The causes of insanity as assigned on admission are given.

CAUSES OF INSANITY
Heredity95
Congenital201
Previous attack139
Puberty and adolescence64
Climacteric50
Puerperal state12
Senility132
Involution12
Mental stress, prolonged182
Toxic4
Phthisis1
Syphilis39
Exophthalmic goitre2
Alcohol29
Drug habit1
Cerebral hæmorrhage5
Encephalitis2
Epilepsy32
Epilepsy Organic brain-disease2
Chorea1
Arterio-sclerosis27
Traumatic2
Post-operative3
Ill health19
Privation1
Unknown6
Totals, excluding transfers (99)1,063

Of the 1,063 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1031, These admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 906 (males 508, females 398), and These readmitted 157 (males 79, females 78).

The figures for 1931 represent one first admission for every 1,670 persons in the mean population of the Dominion. The number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of mean population for each of the hist five years were as follows:—

YearNumber of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19274413417825.994.845.43
19284353728075.855.225.54
19294803308106.384.575.50
19305393949337.085.396.25
19315083989066.575.375.90
Means of five years4813678486.375.085.74

VOLUNTARY INMATES.

Persons labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospitals voluntary boarders. At the beginning of 1931 there were 320 boarders in residence (170 males,150 females), and during the year 343(209 males,134 females)were admitted. If a voluntary border should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1931,25(11 males,14 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 11 males and 17 females died, while 261(159 males,102 females)were discharged, leaving 359 resident at the end of the year (198 males,161 females).

AGES OF INMATES.

A summary is attached showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the end of 1931.

Age, in Years.MalesFemalesTotalAge, in Years.MalesFemalesTotal
1 to 519113050 to 607126301.342
5 to 1065248960 to 70432410842
10 to 151217119270 to 80208170378
15 to 2019811531380 to 90483886
80 to 9048388620 to 304642807,441
90 and over63930 to 406314621.093
unknown40256540 to 508096691.478
    totals.3.7532.9086.661

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.

The next table gives the average number resident, These who were discharged as recovered, and These who died, during the period 1927-31.

Year.Average Number Resident.Discharged as recovered.Died.
Number.Per Cent, of Number admittedNumber.Per Cent, of Average Number admitted
19275,39528530.163496.47
19285,57924926.043686.59
19295.71028930.233806.65
19305.93226624.294237.13
19316. 19924723.234206.76
Means of five years5,76326726.793886.72

Of these who died in mental hospitals during 1931, 142, or 34 per cent., had been inmates for less than one year Of these discharged recovered, 152, or 62 per cent., had been inmates for less than one year. A table is given showing length of residence of patients who died and of patients who wore discharged recovered during 1931.

Length of Residence.Patients who died.Patients discharged recovered.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month182341819
1 month and under 3 months161733191029
3 month and under 6 months201636221840
6 month and under 9 months13720222244
9 month and under 1 year8412141630
1 year and under 2 years161531262955
2 years and under 3 years8917369
3 year and under 5 years1921405914
5 year and under 7129212810
7 year and under 10 years812203..3
10 year and under 12 years459112
12 year and under 15 years910192..2
15 years and over5743100......
Died during absence13821......
Totals221199420127120247

Old age is the principal cause of death among mental-hospital patients, and, among individual causes, general paralysis of the insane ranks second, and epilepsy third. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the year 1931 are as follows:

DEATHS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS, 1931.
Tuberculosis23
cancer17
Other general diseases13
General paralysis of the insane32
Organic brain-disease3
Epilepsy27
Other diseases of The nervous system38
Diseases of The circulatory system92
Diseases of the respiratory system47
Diseases of The digestive system3
Diseases of The genito-urinary system11
Old age90
External causes3
Died while on leave21
Total420

A table is added showing for all admissions since 1876 the percentages of patients discharged (as recovered, relieved, and not improved, separately), died, and remaining.

-Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Discharged-   
Recovered36.0911.8738.55
Relieved6.908.757.66
Not improved2.232.322.26
Died36.6327.7832.92
Remaining at end of 1931.18.1519.2818.61
 100.00100.00100.00

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.

A license may he granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such licenses, which may be revoked at any time. The Director-General has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private institution in the Dominion, that at Wakari, near Dunedin, established in 1882.Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the last five years are as follows. These figures are included in preceding tables.

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Patients remaining at End of Year.
1927159445
19281411345
19291611545
1930107345
1931129543

MAORIS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS.

The number of Maoris admitted as patients to mental hospitals is small. The figures for the last five years are

Year.Admitted during Year.Remaining at End of Year.
 Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
192710818423981
192810616463783
192981018494493
19307916464389
1931141125514798

EXPENDITURE, ETC.

The total expenditure on maintenance of mental hospitals not including the cost of new buildings and additions, and receipts from patients and for sale of produce, during the last five years were as follows:—

YearTotal Expenditure.Receipts from Patients, Sale of Produce,Net Expenditure.
TotalPer Head of Mean Population
 £££s. d.
1927-28409,622134,805274.173 9¾
1928-29433,304130,004303,3004 1¾
1929-30471,208164,168307,0404 1¾
1930-31475,654172,195303,4594 0¾
1931-32429,258163,352265,9063 6

Chapter 7. SECTION VII.—EDUCATION

NATIONAL SYSTEM OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

THE provision of educational facilities in New Zealand dates back into the first years of British settlement in the country. Immediately after the advent of the first missionaries schools for the instruction of the Native youth were established. Later, as a European population settled in the country, the need for a means of educating the white children arose, and finally the necessity for some coordinated scheme for the whole colony asserted itself. This latter was consummated in the Education Act of 1877, which Act is the basis of the system of education obtaining in the Dominion at the present day.

A very full and informative historical account of educational legislation and progress in New Zealand is given in Parliamentary Paper I.-8A of the 1930 session.

The passing of the Education Act of 1877 marked the foundation of the present system of free, compulsory,* and secular education. The outstanding feature of the Act was The establishment of (1) a central Department of Education controlled by a Minister of The Crown; (2) twelve education districts governed by Boards; and (3) school districts, which came under the jurisdiction of School Committees. On the Department was the onus of administering the annual appropriations by distributing to the Boards funds for the erection and maintenance of schools and the establishment of training or normal schools, and also the payment of capitation to the Boards and the rate of £3 15s. for each scholar in average daily attendance.

Education Boards were to be elected by School Committees, and to consist of nine members, life of whom were to retire annually. In the Boards were vested all property and endowments, and rents from these became part of the Board funds. The Boards were required to administer funds in carrying out the building arrangements for which grants were provided by the Department; in paying the salaries of teachers; and in granting to School Committees money for general educational purposes. The appointment and removal of teachers were in their hands, and the Act also gave the Boards power to establish scholarships, and to provide for secondary education in district high schools. Fees were, however, payable to Education Boards by pupils receiving secondary instruction. School Committees of seven members were to be elected annually. Generally the Committee had the management of educational matters within its own district, and out of the money received from the Board made payments incidental to the administration of the Committee's functions. In addition to these provisions the Act of 1877 specified the course of instruction to be given in the schools throughout the whole country. Inspectors, who were officers of the Education Boards, were appointed to examine and report on the school-work.

In The main The principles of the Act of 1877 are operative to-day. Several amendments made in succeeding years necessitated a consolidating measure in 1904.

*Every child between the age of seven and fourteen is required to enroll as pupil of either public or registered school.

Among the principal alterations and additions that had been made up to that date were: The provision in 1900 for a comprehensive scheme of manual and technical instruction; the introduction of physical drill into the curriculum in 1901; and, in 1903, the institution of National Scholarships to he awarded by the Department, and the introduction of a system of free places in secondary schools and district high schools for scholars completing the primary course. Up to the year 1901 also each Board had its own scale of staffs and salaries, but an Act of 1901 fixed the relation of the number and The remuneration of teachers in a school to the number of pupils in attendance. In 1905 each education district was divided into three wards, each returning three members, one of whom in each ward retired annually.

No outstanding changes beyond the consolidation of education legislation in 1908 were made until 1914. By the Education Act of that year the whole of the law relating not only to public but also to secondary, technical, and special schools was recast. The principal changes involved the reorganization of the Department of Education, and the Inspector-General of Schools became Director of Education. Inspectors of Schools, who had hitherto been officers of the several Education Boards, became officers of the central Department, a provision, it may be noted, that had been deleted from the Bill of 1877. Provision was made for the constitution of fewer education districts in lieu of the thirteen then existing, and Act of 1915 nine were created. Every education district is divided into urban areas and a rural area. An urban area consists of a borough or a group of boroughs having more than eight Thousand inhabitants; and the rural area, which comprises the rest of The district, is divided into three wards. The members for each ward of the rural area and for all urban areas are, as previously, elected by the members of the several School Committees. The number of members for the rural area of an Education Hoard is six two for each ward. The number of members for each urban area is two for each sixty Thousand or part of sixty Thousand inhabitants. School Committees are elected by the householders, and hold office for one year.

Under the Act, a graded list of certified teachers is compiled annually. Except in special cases, all teaching appointments are governed by the position of the applicants on the list, and it is also to some extent the basis for the determination of the rate of salary payable.

Amending legislation, mainly of an administrative character, has been enacted at various times since 1914. By the Education Amendment Act, 1921-22, the registration of all private schools is compulsory, and teachers in both public and private schools are required to take the oath of allegiance.

The Education Amendment Act, 1924, provided for the establishment of junior high schools, the amalgamation of the governing bodies of secondary and technical schools, and the creation of a Teachers' Register. The Education Amendment Act, 1926, discontinued the system of issuing licenses to teach.

Part II (Education Amendment) of the Finance Act. (No. 2), 1931, abolished the Council of Education, District Advisory Committees, and also Junior and Senior National Scholarships, at the same time authorizing the establishment of bursaries for secondary or higher education.

By Part V (Education Amendment) of the Finance Act, 1932, no child under the age of six years can be enrolled in a public school. By the same Act minor changes were made in the sections of the Education Act, 1914, dealing with teachers' salaries.

The programme of primary instruction at present provided by the Act includes English, arithmetic, geography, history and civics, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical instruction, moral instruction and health, and singing.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.

The number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of the Dominion is shown in the following summary, classified according as to whether they receive primary, secondary, technical, or higher education. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year in each ease.

Class of Institution.1928.1929.1930.1931.
* Endowed schools, previously in “secondary schools,” now included in “private secondary schools.”
Primary Education.    
Public (State) schools217,523216,734216,698218,442
Junior high schools (excluding secondary pupils)2,0732,0732,212218,442
Native village schools6,6716,9797,0707,503
Native mission schools550532546523
Registered private primary schools26,59626,97726,45126,726
Lower departments of secondary schools354359325247
Correspondence classes (primary)720795860973
Total primary254,487254,449254,162254,414
Secondary Education,    
Secondary schools15,03815,49816,14915,428*
Combined schools......448
Secondary departments of district high schools3,6733,8694,1154,672
Secondary scholars at junior high schools207131125272
Technical high and technical day schools6,0616,1146,9537,397
Maori secondary (boarding) schools533533535448
Registered private secondary schools3,4303,6953,8254,245*
Correspondence classes (secondary)..98166286
Total secondary28,94229,94131,86833,196
Technical Classes (excluding Technical High Schools and Technical Day Schools).    
Conducted by Education, Secondary, or High School Boards1,7771,8642,2282,097
Conducted by Technical Schools Boards8,7878,9129,2328,007
Conducted by University colleges399411369432
Total technical10,96311,18711,82910,536
University Education.    
University colleges4,2554,1284,1634,209
University students exempt from lectures547495638660
Lincoln Agricultural College534868152
Massey Agricultural College414220890
Total University4,8964,7135,0775,111
Total scholars and students299,288300,290302,936303,277

Public primary schools, including district high schools, numbered 2,524 in 1931, 69 less than in 1930. The number of registered private primary schools from which returns were received by the Education Department, was 305. Aided or endowed colleges, grammar schools, and high schools in operation numbered 44, combined secondary and technical high schools 2, technical high schools and technical day schools 22, junior high schools or departments 10, registered private secondary schools 49, and University colleges 4. The number of primary and secondary schools established for the education of the Native race was 161.

PUBLIC (STATE) PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Compared with 1930, there was in 1931 an increase of 2,292 in the number of pupils belonging to the public schools as at the end of the year, and the average attendance showed an increase of 2,241 for the whole year. The figures tabulated below include pupils attending the secondary departments of district high schools, and from 1927 to 1929 also include pupils of three junior high schools which are administered by the Auckland Education Board. From 1930 Form I and II pupils of all junior high schools and departments have been included.

yearPopulation at. 31st December (excluding Maoris).Number of Schools.l'upll9 at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly, Roll
19221,265,3972,550213,097209,251190,01290.8
19231,289,2212,566214,778211,624190,44990.0
19241,316,1742,574216,190213,140193,25390.7
19251,346,0762,580217,860215,401196,75991.3
19261,365,4172,601219,969215,810194,09789.9
19271,385,4012,601223,388218,020194,54089.2
19281,101,4722,598222,467218,485197,17490.2
19291.418,9142,597221,830217,608198,03091.0
19301,438,2392,601223,025217,435200,66292.3
19311,452,7472,534223,114217,908201,78992.6

Of the 2,534 schools shown above for 1931,2,150 had average attendances of not more than eighty, and of these 972 had averages ranging from one to twenty.

Relative Activities of Education District

The following figures show the number of schools and junior high schools or departments as at 31st December, 1931, and the number of pupils at the end of each of the last five years. The latter figures are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

District.Schools at End of 1031.Pupils at End of—
1927.1928.1920.1930.1931.

* Including pupils at the three junior school administrated by board.

†Pupils in Form I and II of all junior high schools and department includes.

Auckland75567,621*67,600*67,389*67.26867.678
Taranaki17411,71911,83011.89511,63012.129
Wanganui21717,26617,12916,88117.21816,753
Hawke's Bay19716,56716,44316,33516,49216,191
Wellington25128,04228,15228,33027,45228,869
Nelson1327,0236,9736,8727,1186,956
Canterbury38137,89037,37337,15537,38436.944
Otago24321,37020.95720,98121.51520,837
Southland18412,44712,33712,12312.40212,085
Totals2,534219,945218,794217,961218,479218,442

In each of the education districts are located Inspectors of Schools, who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school Inspectors on the 31st December, 1931. was 41, allocated as follows: Auckland, 12; Taranaki, 3; Wanganui, 4; Hawke's Bay, 2; Wellington, 5; Nelson, 2; Canterbury, 6; Otago, 4; Southland, 3.

AGE AND SEX OF PUPILS.

The following table shows (he age and sex of the pupils on the rolls of The public schools of the dominion at the 1st July. 1931, and the percentage of the roll for each age:—

Age.1931.Percentages for Five Years.
Boys.Girls.Total.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
5 and under 6 years9,7309,00818,7389.09.19.09.48.9
6 and under 7 years12,41111,49923,91011.411.711.311.211.4
7 and under 8 years12,47211,64624,11811.711.912.311.711.5
8 and under 9 years12,89511,96724,86210.711.612.012.311.8
9 and under 10 years13,36912,52825,89710.910.811.812.812.3
10 and under 11 years13,05611,98825,04411.711.010.711.911.9
11 and under 12 years13,04912,36625,41511.311.410.810.412.1
12 and under 13 years10,4819,54220,02310.810.510.610.09.5
13 and under 14 years7,8137,01314,8268.27.87.57.57.0
14 and under 15 years3,7342,5616,2953.43.43.22.92.9
15 and under 16 years8764381,3140.90.80.80.70.7
16 years and over8936128..........
Totals109,975100,595210,570100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

PUPILS LEAVING PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

In 1931, 20,268 pupils (10,547 boys and 9,721 girls) left public primary schools as against 21,715 (11,120 boys and 10,595 girls) in 1930. Of These leaving in 1931 15,709, or 78 per cent., had passed Form II, and 4,559, or 22 per cent., had not passed that standard. The corresponding percentages in 1930 were 80 and 20 respectively. The probable destinations to which children leaving were incorporated herein in former years, but in view of the difficulty of finding employment under present circumstances the figures would have little value.

MANUAL INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Elementary handwork in such subjects as modelling, paper and cardboard work, and brushwork is taught by the ordinary staff in practically every school of any size in the Dominion. The boys of Forms I and II receive instruction from special teachers in woodwork or ironwork. The girls of similar standards also receive instruction from special instructors in domestic subjects, including a comprehensive course in cookery and domestic hygiene. Subjects relating to agriculture or dairy-work and general elementary science are taught by the regular stall under the supervision of itinerant instructors specially qualified in the work.

The payments made by the Department on account of salaries, capitation, incidental expenses, and material for manual instruction for the year ended 31st March, 1932, amounted to £73,156.

CLASS-BOOKS AND SCHOOL AND CLASS LIBRARIES.

Owing to the need for curtailing expenditure, no grants for capitation or by way of subsidy for libraries were made in 1931 or 1932.

CORRESPONDENCE CLASSES.

Since 1922, correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in particularly isolated areas who would otherwise not be able to obtain any schooling. In 1928 preliminary arrangements were made for the establishment of a secondary department, and in February, 1929, post-primary courses in English, mathematics, geography, history, agriculture, Latin, and book-keeping were made available. The children taking these courses comprise ex-primary pupils living in remote districts, whose only opportunity of obtaining a secondary education is by means of correspondence. It is intended to make a special feature of practical agriculture, and a special assistant has been appointed for this purpose. At the end of 1931 there were 1,259 pupils on the roll of the correspondence classes, 973 being in the primary department and 286 in the secondary in the secondary. The staff of the school consists of a headmaster, 10 secondary and 14 primary assistant teachers, two of whom are engaged in the infant department. There are also office assistants.

PUBLICATIONS.

An illustrated paper, called the School Journal, is published by the Education Department monthly for use as the chief reader in primary schools, and is supplied free to all schools and other institutions more or less under the Department's control or supervision. To a large number of private schools it is supplied at cost price. Of the last issue of the School Journal for The year 1931 the number of copies printed was Part I, 78,000; Part II, 70,000; Part III, (57,500: total, 221,500.

A monthly Gazette is published by the Department. In addition to containing articles by leading educationists, it is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies, and copies are distributed to every adult teacher in the public schools of the Dominion.

CONVEYANCE AND BOARD OF SCHOLARS.

Free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway-line but out of reach of a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, district high schools, and technical high schools, and also by free-place holders travelling to attend technical schools or classes other than at technical high schools.

Education Boards are authorized also to make provision when necessary for the conveyance of pupils to primary schools by road or water, and to contribute towards the payment for board of children compelled to live away from home in order to attend school. The expenditure on these services for the last five years is shown in the following table:

YearRailway Fares.Other Conveyance and Boarding Allowances.Total.
Primary.Combined.Secondary.Technical.Primary.Secondary.
 £££££££
192712,113..7,2775,75245,33061071,082
192811,757..7,7256,19956,95489383,528
192913,186..10,7037,97862,6221,08095,569
193010,265..8.0826,07974,65486399,943
193110,165597,6198,14072,1371,15197,271

PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

Physical education, including swimming and life-saving, is recognized as part of the primary and post-primary school curriculum, in the public schools a period of not less than fifteen minutes a day is devoted to the subject, and in post-primary schools at least one hour a week. Students in The training colleges receive a Through training in physical education, including swimming and life-saving, folk dancing, eurythmics, and correlated hygiene. Corrective classes are held in the larger schools for the purpose of remedying physical defects of the children.

At the beginning of 1932 a text-book on physical education written especially to meet the needs of the teacher was produced by Dr. Renfrew White. This textbook is the only one recognized by the Department in The schools.

The medical and dental inspection of school-children and the scheme of school dentistry are dealt with in Section VIA of this publication.

PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHER.

Of the 6,276 adult teachers at the end of 1931, 90 per cent, held teachers' certificates. The number of probationers was 452 (163 males and 289 females). The average number of pupils for each adult teacher was 31.

Adult Teachers, By Education Districts, as at 31st December, 1931.

Education District.Sole TeachersHeads Of SchoolsAssistant TeachersTotal Number Of Adult Teachers*Percentage Of Male Female Adult Teachers
MFMFMF
*Excludes 85 teachers in Junior high schools mid departments.
Auckland221177276512398951,85966.4
Hawke's Bay494455243116937256.9
Taranaki616370195024050356.2
Wanganui42766794922747050.6
Wellington3497872110142176141.2
Nelson3949338159423857.6
Canterbury51157144231504961,02151.0
otago647985108927660171.8
Southland56566373415036671.8
totals6177988801727582,9666,19158.1

Omitting schools with less than twenty-one pupils, the ratio of adult men teachers to adult women teachers in 1931 was 100 to 175. The proportion of men to women in charge of schools with not more than twenty scholars was 100 to 156. If the adult teachers of all public schools are taken it is found that the ratio of men teachers to women teachers was 100 to 172 in 1931.

The average salaries paid to teachers in 1931, including house allowance or value of residence, were—Male head teachers, £400; female head teachers, £345; male assistants, £283; female assistants, £210; sole male teachers, £251; sole female teachers, £220.

Information as to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund will be found in the section of this book dealing with Pensions, Superannuation,&c.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

Training colleges are situated in the four principal centres of the Dominion. The management of the training colleges is entrusted to the local Education Boards, subject to general regulations. The amount expended by the Department during the financial year 1931-32 for the training of teachers was £140,712.

The number of students attending the training colleges for the last three years has been as follows:—

Training College.192919301931
MFTMFTMFT
Auckland116253369110264374140269409
wellington481862345119324459190249
Christchurch872032908622030688194282
Dunedin951952905517523069152221
Totals3468371,1833028521,1543568051,161

The period of training for a young person desiring recognition by the Education Department as a trained teacher is now four years, consisting in general of one year as a probationer in a public school, two years as a training-college student, and one year as a probationary assistant in a public school. The number of students leaving training colleges in 1931 was 574. The training colleges at Wellington and Dunedin are to be closed in 1933 as an economy measure.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

By the Education Amendment Act, 1921-22, every private school was required to apply for registration before the 13th July, 1922, and no private school can how be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration, and certain precedent conditions of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment and curriculum are required to be fulfilled.

At the end of the year 1931 the number of registered private primary schools was 305, with a total roll number of 26,726 and an average attendance of 24,069 for the year.

YearNumber of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192730512,86714,49127,35823,9601298731,002
192830212,22814,36826,59623,7111419501,091
192930212,49814,47926,97723,935110867977
193030612,28114,17026,45123,916114848962
193130512,50014,22626,72624,069107852959

The bulk of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic, the figures for Roman Catholic schools for 1931 being-Schools, 214; scholars on roll at end of year, 22,487 (males 10,737, females 11,750); average yearly attendance, 20,176; teachers, 715 (males 49, females 666).

In addition to the 305 registered primary private schools there were 49 private secondary schools on the register at the end of 1931, with a total roll number of 3,777.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR NATIVES.

The number of Native village schools in operation at the end of 1931 was 139. In addition there are twenty-two private schools at which education for Maori boys and girls is provided. Included in the twenty-two are eleven boarding-schools which provide courses for primary and secondary education. Instruction is imparted by means of the English language only.

On the rolls of the 139 village schools at the end of 1931, there were 7,503 children (including 1,011 Europeans). The average attendance for the year was 6,804, the percentage of regularity being 90.5, and the average weekly roll number 7,499. The total number of pupils on the rolls of the Native mission schools was 523, and on those of the secondary schools 448. The total roll number of all the Native schools inspected by officers of the Education Department was 8,533.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Native village schools during the last ten years.

Year.Number of Schools at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as percentage of Weekly Roll.Number of Teachers.
Males.Females.
19221276,1195,43688.886184
19231246,2685,58689.092181
19241256,3465,61088.491181
19251286,3665,62888.492188
19261306,6175,94789.894188
19271346,6555,81787.1104193
19281346,7705,96488.1102194
19291376,9556,25289.9104203
19301387,0796,43790.9111211
19311397,4996,80490.5111212

The total net expenditure on Native schools during the year ended the 31st March, 1932, was £93,745. Included in this is the sum of 63,003 expended on teachers' and inspectors' salaries, 14,430 expended on now buildings and additions,4,205 on maintenance of buildings, repairs, & c., and 5,005 on secondary education.

Besides the children of the Maori race who are receiving instruction in the Native schools there are 384 attending public schools, so that the total number of primary pupils of Maori race including These in the mission schools is 15,405.

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS

Since 1923 the Education Department has established ten junior high schools or departments. One of these is attached to a public school, one to a district high school, six to secondary schools, and two are separate establishments. Pupils on the roll of junior high schools or departments at. the end of 1931 numbered 2,689 as against 2,337 in 1930. The average attendance during the year was 2,626. The ages of the pupils on the roll at the 1st July, 1931, were

Age, in Years.Boys.Girls.Total.
9 and under 10314
10 and under 116252114
11 and under 12292269561
12 and under 13426389815
13 and under 14429340769
14 and under 15252161413
15 and under 16603898
16 and under 1713518
Totals1,5371,2552,792

SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Until 1901 secondary schools were established by special (local) Acts of the General Assembly, and the bulk of schools giving secondary education have been so constituted. At the present time the provisions of the Education Act, 1914, allow of the Minister of Education establishing such schools, and in general the minimum number of prospective pupils must be sixty in the case of secondary schools, twenty in the case of the secondary department of a district high school, and forty in the case of a technical high school or a technical school. The Education Amendment Act, 1924, provided that secondary or technical schools could be combined and be placed under a single governing body. In 1927 New Plymouth, and in 1931 Nelson and Napier technical and secondary schools were combined under single controlling authorities. During 1931 only Napier combined schools were operating under regulations for these schools. Secondary schools and combined schools are controlled by a Board of Governors, district high schools by the Education Board of the district, and technical high schools and day technical schools either by a Board of Managers or by the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity. Free places are granted to suitably qualified pupils. A junior free place at a secondary school, a combined school, a district high school, or a technical high school is tenable for two years, with a possible extension to three years. A junior free place may not be held after the 31st December of the year in which The holder reaches seventeen years of age. Senior free places are tenable up to the age of nineteen.

In addition to The five classes of institutions referred to above there are also forty nine registered private secondary schools and eleven Maori secondary schools which provide for post-primary education. Two of the ten junior high schools also provide three-year course, the last year of which is devoted to secondary instruction. The number of schools providing secondary education during the last five years is set out in The accompanying table.

YearSecondary Schools.Combined Schools.Secondary Departments of District High Schools.Junior High Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Total.
* Endowed schools preciously in secondary schools now included in endowed and private secondary schools.
192743..792211240197
192845..792211243202
192946..792211247207
193046..812221248211
1931422822221151*212

* Endowed schools previously in secondary schools now included in endowed and private secondary schools.

The number of pupils at the end of each year of the last decade is shown in the following table no account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in The case of district high schools only the secondary department is included

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.District High Schools.Junior High Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.Native Secondary Schools.Endowed and Registered Private Secondary Schools.Correspondence Classes.Total.
192210,736..2,606..4,2024131,998..19,955
192311,619..2,818..5,0544932,134..22,118
192412,010..2,900..5,3695242,473..23,276
192512,514..3,136..5,1325362,511..23,829
192613,651..3,1621375,7005702,794..26,014
192714,190..3,4431385,7035242,932..26,930
192815,038..3,6732076,0615333,430..28,942
192915,498..3,8691316,1145333,6989829,941
193016,149..4,1151256,9535353,82516631,868
193115,4284484,6722727,3974484,24528633,196

The figures for years prior to 1926 are not available in the case of junior high schools and technical day schools. The figures shown for these years under the heading Technical High and Technical Day Schools include only the figures in respect of The technical high schools.

At the end of 1931, of the total scholars attending secondary schools 8,404 were boys and 7,024 girls; combined schools, 250 and 198; secondary departments of district high schools, 2,159 and 2,086; junior high schools, 141 and 131; technical high schools and technical day schools, 4,107 and 3,290; endowed and registered private schools, 2,159 and 2,086; and Maori secondary schools, 263 and 185.

FREE SECONDARY EDUCATION

Of the scholars attending Government schools no less than 99 per cent, were receiving free tuition in 1931. The following table gives, as at 1st July, a summary of the various secondary free places for which payment was made by Government:—

Class of Free Place.1929.1930.1931.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Secondary schools—
Junior free pupils5,7345,12410,8585,7595,14210,9015,6365,11510,751
Senior free pupils2,7122,1764,8882,8242,3315,1553,2132,2625,475
Combined schools—
Junior free pupils............169145314
Senior free pupils............9156147
District high schools—
Junior free pupils1,8591,7163,5751,9051,7803,6852,0791,8643,943
Senior free pupils4014608614454348796756051,280
Maori secondary schools808716777901677073143
Technical high and technical day schools— 
Junior free pupils3,3932,7716,1643,6473,0146,6613,7162,9786,694
Senior free pupils6345261,1606815111,1929967281,724
Junior high schools—
Third-year pupils96901868389172159155314
Totals14,90912,95027,85915,42113,39128,81216,80413,98130,785

NATIONAL SCHOLARSHIPS.

The figures below indicate the number of national scholarships current in December, 1929, 1930, and 1931, respectively. The number of scholarship-holders is, of course, included in the number of free-place holders already shown under the heading of “Free Secondary Education.”

Number of scholarship-holders192919301931
Boys426389382
Girls293278245
Totals719667627
Number receiving boarding-allowance included in the above total144128126
Number receiving travelling-allowance (similarly included)434839
Number held at secondary schools595532511
Number held at district high schools838674
Number held at technical high schools414942

WAR BURSARIES FOR SOLDIERS DEFENDANTS.

Regulations which came into force in January, 1918, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of killed or disabled members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces. To qualify for a war bursary a child must be eligible for—

  1. Free education at technical classes or

  2. A free place at a secondary school, district high school, or technical high school or

  3. A University or educational bursary at a University college bursaries were current in 1931.

STAFFS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Complete details of the staffs and salaries of the eight classes of school a providing secondary education are not available. The following figures are therefore confined to full-time teachers of secondary schools proper, of secondary departments of district high schools, and of technical high and technical day schools:-

Year.Secondary Schools.District High Schools, and Form III, Junior High Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19273202675877784161198118316
19283402836239082172205122327
192936029765710289191221127348
193037230968110778185231133367
193136828765512491215238138376

In addition to the above were 24 teachers (males, 13; females, 11) of combined schools in 1931.

LOWER DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Somewhat analogous to private schools, but on a different basis, are the lower departments of secondary schools. These departments may be held in connection with secondary schools for pupils who have not passed Standard VI, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met out of the income from the endowments of the school or from Government grants. Nine secondary schools have lower departments attached to them. Many of the pupils board at the school hostels, indicating that these departments are used by the children of country residents able to afford to send their children away from home to attend school.

At the end of 1931 the number of schools was 9; of pupils, 247 (100 boys, 147 girls); and of teachers, 12.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

The Education Act provides for public instruction in such subjects of art, science, and technology as are set forth in regulations. Up to the end of 1919 the greater part of the revenue of technical schools and classes was derived from capitation payments made by the Government on the attendances of pupils, and each Board of Managers or controlling authority was responsible for the fixing of the salaries of its instructors, and the conditions of employment. In 1920, however, capitation payments were to a great extent abolished, and there was substituted a Dominion system of classification of technical-school teachers and manual-training instructors, and a corresponding system of payment of salaries. The abolition of capitation payments also involved making direct provision for the incidental expenses incurred by Technical School Boards and controlling authorities in connection with the schools, and the allowance for these for any school or class was made proportional to the total salaries paid by the Department for that school or class.

Technical classes, other than those at technical high schools or technical day schools, were held at forty-three centres during 1931. The number of individual students was as follows:—

Classes conducted by Education or High School Boards2,097
Classes conducted by Technical School Boards or by Managers8,007
Classes conducted by University colleges432
Total10,536

Students receiving free education during 1931 at technical classes other than at technical high schools or technical day schools numbered 6,694 (3,716 males and 2,978 females).

Technical high schools numbered fifteen and technical day schools seven in 1931. These schools are of secondary grade, and provide industrial, domestic, agricultural, commercial, and art courses. The courses of instruction being taken by pupils at technical high schools and technical day schools at 1st July in each of the last five years were as follows:-

Course.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Industrial1,9692,0342,0972,2782,518
Commercial and general3,2423,4513,5903,7363,786
Domestic8911,0191,0701,1421,256
Agricultural314359408445485
Art304351371401496
Totals6,7207,2147,5368,0028,541

Technological examinations were conducted by the Department in 1931 on behalf of the City and Guide of London Institute at eight centres. The total number of entries was 203, and the number of passes was 203, and the number of passes was 80. The Education Department also held its own examinations in technological subjects in 1931. The examinations were conducted on account of 139 candidates who sat for examination, 23 of whom were successful in securing passes in the preliminary, 36 in the intermediate examination, and 14 in the final examination.

Information in regard to free places in technical schools is given under the heading of “Secondary Education.”

CHILD WELFARE AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.

The Child Welfare Act of 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of The Education Department, known as the Child Welfare Branch. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to The maintenance, care, and control of children who are specially under The protection of The State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, or delinquent children.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorized to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was also made for the appointment of honorary associates of either sex, whose function it is to consider all the facts concerning children brought before the Courts and to advise the presiding Magistrate or Justice as to what action should be taken. The appointment of Child Welfare Officers for the investigation of all cases coming before the Courts was also provided for. The functions of such officers are carried out mainly by the regular officers already employed by the Department, but in outlying districts it is hoped to utilize The services of voluntary social service agents for this important work.

The principle of dealing with children in the privacy of the Magistrate's room had been followed for many years throughout the Dominion, and the Child Welfare Act was designed to give legality to such a practice. Very wide discretionary powers are given to The Magistrates of these special Courts in dealing with children. The ordinary procedure of requiring the child to plead, of taking evidence on oath, and, in fact, of hearing The particular charge may he dispensed with altogether. Wherever practicable the Children's Court is held in promises apart from the ordinary Police Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child was originally defined for purposes of the Act as one under sixteen years of age. This age was raised to seventeen in 1927.

In order to provide for the greater protection of infants of unmarried mothers and for the assistance and guidance of the mothers themselves, there is provision for Child Welfare Officers, on being notified of such births, to investigate each case and to render such assistance as is required, either in placing the child in a suitable foster-home or in advising the mother in The matter of affiliation proceedings, or in assisting her in obtaining employment, & c. By an amending Act in 1927 provision was made for the inspection and registration of all private institutions for children.

In addition to The work in connection with the maintenance and education of destitute, neglected, and delinquent children committed by the Courts, the Child Welfare Branch (1) supervises all infants and young children under the age of six-years who are living apart from their parents: (2) makes inquiry through its field officers, for the information of Magistrates, of all applications for the adoption of children and for widows' pensions; (3) supervises all children and young persons placed under the field officers by order of the Court; and (4) provides for the maintenance, education, and training of all afflicted children who are deaf, blind, or feeble-minded, or have speech-defects.

The following figures (which are exclusive of children dealt with as preventive cases, 1,355 in 1931) indicate the numbers under control during each year from 1927 to 1931 inclusive:—

 1927.1928.1920.1930.1931.
Boarded out, institutions, receiving-homes, and in hospitals, or convalescent homes, &c.4,0144,2874,5514,6334,008
Under supervision493678870952911
Infant-life protection9021,0071,2041,2801,131
Deaf children122117114121120
Feeble-minded children285275207269267
Totals5,8166,3647,0067,2557,037

The Child Welfare Act authorizes Children's Courts to place children under the supervision of Child Welfare Officers in cases where it appears undesirable or unnecessary to remove them from their own homes, and generally in all cases where friendly contact with The parents as well, as the children is sufficient to bring about a readjustment of the homo conditions correction of incipient anti-social traits in the children. In this important work the Department receives valuable assistance from certain of the private social service organizations, notably the Y.M.C.A. through its Big Brother movement commenced in Auckland a few years ago, and now extended to most of the centres of population throughout the Dominion.

The number of cases dealt with by the Courts last year was 1,984, and of these 602 were placed under supervision and dealt with as indicated in the foregoing paragraph. The number actually admitted to institutions, such as receiving-homes, special schools, training-farms; Ac., was 493; but all these, with the exception of 142 who required long peril1s of training or were regarded as unfit for placing out, were suitably provided for in the community before the close of The year. The remainder of the children were dealt with in a summary manner not calling for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer.

At the end of The year 1931 the number of children boarded out in foster-homes was 2,289 as compared with 2,365 at the end of the preceding year. The boarding-out rate is 16s. per week for infants under twelve months, and 14s. for children over that age still attending school. The department provides free medical and dental treatment and medicines, also school books and stationery.

The Boys, Training Farm at Weraroa provides for boys of all ages-usually from twelve years upwards who require a period of reformative detention in an institution.

An institution at Otekaike is available for the education of feeble-minded boys. Older lads, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, and in The bootmaking, basketmaking, matmaking, and carpentering shops. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and employed in house-work and laundry-work, sewing, knitting, &c., and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing.

In order to meet the requirements of children who are retarded in their development owing to physical or other defects, 46 special classes have been established; 9 of these are classes in public hospitals were the tedium of convalescence is relieved by school-work of a suitable kind, 6 are for hard-of-hearing children and speech defectives, 2 are for under-nourished and physically defective children, and 29 are for children who fail to develop under the ordinary school curriculum. In the last named classes there were on 1st July, 1931, 545 pupils (334 boys and 211 girls) in attendance.

Infant-life protection is carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. A great many infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate.

A residential school at Sumner exists for the teaching of deaf children, and special classes are established in the main centres for the education of The hard-of-hearing children and for The correction of defective speech among children. Classes are also conducted for adults.

Provision is made for blind children and also for blind adults at The Jubilee Institute for the Blind at Auckland.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY.

Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the New Zealand University, founded by The New Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875.

The University was formerly an examining, not a teaching body, with four teaching institutions affiliated to it the Auckland University College, founded in 1852 Victoria University College, founded in 1897 at Wellington Canterbury University College, founded in 1873 at Christchurch and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. By the New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1926, the constitution of the University has been altered so that it now actually consists of the four University colleges. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions Otago University has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, and a school of home science Canterbury University College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil) Auckland University College has a school of mines, a school of commerce, and a school of engineering up to and including the second professional examination and Victoria University College specializes in law and science. Canterbury University College has a School of Forestry. There are also two Agricultural Colleges—viz Massey and Lincoln, attached to the University. In 1930 a New Zealand University Amendment Act was passed to enable the New Zealand University to discharge its functions under the Law Practitioners Amendment Act, 1930.

For this purpose a Council of Legal Education was established to make recommendations to The Academic Board of the University with respect to any matter relating to legal education. Further, the Senate of the University in making or altering statutes concerning legal education must first consider any recommendations made by the Academic Board or the Council of Legal Education.

The constituent colleges receive annual statutory Government grants towards meeting the expenses of their general maintenance. These grants are now as follows: Auckland University College, £10,762; Victoria University College, £9,432; Canterbury University College, £5,400; Otago University, £13,815. The colleges are also in receipt of rents from endowments, Canterbury University College and Otago University being the most richly endowed. A statutory grant (£12,625 in 1931) was also made by the Government towards general maintenance, of Massey Agricultural College and a similar grant of £3,700 to Canterbury (Lincoln) Agricultural College.

The growth of University education is seen from the annexed table. In 1931 there were 4,209 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges. Of these, 291 were graduates, 3,438 undergraduates, and 480 unmatriculated students. In addition there were 660 students attached to The various University colleges, but exempt from lectures.

STUDENTS ON BOOKS OF AFFILIATED COLLEGES
Year.Attending Lectures.Exempt Students.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
19222,5911,092231443,958
19232,7451,113281634,202
19242,7231,085348804,236
19252,8441,1053861074,442
19262,8751,2124431234,653
19273,0141,3483971194,878
19282,9751,2804351124,802
19292,9081,2203861094,623
19302,8791,2845081304,801
19312,9731,2364881724,869

Professors and lectures attached to the various University colleges in 1931 were:—

University College.Professors.Full-time Lecturers and Assistants.
Auckland1522
Victoria1412
Canterbury1417
Otago2531
Totals6882

Free University Education.

University Scholarships are of the value of £25 (Junior and Senior) per annum plus tuition fees, and are tenable for three years. In the case of holders living away from home a further sum of £35 per annum is allowed. The number of University junior and national scholarships awarded in 1931 was twenty-nine. Taranaki Scholarships are of the annual value of £60, and the Senate may, at its discretion, extend the tenure from three to four years. There are also some thirty or forty local and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same entrance examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the Senior University, Sir George Grey, and John Tinline Scholarships. The various colleges have also private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of The University course are the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, the Medical Travelling Scholarship, the Engineering Travelling Scholarship, The Post-graduate Travelling Scholarships, the French Travelling Scholarship, the Law Travelling Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All except The last named are tenable abroad. The Research Scholarships are each of the value of £110 per annum.

So far thirty-nine Rhodes Scholarships have been granted, of which eleven have been gained by students of Auckland University College, nine by students of Victoria University College, seven by students of Canterbury University College, and twelve by students of Otago University.

The Science Research Scholarship offered annually by the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 has been awarded to thirty graduates, nine from Auckland University College, seven from Victoria University College, seven from Canterbury University College, and seven from the University of Otago.

In 1931 University bursaries entitled the holders to the payment of tuition and examination fees (not exceeding £10 per annum). A bursary is tenable for a three (or possibly four) years course at a University college or at a school of agriculture recognized by the University. The number of University bursaries (excluding agricultural) held in 1931 was 1,186. Domestic science bursaries, tenable at the Otago University, may be awarded under The regulations for technical instruction. Bursaries of this kind were awarded to 6 students in 1931, making 20 bursars in attendance at classes. During 1931 there were 7 holders of engineering bursaries and 1 holder of an architectural bursary. Training college studentships also carry tuition at University classes, and the completion of a training college course is one of the grounds on which an educational bursary may be awarded for further University study.

Agricultural bursaries may be awarded to qualified candidates in order to enable them to obtain the necessary practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1931 four bursars were in attendance at Lincoln Agricultural College, and two at Massey Agricultural College.

From the table given below will be seen the number of students who received free University education during each of The last ten years

Workers' Educational Association.

The Workers' Educational Association, which works in conjunction with the four University colleges, conducts tutorial and preliminary classes for working men and women in such subjects as economics, sociology, psychology, industrial history, English literature, English composition, modern history, electricity, hygiene, &c. Members of the staffs of the University colleges and other educationists act as tutors of the classes. The classes are held for the most part in the large cities, although to an increasing extent classes are being arranged in the smaller towns. In 1931 the Government contributed directly £3,031 per annum to the movement, in addition to which £1,250 paid by the Government out of the National Endowment Fund to the University of New Zealand is devoted to the same object, making a total of £4,281. Voluntary contributions received by the University colleges on account of the associations classes are also subsidized by the Government.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.

The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department during the last five years is given below.

Examination.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.

* Discontinued in 1931.

† Senior National Scholarship examinations discontinued in 1931.

Junior National Scholarships and junior free places2,7911,4561,4091,118*
Public Service Entrance, Senior National Scholarships, and Intermediate4,3864,5704,5204,1812,572
Teachers' D and C2,3842,0861,994953534
Training College Entrance Examination......743961
Kindergarten Certificate Examination1014644
London University Examinations11343
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate1317212532
Technological Examinations..51161177143
Naval Cadetships..221..
Aircraft Apprenticeships......211
Totals9,5858,1978,1167,2084,260

The University conducted examinations in 1931 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, public health, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, forestry, and music, and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 7,002 entrants for the degree examinations in 1931, compared with 6,882 in 1930. The number of candidates for matriculation in the last five years has been: 1927, 5,287; 1928, 5,524; 1929, 4,580; 1930, 4,567; 1931, 4,779.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.

Out of public funds £3,409,877 was spent for the financial year ended 31st March, 1932. The public funds referred to, however, include not only the amount appropriated by parliamentary vote, but also sums paid from reserves revenue. Nor does this represent the whole amount expended on education in the Dominion. In the case of certain secondary schools and University colleges a considerable revenue from endowments, fees, &c, is received and becomes available for educational purposes. The figures given below relate only to direct expenditure on education from the public purse. Figures for the last five years, analysed according to the various branches of expenditure, are—

Service.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
* Included in elementary education.
 £££££
General administration39,10338,16540,89742,28432,435
Elementary education2,464,3672,562,3412,592,8622,537,4192,145,003
Secondary education434,685413,181472,539527,822693,220
Technical instruction219,343224,274254,487303,962693,220
Training colleges, &c.159,888166,221180,642172,815146,712
Higher education157,235165,849179,598191,93593,114
Native schools88,59084,96187,04399,10193,745
Physical instruction**9,1508,8756,862
Schools for the deaf5,7706,2906,0076,3125,883
Education of the blind1,7711,3501,3771,1082,870
Schools for the mentally backward11,17517,21915,45618,04811,254
Child welfare104,638122,662131,731133,660126,587
Material and storesCr. 226Cr. 129Cr. 708Cr. 783Cr. 701
Miscellaneous services83,63083,97487,14159,37552,893
Totals3,769,9693,886,3584,058,2224,101,9333,409,877

There is now given a series of comparative figures which show the cost of education during the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March,Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.Year ended 31st March,Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 (£1,000)s. d. (£1,000)s. d.
19233,18748 719283,77052 4
1924 3,24748 819293,88653 3
19253,04353 719304,05854 11
19203,81454 1019314,10255 0
19273,91055 119323,41045 1

Chapter 8. SECTION VIII.—JUSTICE

CIVIL CASES

THE law relating to the jurisdiction of Magistrates and Justices of the Peace in civil matters was consolidated by the Magistrates' Courts Act, 1928. Under this statute the ordinary civil jurisdiction of a Magistrate is limited to claims not exceeding 300 where the parties agree in writing that the Court shall have jurisdiction, to claims not exceeding 500. Justices of the Peace may hear and decide certain civil cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed 20. The numbers of plaints entered and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in The lower Courts during the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

Year.Plaints entered.Cases tried.
Number.Total Amount sued for.Number.Total Amount claimed.Total Amount for which Judgment entered.
  £ ££
192265,6291,279,89044,296936,273786,373
192366,6591,236,16045,837857,903715,516
192474,4351,255,75450,778879,945737,045
192573,1921,172,16748,436821,093666,721
192681,0611,333,94154,010933,269762,172
192783,3691,400,12955,676960,549786,299
192885,2431,463,76955,751951,916774,912
192987,8431,431,25656,668911,667772,247
193096,7701,542,43463,1201,010,026879,839
193191,5951,544,60162,9451,047,511889,978

In terms of money the 1931 level for plaints, for cases tried, and for judgments entered is the highest on record. The numbers of plaints and of cases tried have been eclipsed only by These of 1930.

The numbers of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments were recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand in its civil jurisdiction during the last decade were follows:—

Year.Number of Actions commencedCases triedJudgments recorded.
With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
19221,431115408748316,533
19231,17292320654300,698
19241,78093429853358,880
19251,72460407776303,319
19261,82643496882344,198
19271,32652506935316,936
19281,43341370683270,632
19291,44644410643207,399
19301,45464392659260,870
19311,48174453706311,400

DIVORCE

The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1925, which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation will be found in the Year-Book for 1931. the present position is outlined in the following résumé. Any married person, domiciled in New Zealand for two or more years at the time of filing the petition, may obtain a divorce on one or more of the following grounds

  1. Adultery

  2. Wilful desertion for three years.

  3. Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.

  4. Sentence of seven years imprisonment for attempting to murder, or for wounding doing actual bodily harm to petitioner or child.

  5. Murder of child of petitioner correspondent.

  6. Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.

  7. Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years preceding the petition.

  8. Failure to comply with a decree of Court for restitution of conjugal rights.

  9. Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in force for three years.

  10. Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years. An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act (which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.

  11. Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1925 as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds and above, her New Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in the Dominion at the date of the agreement, decree, or order.

The amending Act of 1930 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband for three years, has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition, and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

Figures showing The operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during each of the last ten years are as follows

YearDissolution or Nullity of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Institution of Conjugal Rights.
Petitions tiled.Decrees Nisi.Decrees Absolute.Petitions filed.Decrees for separationPetitions filed.Decrees for Restitution.
1922643543522418857
1923666603522527756
19247686515261149465
19257236056121247359
1926739624614828662
1927722629540419172
19287856535725310979
19298437186352 130107
19308397246201 9679
19317606835915110894

The number of decrees nisi during 1931(683) is 41 less than the number for 1930(724), which is the greatest number recorded in any single year. The number of decrees absolute (591) is 29 less than the total for 1930, the highest number being 635 in 1929.

In 676 of the cases covered by petitions filed during 1931 the parties had been married in New Zealand. In 522 cases the marriage had been solemnized by a clergyman, and in 244 cases (32 per cent.) by a Registrar of Marriages or other civil official. Civil marriages constituted 23 per cent, of These solemnized in New Zealand in 1931.

The next table gives information as to grounds of petition, not only in respect of petitions filed during 1931, but also for petitions (whether filed in 1931 earlier) where decrees were granted during the year:—

Grounds.Petitions filed.Deuces Nisi granted.Decrees Absolute granted.
Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives-Petitions.
Adultery1194991416742
Bigamy12........
Desertion698454974798
Drunkenness, with cruelty, failure to maintain 9 8 9
Insanity314 51
Malformation 1 1 1
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights58225312445
Separation for not less than three years1172309221884179
Totals367399294389248343

The figures shown for decrees nisi include cases where both nisi and absolute decrees were granted during the year, and These for decrees absolute cover all such granted during The year whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in 1931 or in a previous year.—

The 1932 Year-Book contained statistics of the average and of the relative ages of husbands and wives in divorce cases, which have not been maintained in this issue

In 234 of the 766 cases where petitions for dissolution were filed during 1931 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 200 cases, 2 in 168 cases, 3 in 75 cases, 4 in 35 cases, 5 in 28 cases, 6 in 11 cases, and in the remaining 15 cases the living issue numbered 7 or more.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions for dissolution were filed in the last five years

Duration of Marriage, in years.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
1927192819291930193119271928192919301931
Under 558577166415251584239
5 and under1010399115111104119132143154135
10 and 157175758790841061009685
15 and 2042626840585165546568
20 and 3053435459585964787461
30 and over1515921161516181711
Totals342351392390367380434451448399

The ratio of divorces to marriages in divers countries is illustrated by the undermentioned table comprising latest years available.

Divorces per 100 Marriages.
United States17.0
Austria12.7
Japan10.1
Switzerland8.5
Denmark7.9
Germany7.2
France6.0
New Zealand5.9
New South Wales5.5
South Africa5.4
Western Australia5.0
Victoria4.2
Czecho-Slovakia3.5
Belgium3.5
South Australia2.9
Queensland3.5
Belgium1.4
Scotland1.4
Canada1.2
England and Wales1.1

INQUESTS.

The number of bodies on which inquests were held in 1931 was 1,509, including 92 Maoris. In 1,122 cases the bodies were of males, and in 387 of females.

Nature of Verdict.Males.Females.Total.
Diseases and natural causes395251646
Accident52199620
Homicide6814
Suicide19929228
Capital punishment1..1
Total1,1223871,509

Of the accidental deaths the most common forms are injuries by motor-vehicles, railways, and other forms of transport, and drowning. The verdicts show that in 1931, 249 deaths, or 40 per cent, of the total fatal accidents, were due to the former cause, while to the latter 121 deaths, or 20 per cent., were due.

The inquests on suicidal deaths for each of the last ten years are—

 Inquests on Suicides.
Year.Males.Females.Total.
192213133164
192312320143
192413333166
192514033173
192612030150
192716922191
192815952211
192918048228
193016335198
193119929228

Fire Inquests.

In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner may hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into cause of death.

During 1931 five inquests were held on fires. In three cases the verdict was arson, in one case accident, and in the remaining case there was no evidence to show how the fire was caused.

During the five years 1926-30, -41 fire inquests were held. In 24 cases the verdict was arson; and in 17 cases there was insufficient evidence to determine the cause.

POLICE.

On the 31st -March, 1932, the number of permanent members of the Police Force in New Zealand was 1,135 of all ranks, being a decrease of 26 during the year. The total is made up as follows: 1 commissioner, 4 superintendents, 15 inspectors, 6 sub-inspectors, 27 senior sergeants, 90 sergeants, 921 constables, 4 senior detectives. 17 detective-sergeants, and 41 detectives. There were also 23 temporary constables, 12 police surgeons, 8 matrons, 4 district constables, and 2 Native constables.

The following table shows the number of stations and of police in each police district. Temporary constables are included, but not district or Native constables.

Police District.No. of Stations.No. of Police.
Whangarei1528
Auckland48244
Hamilton2361
Gisborne1533
Napier1857
New Plymouth1640
Wanganui1945
Palmerston North1847
Wellington29189
Nelson1229
Grey mouth2145
Christchurch38135
Timaru1442
Dunedin35101
Invercargill2349

There were also 9 officers attached to headquarters, 1 was on loan to the Cook Islands Administration, and 2 on leave prior to retirement.

The proportion of police to population is 1 to every 1,317 persons, and the expenditure (exclusive of the cost of buildings) on the whole Police Force for the year ended the 31st March, 1932, was 5s. 5d. per head of population.

The following table shows the growth of the Police Force during the last ten Years:—

Year ended 31st March,Officers.Non-commissioned Officers.Detectives.Constables.Total.Police to Population (including Maoris).Cost per Inhabitant.
192323118448181,0031 to 1,32158 1/4
192423120478371,0271 to 1,31258 3/4
192523121518311,0261 to 1,34459 1/2
192624121528881,0851 to 1,29959 1/2
192722123568951,0961 to 1,31259 1/4
192823127549131,1171 to 1,30159 3/4
192923128569481,1551 to 1,27361 3/4
193022127549431,1461 to 1,29861
193125120659591,1691 to 1,29260 1/2
193225123659441,1571 to 1,31755

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS.

Total Cases.

The gross total of criminal cases in Magistrates' Courts during the year 1931 was 52,479, males being charged in 49,829 cases and females in 2,650.

These figures include charges against Maoris. Maoris are also included in the statistics relating to Magistrates' Courts in the following pages, as well as in These for the Supreme Court and for Prisons. Separate figures relating to offences by Maoris are given towards the end of this section.

YearNumber.Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
192240,5942,30642,90060.883.6132.87
192343,4982,48745,98564.153.8334.62
192446,1002,45648,55666.773.7135.90
192551,1352,48453,61972.273.6735.07
192653,2842,83856,12273.744.1139.70
192753,2562,98356,23972.444.2339.09
192852,6043,11055,71470.764.3738.00
192953,1213,00556,12670.654.1738.11
193054,7233,06757,79071.834.2038.72
193149,8292,65052,47964.493.5834.68

The 52,479 cases dealt with in 1931 resulted in 42,092 summary convictions, and in 1,117 committals to the Supreme Court for sentence after hearing in Magistrates' Courts. In 666 cases the accused person was committed to the Supremo Court for trail, and in 1,219 the Magistrate admonished and discharged the offender under a provision enabling him to do so in the case of a trivial offence, without a conviction being recorded. In 2,397 cases the charge was dismissed on the merits of the case, and in the remaining 4,988 cases the accused person was discharged for want of prosecution or want of evidence.

The summary convictions for the year 1931 represent a rate of 27-82 per 1,000 of mean population. The figures for the last ten years are—

Name.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
192234,51326.44
192337,10427.94
192439,59429.27
192544,01731.79
192646,20532.68
192745,93031.92
192845,13930.78
192946,30931.44
193047,24731.66
193142,09227.88

An increase followed 1924, mainly due to the passing of the Motor-vehicles Act of that year. A fresh cause of some importance in 1931 was that of breaches of the Unemployment Act.

The great bulk of the cases dealt with in New Zealand are in respect of comparatively insignificant offences-drunkenness and offences against traffic regulations accounting for more than half of the total convictions in the last five years.

A classification of convictions during the last five years according to principal offences and groups of offences is next given.

 19271028192919301931
Offences against the person726679699630631
Offences against property (including forgery)4,7574,6644,8365,5746,129
Drunkenness (including issue of prohibition orders)7,9547,9018,2937,7826,113
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, and c., of police and vagrancy2,6492,3652,2862,3592,220
Breaches of traffic regulations, and c.15,27915,65116,02117,28414,364
Other offences against good order1,6431,2491 3061,5291,201
Breaches of Licensing Act3,2463,3483,5573,5692,934
Breaches of Destitute Persons Act3,3263,5833,6083,5323,365
Breaches of Impounding Act954730774688678
Breaches of Child Welfare Act444561547541446
Breaches of Defence Act1,50186080323542
Breaches of Arms Act439408392295424
Breaches of Unemployment Act........1,071
Totals45,93045,13946,30947,24742,092

Of the 631 summary convictions for offences against the person in 1931, no fewer than oil were for common assault. Attempted suicide was responsible for 60 convictions, indecent assaults on females for 17, aggravated assault for 11, unlawful carnal knowledge and attempts for 18, negligently endangering human life for 5, indecent assault on a male and cruelty to children for 2 each, while criminal defamation, rape, attempted rape, unnatural offence, and abduction accounted for 1 each. In the more serious classes of offences against the person the eases are referred to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence.

The 6,129 summary convictions for offences against property during 1931 are in the main made up of various forms of theft. Theft (not further defined) was responsible for 3,856 convictions, embezzlement for 36, receiving stolen property for 107, and housebreaking and stealing for 149. In addition, there were 1,004 convictions for fraud and false pretences, 7 for forgery and uttering forged documents, 369 for unlawfully converting property to own use (including 333 where the property concerned was a vehicle), 583 for mischief, 9 for horse, cattle, and sheep stealing, 5 for arson and attempts, 1 for theft from the person, and 3 for being in possession of housebreaking instruments. The more serious classes of offences against property are also sent on to the Supreme Court to be dealt with. Details of these will be found under Criminal Cases in Supreme Court.”

Included in the 2,220 convictions for offensive conduct, language, and &c., in 1931 are 877 for vagrancy, while the principal of the " Other offences against good order " are gambling, &c. (288), Sunday trading (142), and cruelty to animals (104).

The 3,365 convictions under the Destitute Persons Act were divided as follows: Applications for affiliation, 345; applications for maintenance orders. and &c., 1,157; breaches of maintenance orders, and &c., 1,863.

Of the 2,934 convictions for breaches of the Licensing Act, the offence of being unlawfully on licensed premises after hours (1,702) was the principal, followed by breaches of prohibition orders (472). publicans and employees selling liquor after hours (391), other breaches by publicans, and &c. (41), unlawfully supplying Maoris with liquor in proclaimed areas (97), selling liquor without a license (84), and being in possession of an illicit still, and &c. (5). Of the 424 convictions for breaches of the Arms Act, 371 were for offences relating to the registration and sale of firearms. Convictions under the Child Welfare Act included 410 in respect of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances.

The drop in the number of convictions under the Defence Act is due to the suspension of the compulsory provisions of the Act, the only charges brought in 1931 being failure to return uniform, equipment, and &c.

The Unemployment Act came into force late in 1930, and no convictions were recorded in that year. In 1931, however, there were 1,071 convictions, the principal breach being failing to pay the levy, which was responsible for 993 convictions. Other convictions were for failing to register (26), employing person in arrears with levy (25). false declaration (24), and other breaches of the Act (3).

Punishment on Summary Conviction.

Of a total of 42,092 summary convictions in 1931, peremptory imprisonment was imposed in only 3,464 cases, in addition to which the convicted person went to gaol in 784 cases in lieu of paying a fine. A summary of punishments for the year 1931 is given.

Punishment.Offences against the PersonOffences against Property*Offences against Good OrderOther OffencesTotals
* including forgery and offences against currency
Released under Offenders Probation Act227545835869
Convicted and discharged821,1742,6808944,830
Convicted and ordered to conic up for sentence656043151341,118
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent111645345525
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer458452749966
Committed to institution under Child Welfare Act369..2597
Committed to Borstal institution, Salvation Army Home and c52305222309
Fined28799018,2926,35725,926
Imprisonment in lieu of line1054478242784
Peremptory imprisonment921,2136821,4773,464
Whipping1111..13
Bound over8111..20
Order made..201,2971,8543,171
Totals6316,12923,89811,43442,092

Distinct Cases.

The statistics given above refer, as stated, to all cases dealt with in Magistrates' Courts, including These in which a person is charged with two or more offences committed simultaneously or in the same connection—as, for instance, drunkenness, damaging property, and resisting the police. If only the principal offence is counted in each instance the number of cases in 1931 is reduced from 52,479 to 41577.

1930.1931.
Total CasesDistinct CasesTotal CasesDistinct Cases
Dismissed or withdrawn for want of prosecution or want of evidence4,9343,3884,9883,413
Dismissed on the merits2,5001,8342,3971,796
Admonished and discharged1,4159671,219769
Committed for trial592305666316
Committed for sentence1,1023411,117375
Summarily convicted47,24741,01942,09234,908
Totals57,79047,85452,47941,577

Arrest and Summons Cases

Persons charged in Magistrates Courts may be brought before the Court either on summons or after arrest, according to the nature of the offence and to other circumstances. Of the total of 52,479 cases in 1931, 14,480 were “arrest” and 37,999 "summons" cases. A summary is here given.

Class of Offence.Arrest Cases.Summons Cases.
Cases.Summary ConvictionsCases.Summary Convictions
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
* Including forgery and offences against the currency.
Against the person64029305144722830210
Against property*5,4952893,6772313,2782412,059162
Against good order6,6314246,28439218,54888116,481741
Other931417203513,83471710,138541
Totals13,69778398867236,1321,86728,9801,454

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURT.

Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—viz., These in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and These actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years. Maoris are included in this and following tables.

Year.Cases tried in Supreme Court.Sentences in Cases of Committal for Sentence.Total Sentences.
Indictments and Informations.Convictions.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
192783825465101,251131,716231,739
1928853174184901451,319491.368
1929938275116812161,323221,345
19308471239291,112111,504201,524
193195140495101,078411,573511,624

The above table relates to the total criminal charges dealt with, each offence being taken into account. A similar table is next given, showing the number of distinct persons concerned, only the principal offence being taken into account where the same person was tried in respect of two or more offences during the year.

Year.Persons tried in Supreme Court.Persons sentenced after Committal for Sentence.Total Persons sentenced.
Indicted.Convicted and sentenced.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
1927307171955361855613569
1928274715523081346315478
19293021517862781145617473
19303011119183291052018538
19312911718363971458020600

Of the 308 distinct persons indicted during 1931, 189 were convicted and 87 acquitted. In the case of 18 persons no bill was returned or The prosecution otherwise not proceeded with, 4 persons were found insane, and 10 were awaiting trial at the end of the year.

The next table summarizes the offences of persons convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during the last live years:—

Year.Total Convictions or sentences.Distinct Persons.
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Curency.Other OffencesTotals.
19272161,238222631,7391273377530569
1928193927194541,3681202636431478
1929176985131531,3451252705325473
19302031,111154561,5241333274830538
19311681,172221631,6241283736930600

As might be expected from the nature of the offences, the number of charges per100 persons concerned is much lower in the case of offences against the person than for other offences.

From their more serious nature in general, it might be expected that a much higher proportion of charges dealing with offences against the person would actually be tried in the Supreme Court than would be the case with other offences. The following table shows that this is so, although the tendency is not so marked in 1931 as it has been in past years:—

SUPREME COURT-TRIAL AND SENTENCE CASES, BY CLASS OF OFFENCE, 1931.
Class of Offence.Total Convictions (or Sentences).Distinct Persons convicted (or Sentences).
Numbers.Percentages.Numbers.Percentages.
After Trial.After Committal for Sentence.After Trial.After Committal for Sentence.After Trial.After Committal for Sentence.After trial.After Committal for Sentence.
Against the person68100406056724450
Against property35881430701052682872
Forgery and against the currency47174217014552080
Other3231505014164753
Totals5051,11931691894113268

Dealing now only with distinct persons, and counting only the principal offence in respect of which sentence was passed, it is found that of the 128 persons sentenced for offences against the person in 1931 no fewer than 78 were guilty of sexual offences, as follows: Indecent assault, 33; indecent assault on male. 12; rape and attempts, 7: unlawful carnal knowledge and attempts. 21: unnatural offence and attempts, 5. Murder was the offence in 4 cases, attempted murder in 2, manslaughter in 7 (including 4 cases in connection with motor-vehicles), wounding with intent to do bodily harm in 3, administering poison, and &c., in 2, negligently driving vehicle endangering human life in 1, aggravated assault in 5. common assault in 1, assault with intent to rob in 11, procuring or attempting to procure abortion in 3, cruelty to children in 1, and bigamy in 10.

Of the 373 persons sentenced for offences against property, 169 were guilty of breaking and entering (with or without theft), 50 of theft (including cattle, and sheep stealing). 8 of robbery and stealing from the person, 59 of burglary, 17 of receiving stolen property, 27 of fraud and false pretences, 29 of embezzlement. 11 of arson, and 3 of wilful damage, mischief. and c.

For forgery and offences against the currency, 09 persons were convicted and sentenced, including 40 for forgery alone, 5 for uttering alone, and the remaining 18 for forgery and uttering.

The principal of the other offences in 1931 were breaches of the Bankruptcy Act and of the Post, and Telegraph Act, each of which was responsible for 5 convictions or sentences.

Of the 600 persons sentenced in 1931, 103 were released under the provisions of the Offenders Probation Act, 20 ordered to come up for sentence when called on,1 discharged, and 1 detained in a mental hospital, while the offence was met by the imposition of a fine in 9 cases. The remaining 462 were imprisoned or detained for reformative purposes. Four persons were sentenced to death, but only one was changed, the sentence in the remaining three cases being commuted to imprisonment for life.

Forty-nine Maoris were included in the 600 distinct offenders sentenced in the Supreme Court in 1931, and 379 others (including 12 women) were born in New Zealand. In 71 cases the birthplace was England or Wales, in 27 Scotland, in 9 Ireland, and in 43 Australia.

SUPREME COURT.— OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS OF DISTINCT PERSONS, 1931.
Sentence.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other Offences.Totals.
Ordered to come up for sentence645520
Discharged....1..1
Releases under Offenders Probation Act869206103
Fined41..49
Death44......
Imprisonment or detention—
Imprisonment551512410240
Imprisonment and reformative detention6103..19
Imprisonment and declared habitual criminal171..9
Reformative detention only328213..127
Detention in Borstal institution11492567
Detention in mental hospital1......1
Total imprisonment or detention1062994315463
Total persons sentenced1283736930600
Length of sentence of imprisonment or detention—
10 and under 15 years1......1
7 and under 10 years112....13
5 and under 7 years682..16
3 and under 5 years24496180
2 and under 3 years191099..137
1 and under 2 years2680111118
6 months and under 1 year53011652
Under 6 months12143736
Indefinite271..10
Totals1062994315463

No fewer than 71 of the offenders were under twenty years of age, 139 between twenty and twenty-five, 119 between twenty-five and thirty, 142 between thirty and forty, 73 between forty and fifty, 43 between fifty and sixty, and 13 sixty or over.

COURT OF APPEAL.

Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, each division consisting of live Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of The Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exercises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty the Chief Justice and one other Judge may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions may be held. The Chief Justice or, in his absence, the senior Judge presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present, but if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion the judgment, &c. appealed from is deemed to be affirmed.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to His -Majesty in Council.

In criminal cases questions of law may be reserved by the Supreme Court for the Court of Appeal, and upon a refusal by the Court to reserve any question the person aggrieved may move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. Any person aggrieved may also (after conviction) apply to the Court of Appeal for a new trial upon leave being granted by the Supreme Court. Any person has now the right to apply to the Court of Appeal against a sentence passed in the Supreme Court where such person has been convicted upon an indictment or sentenced for any crime on a plea of" Guilty.”

During the last five years 15 Crown criminal cases were brought before the Appeal Court, and in 6 instances convictions were affirmed. There wore 100 civil appeals, of which 50 were allowed, and also 116 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in 65 judgments for plaintiff and 51 for defendants.

Particulars concerning applications during the last five years for leave to appeal against sentences under the provisions of the Crimes Amendment Act, 1920, are: Applications filed, 73; granted, 7; refused, 66. In 6 cases the sentence was varied as a result of the appeal.

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.

There are fourteen prisons and State reformatories and three Borstal institutions in New Zealand, as well as 25 minor prisons and police-gaols. In addition to these there are the police-stations which, under section 17 of the Statute Law Amendmet Act, 1917, may be deemed to be prisons for any period (which must not exceed seven days) during which prisoners are detained there undergoing sentence.

On the 1st January, 1931, the various institutions had 1,569 persons under detention (males 1,484, females 85). During the year 6,354 were received (males 6,069, females 285) and 6,266 discharged or transferred (males 5,980, females 286). At the end of the year 1,657 (males 1,573, females 84) remained in confinement. The daily average number of persons in confinement during the year was 1,034(males 1,548, females 86).

Year.Persons in Gaol (31st December).Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
19221,052621,1148.328.90
19231,141541,1958.508.90
19241,197501,2478.859.22
19251,284491,3339.179.51
19261,388471,4359.7910.11
19271,483661,54910.2310.68
19281,435491,4849.7810.12
19291,342531,3959.119.47
19301,523461,5699.9410.24
19311,614431,65710.6610.95

The 6,266 discharges during the year include 1,668 transfers of inmates to other prisons or to the police. Of the balance, 11 died during the year, 1 was executed, and absconded and was not retaken. Prisoners discharged on expiration of sentence numbered 3,363, 163 were released on bail or probation, and 187 were set free on the recommendation of the Prisons Board. Debtors discharged during the year numbered 317, and 42 lunatics were transferred to mental hospitals, The remaining 213 discharges represented persons who had been in prison on remand or awaiting trial, and who were known to have been acquitted.

In the following table persons in confinement at the end of each of The host live years are classified according to nature of sentence:—

Year.Hard Labour or Simple Imprisonment.Habitual Criminals.Detained for Reformative Purposes.On remand, awaiting Trial, &c.Totals.
Under Three Months.Three Months and under One YearOne Year and over.Not stated.*

* All simple imprisonment cases.

†Including those detained Borstal institutions.

192797194483956644661,549
192874196427..62676491,484
192979193419..70581531,395
193099269472..54629461,569
1931129276497..63649431,657

The total number of new receptions—counting each person once every time received—in the various institutions during the year 1931 was 0,354 (males 0,069, females 285), as compared with 5,761 (males 5,443, females 318) in 1930. Taking into account the 46 cases where persons were in prison awaiting trial or sentence at the beginning of the year brings this figure up to 6,400, the gross total of receptions. Included here, however, are debtors and lunatics (330), and deducting these gives 6,070, the gross total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for or persons charged, with criminal offences. Of these, 1,014 were received on transfer from other institutions or in transfer between institutions, so that the net total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for or persons charged with criminal offences is 5,050. In 1,000 cases persons charged with criminal offences were handed to the police for trial or sentence and not returned to prison, and 43 persons remained in prison at the end of the year awaiting trial or sentence, so that the number of receptions of prisoners actually undergoing sentence for criminal offences—still counting each prisoner once every time received—was 4,013. Deducting from this figure multiple receptions of the same person (810) we get, as the total number of distinct prisoners received under sentence for criminal offences, 3,203 (males 3,067, females 136), an increase of 339 on the preceding year. Of the total of 3,203,271 (males 265, females 6) were Maoris.

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the last ten years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in The next table. Debtors and lunatics received into gaol are omitted.

Year.Number.Per 10,000 of Population.Year.Number.Per 10,000 of Population
19222,24917.2319272,71118.84
19232,35817.7519282,54817.37
19242,40517.7519292,59617.62
19252,89020.8819302,86419.19
19262,75519.4919313,20321.17

The following table shows the sexes and ages of distinct prisoners received into prison under sentence during the year 1931, and distinguishes between Maoris and others:

Age, in years.Excluding Maoris.Maoris.Including Maoris.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 2014791564344719013203
20 and under 254362446095..9553124555
25 and under 304331144444..4447711488
30 and under 35382173993313441518433
35 and under 40357163731511637217389
40 and under 452911630714..1430516321
45 and under 50259192788..826719286
55 and under 6013481424..41388146
60 and under 65633661..164367
65 and under 70412432..243245
70 and under 753..3......3..3
75 and under 808..8......8..8
80 and over2..2......2..2
Not stated5..51..16..6
Totals2,8021302,93226562713,0871363,203

Ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1931 are summarized in the next table.

Age, in Years.Offences against the person.Theft and other against Property.Drunkenness.Vagrancy.Other offences.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assaults.other.
Under 2186119731876309
21 and under 2591712181329162449
25 and under 30192122081835185488
30 and under 3592641473338176433
35 and under 4041341245642146389
40 and under 455145925637112321
45 and under 5017366555599286
50 and under 5579154643482251
55 and under 6027229373534146
60 and under 6521..824102267
65 and over51..914131658
Not stated......31116
Totals71122231,1553743471,1113,203

The final table of this category supplies statistics of ages and previous convictions of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1931.

Age, in years.Number of Previous Convictions.Total previously convicted.Not previously convicted.Total Distinct Prisoners.
One.Two.Three.Four.Over Four.Number not stated.
Under 217020132144123186309
21 and under 2582543320514244205449
25 and under 30684437288821286202488
30 and under 356130311810227269164433
35 and under 40503524218343256133389
40 and under 45372517149727217104321
45 and under 503819187833720284286
50 and under 5535181411802718566251
55 and under 6015445581710343146
60 and under 6584..2193363167
65 and over7..1..219382058
Not stated..2....24..26
Totals4712551921286982191,9631,2403,203

BORSTAL INSTITUTIONS.

Included among the 1,657 prisoners undergoing sentence at The 31st December, 1931, were 348 persons (310 males, 38 females) detained in Borstal institutions under the provisions of the Prevention of Crime (Borstal Institutions Establishment) Act, 1924. This Act, which is an adaptation of Part I of The Prevention of Crime Act, 1908(Imperial), as amended by the Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1914, is designed to prevent crime, and provides for the detention of young offenders in a special class of reformative institution. An offender between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one (twenty-three in certain cases), who would otherwise be liable to sentence of imprisonment by The Supreme Court or sentence of imprisonment of not less than one month by a Magistrate, may be made the subject of an order of detention of from two to five years by a Judge of the Supreme Court, and from one to three years by a Magistrate, without a conviction being recorded in the latter case. Inmates may be transferred from prisons, reformatory homes, State reformatory institutions, and institutions under the Child Welfare Act, 1925, to Borstal institutions, and from Borstal institutions to prisons. The Minister of Justice has power to release an offender undergoing detention on condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of a probation officer, or of a society or person (to be specified) who may be willing to take charge of the case.

HABITUAL CRIMINALS AND REFORMATIVE DETENTION.

The following table shows the distinct prisoners received in prison during 1931 after being sentenced to detention for reformative purposes or having been declared habitual criminals, classified according to sentences:—

Original Sentence.Sentenced to Reformative detention for a Period ofDeclared Habitual Criminals.Totals.
Under Two years.Two and under Five Years.Five Years and over.
Reformative detention only7511671199
Declared habitual criminals only......11
Hard labour—.     
Under 1 year1714..536
1 year and under 249..518
2 years and under 3..3..14
3 years and under 4..2..24
4 years and under 5     
5 years and under 711..13
7 years and under 10....1..1
10 years and under 15     
Totals97145816266

PRISONS BOARD.

For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court, as President, and six other members.

It is the duty of The Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention is sufficiently reformed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration, at least once a year, The case of every habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention. Other classes of prisoners may not apply for and are not entitled to consideration until they have served at least half the sentence (or five years in the case of These sentenced to terms exceeding ten years), and no case is to be considered until six months after the date of reception into prison.

The following table shows the number of cases considered by the Board during each of the last five years:—

Year.Habitual Criminals and Offenders.Reformative and Borstal Detention.Hard Labour.Habitual Criminals for Remission of Hard Labour.Probationers for Discharge from Probation or Variation of Terms.Totals.
Crimes Amendment Act.Offender Probationers.
19271157663251113201,250
192872940321116161,366
19298891234646161,372
19307584931375111,260
19318097543128181,514

Of the cases considered in 1931. recommendations were made for release on probation in 563 cases, and for discharge from prison or from probation in 30 cases. Eleven probationers under the Offenders Probation Act were ordered discharge, and in 1 case the terms of probation were modified by the Board. In 103 cases petitions were declined, and in the remaining 800 cases they were deferred.

PROBATION.

Legislation on this subject dates from 1886. Under the Offenders Probation Act of 1920 probation may be granted for " any offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise.” Formerly there were numerous important exceptions. The maximum period of probation was fixed in 1920 at live years.

The conditions of release on probation include the necessity for a person on probation to report to the Probation Officer on specified days not more than one month apart, and to notify his address and any change of address. The nature and place of his employment must, be made known to and be approved of by the Probation Officer, and he must not commit any offence against the law. The Probation Officer may warn him not to associate with any particular person or class of persons.

A breach of the conditions of the probationary license renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

The following figures are taken from successive returns prepared by the Chief Probation Officer:—

Year.Number admitted to Probation.
1922508
1923572
1924586
1925658
1926656
Year.Number admitted to Probation.
1927586
1928615
1929557
1930650
1931750

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1931:—

Age, in Years.6 Months or under.1. Year.18 Months.2 Years.3 Years.4 Years.65 Years.Totals.
Under 20776599222..211
20 and under 2513872103211..227
25 and under 308492448..1112
30 and under 407452478....109
40 and under 5052812232..61
50 and under 60412..10......26
60 and under 70..1..........1
70 and over......3......3
Totals44298123286251750

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.

Offences committed by juvenile offenders constitute a class worthy of special consideration. The term “juvenile” formerly covered these under or apparently under the age of sixteen, but for statistical purposes the limit was raised to seventeen as from the 30th November, 1927, the date of the passing of the Child Welfare Amendment Act, 1927, section 27 of which altered the definition of “child” to cover persons under seventeen years of age, instead of sixteen as formerly. Figures of juvenile cases in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Total cases.Dismissed or withdrawn for want of Prosecution or of Evidence.Dismissed on the Merits.Admonished and discharged.Committed for Trial or sentence.Summarily convicted.
19272,5428859957481,390
19283,095105751,19231,720
19293,405971191,170151,998
19303,217100821,32511,703
19312,90870361,071131,718

The huge increase in the number of juvenile cases in 1926 and 1927 is no doubt mainly due to the coming into operation of the Child Welfare Act, 1925. There is, however, a strong probability that the figures for earlier years were under-stated through the word “Juvenile” not always being entered on the card in summons cases, where otherwise the age would not be indicated. The further substantial increases in the number of cases in 1928 and 1929 is perhaps mainly due to the raising of the age of a “child” to seventeen, as mentioned above.

The principal of the offences against the person in 1931 were common assault, which was responsible for 24 cases (14 convictions), and indecent assault 18 cases (14 convictions).

Theft was the principal offence against property, 1,179 charges being dealt with in 1931, resulting in 751 convictions. These figures do not include housebreaking and stealing, which was the offence in 228 cases (123 convictions), burglary (1 case).

Wilful damage, mischief, &c., is also an important class of offence in juvenile cases, being responsible for 344 charges (94 convictions) in 1931. In 117 cases (69 convictions) the charge was unlawfully converting vehicle to own use.

It is in the "Other" offences that the effect of the introduction of the Child Welfare Act is most noticeable, the number of cases for 1931 (505) being more than five times that recorded for 1925 (88). Over 80 per cent. of the cases in this class were brought under the Child Welfare Act, the number of cases of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances being 429, and the resulting convictions 403. In connection with these convictions orders were made for committal to the care of the Superintendent. Child Welfare Branch, or for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer in 377 cases.

Offences by juveniles are seldom of a very serious nature, and even when a conviction is recorded Magistrates frequently adopt the course of discharging the offender of ordering him to come up for sentence when called upon. It is found that in very few cases does the future conduct of the convicted person render it necessary for him to be brought before the Magistrate again for sentence.

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—PUNISHMENTS OF JUVENILE OFFENDERS, 1931
Punishment.Against the Person.Against Property.*Against Good Order.Other.Totals.
*Including forgery and offences against the currency.
Released on probation..4....4
Convicted and discharged..1522239
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence..41..5
Committed to care of Child Welfare8136..336480
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer307932418895
Committed to institution under Child Welfare Act167..2593
Committed to Borstal institution..243128
Fined..243128
Whipped111....12
Order made..2..13
Total summary convictions401,0801764221,718
Total charges brought581,9643815052,908

Very few juvenile cases find their way to the Supreme Court, and, beyond the information disclosed by the Magistrates' Courts returns as to committals for sentence or trial, no statistics of such cases in the higher Court are available. Statistics of ages of persons sentenced show, however, that 1 male under seventeen years of age was sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1931.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.

Of the 42,092 summary convictions in Magistrates' Courts in 1931 only 2,126, or of) per cent., were of females. Drunkenness, including the issue of prohibition orders, was responsible for 299 convictions, theft 273, fraud and false pretences 80 wilful damage, &c., 18. common assault 10, attempted suicide 14, offensive conductor language 53, and vagrancy 147. The great majority of the convictions were in respect of minor breaches of the law, including 34 for Sunday-trading; 40 for breaches of by-laws: 67 for speeding and 161 for negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicles; 80 for breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles; 101 for offences relating to the registration, and &c., of motor-vehicles: 89 for breaches of parking regulations; and 14 for other minor traffic offences. Breaches of prohibition orders accounted for 39 of the 119 convictions for breaches of the Licensing Act: child not under proper control or in indigent circumstances for 167: other breaches of the Child Welfare Act for 21: and allowing horses, cattle, or sheep to wander at large for 56.

In addition to the 2,126 summary convictions of women in Magistrates' Courts during 1931 there were 57 committals to the Supreme Court—24 for trial and 33 for sentence. The Supreme Court statistics show that 40 charges against females were dealt with during the year, resulting in 10 convictions, representing 6 different persons. In addition. 14 women were sentenced after committal for sentence in respect of 41 offences.

The number of distinct female prisoners received into prison during 1931 was 130. the principal offences of these being—vagrancy, 66; drunkenness, 17: and theft, 26. The actual number of receptions of female prisoners during the year was 285, this number including 13 Maoris, and the daily average number of women prisoners in gaol was 86. Two reformatories (at Addington and Point Halswell) house women prisoners only. There is also a Borstal institution at Point Halswell (Wellington) for women only.

OFFENCES BY NEW ZEALAND BORN.

While New Zealand born males formed 61 per cent, of the total male population at. ages 20 and over at the census of 1920, the proportion of New Zealand born to total male prisoners at ages 20 and over in 1931 was slightly lower—viz., 58 per cent.

The following table shows the ages of distinct New Zealand born prisoners received into gaol during the last five years.

Year.Under 15and 15. under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and overNot stated.Totals.
1927 19926823639147331,570
19281150268250360509 1,538
1929 15724525934454651,556
1930 13330927643100741,700
1931 18040635052558722,050

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.

The number of summary convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates' Courts tor the last five years is shown in the following table:—

YearClass of offence.
Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals
Drunkenness*Other
* Excluding prohibition-order cases.
1927673542273594001,467
1928653722403814901,548
1929914902955364531,865
1930775622424914771,849
1931515231383953711,478

The number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court, which exhibits the extent of serious crime amongst the Native race, is shown in the following table covering the last live years.

YearMaoris convicted or sentenced in Supreme Court forTotals
Offences against the person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other Offences.
192711124128
19289141..24
19295125..22
19309243238
193114287..49

Forty-three of the number for 1931 had been sent up from Magistrates' Courts for sentence

The number of distinct Maori prisoners received into gaol under sentence during 1931 was 271 (including 6 women), as compared with 184 in 1930.

DRUNKENNESS.

The extent to which convictions for drunkenness swell the total of convictions is obvious from the information given earlier in this section. The number of convictions for drunkenness, including drunkenness with disorderly conduct, drunk in charge of vehicle or of horse, and habitual drunkenness, during 1931 totalled 4,804 'males 4,645, females 219), which is the lowest figure recorded since 1895, when the convictions numbered 4,792. In that year, however, the proportion of convictions for drunkenness per 1,000 of the mean population was 6.52, while in 1931 the proportion was only 3.21.

The convictions for drunkenness in 1931 represent 36 per cent, of the total convictions during the year. In addition, there were 1,249 technical convictions in cases of applications for the issue of prohibition orders. Prohibition-order cases are not included in the following table, which shows the number of convictions for drunkenness recorded, and the proportion per 1,000 of the mean population of each sex, during the last five years: —

Year.Convictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19276,0963216,4178.290.404.46
19286,0203206,3408.100.454.32
19296,4783386,8168.620.474.63
19306,0722586,3307.970.354.24
19314,6452194,8646.010.303.21

Of the total convictions for drunkenness during 1931, 4,713 (4,502 males and 211 females) were arrest eases, while 151 (143 males and 8 females) were cases brought before the Magistrate by summons.

Among the New Zealand born population (including Maoris) there is evidence of less drunkenness than among persons who have come from abroad. It will be seen that in each of the age-groups given in the following table (except the last) the percentage of convictions of males born in New Zealand is lower than the corresponding percentage of population, while the reverse is, of course, true in respect of males born outside the Dominion. As the census figures were, in 1931, five years old, and as each census shows an increasing ratio of native born population, the differences are in reality greater than may be directly inferred from the figures given.

Age, in Years.Percentage of Male Population, Census 1926.Percentage of Convictions for Drunkenness, 1931 (Arrest cases).
New Zealand born.Others.New Zealand born.Others.
20 and under 2580.3319.6776.7723.23
25 and under 3074.2725.7370.6629.34
30 and under 4068.4231.5861.2238.78
40 and under 5062.5237.4856.3743.63
50 and under 6052.5547.4552.0847.92
60 and under 7033.3366.6731.9968.01
70 and under 8015.2984.7115.7984.21

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the preceding tables.

The total convictions for all offences in arrest cases in 1931 were 11,658, but the distinct convictions amounted to only 8,568, the former total including 3,090 convictions for multiple charges against the same person at the same time. Of the latter 773 were in respect of charges dealt with at the same time as the offender was convicted of drunkenness, the principal associated offences being —

OffenceNumber of Convictions.
Common assault31
Theft50
Indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct45
Obscene, threatening, or abusive language156
Assaulting resisting, or obstructing police45
Vagrancy62
Driving motor-vehicle Without a license30
Casting offensive matter30
Breach of prohibition order136

In addition, there were 34 eases where a prohibition order was issued against a person convicted at the same time of drunkenness

Any person who has been three times convicted for drunkenness within the nine months immediately preceding any conviction for drunkenness may be declared an habitual drunkard, the number of convictions for habitual drunkenness during 1931 being 26 (males 20, females 6). A Magistrate may, in addition to or in lieu of a penalty, commit an habitual drunkard to any institution authorized by the Governor-General to receive and detain such persons for any period not being less than twelve months

The sentences in the 4,804 convictions for drunkenness during the year were: fined, 2,920; imprisonment in lieu of fine, 374; peremptory imprisonment, 88; committed to Salvation Army Home or other such institution, 20 (including 5 for habitual drunkenness); convicted and discharged, 1,397; released under Offenders Probation Act, 18; other sentences, 47.

The quantity of alcoholic liquor entered at the Customs for consumption (including beer on which excise duty was paid) was as follows during the last five years. The figures are exclusive of wine manufactured in New Zealand (34,772 gallons in 1930-31), which is not subject to duty

 Beer.Wine.Spirits
 Gal.Gal.Gal.
192712,783,837246,139752,472
192812,834,868192,282500,667
192913,010,990207,703597,000
193012,312,823198,377569,656
193110,124,849198,377378,874
19328,868,316105,725323,308

Based on the foregoing figures the consumption per head of mean population works out as follows:—

 Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
 Beer Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.Beer Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.
19278.8850.1710.5239.3010.1790.547
19288.8170.1320.3449.2290.1380.360
19298.8340.1410.4069.2290.1380.360
19308.2510.1330.3828.6400.1390.400
19316.6910.0890.2517.0070.0930.262
19325.8110.0690.2126.0900.0730.222

TRAFFIC OFFENCES

In keeping with the enormous growth of motor traffic during recent years, there has been a huge increase in minor traffic offences, which constitute a high proportion of the cases dealt with in Magistrates' Courts. However, the number of cases and convictions during 1931 show a substantial decrease on the figures for the previous three years, although this is probably due in part to the diminished use of motor-vehicles for economic reasons.

The number of eases, convictions, and the number of convictions per 1,000 of mean population for this class of offence during the last four years are shown below:—

 1928.1929.1930.1931.
Cases17,97818,42319,98016,851
Convictions16,26116,76718,14515,135
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population11.1711.3812.1610.00

The convictions for traffic offences in 1931 represent 35.96 per cent, of the total convictions during the year

As separate figures for traffic offences cannot be obtained for years prior to 1928, it is not possible to give comparative figures for all of the different offences in connection with vehicular traffic over a period of years. The following table, however, showing convictions for various minor traffic offences during the last five years, gives a comparison of These figures which are available:—

Offence.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle5,1715,0634,9003,9233,109
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle819784844627470
Breaches of regulation for the lighting of motor-vehicles4,3154,9304,1643,9652,557
Offences relating to the registration, &c., of motor-vehicles2,7972,6333,2323,6784,184
Other minor offences relating to vehicular traffic2,0372,2412,8812,9711,960

The following table shows the number of cases and the results of hearing for the various traffic offences or groups of offences heard in the Magistrates' Courts during 1931:-

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—TRAFFIC OFFENCES, 1931.
OffenceTotal CasesDismissed, or Admonished and Discharged.Committed to Supreme Court.Convictions.Results of Conviction.
Fined.Convicted and Discharged.Other.
Negligent driving causing death16313........
Negligent driving causing bodily injury431........
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use4077133335839236
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle43633..4033531337
Drunk in charge of other vehicle35....352753
Excessive speed in motor vehicle2,214130..2,0842,048342
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle3,59648613,1092,94415510
Negligent or dangerous driving of other-vehicle549..45423..
Reading bicycle on footpath47449..42541492
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicle2,696139..2,5572,39315014
Offences relating to the registration, &c., of motor-vehicles4,796612..4,1843,76140815
Breaches of parking regulations1,12576..1,049980672
Other traffic offences99887..911833735
Total16,8511,6981815,13513,853956326

By far the greater proportion of the cases are for comparatively trivial offences such as breaches of lighting regulations and breaches of regulations for the registration, of motor-vehicles (including driving unregistered car, and driving without driver's license). These cases result in a far greater proportion of convictions in Magistrates' Courts than the more serious class of traffic offences viz., negligent driving causing death or endangering human life which are usually committed to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence

Dealing only with motor vehicles, it is found that the total number of convictions for traffic offences during 1931 was 10,829 (which total excludes motor-vehicles without lights, separate figures not available), and of these 7,407 were in the North Island and 3,422 in the South. The number of motor-vehicles on the register (excluding dormant registrations) on 31st December, 1931. were—North Island. 120,275: South Island. The convictions were, therefore —North Island South Island 512 per cent, of the registrations.

Chapter 9. SECTION IX.— DEFENCE

NEW ZEALAND MILITARY FORCES

THE New Zealand Military Forces consist of the Permanent Forces, the Territorial Force, and the Senior Cadets

The units of the Permanent Forces are The New Zealand Staff Corps, the New Zealand Permanent Staff, the Royal New Zealand Artillery, the New Zealand Permanent Air Force, the New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps, the New Zealand Army Medical Corps, the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps, and the General Duty Section of The New Zealand Permanent Forces

The establishment of the New Zealand Permanent Forces provides for 110 professional officers, who are charged with the training of the Forces and the administration of all matters connected therewith

The New Zealand Permanent Staff, with an establishment of 135, provides drill instructors for the Territorials and cadets, and also carries out administrative duties

The Royal New Zealand Artillery has an establishment of 11 officers (included in the 110 above) and 105 other rank. It supplies the necessary instructors for the Territorial Artillery, provides cadres for the Field Artillery units, and maintains the harbour-defences and artillery equipment throughout the Dominion

The New Zealand Permanent Air Force has an establishment of 9 officers (included in the 110 above mentioned) and 47 other rank.

The New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps has an establishment of 12 other ranks. The establishment for the New Zealand Army Medical Corps is 1 other rank. The New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps has an establishment of 8 officers (included in the 110 for the New Zealand Permanent Forces) and 20 other ranks. who are in charge of the mobilization equipment and bulk depots of the Forces

The General Duty Section consists of 4 other ranks, who are employed as crew of the defence vessel

At the present time the defence provisions are mainly in abeyance, and The following paragraphs should be read subject to this.

For purposes of defence the Dominion is divided into three commands—the Northern Command comprising roughly the northern half of the North Island, the Central Command comprising the remainder of the North Island, and the Southern Command comprising the South Island, Stewart Island, and the Chatham Islands.

These commands are each divided into four regimental districts (except in Northern Command, where there are only three), and each command contains the following units of the New Zealand Territorial Force:—

Three regiments of Mounted Rifles, batteries of Artillery (7 in Northern, 6 in Central, and 5 in Southern), one Field Company Engineers, one Signal Depot, four battalions of Infantry, one Composite Company Army Service Corps, and one Field Ambulance. There is also Otago University Medical Company at Dunedin.

This organization on mobilization produces one complete Division and three brigades of Mounted Rifles, and provides the machinery by which this force could be duplicated and kept up to strength.

The strength of the Territorial Force on 31st March, 1932, was 1,020 officers (including 405 on Supernumerary List),6,081 "other ranks,” and 532 bandsmen. In addition, some units have regimental Cadet detachments composed of youths who have left school and who are awaiting enrolment as Territorials on attaining eighteen years of age: these prospective recruits at present number 119. No such detachment must exceed in strength 20 per cent, of that of the unit to which it is affiliated.

The Senior Cadets are organized in battalions, and receive physical and elementary military training. These who intend to later join the Territorial Force are encouraged to specialize in their last year at school in the arm of the service in which they wish to serve. The strength of the Senior Cadets on 31st March, 1932, was 330 officers and 16,370 "other ranks.” Since July, 1931, the Cadet Force has consisted entirely of day pupils at secondary schools.

Rifle clubs exist throughout the Dominion for the encouragement of rifle shooting, and, in addition to minor fixtures, a Dominion rifle meeting is held at Trentham annually. On 31st March, 1932, there were 140 rifle clubs, with a total membership of 4,994.

The compulsory provisions of the Defence Act were placed in abeyance in 1930. In July. 1931, training on purely a voluntary basis was inaugurated, and the Territorial Force reorganized to meet the prevailing conditions. The ages for enlistment are now eighteen to thirty-two years, with an extension to thirty-five years in special cases. " Other ranks" are required to serve for three years, but extensions of service up to thirty-two years of age, and to thirty-five years in the cases of W.O.s and N.C.O.s, may he granted.

The Headquarters of the New Zealand Military Forces is at Wellington.

NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE.

The New Zealand Air Force consists of a small permanent force (9 officers and 45 other ranks) for instructional, administrative, and maintenance duties, and a Territorial Air Force (70 officers) organized as a wing of four squadrons.

The permanent force is distributed between the two Air Force Stations, Hobsonville Land and Seaplane Base at Auckland and Wigram Aerodrome, Christchurch. with a small administrative staff at General Headquarters, Defence, Wellington.

The service aircraft consist of a Fairey IIIF seaplane, two D.H. Moth machines, and a flying-boat at Hobsonville, and at Wigram Aerodrome five Bristol fighters, three Grebe S.S. fighters, four Hawker Tomtit (training machines), and four D.H. Moths.

The Territorial Air Force carried out annual training of fourteen days' duration with the above equipment.

CIVIL AVIATION.

There are as yet no commercial air services in New Zealand, although a number of small companies are engaged in intermittent air-taxi work. The chief of these are: The Air Survey and Transport Co., Auckland, the Falcon Airways, the Rotorua Airways, and the New Zealand Airways, Dunedin.

Although civil aviation as such has made little development, the Aero Club movement has shown remarkable progress since its inception in 1928. Nine clubs have been receiving assistance under the Government scheme of subsidizing light aeroplane clubs. These clubs, operating thirty aeroplanes (of which fourteen are on loan from the Government), have trained another 290 pilots for their A licenses, on account of whom the clubs have received over £5,000 in the way of subsidies.

The position as regards civil aviation is best illustrated by the following statistics (August, 1932):—

Pilot's A license218
Pilot's B commercial license38
Aerodromes (licensed)21
Aircraft64
Ground engineers41

EXPEDITIONARY FORCES.

New Zealand supplied ton contingents for service during the South African War. These comprised a total of 0,500 officers and men.

Immediately the Great European War broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied These islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then went to the western front, while to Mounted Brigade continued to operate against the Turks in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 100,000 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and nearly 17,000 lost their lives 011 active service.

On the Armistice being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or were under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 Per cent, of the total population of the Dominion in 1914, and over 40 per cent, of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five years, while it is known that a very large number of other New Zealanders served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

NAVAL DEFENCE.

By the Australasian Defence Act, 1887, provision was made for the payment by New Zealand of a proportional part of the cost of the establishment and maintenance of a British Naval Force to be employed for the protection of trade in Australian and New Zealand waters. Under this Act a sum of approximately £20,000 per annum was paid by the New Zealand Government to the Imperial Government.

In 1903 New Zealand raised her contribution to "a sum not exceeding £40,000,” and in 1908 to a sum of £100,000, payable annually for ten years from the 12th May, 1909.

In 1909 New Zealand presented the bat de-cruiser " New Zealand " to the Imperial Government.

The Naval Defence Act, 1913, provided for the establishment of a New Zealand Naval Force by voluntary enlistment for a prescribed period; the period of first engagement is twelve years, or until the age of thirty is reached (if under eighteen years of age on entering), with subsequent re-engagement periods of five years. Members on discharge are drafted into the New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve for a further prescribed period—i.e., for ten years or until the age of forty—for service only in time of war. The ships and personnel forming the Force pass under the control and disposal of the Government of Great Britain in time of war.

A New Zealand Division was inaugurated in 1914, immediately prior to the war. After service during the war H.M.S. " Philomel " was refitted as a training-ship, and was commissioned on the 1st March, 1921, at Wellington. She received her first batch (if recruits in May, 1921.

In 1920 H.M.S ' Chatham " was loaned to New Zealand by the British Government, until the 10th May, 1924. when she was replaced by H.M.S. " Dunedin,” the Commodore Commanding New Zealand Station transferring his broad pendant and the ship assuming the duties flagship. On 21st October, 1925, H.M.S. " Diomede" was commissioned at Portsmouth for service as a second cruiser in the New Zealand Division. The " Dunedin" and " Diomede" are sister ships and are loaned in the same manner as "Chatham,” the New Zealand Government being responsible for all payments for the hips and their personnel during the period of loan. Commodore F. Burges Watson. D.S.O. assumed command of the New Zealand Station in April, 1932.

During 1925 arrangements were made for the purchase of a trawler for the purpose of training reservists on the station, This vessel, which has been named "Wakakura" was commissioned on 8th April, 1926, and arrived in New Zealand in January, 1927.

A Naval Board was constituted by Order in Council of the 14th March, 1921, charged with the control of all matters relating to the Naval Forces, upon the policy directed by the Minister, and vested with the executive command of the Naval Forces. The Board is composed of the Minister of Defence (President), the Commodore Commanding New Zealand Station (First Naval Member), and a Captain. R.N. (Second Naval Member).

By Order in Council of the 20th June, 1921, it was provided that "The New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy,” should be the official designation of the Force.

Legislation was passed in February, 1922, authorizing the formation of a New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve by voluntary enlistment therein, in addition to the drafting thereto of ratings discharged from the seagoing forces. The Reserve will provide a nucleus for local naval defence. A small Reserve of Officers was approved by Order in Council dated 17th November, 1921, and commissions have been granted to 85 officers enrolled. Three companies of the R.N.V.R. Division have been formed at Auckland and Wellington, and two companies have been enrolled at Christchurch and Dunedin. The number of all ratings enrolled in the New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve to the 31st March, 1932, is 1,119.

There is a small naval base at Devonport, Auckland, where H.M.S. " Philomel" acts as a depot-ship. Refits of H.M. ships are carried out at Devonport, whore provision for oil-fuel storage has been made, two tanks having been erected. Small stocks of naval and armament stores are maintained. A naval oil-tank vessel (R.F.A. “Nuclear ”) is maintained by the New Zealand Government.

Up to 31st March, 1932, (695 New Zealand boys and youths have been entered for service in The division, principally in seaman and stoker ratings. All New Zealand ratings showing special aptitude in their respective branches are sent to England to undergo specialist courses in gunnery, torpedo, mechanical training, and other schools, and to gain some knowledge of the work in a large squadron. Every encouragement is given to younger ratings to undertake these courses, and it is gratifying to find that the ratings who have returned to New Zealand have obtained most satisfactory results.

Officers are in the majority of cases lent from the Imperial Navy, as well as a considerable number of the petty officers and men. The pay of men of the New Zealand Division is approximately 20 per cent, higher than that of similar ratings in the Imperial Navy, and ratings permanently attached thereto are credited with deferred pay in lieu of pension. The deferred pay amounts to approximately 450 at The end of twelve years service, or 1,100 after completing twenty-two years service, and such a sum is invaluable in enabling men to start life ashore.

On the 21st September, 1927, the sum of £1,000,000, to be paid in annual instalments, was voted as a contribution to the cost of the Singapore base.

The amount expended in respect of naval defence during The year 1931-32 was

 £
Upkeep of New Zealand Division of Royal Navy344,674
Debt charges (interest and repayments)on loan-money raised for building battle-cruiser "New Zealand”59,508
Contribution to Singapore Naval Base100,000
 £504,182

H.M.S. " Veronica,” which has been on the New Zealand Station since 1920, was recommissioned in November, 1931, for further service on the station. H.M.S. " Laburnum" arrived in New Zealand waters from England in March, 1922, and was recommissioned in November, 1931. These two sloops are provided and maintained by the British Government, their duties consisting mainly of policing the South Pacific islands within the limits of the New Zealand Station.

Chapter 10. SECTION X.—EXTERNAL TRADE.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL

INTRODUCTORY.

IN the valuation of New Zealand's trade exports are taken at their declared f.o.b. value, while imports are shown at their current domestic value in the country of export at the time of exportation plus 10 per cent, to cover freight, insurance, and handling charges.

The effect of this policy in normal times is to present exports and imports on a similar basis of value, so that the difference between the total exports and total imports represents accurately enough the visible balance of trade. Since the beginning of 1930, however, New Zealand currency has been at a discount on sterling, and exports of a stated amount are not equivalent to imports of a similar nominal amount, exports being expressed in New Zealand currency and imports (other than from Australia) in sterling.

To arrive at the true balance of trade it is necessary to make an adjustment, and this is done by converting (for this purpose only) the import totals to New Zealand currency. Throughout this section all import figures represent sterling values, but for periods ending after December, 1929, exports, total trade, and balance of trade are all expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

The following table shows the trade of New Zealand for each of the last ten calendar years. Similar information for a fifty-year period will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this book.

Year.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Excess of Exports over Imports.

*Excess of imports over exports.

† In terms of New Zealand currency.

 ££££
192277,738,81035,012,56142,726,2497,713,688
192389,345,65843,378,49345,967,1652,588,672
1924101,140,31448,527,60352,612,7114,085,108
1925107,718,67952,456,40755,262,2722,805,865
192695,165,13849,889,56345,275,575—4,613,988*
192793,279,30044,782,94648,496,3543,713,408
1928101,074,74744,886,26656,188,48111,302,215
1929104,377,04048,797,97755,579,0636,781,086
193089,685,00043,025,91444,940,692195,000
193161,760,00024,812,95835,153,0288,550,000

The above table shows totals for the calendar year in each case, this being the period for which the annual trade statistics are compiled. For certain purposes, however, the year ending in June is a preferable one, in that this period shows for all practical purposes the exports of the complete production year. In the table following, therefore, figures are given for each of the last ten June years:—

Year ended 30th June,Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Excess of Exports over Imports.

* Excess of imports over exports.

† In terms of New Zealand currency.

 ££££
192386,931,03740,014,82146,916,2166,901,395
192493,277,99044,832,16448,445,8263,613,662
1925108,348,46150,898,48557,449,9766,551,491
192698,494,54952,157,70246,336,847-5,820,855*
192793,768,76947,373,68746,395,082-978,605*
192899,117,22743,497,94255,619,28512,121,343
1929102,752,75946,508,00956,244,7509,736,741
193097,205,00048,828,07747,588,213-2,025,000*
193172,260,00033,373,67636,944,977l,630,000*
193260,205,00023,063,47635,546,57310,890,000

The next, table shows similar totals for each of the last ten financial years

Year ended 31st. March,Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Excess of Exports over Imports.

* Excess of Imports over exports.

† In terms of New Zealand currency.

 ££££
192382,524,28336,975,58345,548,7008,573,117
192496,054,36244,401,75651,652,6067,250,850
1925104,592,25349,821,09554,771,1584,950,063
1926101,723,44353,025,85648,697,587-4,328,269*
192793,875,00848,192,67045,682,338-2,510,332*
192899,381,38844,419,35754,962,03110,542,674
1929102,260,20845,105,86557,154,34312,048,478
193098,535,00049,167,91449,045,817-445,000*
193179,830,000138,300,80739,527,784-775,000*
193259,300,00023,165,52234,496,2119,690,000

MONTHLY EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.

The following table shows the monthly movements of exports and imports during 1930, 1931, and the first seven months of 1932:—

ACTUAL MONTHLY FIGURES OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, 1930-32.
Month.1930.1931.1932.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 ££££££
January6,377,8534,190,6323,740,3293,012,0553,382,5062,172,752
February5,624,8363,968,2183,294,8732,396,5284,434,6271,804,492
March5,566,6374,062,9765,121,2162,088,1363,682,4681,872,039
April3,948,7893,542,7262,746,1912,080,1634,957,5351,760,689
May4,521,2653,398,9074,167,6571,528,6443,116,2731,688,974
June3,741,3113,404,0842,714,7101,809,7792,605,1121,866,877
July3,384,7423,014,7132,227,3131,859,2512,405,9761,832,337
August1,891,6324,054,9741,623,8912,188,991....
September2,074,0153,711,3131,632,9442,134,482....
October2,445,5653,691,5831,735,4501,862,231....
November2,394,5432,837,8202,810,2702,059,040....
December2,969,5043,147,9623,338,1841,793,658....

The figures are now given grouped on the basis of a three monthly moving average, the values shown for each month representing an average of that month and the months immediately preceding and following. The three-monthly moving averages present the more accurate view in that they smooth out undue fluctuations in the figures due to monthly shipping and other local conditions.

THREE-MONTHLY MOVING AVERAGES OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. 1930-32.
Month.1930.1931.1932.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 ££££££
January5,522,9534,047,6963,334,9352,852,182,3,718,4391,923,634
February5,856,4424,073,9424,052,1392,498,9063,833,2001,949,761
March5,046,7543,857,9733,720,7602,188,2764,358,2101,812,407
April4,678,8973,668,2034,011,6881,898,9813,918,7591,773,901
May4,070,4553,448,5723,209,5191,806,1953,559,6401,772,180
June3,882,4393,272,5683,036,5601,732,5583,042,4541,796,063
July3,005,8953,491,2572,188,6381,952,674....
August2,450,1303,593,6661,828,0492,060,908....
September2,137,0713,819,2901,064,0952,061,901....
October2,304,7083,413,5742,059,5552,018,584....
November2,603,2043,225,7902,627,9681,904,976....
December3,034,4592,999,2813,176,9872,008,483....

By reason of the seasonal nature of the production of the principal commodities exported from The Dominion, approximately two thirds of The exports are made during the first six months of each year. A further illustration of the fluctuating nature of the export trade is evident from the wide range in the monthly figures, which vary from £1,23,891 in August, 1931, to £6,377,853 in January, 1930.

The influx of imports is fairly constant throughout the whole year, although owing to the abnormally low volume since 1930 the range during 1930-32 is considerable from £1,190,632 in January, 1930, to £1,528,644 in May, 1931.

The three monthly averages of exports and imports during the period from January, 1927, to June, 1932, are shown graphically in the following diagram.

The dotted line, representing imports, plainly shows The uniform nature of The trade, while what has been said in regard to The seasonable nature of exports is well brought out by the heavy line with its annually recurring peak.

TRADE PER HEAD

Imports were highest in the boom year of 1920 with a rate of £49 11s. 7d., the export record of £45 5s. having occurred in the previous year. High rates were experienced in the " sixties,” when, however, the population was comparatively small, while important gold mining operations resulted in huge exports of gold and correspondingly high imports factors which combined to give the earlier years of New Zealand's external trade a somewhat artificially high rate per head. Owing to a lower price level, trade per head has fallen considerably since 1929.

The next table shows the total trade, imports, and exports per head of the population for each of the years 1912-31

Year.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.
*In terms of New Zeland currency
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
191239531954191911
191340971918720110
1914424119352308
1915461081818227126
1916511792218528194
191745141184227911
191845152210524149
191970194251444550
192086192491173777
192168150331293523
1922591132616632149
192367543213234122
19247415435176381710
19257716237171039184
19266764355103206
192764167312633141
192870411313113910
192970173332737148
193060111*281673023
193140162*167112347

BALANCE OF TRADE.

The following table shows for the year 1931 the amount of exports to and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion, the balance of trade in each case also being given

Country.Imports (Country of ShipmentExport.Balance*(=Excess of Exports;-=Excess of Imports).
* In terms of New Zealand currency
 £££
United Kingdom12,664,89330,940,65417,040,000
Canada1,217,987256,890-1,080,000
India389,32559,185-370,000
Ceylon613,1425,093-660,000
South African Union69,4718,052-70,000
Australia2,685,8081,169,055-1,160,000
Fiji108,95089,245-30,000
Other British countries372,917149,539-260,000
Totals, British countries18,122,49332,677,71313,410,000
Germany408,195309,847-135,000
France222,349419,016170,000
Belgium269,056146,335-145,000
Japan298,307267,899-60,000
Dutch East Indies844,32910,265-910,000
United States of America3,698,714920,931-3,140,000
Other foreign countries949,515401,082-640,000
Totals, foreign countries6,690,4652,475,315-4,860,000
Totals, all countries24,812,95835,153,0288,550,000

A considerable excess of exports over imports is evident in the Dominions trade with the United Kingdom, a position due in a large measure to the fact that in normal times about £8,000,000 annually is required to pay interest on the national and local body debt domiciled in London. Making allowance for this item, there was still in 1031 a surplus of exports to the United Kingdom of some £6,000,000. which, however, was largely offset by an excess of imports in New Zealand's trade with most other countries, particularly in the case of the United States, the imports from that source being more than £3,000,000 (on a New Zealand currency basis) greater than exports sent there from the Dominion. The majority of other countries also take less than the Dominion receives from them, the deficit being made good from the surplus of exports to The United Kingdom.

Interest payments overseas in respect of the public debt aggregated £13,723,400 during the year ended 31st March, 1932, and to this should be added £221,035 (half-year only) on account of repayment of funded debt to the Imperial Government. At the 31st March, 1931, local bodies debts held outside the Dominion involved an annual interest charge of £1,352,020, the total annual payments outside the Dominion on the public and semi public debt being thus over 8 millions, or, including exchange, nearly 9 millions.

Against this outgoing must be sot the amount of now importations of capital in the shape of loans. While the expenditure on interest moves fairly consistently from year to year, The amount raised by now loans varies, and These variations are a big factor in The fluctuations of The balance of trade.

Debt charges and loan receipts are not the only invisible trade items. Money brought into The country by immigrants, expenditure by tourists and travellers, port receipts from overseas shipping, interest and dividends on New Zealand capital invested in Australia or The Pacific islands, and miscellaneous Government receipts from abroad are other items on The credit side; while on The debit side The following principal items, other than interest on Government and local body loans, should be taken into account: Interest and dividends on overseas capital invested privately in The Dominion; shipping freights, charter money, passage money, earned by overseas vessels for The carriage of New Zealand passengers and produce; expenditure abroad by New Zealand tourists and travellers; and miscellaneous Government expenditure abroad.

EXCHANGE POOL.

In order to insure that funds would be available overseas to meet all commitments, arrangements were made with the banks in 1931, for the formation of an exchange pool. Regulations were gazetted in December, 1931, under the Customs Act, 1913, and the Board of Trade Act, 1919, prohibiting the export of goods after 1st January, 1932, except under license. Conditions of such licenses, inter alia, provided for the proceeds of the sale of goods to be paid to an authorised bank to be remitted to New Zealand at the current rate of exchange at the time of payment to the bank.

The system of export licenses terminated as from 30th June, 1932.

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE.

There is no Mint in New Zealand, while there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion. Gold, therefore, ranks as an ordinary export of the Dominion, along with wool, frozen meat, and dairy produce. In earlier days this export of gold was much more important than now, amounting in 1803 to 70 per cent, of The total exports, from which figure it shrank steadily to 6 per cent, in 1913. The proportion at the present time is only about 1 per cent.

A table is given showing imports and exports of specie during the ten years 1922-31. Unusually high exports were recorded in both 1928 and 1929, the figure for the latter year being a record.

VALUE OF SPECIE IMPORTED AND EXPORTED, 1922–31.
Year.Imported.Exported.Excess of Specie Imports over Exports.
* Excess of exports.
 £££
1922186,487300186,187
192314,51027,372— 12,862*
1924..103,488—103,488*
192530,65019,22511,425
192677,8006,65171,149
1927280..280
192842,164618,100—575,936*
192963,505649,000—585,495*
1930363,087175362,912
193156,155202,330—146,175*

SUBSECTION B.—EXPORTS

METHOD OF RECORDING EXPORTS

IN New Zealand the Department of H.M. Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination.

In all cases exports are valued " free on board at the port of shipment.” In many cases, however, The goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, and in such cases values must be assessed in New Zealand with reference to current prices. Exports are valued in terms of New Zealand currency, which has been at a discount on sterling since the beginning of 1930.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in The country of destination. The exports of New Zealand produce are shown separately from re exports of imported goods.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS.

The total exports (including re-exports) during the last ten years are given in the following table, classified according to five broad divisions—

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous.Bullion and Specie.Total.
 ££££££
192224,255,63215,639,2491,815,337443,385572,64642,726,249
192328,151,20814,922,2971,407,424401,104785,13245,967,165
192430,071,96020,007,3751,455,214359,179718,98352,012,711
192529,207,17023,525,3001,625,806355,771548,22555,262,272
192625,691,32016,801,8541,716,162494,405571,83445,275,575
192727,921,06217,762,1941,749,231492,194571,67348,496,354
192831,022,18321,785,6831,851,874381,2241,147,51750,188,481
192932,009,83619,766,7051,547,947485,8631,168,71255,579,063
193031,676,69310,835,1461,494,255345,618588,98044,940,692
193125,724,1997,255,7491,107,610254,031811,43935,153,028

The most important class is that of food, drink, and tobacco, which, in the case of exports from New Zealand, is composed almost wholly of foodstuffs, the principal items being butter, cheese, and frozen meat. Of the total exports during the five rears 1927-31 this class accounted for 626 per cent. Next in order of magnitude is the raw-materials class (mainly wool, hides, skins, and tallow), which during the last five years constituted 32.2 per cent, of the total exports for that period. The remaining classes do not figure prominently in the table, and during the five years 1927-31 accounted for but 5 8 per cent, of the total.

In the following table exports of domestic produce exclusive of specie and other reexports are classified under the main industries, according to a broad division, to illustrate the relative importance of the pastoral, agricultural, forestry, mining, and other industries as far as the export trade is concerned. It must be remembered that in a particular industry the home trade may be relatively more important than, the external trade.

PROPORTIONS OF EXPORTS SUPPLIED BY THE MAIN INDUSTRIES.
Year.Exports.Percentage of Total Exports.
Pastoral.Agricultural.Forest.Mining.Other.Pastoral.Agricultural.Forest.Mining.Other.
 £££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191216,931,4801,060,605900,6711,660,2801,217,54577.8 4.04.14.17.05.6
191318,519,145279,976874,1101,791,7771,521,71480.61.23.87.86.6
191422,529,149448,404927,4821,263,5531,092,85985.81.73.54.84.2
191526,534,608674,273674,5332,149,2171,716,28183.62.12.16.85.4
191628,894,422183,797734,0341,661,6501,502,0048700.62.25.04.6
191727,329,599179,902711,1881,274,2221,593,04687.90.62.34.15.1
191824,638,531196,291719,538479,0171,903,63388.20.72.61.76.8
191948,611,240788,187698,8491,668,3141,537,79491.21.51.33.12.9
192041,560,176530,0561,262,8041,103,3441,135,82491.11.22.82.42.5
192140,698,867490,094884,279787,591754,62793.31.12.01.91.7
192238,182,703968,9441,066,054850,469630,88891.02.32.62.01.5
192342,128,295568,3561,080,326937,238657,69892.01.32.42.11.3
192448,944,828431,325937,178787,664819,83394.20.01.81.51.6
192551,370,479467,8971,000,453770,430911,76394.20.01.81.41.7
192640,763,348902,164820,947854,995997,72991.02.01.91.92.3
192744,207,037887,893725,047804,834946,42292.01.01.51.72.0
192851,509,520964,956626,696710,450848,7439.1.21.81.11.31.6
192950,780,1131,036,700717,088809,676832,43093.81.91.31.51.5
193041,368,145971,259503,170784,125582,70793.62.21.11.81.3
193132,112,634910,937311,656707,126270,89193.62.60.92.10.8

The table indicates a tendency for the Dominion to rely more and more upon the pastoral industry for her main exports. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late nineties but m the early years of the present century fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining produce. After 1901, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1924 and 1925 it amounted to 94.2 per cent, of the total, the highest percentage then recorded, this figure being reached in 1928 also.

New Zealand is restricting her agriculture to a level barely sufficient to provide for her own needs in the matter of cereals, and only in exceptional years is there a surplus available for export. Agricultural exports showed an abnormal increase from 1899 to 1903, the period which covers the South African War, but their importance then steadily declined. Their lowest level (66 per cent, of total exports) was reached in 1910 and 1917. The higher level of recent years is attributable mainly to a considerable development in the export of apples, peas and grass and clover—seeds also contributing. Forest products, Though steady, show a relative downward tendency. Mining products which have fallen by two—thirds in total value over the twenty years, show a much greater decrease as a percentage of total exports.

Included in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume are figures showing the main exports from New Zealand during the last fifty years. A more detailed list of commodities is covered by the five—years tables on pp. 215—17. A comparison between 1930 and 1931 gives the following results for fourteen, principal commodities.

INCREASES OR DECREASES IN THE MAIN EXPORTS IN 1931.
Commodity.Value.Amount ofPercentage.
1930.1931.Increase.Decrease.Increase.Decrease.
 ££££  
Wool7,664,3625,515,376..2,148,986..28.04
Frozen meat10,937,3828,892,555..2,044,827..18.71
Butter11,854,05610,649,527..1,204,529..10.16
Cheese6,438,438..4,461,2931,977,145..30.71
Dried and preserved milk351,339246,483..104,856..29.85
Sausage-casings780,073399,418..380,655..48.80
Apples641,424641,055..369..0.06
Tallow683,571413,080..270,491..39.57
Skins, hides, and pelts2,202,7101,263,726..938,984..42.63
Gold550,678581,03230,354..5.51..
Coal186,21083,393..102,817..55.22
Kauri-gum189,635128,095..61,540..32.45
Phormium221,92338,407..183,516..82.70
Timber300,582172,633..127,949..42.57

In the following table exports during 1931 are grouped in classes in accordance with the statistical classification adopted for both exports and imports in 1914:—

No.Class.Domestic Produce.Re-exports.
  ££
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)24,919,8333,439
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt768,3176,369
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic), and substances used in making up the same1,2929,029
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors2,5543,109
VTobacco and preparations thereof6804,642
VILive animals40,9651,243
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs6,782,076293
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres212,9171,677
IXAApparel1,77421,404
IXBTextiles2,95337,216
IXCManufactured fibres1,9313,619
XOils, fats, and waxes420,743213,360
XIPaints and varnishes4455,381
XIIStones and minerals used industrially219,5843
XIIISpecie..202,330
XIVAMetal (unmanufactured and partly manufactured) and ores035,5064,019
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines3,80325,992
XVMachinery and machines13,40272,727
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)1,210..
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes9,0537,193
XVIIATimber172,033275
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures cement materials2,2993,390
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials1,3322,044
XIXAPaper2031,282
XIXBStationery13,00916,646
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods23113,382
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments58334,203
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares9,3857,208
XXIIBManures17,25587
XXIIIAVehicles732,911
XXIIIBMiscellaneous13,35298,035
Parcels-post45,007....
 Totals34,319,244833,784

Exports for 1931 (including re-exports) are now grouped according to a classification recently adopted by the British Board of Trade for the compilation of Empire trade statistics. Exports to British and foreign countries are distinguished.

Commodity.United KingdomOther British CountriesUnited States of America.Other Foreign Countries.Totals.

* Not including bunker coal £74,094.

† Not including bunker fuel oil £207,717.

 £££££
Grain and milled products27,29437,5931,2372,16068,284
Meat (including poultry and game)8,893,41552,2541,68444,8548,992,207
Butter, cheese, and eggs14,957,07957.165946101,48715,116,677
Fruits (fresh and dried)556,0842,61612111,168669,880
Sugar8714,0409811714,402
Tea..8,4991173218,937
Alcoholic beverages4423,3971,4321705,441
Tobacco3343,5611,0763515,322
Coal*27,199..2,1029,303
Ores, concentrates, and scrap22,277107..77223,156
Iron and steel Pigs, ingots, &c..........
Bars, rod, plates, sheets, &c4701,19021581,739
Other manufactures of iron and steel6,61512,4261,6372,79323,471
Agricultural implements and machinery2231,5884671252,403
Electrical machinery and Equipment10,68611,6023,40239126,081
Other machinery15,38129,12111,4121,73157,645
Motor-cars and parts thereof12,0258,7354,5511,04426,355
Other metals and metal manufactures13,0293,8187602,3849,991
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)7,45526,3294,11550838,407
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)7,45526,3294,11550838,407
Wool raw4,299,051224,30741,278950,1405,515,376
Yarns and threads179692190 1,061
Cotton piece-goods6946,586..967,376
Woollen piece-goods1,065240..2841,589
Other piece-goods5,9447,6721982,15915,973
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, e.)3712,309269923,031
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)7,067170,72632192178,206
Newsprint..336....336
Seeds and nuts for expressing oil therefrom..2,871....2,871
Oil—Petroleum, crude and refined813,1511,2342414,707
Hides, skins, and furs, undressed540,336120,5881439,859163,2351,264,018
Leather and manufactures there of (including boots and shoes)14,6811,76574483818,028
Other merchandise987,634674,340358,696162,5572,183,227
Total merchandise30,385,6401,510,322878,8741,554,38434,335,220
Gold and silver (coin and bullion)555,014220,73742,057..817,808
Total exports30,940,6541,737,059920,9311,554,38435,153,028

The principal items of export may again be regrouped under six definite heads, as in the table below, which shows in more detail the commodities exported from the Dominion. Only New Zealand produce is included.

Practically all the main commodities are homogeneous articles, and it is therefore possible to give the quantities exported. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price-variations.

Commodity.1927.1928.1920.1930.1931.
The mine—£££££
Coal (tons)143,440125,771205,403120,11848,334
Gold (oz.)130,171118,722110,848133,749140,970
Iron and steel (pig) (cwt.)22,200..10,000..80
Silver (oz.)427,358445,811416,262566,063551,441
Other minerals (tons)6739352138
The fisheries—
Fish (cwt.)22,56623,36224,63221,86016,180
Oysters (doz.)51,82660,74626,236139,03745,557
Whalebone (lb.)560..448....
Whale-oil (gal.)71,437121,68671,31047,64940,788
The forest—
Fungus (cwt.)2,8141,5151,5191,8041,840
Kauri-gum (tons)4,6744,3914,9373,8183,058
Timber, sawn and hewn (sup. ft.)37,147,70834,970,77339,102,83126,676,13117,532,304
Pastoral products—
Bacon and hams (cwt.)5,4234,7473,8242,212828.
Beef and pork, salted5,1704,2051,3012,8951,373
Butter1,455,5391,449,5701,653,8071,884,2371,988,566
Casein46,76342,13457,20657,30952.917
Cheese1,492,7921,567,2721,779,0931,812,9811,636,347
Hides and skins (number)1,368,2381,396,8701,133,2981,101,5361,025,130
Honey (lb.)850,0112,329,1312,365,887171,536584,739
Live-stock—
Cattle (number)962585814723
Horses23017625821695
Sheep8,3854,7884,4344,4632,242
Pigs4337461,015623404
Preserved meats (cwt.)58,78668,11338,18337,25726,750
frozen meats3,364,9653,793,8283,336,2024,036,6394,138,806
Milk, dried and preserved (lb.)12,420,49417,218,65313,736,09815,200,83512,845,394
Sausage-casings (cwt.)30,76233,07532,83940,02732,689
Rabbit-skins (number)12,928,66912,104,0729,122,9177,206,9926,174,092
Sheep skins and pelts9,918,45310,182,0409,631,75611,019,58612,085,693
Tallow (cwt.)477,500514,960416,640492,560465,280
Wool (lb,)220,500,720226,804,544234,955,978197,239,614211,718,868
Agricultural products—
Bran and sharps (tons)651124512
Chaff89226231016
Flour216224
Grain and pulse—
Barley (centals)48,68816,1972413855
Peas162,649220,954173,792125,65569,441
Oats266,62166,7396.811,9371,280
Wheat472360131,479306235
Hops (cwt.)4,7293,6432,3731,821802
Oatmeal (tons)104127160232129
Onions3135702,62243865
Potatoes9347601,6681,194864
Seeds (grass and clover) (cwt.)90,36250,23857,86936,56040,953
Miscellaneous—
Beer (gal.)13,63312,31413,53114,98712,002
Cement (cwt.)15,0423,9442,3291,8201,432
Leather2,0281,0877013371,615
Phormium fibre and tow (tons)19,60015,68314,7209,4932,398
Sugar (cwt.)11,54815,66919,08622,05818,050
Twine6429941,58611072

The values of these principal exports are tabulated in the following table, and the statement is rendered complete by the addition of miscellaneous groups and the provision of totals for each group and for all combined: —

Commodity192719281929.1930.1931.
* As record, certain exports by parcel post are not available but included in"miscellaneous other" at the end of the table
The mine£££££
coal221,253173,693284,521180,21083,393
gold534,639489,584480,212550,678581,032
Iron and steel pig4 5921,994..29..
Silver42 59344,41041,47544,53434,436
Other minerals1 7819113,5472,6748,266
Totals804,858710,598809,755784,125707,126
The fisheries—
Fish74,17484,87183,00070,72144,588
Oysters5017724301,480531
Whalebone190..50....
Whale-oil7,00912,0817.6254,9853,761
Ambergris*....7.200....
Other26106185014
Totals81,96097,83098,32977,23048,894
The forest—Fungus20,3108,9579,19511,4469,988
Kauri-gum278,632240,139207,610189,635128,095
Timber425,453376,967439,342300,582172,633
Other6526339411,507940
Totals725,047626,696717,088503,170311,056
Pastoral products Bacon and hams—29,02529,40523,42211,7074,454
Beef and pork, salted10,5489,2123,5407,8473,136
butter10,915,23311,302,66713,228,02711,854,05610 049,527
Casein141,388133,859107,972155,57588,720
Cheese5,582,5906,093,9517.017,4636,438,4384,401,293
Hides and skins1,008,9001,336,853783,490543,723349,047
Honey25,17077,49582,7436,21619,401
Live-stock cattle6,0297,6572,6792,3491,154
Horses55,05552,54387,02342,38729,736
Sheep58,64446,22452,35731,1817,280
Pigs1,5072,7413,7472,4751,223
Other1,1061,2602,6765,3811,572
Milk, dried and preserved346,271392,452352,587351,339246,483
Preserved meats212,262247,315152,015149,81492,054
Frozen meats9,104 62110,309,6629,883,31310,937,3828,802,555
Sausage-casings755,523799,356053,033780,073399,418
Rabbit-skins682 658582,148301,949142,249108,841
Sheep skins pelts1,550,8121,924,0971,812,0931 510,738805,838
Tallow714,441804,271693,614683,571413,080
Wool12,961,74410,079,09815,359,2067,664,3625,515,376
Other43,50477,25457,16441,28222,440
Totals44,207,03751,509,52050,780,11341,308,14532,112,634
Agricultural products bran and sharps3,7901608176113
Chaff4,842303285110128
Flour49330585796
Fruits273,110515,062583,066669,397669,306
grain and pulse Barley24,7728,8121741295
Peas151,157185,705120,52285,91558,691
Oats110,97832,2093,8811,257789
Wheat30127763,078226158
Other9210722562159
Hops27,77423,69014,1798,4093,578
Oatmeal5,0425,8207,04111,4726,162
Onions3,1335,8207,04111,4726,162
Potatoes7,4106,50413,9508,4515,530
Seeds (grass and clover)255,798162,452182,537160,221155,410
Seeds (various)12,59918,06915,38110,3136,458
Other7,0466,87110,7516,7623,688
Totals887,893964,9561,036,700971,259910,937
Miscellaneous (including manufactures)-£££££
Beer5,8695,1285,0494,2072,465
Apparel (including hats, caps, hosiery, and millinery)2,7232,3072,5166,1751,415
Cement2,978898500405270
Cordage3,5814,2273,2611,8021,729
Foods, Infants' and invalids'9,4392,406981,2582,266
Leather11,53221,63214,2895,3329,005
Phormium fibre and tow535,526394,450379,942221,92338,407
Soap8,94710,6788,1808,2825,479
Sugar13,35917,84819,31620,59514,580
Twine2,1503,9054,696369202
Woollen manufactures12,9369,0585,9905,4051,569
Others255,398278,228290,182229,718150,610
Totals864,438750,765734,028505,471227,997
Total exports (domestic produce)47,571,23354,560,36554,176,01344,209,40634,319,244
Specie..618,100649,000175202,330
Re-exports925,121910,016754,050731,111631,454
Total exports48,496,35456,188,48155,579,06344,940,69235,153,028

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865, 70 per cent., and even in 1871, 44 per cent., of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines with the United Kingdom the Mother-land has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875-1914, £365,880,997 (or almost exactly 80 per cent.) of a grant total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the war, did not vary greatly from year to year, but naturally there have been considerable variations since 1914.

The principal destination of New Zealand's exports during the last twenty years are given in the table below. The principal !"other countries!" in 1931, in order of magnitude, were France, Japan, India, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, and Hawaii.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.Pacific Islands (other than Australia).United States.Germany.Other Countries.Total.
 ££££££££
191216,861,2562,848,664542,271338,621620,988254,703304,07821,770,581
191318,130,1602,315,747606,662295,032912,051337,448388,62222,986,722
191421,383,8911,928,410595,611326,0251,028,054145,163543,29326,261,447
191525,389,0902,548,605925,813499,0632,006,5074379,80931,748,912
191626,869,9882,191,545691,986365,0692,493,9875671,35733,286,937
191726,023,3961,400,980961,03540,3301,894,3176706,81631,587,547
191818,244,2591,803,7391,793,576511,8424,045,648 2,117,13328,516,188
191944,312,0762,249,827980,190548,1124,200,86141,649,03753,970,075
192034,354,3002,351,7901,357,774718,2837,456,04123203,72646,441,948
192133,713,5932,070,013454,597517,3632,702,10446,162321,99544,528,827
192236,154,1742,208,280446,457399,3782,672,775218,338626,84742,726,249
192337,324,6052,642,266665,696466,1643,531,272190,6001,146,56245,967,165
192442,038,3802,509,322716,548575,8803,278,1351,168,3022,328,14852,612,711
192544,073,3232,502,113423,068548,0014,349,7581,614,0901,751,32955,262,272
192635,102,0873,054,433861,717515,2533,818,232364,6291,559,22445,276,575
192736,877,3873,665,9621,666,598495,4022,681,0911,139,6541,969,76048,496,354
192840,510,0753,402,6552,469,150592,9864,260,3151,290,0713,668,24956,188,481
192940,957,0432,338,4103,353,975526,9583,653,4271,220,5523,528,69855,579,063
193038,915,3081,562,2812,539,212471,9742,116,752401,0841,834,08644,940,692
193130,940,6541,169,055256,890302,684920,931309,8471,253,01735,153,028

Included in the exports to the United Kingdom are considerable quantities of produce which are shipped to London Merely as a convenient depend for subsequent reshipment to the Continent or to America. The total re-exports in normal pre-war years amounted to about £4,000,000 annually, and although the amount fell, under war conditions, to as low as £565,529 in 1918, it has shown a substantial increase during recent years, with, however, a sharp decline in 1930, mainly owing to low wool prices. The following table shows the principal items of New Zealand produce re-exported from the United Kingdom.

RE-EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FROM UNITED KINGDOM.
Commodity.1920.1927.1928.1929.1930.
 £££££
Butter405,232580,663370,031457,843317,728
Cheese31,25539,54934,21343,94242,861
Milk-powder, not sweetened31,10011,57943,08775,88179,131
Milk, preserved, other kinds, not sweetened58,24062,88061,55911,720878
Oleo-margarine, oleo-oil, and refined tallow45,53615,0055,90212,21111,230
Peas, not fresh9731,8245,9492,375891
Beef, frozen30,03023,89327,4016,88711,021
Beef, tinned, canned, see including tongues and extracts and essences12,45544,0103,3602,1782,061
Mutton and lamb, frozen32,52743,07045,11050,91750,415
Mutton and lamb tinned or canned including tongues599250310399307
Meat, other kinds4,11912,5068,0979,8497,087
Hides269,907270,757249,955224,462250,334
Sheep and lamb skins248,658349,189470,515215,208290,880
Rabbit-skins81,987133,453104,91055,64370,924
Kauri-gum64,89803,41751,42671,90144,540
Tallow232,401294,273304,566204,564242,698
Phormium-fibre188,654132,184133,77279,83142,770
Wool, raw sheep and lambs wool4,475,3525,217,2405,811,9315,247,0132,886,224
All other commodities140,045161,032230,961221,708180,667
Totals6,403,8497,480,2598,035,4517,053,4354,612,765

The table which follows shows for each of ten years the percentage of total exports claimed by each of the principal countries trading with the Domination.

Country.1922.1923.1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
United Kingdom84.6181.1979.9079.7677.5376.0472.0973.6980.1488.02
Canada1.041.441.360.771.903.444.396.035.650.73
India0.400.730.940.350.180.300.670.700.910.17
Ceylon0.080.100.000.000.000.000.010.010.020.01
South African Union0.400.020.060.030.070.060.110.090.040.02
Australia5.175.744.774.536.757.566.054.213.483.33
Fiji0.220.260.260.240.340.250.250.240.240.25
Other British countries0.150.540.420.440.530.520.530.420.480.43
Totals, British countries92.0790.0287.7186.1287.3088.1784.1085.3990.9692.96
Germany0.510.412.222.920.802.352.302.200.890.88
France0.140.741.071.071.512.083.203.181.151.19
Belgium0.020.020.200.350.380.340.540.450.440.42
Japan0.490.450.630.420.360.521.170.770.340.76
United States of America6.267.676.237.878.435.537.586.574.712.62
Other foreign countries0.510.691.941.251.221.011.111.441.511.17
Totals, foreign countries7.939.9812.2913.8812.7011.8315.9014.619.047.04

About four-fifths of New Zealand's exports find their way to the United Kingdom. A certain amount of this produce, as indicated previously, is subsequently reshipped from Great Britain, principally to European countries. From a percentage of 86.36 in 1921, the United Kingdom's share declined progressively to 72.09 in 1928. followed by a progressive increase to 88.02 in 1931. The principal commodities, in order of magnitude, taken from the Dominion in 1931 were: butter, frozen meat, cheese, wool, hides and skins, apples, gold, tallow, dried milk, and kauri-gum.

For several years the United States ranked next in importance to the United Kingdom as an export customer of the Dominion. Since 1929, however, considerable decreases in trade have reduced the position to third. Practically all items have been affected, the principal being: sheep-skins, sausage-casings, wool, phormium-fibre, and kauri-gum.

Exports to Australia declined still further in 1931. the principal decreases occurring in timber, cattle-hides, wool, fish, phormium-fibre. and dried and preserved milk.

Exports to Canada in 1931 were only a little more than one-tenth of what they were in the previous year, mainly due to the operation of the Canadian tariff on New Zealand butter. A considerable decline was also recorded in sausage-casings.

Further declines in wool and hides and skins were recorded in exports to France and Germany. The apple and pear trade with Germany entirely disappeared in 1931, other decreases occurring in tallow, sausage-casings, and casein.

Following are the principal exports to the countries indicated, figures for 1931 being shown first, with These for 1930 in parentheses: Belgium: Wool, £91,887 (£92,062); hides, pelts, and skins. £51,824 (£89,440): tallow. £291 (£11,840). Netherlands: Apples, £99,341 (£43,277): wool. £15,338 (£60,091). Italy: Wool, £22,294 (£38,650): hides, pelts, and skins, £19,448 (£16,729); frozen meat. £19,877 (£35,362). Denmark: Wool, £9,907 (£13,054); cattle-hides, £2,150 (£6,054). Sweden: Wool. £6,074 (£4,392). China: Butter, £3,767 (£29,721). Japan: Wool. £179,049 (£76,101); casein, £50,248 (£60,012); tallow. £28,719 (£5,149); butter. £4,095 (£11,603). Hong Kong: Fungus, £9,788 (£11,446). Dutch East Indies: Butter, £3,322 (£6,530). India: Gold, nil (£325,907); silver, £21,909 (£38,070): tallow, £24,315 (£31,399); butter, £5,244 (£5,276). Ceylon: Butter, £4,266 (£6,624). Malaya: Butter, £9,931 (£16,778). Philippine Islands: Butter, £5,336 (£12,278). South African Union: Wool, £707 (£3,689); tallow, £110 (£2,303). Fiji: Tinned meats, £5,593 (£11,422): potatoes, £3,893 (£6,142); tea. £7,942 (£9,775); cinematograph, films, £7,338 (£8,723). G'lbert and Ellice Islands: Tinned meats, £4,185 (£7,010). Papua: Tinned meats, £1,601 (£4,859). Western Samoa: Tinned meats, £8,856 (£16,540); sugar, £6,775 (£11,055): timber, £5,086 (£7,164). Tonga: Tinned meats, £8,458 (£16,626). Argentina: Sheep, £510 (£10,27;,). Brazil: Apples, £5,068 (£13,070). Panama Canal Zone: Butter, £32,921 (£55,826 Uruguay: Fresh apples, £5,828 (£64,366). Hawaii: Butter, £44,806 (£269,831): frozen meat. £16,384 (£34,842). Society Islands: Butter, £5,472 (£6,910): tinned meats, £5,550 (£12,351); dried and preserved milk. £4,573 (£5,190).

Exports to Each Country, 1927-31.

The table following shows the exports (including re-exports) for five years, according to the countries of destination. British countries are stated first, according to geographical order, followed by foreign countries in the same order.

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1927-31.
County.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
 £££££
United Kingdom36,877,88740,510,07540,957,04336,015,30330,940,654
British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
Irish Free State371128407184227
Malta and Gibraltar21091316
 373138416197243
Asia-     
Ceylon1,7644,2217,0559,0665,093
Hong Kong27,30412,90912,74514,08514,165
India145,653379,338386,421406,87859,185
Malaya39,15631,75726,78120,61114,922
Other1361,3311,2911,408858
 214,013429,556434,293452,04894,223
Africa—
South African Union31,25164,89251,70715,5898,052
Other3781,1583423921,001
America—
Canada1,666,5982,469,1503,353,9752,539,212256,890
Other1,819131211,0472,420
 1,668,4172,469,1633,354,0962,540,259259,310
Pacific islands—
Australia3,665,9623,402,6552,338,4101,562,2811,169,055
Fiji120,202138,708135,652110,03389,245
Gilbert and Ellice Islands15,59116,92114,1259,1747,130
Nauru Island5,19215,52310,17620,0005,594
Norfolk Island8,16216,07318,56111,28111,773
Papua..6,26911,8787,2541,757
Solomon Islands (Protectorate)9,9419,1387,8215,8947,789
Tonga68,15586,69558,59947,95829,926
Western Samoa75,68187,71265,91979,99551,106
Other372989334215495
 3,969,2583,780,6812,661,4751,854,0851,374,230
Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
Belgium162,895303,974248,705199,048146,335
Denmark13,2774,828174,75121,10012,969
Finland1,71914,7707514,4731,019
France1,008,2911,800,8971,768,399519,727419,016
Germany1,139,6541,290,0711,220,552401,084309,847
Italy78,739194,978148,65897,38764,909
Netherlands54,98238,081155,490132,000125,565
Sweden1,6625,2116,5466,63413,996
Switzerland4498871,6401,3405,676
Other2,9092,5944,8334,5225,448
 2,465,5773,656,2913,573,3251,387,3151,104,780
Asia—
China24,82934,97936,34836,49317,625
Dutch East Indies22,74513,93919,19113,02910,205
Japan251,547657,915428,577154,741267,899
Philippine Islands9,9923,41519,34212,4915,414
Other2655931037957
 309,139710,807503,768217,133301,200
Africa—
Egypt19,574632641,213244
Other68750311688
 19,6428132951,229282
Africa—
Egypt19,574632641,213244
Other68750311638
 19,6428132951,229282
America—
Argentina63,69714,97573,60810,6341,117
Brazil718,42825,01914,3245,068
Chile5262,19019,8817051,391
Mexico614138,419824
Panama Canal Zone2,32260541,87659,14633,632
Peru21719,215529556
United States of America2,681,0914,260,3153,653,1272,116,752920,931
Uruguay44530,98518,81266,2278,339
Other281,499579127
 2,748,3134,346,7353,834,6642,276,571971,435
Pacific Islands—
Hawaii130,925134,394123,374110,58661,950
New Caledonia5,8327,78612,0674,028826
Society Islands39,48755,56054,25552,90024,817
Tuamotu Archipelago10,0039,12310,0119,03554,879
Tutuila3,8207,7884,0413,0084,542
Other2,0393,521145694604
 192,106218,172203,893180,57197,618

Ninety three per cent of the total exports from New Zealand went to British Countries in 931. The United States took nearly two-fifths of the remainder.

Full details of quantities and value of commodities exported to various countries are given in Part I of the Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping, while in Part II of the same report values of exports of principal commodities to various countries are summarized. The table which follows shows quantities of principal export commodities sent to various destination during the last five years. Both New Zealand produce and re-exports are included.

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS, 1927-31.
County to which exported.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Wool.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom169,073,530154,865,74l162,325,211158,565,801165,351,019
Canada4,07l,6893,186,9702,906,4381,977,2422,115,295
Australia5,856,1837,698,2834,816,8543,920,4144,801,189
Belgium833,7382,608,7192,960,9102,886,3053,736,653
France17,522,45624,389,26327,978,92613,102,43015,692,192
Germany13,244,25114,177,63714,902,9395,717,8959,952,272
Italy920,4622,628,9411,983,9021,107,4071,006,861
Netherlands589,508206,2741,589,0281,570,677566,151
Japan2,732,6887,892,9246,344,3202,495,9276,162,863
United States of America5,190,6078,654,4718,190,8985,273,2561,423,273
Other countries466,708500,321950,492613,260911,100
Totals220,500,720220,804,544234,955,978107,239,614211,718,868
Frozen Meat.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom3,266,4213,474,2293,097,1353,967,0404,108,283
Canada4,23l27,05521,98619,1401,648
Australia9,4674,25913,9621,714264
Belgium9,4674,259......
France6,451....11..
Italy17,119..10,62919,39616,666
United States of America9,716248,625176,8638,424893
Hawaii18,70220,02010,87418,2849,411
Pacific Islands (other than Hawaii)1,3651,3731,7382,0181,453
Other countries12,1184273,015612188
Totals3,364,9653,703,8283,336,2024,036,6394,138,806
Butter.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,188,6641,158,2341,276,8411,553,7251,962,320
Malaya3,6312,5752,1802,3741,650
South African Union8252,3571,90956..
Canada116,106199,706335,127296,0713,612
Australia94,96423,63814520
China2,8763,7903,8964,380648
Dutch East Indies2,1941,0741,074975555
Japan2,8441,7402,2061,605712
Philippine Islands1,1744272,3131,703855
Philippine Canal Zone250674,7179,2796,161
United States of America29,61042,7189,51217163
Hawaii10,49210,34010,9449,9427,421
Pacific Islands (other than Hawaii)1,2601,8041,6221,6911,492
Other countries6491,1001,4652,3192,448
Totals1,455,5301,449,5701,653,8071,884,2371,988,566
Cheese.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,178,8701,551,5231,770,1501,809,3481,635,233
Canada1,1872,4283,2542,09973
Australia11,7277,087783173152
Pacific Islands337408348282306
United States of America55,4853,81011
Other countries6663417481,078582
Totals1,492,7921,567,2721,779,0931,812,9811,636,347
Preserved Milk.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom9,926,03715,180,57111,386,37412,787,73411,198,830
Malaya137,792384,970257,504116,78593,648
Australia2,153,9431,251,5341,621,0861,823,5701,168,949
Fiji48,436110,56587,79767,10248,013
Tonga6,09916,17313,88315,7406,957
Western Samoa28,97028,94924,06631,52715,451
Society Islands53,186102,80790,733158,638140,288
Other countries67,522143,084254,590249,640173,260
Totals12,421,93517,218,05313,786,00815,200,83512,845,304
Tallow.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons
United Kingdom19,66121,00017,38519,15516,058
India8929497099571,169
South African Union247238191857
Australia8911,9909542,0842,955
Fiji49684329140
Belgium35528316041917
Germany685152332360196
Netherlands393116127208185
Japan..37432181,492
United Stales of America500643737365155
Other countries20227291658890
Totals23,87525,74820,83224,62823,264
Hides (Cattle and Horse).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom45,22748,40029,47554,21098,986
India........4,322
Canada22,08221,52029,33028,41215,267
Australia92,891110,73695,49374,87660,178
Belgium9,06512,4806,26221,07325,385
Finland9567,0625004,2531,142
France1,5641,6084,4444,81813,909
Germany94,69236,29155,89758,12136,937
Greece........4,475
Italy2509505,1216,99726,304
Netherlands1,5137,218753,4922,196
United States of America129,203183,73562,06917,44110,500
Other countries1,0002,5902,7778,9819,955
Totals398,446432,599291,446292,684309,556
Calf-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom31,79062,1335,42967,95453,141
Canada68,71448,38245,90071,93485,746
Australia225,966154,341171,33659,708126,418
Belgium72,04668,36436,44389,20442,345
Germany65,16033,0256,5188,0001,350
Greece6,999........
Netherlands1,43916,4201,15328,0515,000
United States of America314,026396,854401,136328,0683330,891
Other countries......3,268857
Totals774,141769,538667,915656,802652,747
Opossum-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom97,158135,465127,63873,26543,146
Australia4,0274,729..10,960..
Austria....2,0001,0001,000
Germany42,20415,65125,8599,750..
United States of America......76,319
Totals143,479155,845155,49794,08250,465
Rabbit-skins.
United Kingdom8,743,8618,844,0675,935,9204,345,5122,774,717
Canada14,958..61,236....
Australia64,63630,68295,37137,74823,052
Belgium80,48295,15518,848..19,200
France45,90830,68338,95368,12867,477
Germany846,784248,134102,286....
United Suites of America3,131,5502,855,3512,870,3032,755,6043,285,208
Other countries490......4,348
Totals12,928,66912,104,0729,122,9177,206,9926,174,092
Sheep-skins (with Wool).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom518,805703,357515,204713,2751,183,748
Canada3,69247.148....9,181
Australia1,581579300..3,473
Belgium21,34812,29212,06282.4513,690
France75,025200,790123,433224,854231,538
Germany19,92519,9035,1214,73715,891
Netherlands......4,43040,808
Japan90,253653180..5,840
United States of America236,234315,000415,117512,278103,392
Other countries4,767......2.190
Totals972,5301,364,7621,072,0171,542,0251,005,811
Sheep-skins (with Wool).
..Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom2,040 5451,199,5941,070,9002,718 1335,054 890
Canada11,460311,08017,3402,8958,243
Australia831,043413,053452,921221,666244,682
Belgium103,566107,850111,445202,291246,976
France30,27152291,081191,652242,885
Germany18,38598,47861138,40613,282
Japan9,4802,81921,158..39,504
United States of America5,841,1736,898,8716,794,2116,102,5184,569,882
Totals8,945,9238,817,2678,559,7399,477,56110,419,882
Sausage-casings.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom383,455299,071378,902612,0071,506,040
Canada1,368,0811,552,1531,073,7211,497,355707,208
Australia500,086410,463331,002344,347190,169
Germany131,821284,825509,780260,085106,291
United States of America993,8151,219,9031,312,1371,768,3801,090,526
Other countries4,9441,33181,848245957
Totals3,450,7023,773,8003,687,3904,483,0193,601,251
Pens.
 Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.
United Kingdom123,111173,083128,74291,61037.995
Australia34,91835,82531,10523,30524.113
South African Union9151,8353,9941,6832,713
United States of America2,7414,0687,9385.2042.053
Other countries9644,9432,0138871,906
Totals102,649220,954173,792125,65568,780
Apples (Fresh).
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom18, 151,04034,356,09026,617,25837,958,13242,781,576
Canada31,680501,620476,000522,47040,670
Fiji80,96479,59587,66493,783146,956
Tonga15,08410,2102,7422,74212,223
Western Samoa6,06011,2706,67410,8367,228
Germany....1,878,5803,198,120..
Netherlands....2,209,3203,462,0808,054,518
Argentina2,690,920947,6804,144,740....
Brazil..1,474,0401,737,5211,045,600405,440
Uruguay..1,518,680619,2805,152,960466,280
Hawaii214,360197,12072,8002,0001,660
Other countries2,0406,21922,88113,3661,660
Totals21,192,14839,105,12437,875,41051,466,04951,916,551
Seeds (Grass and Clover.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom34,1979,1208,3708,94312,002
Canada3,3112,3512,5933,17712,447
Australia27,53318,38029,9399,09412,836
Franco2,172246250234123
Germany5,3781,7201,4602,0531,128
Netherlands1,053571930920155
United States of America16,72917,55314.59012,03611,889
Other countries375318345461578
Totals90,74850,27758,48236,91841,158
Gold.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom3215874575,01782,130
India17,53970,87766,89177,022..
Australia98,63733,04938,56240,32448,687
United States of America13,67414,20910,93810,32010,155
Totals130,171118,722110,818133,783140,972
Silver.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom2,1943871,196175103,284
India411,729435,272408,797495,612382,760
Australia13,43510,1526,26966,8273,772
United States of America......3,4491,625
Totals427,358445,811416,262566,06351,441
Kauri-gum.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom2,3081,4202,1922,3801,857
Canada179187224127172
Australia2814805753
Belgium7..902152
France341241468066
Germany1622041226372
Japan2026201120
United States of America1,8532,3802,0611,075734
Other countries23392432
Totals4,6744,3944,9373,8183,058
Phormium-fibre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom6,7295,5963,7171,838405
Canada21040432016873
Australia2,6932,9163,0242,3761,038
Belgium70222010593..
France343133106127..
Germany47214812487..
Netherlands109265613525
United States of America4,9253,4774,8603,185238
Other countries6125..5
Totals10,18912,93212,3178,0091,734
Timber (Sawn and Hewn).
 Sup.ft.Sup.ft.Sup.ft.Sup.ft.Sup.ft.
United Kingdom283,880123,231120,35177,251208,749
Australia30,524,34534,489,27038,420,43725,901,15810,842,839
Fiji138,920102,045131,44873,45533,230
Pacific islands (other than Fiji)218,630203,811475,505645,300400,850
Other countries..14,975......
Totals37,165,78135,028,33839,153,74126,697,10417,551,674

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.

New Zealand's exports consist almost wholly of seasonal products, and the calendar year splits the season in the case of most of the principal commodities. The largest item of export, wool, is sheared from the sheep in the early summer, and the wool sales are held in December and January. Exports of any season's wool-clip are therefore divided between one year and the next in varying proportion. A favourable season or a sudden demand may cause a great increase of exports in the December quarter, with the result that the March quarter of the next year shows low figures. The wool trade invariably bases its calculations on each season's clip, not on calendar years.

The same argument holds good in the case of butter and cheese, which are almost wholly exported in December and March quarters. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, since this division is more suited to The seasonal production of main commodities.

EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE (VALUES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.
Commodity.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
 £££££
Butter11,315,75612,744,99213,022,9579,918,26010,127,507
Casein141,430140,913192,55899,00564,747
Cheese6,360,7666,889,9936,361,3295,226,6004,570,132
Fish85,56286,07779,97456,52541,381
Honey64,52089,24120,77211,85214,808
Beef, frozen977,023808,260577,120384,419304,307
Beef, salted10,6855,2846,6305,1633,002
Lamb, frozen6,660,1966,925,8316,884,7176,523,5436,275,383
Mutton, frozen2,085,0071,949,9192,042,3011,810,7661,575,477
Pork, frozen374,935589,609407,475382,844246,045
Meats, preserved237,306198,323143,277134,91990,296
Sausage casings766,345088,098779,651500,535302,433
Milk, preserved27,61349.06956,86423,06117,192
Milk, dried318,904301,625285,837290,116205,173
Apples, fresh496,870447,509724,595649,799758,016
Peas179,935112,623101,70061,06187,288
Oats111, 15513,3732,3231,1111,102
Hops22,61215,94216,2358,2071,746
Potatoes7,7558,29813,0076,4406,060
Livestock114,224117,710121,26701,06150,952
Calfskins245,947300,197201,298163,567100,200
Hides, horse and cattle903,834077,552374,646298,166195,040
Rabbitskins633,090555,811315,198130,25190,725
Opossum-skins77,587102,812102,46129,4299,027
Sheepskins, with wool488,206404,303333,5151234,818109,204
Sheepskins, without wool1,296,4281,473,2531,336,524647,898004,742
Wool16,548,80915,923,1578,156,3096,195,1275,552,885
Phormium-fibre391,759371,520273,77865,72431,320
Seeds, grass and clover291,161172,621167,781180,494137,527
Tallow882,297719,099686,261505,979450,936
Coal172,468247,228215,568131,29070,872
Kauri-gum245,834247,094257,964124,168107,239
Gold518,408495,450544,999519,795797,476
Silver43,71143,28846,11033,84042,393
Leather20,78716,2068,7227,60711,388
Timber, sawn398,474408,158426,505188,684229,172
Other New Zealand produce656,857827,957874,829657,559050,140
Totals54,184,54555,288,40746,223,05736,275,68334,059,993
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE (QUANTITIES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30JUNE.
Commodity.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Butter cwt.1,467,9541,567,3931,817,7991,808,2321,968,686
Casein44,37246,01665,92861,56834,447
Cheese1,529,8721,661,0001,675,9061,789,8711,623,402
Fish24,70222,760119,2271,789,8711,623,4020
Honey lb.1,934,9402,565,795607,58l356,476447,526
Beef, frozen cwt.692,231509,738328,474280,929377,659
Beef, salted4,9902,3652,44211,9861,404
Lamb, frozen1,865,7841,879,6802,014,7022,300,8172,502,096
Mutton, frozen1,095,937961,2471,021,1461,188,1001,274,810
Mutton, frozen1,095,937961,2471,021,1461,188,1001,274,810
Pork, frozen127,297190,740132,730136,005115,015
Meats, preserved68,31653,49531,75837,48129,589
Sausage casings lb.3,715,8703,574,6614,200,7073,846,8803,734,870
Milk, preserved1,091,4972,060,8132,621,9901,053,265844,042
Apples, fresh39,651,28232,171,84056,211,7705259951460,649,823
Milk, dried12,414,03516,083,58510,746,15213,653,46711,405,770
Apples, fresh39,651,28232,171,84056,211,77052,599,51460,649,823
Peas cental207,917143,817153,31187,734112,475
Oats260,739725,4664,5691,7501,951
Hops lb.406,350282,979314,681197,71249,411
Potatoes ton9511,0561,5969061,202
Calfskins No.750,408741,923649,783676,683725,799
Hides, cattle and horse451,476355,490273,914,736,7616,062,270
Opossum skins133,344152,430152,4301,603,54748,511
Sheepskins, with wool1,371,7901,179,7881,207,6041,603,5471,693,912
Sheepskins, without wool8,626,6218,729,5759,762,6328,397,07511,494,834
Wool ball667,225687,833553,298648,630661,991
Phormium-fibre ton13,92113,62010,2453,2632,102
Seeds, grass and clover cwt.75,82755,93543,95544,58540,282
Tallow ton29,51021,35222,11823,86125,253
Coal oz.125,855120,506132,313126,816167,518
Silver437,609434,501512,148512,949584,705
Timber, sawn sup. ft.35,389,42137,617,32938,255,05416,827,13624,220,930

RE-EXPORTS.

The forwarding trade of New Zealand has never at any time been of great significance. Reexports consist partly of goods returned from New Zealand either as unsuitable or as finished with, Though the bulk of the total amount is made up by various classes of machinery, hardware, metal manufactures, motor-vehicles, and also items such as apparel, books, tobacco, and spirits.

There is, however, a genuine entrepot trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is still comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands, which are treated as part of the Dominion, are not included in the figures of either exports or reexports.

RE-EXPORTS (EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND.
 £
1911198,287
1912239,221
1913232,473
1914269,208
1915387,960
1916305,150
1917429,115
1918543,568
1919603,541
1920813,072
19211,213,002
19221,026,801
1923567,885
1924588,395
1925722,010
1926929,741
1927925,121
1928910,016
1929754,050
1930731,111
1931631,554

Re-exports in 1931 were equal to 1.80 per cent, of total exports in 1931 and to 2.55 per cent, of imports.

The destination of this reexport trade is shown in the following table:

Country.1027.1928.1929.1930.1931.
££££££
United Kingdom259,496246,814210,516238,636194,153
Canada14,53113.8139,37010,39711,654
Australia416,333408,966334,482234,134228,493
Australia416,333408,966334,482234,134228,493
Fiji43,68433,11134,65941,09529,013
Tonga18,22620,93311,92011,1467,546
Western Samoa21,44619,53114,92521,66615,012
United States of America120,935121,53496,459134,687108,687
Society Islands6,3944,9901,4551,3501,954
Other countries24,07640,32440,26438,00035,042
Totals (excluding specie)925,121910,016754,050731,111631,554

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS

The incidence of fluctuating prices over a number of years operates to render the currency of a country's trade of little value as an indicator of movement in the volume of trade—i.e., from a quantity point of view. Owing to the homogeneous nature of the bulk of the Dominion's exports it is, fortunately, possible in nearly every case to obtain the quantity exported as well as the value. By taking the prices of a selected base year or other period it is then possible to find what the value of the exports of each subsequent year would have been on the basis of prices ruling in the base period. This method is used by the British Board of Trade, and also by the Australian Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics, and is especially suitable for application to New Zealand. In point of fact, 90 per cent, of the Dominion's exports can be treated quantitively, leaving only 1 per cent, to be calculated pro rata.

In the following table the actually recorded exports are shown for 1900 and from 1922 to 1931. Values are also shown for 1922 onwards on the basis of prices ruling in 1900, and index numbers have been computed to show movement in the true volume of exports of New Zealand produce, both for the total and on a per caput basis.

Year.Recorded ValueValue at Rates ruling in 1900Index Numbers of “True”. Volume of Exports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head,Total. Per Head.
 ££££  
190013,055,24916.2713,055,24916.2710001000
192241,699,14831.9527,013,51320.702,0691,272
192345,371,90834.1623,945,23318.0318341,108
192451,92082838.3823,960,92217.7118351089
192554,521,03139.3923,879,28817.2618301061
192644,339,18331.3723,772,83116.8218221034
192747,571,23333.0725,695 95517.8619681098
192854,660,36538.0026,689,74618.332,0441,127
192954,176,01336.7827,490,07918.672,1061,147
193044,209,40629.6328,220,74818.912,1611,162
193134,319,24422.6728,549,65118.872,1871,160

The effect of prices on the total value of exports is seen at a dance from the accompanying diagram showing the yearly movement since 1900. The curve representing values on the basis of prices ruling in 1900 may also be taken as representing the course of the volume of trade on a quantity basis.

The total volume in 1931 was higher than in any other year, being 118.7 per cent, greater than in 1900. The per caput rate was highest in 1919, when the figure was 28 per cent, above the base year.

In order to show the effect of changes in price from year to year, and particularly in The latter years, it is interesting to construct a series of index numbers basing The figures for each year upon the prices of the previous year. In this way it is possible to compare succeeding years directly, instead of comparing each year with a given base. The method used is the same, except that the base is changed.

Year.Total Exports (Domestic Produce)Effect of Price-changes,
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.
 ££££
192241,699,14855,318,596..13,619,448
192345,371,90836,962,8278,409,081..
192451,920,82845,401,6356,519,193..
192554,521,03151,743,9352,777,096..
192644,339,18354,277,969..9,938,786
192747,571,23347,926,037..354,804
192854,660,36549,411,0465,249,319..
192954,176,01356,299,441..2,123,428
193044,209,40655,615,979..11,406,573
193134,319,24444,724,651..10,405,407

The comparison of each year with the preceding year brings out The advantage gained by a rise in prices. The gain shown represents the surplus value added by rising prices to the exports of any year, and, similarly, the loss shows how falling prices penalize New Zealand.

A study of the figures given in The Statistical Summary at the end of this book, and showing quantities and values of the principal commodities exported over a period of fifty years, will give a good idea of the relative effects of increased volume and of price movements in the huge growth of external trade during the half century as measured by the total value of exports.

The following comparison between the year ended 30th June, 1914, and the corresponding twelve monthly periods ending in 1930, 1931, and 1932, is of interest as showing the influence of price variation during recent years. As mentioned earlier, June years are in many respects preferable to calendar years, as affording a comparison between one season and another.

Commodity.Twelve Months ended 30th June,1914.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1930.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1931.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1932.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of 1913-14.Recorded Value.Value at Prices of 1913-14.Recorded Value.Value at Prices of 1913-14
 £££££££
Butter2,107,77113,022,9579,824,3309,918,2009,772,03110,127,50710,638,779
Cheese2,317,0706,301,3204,909,4025,220,0005,307,3314,570,1324,813,717
Beef, frozen561,817577,120470,158384,419402,103364,307540,555
Lamb, frozen (whole carcasses,2,545,1756,884,7174,400,1096,523,5435,025,5716,275,3835,466,526
Mutton, frozen (whole carcasses)1,880,5832,042,3011,505,7021,810,7001,821,0891,575,4771,954,639
Pork, frozen5,843407,475308,125382,844315,727240,045207,000
Meat, preserved122,078143,277.112,801134,9191133,12890,290105,097
Sausage casings132,038779,051127,437500,535110,703302,433113,305
Apples12,160724,595454,079649,790424,899758,010489. 929
Hides319,0051374,040441,280298,100493,917195,040491,507
Rabbitskins90,350315,108108,905130,25188,84490,72579,949
Sheepskins (without wool)545,0371,330,524733,104647,898630,012!604,742863,251
Wool8,262,1538,150,3007,888,8536,195,1279,320,3055,552,8859,457,634
Phormium-fibre576,095273,778245,84165,72478,30031,32050,440
Tallow711,858680,201635,177505,970685,232450,930725,207
Kauri-gum790,333257,904398,222124,108213,482107,239240,513
Gold1,485,937544,909513,159519,795491,840797,476649,098
Timber, sawn372,092420,505192,885188,08484,842229,172122,122
Totals12,029,29043,375,00033,389,03934,207,47735,407,21032,375,73137,069,913
Other N.Z. produce)1,383,4542,847,451..2,068,206..1,084,262..
Grand totals24,312,74440,223,057..30,275,083..34,059,993..

A considerable increase in prices is reflected in the figures for 1929-30, which show the recorded values to be greatly in excess of values based on 1913-14 prices. For 193031 and 1931-32, however, the position is reversed, the total recorded values in both years being less than values based on 1913-14 prices. Wool shows the most notable decline, the average price in 1931-32 being only three fifths of that of 1913-14. The adjusted values afford a reliable comparison in the volume of exports, which has shown a progressive increase during the last three years, the volume in 1931-32 being 62 per cent, greater than in 1913-14. The eighteen items utilized in arriving at the foregoing percentage comprise 94 per cent, of the total exports of domestic produce, and therefore may lie taken as Throughly representative of the whole. This growth in volume has been achieved in spite of an increase of some 400,000 in the consuming population of the Dominion, with little increase in the number of These engaged in producing the principal export commodities.

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS.

Trade with the Cook Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the Dominion, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. Separate returns are made of the transactions between the Dominion and the annexed islands, and exports to the islands are summarized below:—

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Cook Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with dependencies.

SUBSECTION C. — IMPORTS.

METHOD OF RECORDING.

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The value shown for all merchandise imported is now The current domestic value in the country of export at The time of exportation, plus 10 per cent. Import values are expressed in terms of sterling, conversion from other currencies being, since October, 1931, made at the banking rate of exchange between such currencies and sterling.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.

A classification of imports under five broad divisions is given in the following table for the last ten years. Taken in conjunction with a table based on the same classification which is given in the Exports subsection of this section, the figures show plainly how New Zealand is essentially a primary producing country, importing the bulk of her manufactured goods from overseas in exchange for her primary produce.

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Bullion and Specie.Total.
 ££££££
19225,855,2873,318,02425,381,048213,211244,99135,012,561
19237,045,1852,233,83533,712,645371,64115,18743,3/8,493
19248,845,1592,981,21836,271,395429,37445748,527,603
19258,555,8173,069,49040,413,659373,31914,12252,456,407
19268,471,7752,767,19338,190,328379,15481,11349,889,563
19277,541,3382,512,61334,462,816263,1583,02144,782,946
19287,152,7742,385,87635,001,157299,84746,61244,886,266
19296,635,6892,289,48339,496,050306,10770,64848,797,977
19305,863,8751,850,49134,694,397251,166365,98543,025,914
19314,271,8831,389,27918,955,713137,63058,45324,812,958

The principal groups of commodities imported are clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, motor-vehicles and accessories, chemicals and drugs, manures, and timber. The proportions of these imports have changed little for many years, except. that motor-vehicles and oils (including motor-spirits), although showing a marked decline during 1830 and 1931, have increased very rapidly in recent years.

The table which follows gives a classification recently adopted by the British Hoard of Trade. The grouping by countries is on the basis of country of origin.

IMPORTS, 1931.
United KingdomOther British CountriesUnited StatesOther Foreign Countries.Totals
 £££££
Grain and milled products46,508288,52014,87512,191362,094
Meat (including poultry and game)7463787311,162
Butter, cheese, and eggs361,985..3072,328
Fruit (fresh and dried)..447,110139,68645,840632,636
Sugar10758,3276,320487,851552,605
Tea..646,599..3,951650,550
Alcoholic beverages303,99250,16164168,157422,951
Tobacco249,585206,153207,7385,370668,846
Coal739,193, 398....194,137
Ores, concentrates, and scrap440155666071,62
Iron and steel—     
Pigs, ingots, &c.4,33318,723..5,89028,946
Bars, rods, plate, sheet, &c.643,04336,3443982,155681,940
Other manufactures of iron and steel960,596145,746115,03996,2451,317,626
Agricultural implements and machinery22,99111,31411,8952,78548,985
Electrical machinery and apparatus767,673134,680299,215132,5441,334,112
Other machinery475,64287,051204,012160,816927,521
Motor-cars and parts thereof852,114207,266170,58817,4411,247,409
Other metals and metal manufactures312,86264,67521,14362,690461,370
Cotton, raw..........
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)22111..14,23114,463
Wool, raw..408....408
Yarns and threads231,49812,7973,74315,961263,999
Cotton piece-goods1,046,97316,62523,20274,3611,161,161
Woollen piece-goods361,8869021,80536,920401,513
Other piece-goods305,23275,14020,449354,895755,716
Other textiles (including apparel)1,924,029452,95870,675331,1502,778,812
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, &c.)258,84819,10922,92056,335357,212
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)18,635165,42545,74097,400327,200
Newsprint103,996219,856342,541326,427
Seeds and nuts for expressing oil therefrom..........
Oil-Petroleum, crude and refined38,93112,7591,610,317279,2481,941,255
Hides, skins, and furs, undressed1,2426,05036,7584,68048,730
Leather and manufactures thereof (including boots and shoes)336,77259,91051,29220,479468,453
Other merchandise2,872,5421,593,992804,7031,103,0746,374,311
Total merchandise12,142,2125,234,3873,883,7613,496,14624,756,506
Gold and silver (coin and bullion)50,4374,7031,312..56,452
Total imports12,192,6495,239,0903,885,0733,496,14624,812,958

Since 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports have been compiled according to a statistical classification which assembles the items in well defined classes as shown in the following table, which gives the imports under The various classes for the year 1931:—

No.Class.Value in 1031.
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)189,126
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt2,214,185
IIIBeverages (nonalcoholic) and substances used in making up the same755,990
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors465,151
VTobacco and preparations thereof668,846
VILive animals41,813
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs53,935
VIIIVegetable substances and nonmanufactured fibres381,993
IXAApparel2,408,845
IXBTextiles3,061,365
IXCManufactured fibres314,274
XOils, fats, and waxes2.120,064
XIPaints and varnishes196,695
XIIISpecie56,155
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partly manufactured, and ores214,148
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines2,254,107
XVMachinery and machines2,270,942
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)87,975
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes189,218
XVIIATimber222,681
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures81,826
XVI11Earthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials451,076
XIXAPaper852,612
XIXBStationery629,439
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods629,439
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods453,918
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments411,710
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares984,343
XXIIBManures522,095
XXIIIAVehicles1,340,460
XXIIIBMiscellaneous708,725
 Total£24,812,958

All of the thirty-one classes show decreases as compared with 1930, the total for 1931 being £18,212,956 less than the previous year's figure.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.

The import trade of the Dominion, Though spread over more countries than the export trade, is yet confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, The United States, and Canada. In the days of the first settlement Australia was The source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, tended to decrease steadily till from 60 per cent, in 1862 it fell to between 10 and 12 per cent., a figure which remained fairly constant until 1925, after which there was a progressive decline to less than 7 per cent, in 1929, since when the trend has been upward.

In the decade immediately proceeding the war The United Kingdom supplied about 60 per cent, of The total imports. The proportion has fallen a good deal in recent years, as explained later. In the " eighties" and " nineties" the figure was, on the average, nearer 70 per cent, than 60 per cent.

The cause of this relative is to be found in the development of trade with other countries in recent years, particularly with the United States and Canada, and in a less degree with Japan, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Sweden, and other European countries. The United States was sending goods to New Zealand practically from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 percent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 percent., through the proportion maintained a steady increase for several years after the war, and, indeed, actually surpassed its old level. In 1931 nearly 16 percent. of the total imports came from the United States, this representing a continuance of the decline which set in during 1930.

India captured the New Zealand jute-market in the early "eighties" and since then there has been a regular import of cornsacks, woolpacks. In former times the colony imported its sugar from Fiji but in late years Fiji has been largely supplanted by the Dutch East Indies and Cuba. Similarly, the import of tea from China has given way to imports from Ceylon.

The table which follows shows imports from each of the principal countries during the last twenty years.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OFSHIPMENT.
Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 ££££££££
191212,499,7872,583,887394,249395,208289,008764,7902,049,618154,587
191313,312 1932,914,848152,519121,209275,350840,4932,107,990151,106
191411,985,5463,376,371479,140486,978394,444738,7512,282,966137,501
191511,141,0073,554,535797,810527,942408,6971,128,9592,600,248304,322
191613,809,4554,002,171757,286572,257300,7531,053,7543,909,925562,974
19178,817,5133,660,031757,041612,003353,6131,203,3723,900,058028,822
19188,977,7256,133,349930,964712,633319,498939,3414,980,7481,214,865
191911,839,4305,081,9681,622,234772,838383,209980,1867,676,3141,258,016
192029,800,41010,555,6072,386,915900,577725,2781,824,01211,100,2591,470,071
192121,448,8176,486,8471,687,595593,151310,8131,909,1027,746,157593,343
192219,416,4704,213,0351,545,037437,851499,7051,459,3454,948,778485,327
192324,003,0714,259,3232,030,026732,359701,065859,7576,696,723548,032
192424,904,1780,303,0733,909,152726,483822,987981,2747,551,357458,904
192527,203,5095,855,9893,906,152888,787830,4191,251,7978,626,950659,140
192024,331,4105,059,7793,430,088850,720857,011941,3209,729,251557,113
192722,078,8024,204,1752,721,812755,907840,805435,0347,827,755579,984
192822,531,8803,808,2813,237,750771,450843,085584,1827,953,761558,033
192923,738,0473,031,0254,774,493719,293899,828180,4929,073,208013,235
i03021,132,1423,074,07313,804,909627,543093,570217,8207,391,361550,580
193112,004,3932,085,808l,217,937389,325013,142108,9503,098,714298,307

The figures given in The foregoing table are on The basis of country of shipment. From 1914 onwards, figures are also available showing countries of origin, and a supplementary table on this basis is now given.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OFORIGIN
Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.FijiUnited States.Japan.
 ££££££££
191411,257,7202,082,218455,408502,495420,181738,4282,537,545232,304
191510,023,4202,730,174795,017540,540431,81811,120,3792,802,537343,071
191613,313,5883,079,179701,105588,190380,8481,050,0254,358,808616,003,
19178,594,0102,030,119771,952040,190397,4191,198,5894,204,279093,308
19183,703,4804,043,383950,538729,419323,123935,3855,472,1221,200,416
191911,523,6533,910,1031,049,550787,009388,428977,3198,053,1271,313,205
192023,564,5878,024,8852,453,379940,500729,8931,818,52911,750,0901,522,675
192120,832,5205,400,3811,727,503607,020320,1881,900,0388,100,907003,275
192213,290,1733,293,0321,550,213441,581501,4191,448,0985,379,372504,955
192322,532,2053,053,4202,950,984742,551705,022853,1030,950,002500,004
192423,203,3255,051,0273,914,404741,202837,500970,3937,788,593400,835
192525,572,8025,249,4033,916,237912,741841,5901,230,4568,835,205893,032
192022,827,4064,025,2003,431,533801,573808,821892,89410,000,507582,352
192721,464,1143,869,2462,739,820759,329855,048424,7858,079,407501,903
192821,289,2753,499,1513,258,828782,144860,880571,7288,204,197576,495
192922,560,1433,258,7274,792,820700,750923,748174,8949,319,920025,714
193020,331,9863,308,0153,802,925037,832701,759200,8777,573,053505,204
103112,192,0492,437,0551,224,509392,033017,042102,0793,885,073304,532

Of the total imports in 1931, the eight countries shown above supplied 85 per cent, on the basis of origin and 87 per cent, on the basis of shipment. Other countries which supplied more than one half of 1 per cent, of the Dominion's imports in 1931 were—

Country.Imports according to
Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
Value.Per Cent, of Total.Value.Per Cent. of Total.
 £ £ 
Germany408,195164574,500231
Dutch East Indies844,329340848,216342
France222,349090327,646132
Belgium269,056109289,478117
Sweden242,267098253,341102
Netherlands110,416045130,945053
Switzerland104,094042150,249061
Italy84,704034130,345053

About three quarters of imports produced on the Continent of Europe are received direct, the balance coming mainly through the United Kingdom. Direct shipments from the United Kingdom in 1931 exceeded by £472,244 the imports of goods produced in that country. In view, however, of the considerable quantity of British goods that enter New Zealand by way of Australia it would not be correct to take that figure as fully measuring the reexport trade done by Groat Britain in goods from abroad intended for the Dominion.

Australia acts as a reexporting centre for a certain proportion of goods received from India and Ceylon. The South African Union and the British West Indies both produce more of the imports than they ship direct. The figures for Canada show a small balance in favour of goods of Canadian origin. In the case of the United States, goods to the value cf approximately £1 80,000 annually are imported indirectly.

The following table shows for the last nine years the percentage of total imports from each of the principal countries concerned:—

IMPORTS (COUNTRY OFORIGIN).
Country.1923.1024.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1929.1931.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
United Kingdom51.9447.828.7545.7647.9347.4346.2547.2649.17
Canada6.808.077.476.886.127.269.818.844.94
India1.711.531.741.731.701.741.571.481.58
Ceylon1.631.721.621.741.911.921.881.642.49
South African Union0.250.180.220.280.270.230.210.210.28
Australia8.4211 6410019,2718.647.796.687.699.80
Fiji1.972.002.371.790.951.270.360.470.42
Other British countries0.740.870.780.851.071.001.051.191.57
Totals, British countries73.4673.8372.9668.3068.5968.6467.8168.7870.25
Germany0.160.600.951.351.872.001.932.272.32
France1.731.561.751.631.991.831.491.411.32
Belgium0.640.560.840.790.891.111.161.041.17
Japan1.291.021.321.171.321.281.281.311.23
Dutch East Indies2.602.171.171.591.972.232.361.893.42
United States of America16.0416.0516.0516.0518.0418.2819.1017.6015.65
Other foreign countries4.084.214.075.125.334.634.875.704.64
Totals, foreign countries26.5420.1727.0431.7031.4131.3632.1931.2229.75

Prior to The war, imports from the United Kingdom represented about 60 per cent, of The total, and These of United Kingdom origin would appear on this basis to have been about 55 per cent, of the aggregate. The latter are now a little less than one half of the total. The principal reason for The decline is found in the foreign competition which became established during the war and immediate postwar years, particularly in the motor-trade. Since 1929, however, there has been a progressive increase in the proportion of United Kingdom goods, particularly' motor-vehicles, and tires, tubes, and covers entering the Dominion. Although concerned mainly with hardware and soft goods, the range of the trade is a very wide one indeed, covering practically the whole field of the Dominion's imports.

Ranking next to Great Britain in the list of exporters to New Zealand, The United States built up a considerable trade during The war period, and of recent years imports from that source have accounted for one fifth to one sixth of the total. The highest percentage (2005) was reached in 1926, The lower level of subsequent years being due to decreases in motor-vehicles and motor-spirits. Motor-spirits now make up the greater part of the total, motor-vehicles having undergone a pronounced decline since 1929 in favour of the United Kingdom. In 1929 the United States supplied 41 per cent, (on a value basis) of the motorcars entering the Dominion, and 53 per cent, of the lorries, trucks, vans, and buses; in 1931 the corresponding percentages were 13 and 38 respectively. An important factor in the declining trade with the United States is the high rate of exchange against New Zealand.

Although imports of Australian origin in 1931 were £870,900 less than in 1930. Australia's share (on a percentage basis) of the total imports in 1931 was the greatest since 1925. Notwithstanding a decline of 42 per cent, in the total Dominion imports for 1931, Australia recorded actual increases in a number of items, notably in dried fruits and oranges. Hardwood timber, the principal importing 1930, fell away in 1931 to less than one quarter of the previous year's figure.

Imports of Canadian origin in 1931 dropped considerably, the decline being mainly due to the great decrease in motor-vehicles, owing to the imposition of additional Customs duty.

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.

The table which follows shows by main countries of origin details of the principal imports into New Zealand during each of The five years 1927 to 1931.

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.
Country of Origin.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Confectionery
 £££££
United Kingdom136,01985,315105,214115,25058,014
Canada29,15126,04239,15732,5710,155
Australia146,137139,78553,81842,07141,432
France10,0124,5578,4686,2961,133
Switzerland8,9466,1843,1683,4811,260
United States of America4,5035,1894,9233,9202,313
Other countries3,2911,0072,0133,4481,301
Totals330,040260,090217,301207,037112,508
Sugar.
Australia0,50010,12410,8839,0038,407
Fiji270,773425,73304,177141,62651,772
Dutch Fast Indies262,024601,002408,080103,006487,824
Cuba322,684..247,262251,017..
Peru82,00055,02123183,808..
United States of America25,29432,14332,93256,27825,378
Other countries3,9051,4313,0130,8151,667
Totals978,1481,126,444766,979758,203575,108
Tea.
      
Ceylon823,200330,759890,057080,310590,808
India48,72033,45!)25,55223,51040,730
Dutch East Indies13,0037,2084,3692,128389
Other countries5,7190,3019,3954,4523,503
Totals801,008883,847935,373935,373050,550
Tobacco and Preparations thereof.
United Kingdom1,174,057959,329710,000528,024249,585
Australia350,857320,701370,113200,577201,405
United States of America173,517200,015249,052334,720207,738
Other countries20,05520,01218,79710,81010,028
Totals1,729,2801,501,6171,348,5681,146,737668,846
Hosiery.
United Kingdom322,314342 754324 447295 003217 007
Canada27,28452,125110,402138,23438,000
Germany13,0149,3938,33210,1486,354
United States of America90,953103,39953,17123,81418,243
Other countries6,4501,03513,37714,54418,243
Totals400,020519,200509,729482,403347,463
Millinery.
United Kingdom22,840180,162194,568189,795116,805
Australia16,2808,47211,53210,3184,495
France16,16020,23524,03416,1317,390
Germany11,95314,30416,60813,4435,913
Italy33,45336,58243,45041,14915,574
United States of America17,14217,61516,92814,4433,453
Other countries21,21023,69539,31337,76817,875
Totals340,047301,065346,433323,047171,500
Miscellaneous Apparel and Ready made Clothing.
United Kingdom1,455,1831,035,0331,703,3511,003,731943,730
Canada50,99269,24369,24359,61031,745
Australia14,72416,65413,09016,12712,581
Austria23,50031,34927,43922,4276,403
Belgium30,32320,27719,70618,1375,641
France154,252114,778120,51178,62826,400
Germany114,794128,556123,405113,75946,711
Italy15,02618,25237,72040,65523,179
Switzerland26,12125,42221,70618,0656,475
Japan22,50124,96929,14628,58718,214
United States of America97,80278,94373,78261,66428,239
Other countries16,74820,70827,75830,45412,644
Totals2,021,9722,185,1342,267,3262,091,8941,161,962
Boots and Shoes.
Boots and Shoes.743,941775,582738,552050,018300,514
Canada157,749203,527250,254200,27777,998
Australia6,4703,0072,0704,10827,400
Other Countries10,00415,08019,28521,50822,113
Totals949,7771,019,3231,066,087928,085445,570
Miscellaneous Drapery
United Kingdom509,028557,100004,238488,229283,387
Australia18,37523,10023,92018,09113,042
France49,63541,01434,85621,56913,631
Germany45,59138,74336,22121,10714,882
Switzerland64,21966,72261,23644,36026,057
China8,48310,32210,5309,6487,320
Japan2,4543,9394,5083,4722,820
Other countries41,30546,93445,63340,02120,721
Totals799,900788,036821,142646,497382,469
 Cotton piece-goods n.e.i.— Linen and Canvas
 £££££
United Kingdom1,682,4461,709,2901,756,8651,627,1921,040,973
Belgium26,44936,62543,77650,93523,528
Japan61,34751,00058,06656,36422,500
United States of America74,41082,10273,11449,82723,202
Other countries44,80954,97880,33488,29544,958
Totals1,889,5271,994,0012,012,1551,872,613l,161,161
Silk, &c., Piece-goods.
United Kingdom130,039208,147437,830303,728234,589
Czechoslovakia9,53212,73513,34522,90212,022
France123,930139,713151,731125,41779,884
Germany27,90331,48033,85050,30524,223
Italy25,22031,62941,50735,67421,325
Switzerland114,313100,27584,58475,71945,743
China6,0067,15310,6337,14713,665
Japan377,832368,160377,624302,785148,667
United States of America7,81013,42428,75325,0499,404
Other countries9,42020,67132,10521,39520,009
Totals832,0201,001,7871,212,0281,020,721610,191
Woollen Piece-goods.
United Kingdom723,828718,220079,077501,725301,880
France35,39030,32321,41117,7449,601
Germany12,05313,12724,04826,74318,508
Other countries15,80014,91717,51316,04411,428
Totals787,986785,593742,649622,256401,513
Paints and Varnishes.
United Kingdom280,055270,205287,072242,064130,577
Canada3,0051,1803,1151,9311,553
Australia27,37930,31143,70037,70228,747
Germany4,1823,9407,0948,2804,914
United States of America54,28805,87887,05501,06326,674
Other countries10,0159,2818,7307,3664,230
Totals388,524380,795437,762350,306106,605
Iron and Steel.—Bar, Bolt, and Rod.
United Kingdom104,426176,268187,074186,87288,540
Canada113,16278,33070,84663,07110,816
Australia1,0319158341,30017,708
Other countries1,5071,1237,0951,2131,031
Totals310,126256,645271,899253,125118,704
Iron and Steel.—Tubes, Pipes, and Fillings.
United Kingdom463,180389,779460,312372,909191,733
Canada50,03162,40870,13343,05710,703
Australia1,7532,1003,4743,0054,143
United States of America7,5195,2954,94413,5032,901
Other countries9,5067,88810,28811,0473,599
Totals531,080407,530540,151444,241213,100
Artificers' Tools.
United Kingdom152,280108,007170,344102,05284,817
Canada20,55823,96233,04427,22712,150
Germany12,49415,92220,06320,8207,824
United States of America98,07983,393111,00082,30826,722
Other countries9,06710,07310,76010,1096,067
Totals293,078301,957353,020302,570138,180
Fencing-wire.— Plain and Barbed.
United Kingdom121,269157,309103,874145,871100,252
Canada55,79874,14500,11831,3008,534
Australia1,4561,506..5963,183
United States of America1,0018,8032,1754,2277,052
Other countries1,7837851,1924,8158,970
Totals181,307242,608230,350186,815133,991
Miscellaneous Hardware
 £££e;££
United Kingdom698,208633,056570,820,513,305262,636
Canada57,74632,05445,6581022,12012,433
Australia44,66140,75333,10124,27024,563
Germany36,97540,00148,99747,82224,467
Sweden21,71814,0187,75811,3144,616
United175,135148,988180,567156,00650,871
Other countries18,81216,57220,54724,86613,408
Totals1,053,253925,452917,448870,703392,994
Agricultural Machinery.
United Kingdom46,70256,32884,49081,34422,991
Canada67,05649,95157,99547,6966,449
Australia26,62633,24632,44727,67419,962
Denmark4,7967,3237,82311,1971,529
Germany7,42013,89318,49520,3503,456
Sweden53,25474,03239,47187,67148,093
United States of America3,8165,96621,87718,8146,997
Other counties3,5511,7792,6931,9603,290
Totals109,552153,192138,166191,22295,840
Dairying Machinery.
United Kingdom10,08016,95315,30023,55012,522
Australia26,62633,24632,44727,67419,962
Denmark4,7967,3237,82311,1971,529
Germany7,42013,89318,49520,3503,456
Sweden53,25474,03239,47187,67148,003
United States of America3,8165,96621,87718,8146,997
Other countries3,5511,7792,6931,9603,200
Totals109,552153,102138,166191,22295,840
Leather and Leather Gods (excluding Books and Shoes).
United Kingdom206,068222,061227,370214,01594,064
Canada21,95119,29217,49815,3745,589
Australia30,76421,06625,37230,44127,734
Germany26,17933,24436,09724,35010,271
United States of America84,44480,01191,37283,79847,619
Other countries3,8564,9936,98910,3003,941
Totals373,262380,667404,698378,278189,218
Canada101,57980,32288,90975,73217,927
Australia424,347366,208338,962508,031124,244
Sweden32,57130,93342,46759,69634,067
Japan47,62548,95160,98661,08414,916
United States of America186,972216,379246,203203,20022,555
Other countries7,0497,27912,6469,7708,972
Totals800,143750,072790,173917,513222,681
Earthenware and Chinaware.
United Kingdom274,410236,604311,696273,621154,210
Australia3,2622,4362,4842,214962
Czecho-Slovakia12,44112,0477,2244,4961,867
Germany16,75911,68611,9656,9992,857
Japan7,0935,8589,0618,558 
Other countries2,3302,3594,1702,8951,857
Totals316,295270,790345,989299,286170,311
Glass and Glassware.
 £££££
United Kingdom184,216182,369197,140143,07682,364
Canada5,8735,4544,4844,0022,981
Australia44,50830,95518,71716,76413,558
Belgium45,21833,72548,86043,84415,841
Czecho-Slovakia14,23216,62620,52620,4148,516
Germany18,46016,86621,74220,7569,263
United States of America32,84628,32330,17932,84721,153
Other countries11,75010,70616,16711,6926,482
Totals357,103325,024357,815293,395160,158
Printing Paper.
United Kingdom246,564273,690219,106262,350202,138
Canada287,588285,182336,924304,131228,260
Newfoundland39,049285,1821,871304,131228,260
United States of America2,37114,75723,86125,44118,540
Other countries4,61120,01725,23522,40723,036
Totals580,183593,055606,997614,329472,569
Paper, other than Printing.
United Kingdom244,556243,012261,024253,826176,210
Canada96,63690,77998,912100,28868,519
Australia9,5048,32110,7987,4494,735
Belgium15,28619,73320,24516,9459,246
Germany7,28412,98719,04320,84215,119
Netherlands12,53015,73518,62916,5648,820
Norway16,13217,84721,14419,52610,982
Sweden23,45823,47433,02540,43624,812
United States of America65,20858,59574,66180,72156,179
Other countries16,31511,03612,9729,0525,421
Totals506,909501,519570,453565,649380,043
Books, Papers, and Music.
United Kingdom380,910370,420397,202360,798257,364
Australia64,86162,00567,75370,75253,062
United States of America42,56346,70143,46344,12337,579
Other countries4,0325,7895,3045,4783,870
Totals492,366484,915513,722481,151352,481
Miscellaneous Stationery.
United Kingdom257,761287,798301,656274,292162,911
Canada13,59815,67917,02615,6408,995
Australia57,59659,58960,70453,48043,496
Germany13,72416,45317,02017,92710,851
United States of America67,613 |66,23478,60472,38242,709
Other countries12,15012,67714,64215,2057,990
Totals422,442458,430489,652448,926276,958
Fancy Goods and Toys.
United Kingdom: 200,038184,151211,630187,650109,619
Australia14,33514,75913,42813,1766,924
Czecho-Slovakia8,29114,72926,61924,40317,931
France56,40651,12746,75346,30938,899
Germany82,64774,01281,63780,24934,515
Japan15,57216,79516,54517,33812,474
United States of America26,30225,26725,89723,9269,603
Other countries17,94218,86822,15920,31813,874
Totals421,533399,708444,668413,369243,839
Motor-cycles.
United Kingdom130,243145,660161,026124,62236,233
United States of America35,358,27,68828,1159,522215
Other countries3249218..29
Totals165,633173,397189,359134,14436,477
Motor-cars.
United Kingdom441,416461,307684,820563,591304,792
Canada221,757557,9501,335,810923,17250,305
United States of America040,0531,280,761,380,714504,22002,071
Other countries51,04051,0400,5374,5143,997
Totals1,633,2662,336,2993,407,8871,995,497481,785
Motor Lorries, Trucks, Vans, and Buses.
United Kingdom121,727127,828108,029123,44740,431
Canada54,60235,416238,430191,35313,548
United States of America191,001253,987459,856164,42036,053
Other countries4,04012,5413,6123,278242
Tires, Tubes, and Covers for Motor-vehicles.
United Kingdom273,039201,905315,781316,465375,793
Canada520,274595,385754,709413,707118,906
Australia6753,0452,1444,7655,289
France158,604110,10123,28014,6095,714
Italy27,9644,1051,45914,302741
United States of America74,77277,90561,83145,27412,312
Other countries3,4972,2083,628581107
Totals1,058,825994,7741,102,841809,703518,022
Tires, Tubes, and Covers for Motor-vehicles.
Dutch East Indies420,111220,573523,944523,525230,697
United States of America1,585,8651,434,7851,580,6651,566,7871,006,409
Other countries79326,226230200
Totals2,005,9831,055,4512,130,8352,090,5421,243,306

IMPORTS FROM COOK ISLANDS.

Trade with the Cook Islands is not included in the export and import totals for the Dominion, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows the growth of the import trade from the group during the last ten years:—

Year.Imports.Year.Imports.
1922131,6391927111,095
1923125,4461928119,521
1924149,6761929124,043
1925126,4651930122,156
1926115,391193187,581

The principal articles imported for the last live years are as follows:—

Article.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Fruits, fresh—     
Bananas26,46430,10637,25344,92136,178
Oranges52,90058,08658,93758,99036,082
Tomatoes18,01319,84020,22811,79410,939
Other530406262938791
Coconuts6457511,5251,057547
Copra6,8007,9533,7032,173399
All other items5,7432,3792,1352,2832,645

SUBSECTION D.—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE.

THE TARIFF.

A SUMMARIZED historical account of the Customs tariff of New Zealand, setting forth the principal developments and changes from earliest times to the present, will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. The tariff has developed into a complex and detailed schedule of duties, owing to the increasing use of it in recent years for protective purposes, as well as to the extension of the principle of British preference.

The following list of principal items which are free of duty illustrates to a certain extent, the protective nature of the tariff as at present in force, while the second list indicates, in respect of items not bearing a protective duty, the wide range of the preference granted to British goods. Considerations of space prevent the inclusion of a list of commodities which are dutiable in any case, but at. a lower rate when of British origin.

Free in any Case.—Live animals: barley (if not to be used in the manufacture of beer); bran; pollard; seeds: cocoa-beans; raw coffee; vegetable butters or fats: currants: raisins; dates; figs and prunes: glucose and caramel; nuts, except walnuts; rice; spices, unground: acids; inorganic salts of metallic elements and many other drugs and chemicals; bags and sacks; wool-packs; raw cotton: hat makers' materials: buttons; tapes; pins: wadding; cotton piece-goods for meat-wraps and cheese-bandages: umbrella-makers' materials; upholsterers'materials: coir, flax, and jute yarns; grindery; leather made from goat and kid skins; japanned or enamelled leather: bricks other than firebricks; marble in the rough; grindstones and whetstones; cinema films (subject however to film —hire tax); bookbinders' materials: cardboard and similar boards; parchment and greaseproof paper; paper (other than wrapping) in sheets of size not less than 20 in. by loin.: printed books, papers, and music; beekeepers' apparatus; percussion caps, detonators, and explosives; hay rakes, reapers and binders, mowers, and certain other agricultural implements: dairying machinery; sewing-machines: iron and other metal in ingots, pigs, or billets: animal and vegetable (other than linseed) oils; kerosene and other refined mineral oils other than motor-spirit: waxes; hewn and rough—sawn timber of Australian origin: cork; crude tanning materials; manures.

Free if British, but dutiable if Foreign.—Bananas, oranges, mandarins, and grapefruit: infants' and invalids' foods; mustard; salt; sago and tapioca in bulk; maizena and cornflour in bulk: cream of tartar; disinfectants; manufactured dyes; most surgical, dental, optical, and scientific instruments and materials; felt, cotton, linen, and canvas piece-goods; leather—cloth; oil baize; sowing, c., cottons and threads: tailors' lining materials: cotton, silk, and artificial silk yarns; belting (other than leather); children's boots and shoes; gum boots; rubber hose; most rubber manufactures, except tires for motor—vehicles; cement and asbestos sheets and slates: sheet glass: lenses: watch—glasses; artists' materials: paperhangings: sensitized surfaces; waxed paper; paper (other than wrapping) in rolls; ball bearings: bolts and nuts; rivets and washers: buckles: chains; fire-engines, fire—extinguishers, and other fire—extinguishing appliances; adding and computing machines; typewriters; most electrical apparatus: measuring, testing, c., appliances; sheep—shearing machines; tractors; artificers', c., tools: machine tools and machinery peculiar to industrial processes; iron and other metal in bars or sheets; wire and wire netting; metal cordage; wrought—iron pipes not exceeding 6 in. diameter; rails for railways and tramways; under-carriage springs and metal fittings for vehicles.

Under the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1931, inter alia, certain items otherwise free were made dutiable. The items affected were raw sugar and undressed fur—skins of any origin, and the following which had been free when of British origin: Tea, in bulk; linoleums and similar floor—coverings; textile piece—goods of silk or artificial silk; chinaware, earthenware, and porcelain ware for table use; cameras. Certain increases in duty' were made by the Act.

Tariff rates must be regarded as subject to modification in the near future as the result of undertakings by the Government at the Empire Conference at Ottawa, July-August, 1932. As yet (October, 1932) the agreement has not yet been ratified by the respective Legislatures.

The rates of duty levied by the tariff are divided into two classes, specific and Id valorem. In addition to these, there is a surtax on dutiable goods, which is not included in the rates quoted below. There is also a primage duty on most goods otherwise free. The specific class includes: Spirits, 40s. per gallon; perfumed spirits, 70s. per gallon for British goods and 90s. per gallon for foreign; cigars, 15s. per lb.; cigarettes under 2 1/2 lb. per 1,000, 33s. Del. per 1,000; tobacco, fine cut, 13s. 3d. per lb.; other manufactured tobacco, (3s. 2d. and Gs. per lb.; unmanufactured tobacco, 2s. 6d. per lb. Wine, sparkling, pays 10s. per gallon; other kinds, 6s. Ale and beer pay 3s. per gallon. The duty charged on tea in packages under 5 lb. is 5(1. per lb. British and 7d. foreign, bulk tea being charged 3d. and 8d. per lb. respectively; roasted coffee pays 3d. per lb. if British and 7d. if foreign; cocoa also, 3d. and Gd. per l b.: and refined sugar, 7d. per lb., irrespective of origin. The ad valorem duties ordinarily range from 5 to 65 per cent., this latter figure (temporarily increased Lo 70 per cent. up to 31st. March, 1933) being charged only on apparel made in a foreign country to the order of a resident in New Zealand.

The surtax referred to above was imposed in 1930 and applies only to dutiable goods. It is one—twentieth of the total duty otherwise payable on certain specified items (including now sugar) and nine-fortieths of such duty on all other items, an exception being made in the case of wheat and wheat—flour, which are not subject to the surtax.

The primage duty, which applies to all “free” imports with certain specified exceptions, is 3 per cent, of the value of such imports. It came into force from 31st July, 1931.

Provision exists for a special dumping duty. This may be imposed in cases where the goods are sold to the importer under conditions which might injuriously affect manufacturers in New Zealand or in any other part of the British Empire. In such a case the special duty is not to exceed the difference between the actual selling-price and The current domestic value. No such dumping duty, however, is levied where the imposition is not required in the public interest.

In the space of a short discussion such as this it is impossible to give any account of the range of duties spread over the numerous tariff items or of recent changes in these. Reference is, however, now made to the duties on certain commodities of particular interest.

A sliding scale of duty was provided in 1927 in the case of wheat and flour. The duty on wheat is from 1st March, 1932, 8d. per bushel (of 60 lb.) when the current domestic value at the port of export to New Zealand is 5s., the duty falling by 1/2d. for every Ad. by which the value rises, and vice versa. The standard flour duty is 1 12s. for a 13 ton (2,000 lb.), the rate moving up or down by Is. inversely to price changes of the same extent.

Tea in bulk, when of British origin, was placed on the free list as early as 1907, when the duty on foreign tea was fixed at 2d. per lb. In 1917 a duty of 3d. per lb. was imposed on British tea, the foreign rate being increased to 5d. per lb. British tea in bulk was again placed on the free list in 1923, and the duty on foreign tea reduced to 2d. Rates of 3d. and 5d. per lb. respectively have been reinstated from 31st July, 1931.

Sugar also was placed on the free list in 1907, prior to which the duty was id. per lb. Refined sugar of foreign origin was charged 1d. per lb. under the 1921 tariff, the rate being altered in 1923 to jj, d. and in 1924 to 7d., irrespective of origin. The duty on refined sugar has now been increased to 3d. per lb., and raw sugar, which is imported for refinement at Auckland, is dutiable at 4d. per lb. or alternatively pays 1d. per lb. excise duty on manufacture.

Tobacco has been subjected to numerous changes in the tariff history of New Zealand. These changes have been mostly in the nature of increases, Though a reduction of 8d. per lb. on cut and plug tobacco was made by the Customs Amendment Act, 1924. Immediately prior to the Resolutions of 30th July, 1931, unmanufactured tobacco was paying 3s. per lb; manufactured tobacco, other than fine cut. 4s. and 4s. 2d. per lb.; fine cut, 13s. 3d. per lb.; cigarettes under 2i lb. per 1,000, 33s. 9d.; and cigars 15s. per lb. Manufactured tobacco, other than fine cut, was increased to 5s. 4d. and 5s. Gd. per lb. from 30th July, 1931. and to 6s. and 6s. 2d. per lb. from 7th October, 1931. The duty on unmanufactured tobacco was reduced to 2s. 6d. per lb. from 2nd November, 1931. There have also been increases in the tobacco excise duties, referred to under a later heading.

Spirits also have in recent years had successive increases imposed, until the duty now stands at 40s. per gallon, as compared with the pre-war rate of 16s. The duty on sparkling wine has increased in the same time from 9s. to 15s. per gallon. Neither spirits nor wines are affected by the 1931 Act, but the duty on imported beer has been raised from 2s. per gallon to 3s., and a corresponding proportionate rise has been made in the excise duty on locally manufactured beer.

Very heavy increases in the duties on timber have been made for protective purposes during the last few years. As late as 1926, certain kinds of rough-sawn timber were admitted free; other kinds paying 2s. per 100 sup. ft., and dressed sawn timber 4s. per 100 sup. ft. In 1926 the 2s. rate on rough-sawn timber was made more general, and in 1927 this was increased to 5s. (3s. if in large sizes) and the rate on dressed timber to 7s. 6d. Further heavy increases to 9s. 6d. for rough-sawn (7s. Gd. if in large sizes), and 19s. for dressed timber respectively were made in 1930. Australian hewn and rough-sawn timber has, however, been free of duty since 1922. Under agreement with Canada the general foreign tariff on timber was increased in 1932 to 9s. 6d. or l is. 6d. (rough sawn) and 21s. (dressed).

Of interest, also, are the changes that have been made during recent years in the tariff on motor-vehicles. Motor-vehicles and parts were, by the Customs Amendment Act of 1921, made dutiable under the British preferential tariff at 10 per cent., and under the general tariff at 25 per cent.; in addition, bodies were charged a further 5 to 22 10s. each. By the Customs Amendment Act, 1926, the rates of duty on motor-vehicles were made 10 cent, under the British preferential tariff and 35 per cent, under the general tariff, plus additional body duties-viz., 10 and 15 per cent, respectively (on the whole vehicle) for the first 200 of value and 5 and 7i per cent, on the remainder of the value. In 1930 the general -tariff rate was increased to 40 per cent., and the additional body duties became 11} and 16.} per cent, respectively for the first 200, and 6} and 8} per cent, on the excess.

Tires for motor-vehicles were free until 1921, but in that year a duty of 10 per cent. British and 25 per cent, (raised in 1926 to 35 per cent., and in 1930 to 40 per cent.) foreign was imposed. Towards the end of 1927 the Motor-spirits Taxation Act of that year imposed a duty of 4d. (increased in 1930 to 6d., and in 1931 to 8d.) per gallon on motor-spirits. The proceeds, except in the case of the 2d. per gallon imposed in 1931, are devoted to reading purposes. The duty on tires also is earmarked for the maintenance of highways.

EXCISE DUTIES.

The most important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3 3/4d. per gallon when the specific gravity did not exceed 1,047, and increasing by 1/16d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by 1/8d. thereafter. On the 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3 3/4d. to 4 3/5d. per gallon, and further (on the 15th September, 1917) to 5 3/4., with a maximum of Gd. per gallon. In 1921 a rate of 11 1/2d. per gallon (increased to Is. in 1930, and to Is. Gd. in 1931) was imposed where the specific gravity of the worts used does not exceed 1,047, the rate being increased by 1/16d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60% F. is taken as 1,000. and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Cut tobacco is charged an excise duty of 3s. 8d. per lb. from 7th October, 1931; fine-cut. tobacco suitable for the manufacture of cigarettes, 9s. 9d. per lb.; other kinds, 3s. Gd. per lb. Cigars and snuff pay 5s. Gd. per lb., and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand is 25s. per 1,000 on cigarettes under 2 1/2b. per 1,000, and 10s. per lb. on cigarettes over 2 1/2b. per 1,000.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1931, imposed an excise duty of id. per lb. on sugar manufactured in New Zealand. A surtax of one-twentieth of the duty is also operative.

Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has since 1921 been provided on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: On alcohol used in the manufacture of perfumed spirits, 36s. per gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent, of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon; and in similar preparations containing less than 50 per cent, the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.

In 1856 the first Gold Duty Act was passed, empowering the collection of an export duty on gold at the rate of 2s. 6d. per ounce. This rate was amended by various Acts; but in 1890 the Gold Duty Abolition Act was passed, and a system of rating in mining districts was substituted for the export duty as far as the South Island was concerned. The Gold Duty Act, 1908, consolidated and repealed all previous enactments. An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pine and kauri) by Acts of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The rate is 3s. per 100 superficial feet for flitches, and 5s. per 100 superficial feet for logs.

Analogous to export duties are the levies imposed on meat, dairy-produce, honey, and kauri-gum exported. The proceeds (less expenses of collection) are, however, handed over to the respective Boards set up to control the export, c., of these commodities in the interests of the producers.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.

In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties produced a greater proportion of the revenue from taxation than it does to-day. Down to the outbreak of the Great War there was a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the taxation legislation of the war period temporarily accelerated the movement. The proportion rose after 1921-22, but did not regain its pre-war level, and is now falling again. The figures for the last twenty years are as follows:

Year ended 31st March,Total Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.Year ended 31st March,Total Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.
Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation.Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 ££Per Cent. ££Per Cent.
19135,606,8293,531,76162.99192315.715,3806,644,42042.28
19145,918,0343,553,78560.05192416.540,4387,870,30947.58
19155,880,8113,294,94356.03192516,549,6098,187,27349.47
19167,266,9663,524,06348.49192617,254,6888,974,23552.01
191710,549,6544,037,62838.27192717,437,8278,826,28750.62
191812,340,8533,601,38329.18192817,145,1458,501,24549.58
191913,801,6434,104,01629.74192917,832,0338,565,73648.04
192016,251,7695,185,72831.91193019,471,1319,517,35948.88
192122,184,4148,769,25139.53193118.878,2858,181,07643.34
192216,370,5165,554,33433.93193217,405,6226,545,42837.61

The figures for Customs and excise duties from 1922-23 onwards are exclusive of tire-tax, and for 1927-28 and subsequent years motor-spirits tax (this does not apply to the 2d. per gallon imposed in 1931)two classes of duties collected through the Customs for road-maintenance purposes, and included in total taxation.

In the foregoing table the financial year has been taken for purposes of comparison with total taxation, figures concerning which are not available for calendar years. In subsequent tables the Customs-taxation figures relate to the calendar year, which is the statistical year for trade purposes.

In the two tables which follow the figures do not include taxes for highway purposes, excise duties, or export duties, and are also exclusive of surtax, primage, and depreciated-currency duties for the years during which these have been in force.

YearAmount of Duty derived fromTotal.
Foods and Non-Total. alcoholic Drinks.Clothim; and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 £££££
1911147,456682,7101,286,6011,048,8903,165,657
1916170,009985,3351,390,3221,036,2273,581,893
1921237,8781,297,1211,930,8981,826,3575,292,254
1926389,6861,760,4082,679,0803,102,6237,931,797
1927363,6631,681,5902,842,4382,808,4817,696,172
1928347,8851,744,1392,279,9742,864,7577,236,755
1929333,0161,795,0572,391,8313,414,3177,934,221
1930322,6451,599,2312,253,8662,706,6406,882,382
1931366,709981,1391,780,3051,360,4244,488,577
YearPercentage of Total Duty collected on
Foods and Non-alcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19114.6621.5740.6433.13
19164.7527.5738.8128.13
19214.4924.5136.4934.51
19264.9122.1933.7939.11
19274.7321.8536.9336.49
19284.8124.1031.5039.59
19294.2022.6230.15043.03
19304.6923.2332.7539.33
19318.1721.8639.6630.31

The Customs and excise duties received during the lust five years are shown in more detail in the next table. Primage duties and surtax are included, but not tire-tax, or the highways proportion of petrol-tax, which do not really represent Customs taxation Though for the sake of convenience collected through the Customs on imported commodities.

1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
*Included partly under " Other goods by weight,” nml partly under " Other goods ml valorem.”
Customs Duties.£££££
Spirits1,374,044918,6761,091,7611,069,858767,648
Wine62,27746,88951,17448,42031,163
Beer6,5376,8037,2737,6304,046
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff767,165718,848652,030568,112430,709
Tobacco620,600578,309578,057555,008539,970
Tea3,1012,0952,0891,53648,765
Coffee, cocoa, c.9,061****
Other goods by weight277,693252,043215,906216,688225,749
Other goods ad valorem4,313,4584,406,6695,003,6374,024,38112,164,988
Other duties262,233303,423332,294390,749275,539
Primage414,325411,992648,172461,864111,050
Depreciated currency and dumping duties........272
Surtax......431,857682,611
Totals:, Customs duties8,110,4977,648,7478,582,3937,776,1035,282,510
Excise Duties.     
Tinctures New Zealand21,65821,11320,80618,46917,458
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff New Zealand manufactured79,491103,001161,828268,331292,659
Tobacco New Zealand manufactured39,66572,81383,013140,083245,607
Beer New Zealand611,501613,252622,935598,304602,944
Sugar........67,095
Totals, excise duties752,315810,179810,1791,025,1871,225,763
Revenue per head:s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
From Customs duties5 12 95 5 05 16 75 4 23 9 10
From excise duties0 10 50 11 20 12 10 13 90 16 2
Totals6 3 25 16 26 8 85 17 114 6 0

The following table furnishes a general view of the ratio of Customs revenue to imports since 1895, which is taken as the base year:—

Year.Imports.Revenue.Percentage of Revenue to Total Imports.Index Numbers of Customs Revenue compared with Imports.
Value.Value Head perAmount.Actual Value per Head.Value per Head at 1895 Ratio.
 ££ s. d.££ s. d.£ s. d.Per Cent. 
18956,400,1298 14 31,619,9702 4 12 4 125.311000
190010,646,09613 5 42,170,3542 14 13 7 120.39805
190512,828,85714 0 112,652,6662 18 13 10 820.68817
191017,051,58310 7 92,954,9892 10 94 2 1017.33685
191521,728,83418 18 13,190,8832 15 04 15 714.68580
192061,595,82849 11 67,953,4776 9 712 14 012.91510
192552,456,40737 17 108,287,2885 19 99 11 915.80624
192649,889,56335 5 108,398,5375 18 108 18 916.83665
192744,782,94031 2 68,110,4975 12 97 17 618.11716
192844,886,20031 3 117,648,7475 5 17 10 217.04673
192948,797,97733 2 78,582,3935 16 78 7 817.59695
193043,025,91428 16 77,776,1035 4 27 5 1118.07714
193124,812,95816 7 115,282,5103 9 104 3 021.29841

The figures given in the column " Value per head at 1895 ratio " indicate the amount of revenue per head of population which would have been obtained had the same high ratio of Customs taxation been levied as prevailed in 1895.

Substantial reductions in the scale of duties were responsible tor the sharp fall in the percentage of revenue to imports between 1895 and 1920. The increase in this proportion during the last few years is due partly to heavier taxation and partly to a rise in the proportion of imports from foreign countries. To some extent also the position is affected by a change from the 1st April, 1926, in the system of computation for British preference purposes in the case of articles only partly manufactured in British countries.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

At the present time about two-fifths of New Zealand's imports are admitted free of duty, the proportion showing a tendency to decline.

The figures given in the following table are exclusive of specie, which is admitted free. Imports free of duty include items otherwise dutiable but admitted free for Government use, c.

Year.Value of Imports.*Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
Free.Dutiable.Total.FreeDutiable.Amount.Percentage of
Dutiable Imports.Total* Imports.
* Excluding specie.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
192217,181,67417,644,40034,826,07449.3450.665,415,32130.6915.55
192319,585,54123,778,44243,363,98345.1754.837,167,69330.1416.53
192422,964,91725,562,68648,527,60347.3252.687,461,55329.1915.38
192524,834,72527,591,03252,425,75747.3752.638,287,28830.0415.81
192622,255,76527,555,99849,811,76344.6855.328,398,53730.4816.86
192718,788,51725,994,14944,782,66641.9558.058,110,49731.2018.11
192820,154,61724,689,48544,844,10244.9455.067,648,74730.9817.06
192920,886,79827,847,67448,734,47242.8657.148,582,39330.8217.61
193019,520,31723,142,51042,662,82745.7554.257,776,10333.6018.23
193111,577,61013,179,19324,756,80346.7753.235,282,51040.0821.34

The next table gives for 1931 detailed figures arranged according to the statistical classification, for the key to which reference should be made to p. 233. The main features of the table are the overwhelming proportion of dutiable goods in the classes covering alcoholic beverages, tobacco, foodstuffs of animal origin, paints and varnishes, vehicles, and apparel, and the high proportion of free goods in non-alcoholic beverages, live animals, animal substances other than foodstuffs, manufactured fibres, stones, and minerals (mainly coal) specie, raw metals, paper, and manures. Specie imports are included in this table, and slightly affect the percentages in the “totals” line.

Class No.Value of Imports.Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
Free.Dutiable.Total.FreeDutiable.Amount.Percentage of
Dutiable Imports.Totals Imports.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
I707188,419189,1260.3898.6245,78724.3024.21
II1,54 2,692671,4932,214,18369.6730.33256,15638.1511.57
III44,818711,172755,9905.9394.0764,7669.118.57
IV11465,140465,151..100.00809,625174.06174.06
V..668,846668,846..100.00970,680145.13145.13
VI41,813..41,813100.00........
VII9,992439,94353,93518.5381.472,4345.544.51
VIII268,842113,151381,99370.3829.6223,40020.686.12
IXA289,6482,119,1972,408,84512.0287.98669,11231.5827.78
IXB1,407,9161,653,4493,061,36545.0154.99312,02718.8810.19
IXC280,91133,363314,27489.3910.616,76720.282.16
X657,3021,462,7622,120,06431.0069.00201,20813.769.49
XI48,144148,551196,69524.4875.5230,13320.2915.30
XII202,8636,383209,24696.963,041,41622.180.68
XIII56,155..56,155100.00........
XIVA211,9762,172214,14898.991.0136416.760.17
XIVB1,579,40567,470 22,254,10770.0729.93159,84723.697.09
XV1,379,911891,0312,270,94260.7639.24216,44623.179.54
XVIA74,77913,19687,97585.0015.002,70220.483.07
XVIB76,829112,389189,21840.6059.4023,30920.7412.32
XVIIA76,829112,389189,21840.6059.4023,30920.7412.32
XVIIB23,66158,16581,82628.9217.0817,95430.8721.94
XVIII177,287273,789451,07639.3071.0817,95430.8721.94
XVIII177,287273,789451,07639.3060.7051,38518.7711.39
XIXA806,79045,822852,6129,4635.3712,31026.871.44
XIXB410,144219,295629,43965.1634.8460,76927.719.66
XX9,606444,312453,9182.1297.88130,47029.3728.74
XX346,74764,963411,71084.2215.784,4976.921.09
XXIIA577,892406,451984,34358.7141.29109,67726.9911.14
XXIIB522,095..522,095100.00........
XXIIIA57,3541,283,1061,340,4604.2895.72225,89017.6116.85
XXIIIB401,795306,930708,72556.6943.3177,06625.1110.87
Primage and surtax..........793,933....
Totals11,633,76513,179,19324,812,95846.8953.115,282,51040.0821.29

RATES OF DUTY.

The table on the next page shows imports in 1930 and 1931 according to the nature or rate of duty. For 1930 the classification refers to the duty at the end of the year, but for 1931 it is on the basis of rates actually paid during the year. The rates shown are exclusive of surtax.

A duty of 40 per cent, is paid on motor-vehicles imported from foreign countries, 35 per cent, (prior to 24th May, 1932) on These from Canada, and 10 per cent, on These from other British countries, with, in the main, additional body duties of 16} per cent., 15 per cent., and 11 1/4 per cent, respectively on the first £200 value of the vehicle, and 8 3/4 per cent., 7 1/2 per cent., and 6 1/4 per cent, respectively on the remainder of the value. Where additional body duty is payable the whole of the imports of British origin, other than These from Canada, have been treated for the purposes of this table as being subject to 21 1/4 per cent, duty, These from Canada to 50 per cent, duty, and These of foreign origin to 56 1/4 per cent. duty.

Nature of Duty.19301931
Free (excluding specie)££
 19,520,31711,577,610
Specific duties6,234,2264,533,271
Ad valorem duties—  
5 per cent78,42542,899
101,234,0461,002,767
151,118,257401,602
203,968,5112,318,182
21483,283272,285
252,982,1301,786,020
272,098,487930,469
30156,707103,800
32 1/2..307,309
35999,651278,181
37 1/2..3,571
40385,558117,590
Ad valorem duties  
451,141,217496,770
501,752,647381,172
5511,366139,592
56497,21163,241
6014469
6577..
70..3
Unspecified697..
Totals ad valorem16,908,2848,645 922
Specie363,08756,155
Grand totals of imports43,025,91424,812 958

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY

Preference to British countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive, the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since the 1st September, 1922.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items. The effect of the 1921, 1927, and 1930 tariffs has been to widen the disparity in the duty as between goods of British and of foreign origin.

The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufactures of countries the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries:

  2. Goods wholly manufactured within such countries from materials produced in such countries:

  3. Goods manufactured within such countries in which all manufacturing processes are performed in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and (or) from one or more of the partly manufactured raw materials, not produced in such countries, which are enumerated in these regulations.

  4. Goods partially produced or partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and (or) labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

Prior to the 1st April, 1926. the minimum mentioned in paragraph (d), which is now one-half, was one-fourth.

Tn the calculation of the proportion of produce or labour none of the following items are to be included or considered:

  1. Manufacturer's profit, or the profit or remuneration of any trader, agent, broker, or other person dealing in the article in its finished condition:

  2. Royalties;

  3. The cost of outside packages or any cost of packing the goods there into;

  4. Any cost of convoying, insuring, or shipping the goods subsequent to their manufacture.

Tea to be entitled to 1y entered at British preferential rates must be grown in some part of the British Empire, and the final process of manufacture must also be performed in some British country.

As explained later, certain imports from Australia pay more than corresponding items from other British countries, while, from June, 1931 to 24th May, 1932, the bulk of imports of Canadian origin paid the general rate of duty.

The following table shows the extent of the imports which are affected by preference, by giving the percentage of the total imports and of foreign imports so affected. The proportions increased generally after the tariff changes of 1907, 1917, and 1921. In the case of 1927, however, the effect of any change in this direction is hidden, owing to the falling-off of imports, particularly in motor-vehicles an important item subject to the preferential surtax

Year.Value of Imports.Imports on which Surtax payable.Percentage of
Total.Of British Origin.Of Foreign Origin.Total Imports.Foreign Imports.
     Per Cent.Per Cent.
192235,012,56126,005,3529,007,2094,902,50814.0054.42
192343,378,49331,866,99311,511,5006,465,17114.9056.16
192448,527,60335,830,90912,690,6946,766,35813.9453.29
192552,456,40738,262,27614,194,1318,118,83815.4757.21
192649,389,56334,073,74115,815,8228,750,17817.5355.33
192744,782,94030,717,56114,065,3857,504,47416.7653.35
192844,886,26630,810,18914,070,0777,461,96316.6353.01
192948,797,97733,094,96915,703,0088,437,21717.3053.73
193043,025,91429,591,93713,433,9776,369,43514.8047.41
193124,812,95817,431,7397,381,2192,824,38711.3938.26

For the purpose of studying better the scope and effect of the preferential surtax, imports for the last three years are classified in the next table into four groups:

 1929.1930.1931.
 British.ForeignBritish.ForeignBritish.Foreign
 ££££££
Free in any case5,705,7331,103,7456,045,1083,800,3783,520,4042,820,525
Free when of British origin, but dutiable when of foreign origin11,080,8253,153,3109,977,8582,033,1595,274,830932,519
Dutiable with same rates whether of British or foreign origin2,340,5133,102,0401,750,4353,204,1041,103,1401,727,307
Dutiable with a lower rate of duty when of British origin13,007,8085,283,00711,812,47G3,730,2707,404,3501,801,308
Totals33,094,90915,703,00829,591,93713,433,97717,431,7397,381,219

Of foreign goods imported in 1931-38 per cent, were free of duty, as compared with 58 per cent, in 1921. A further 24 per cent. (7 per cent, in 1921), although dutiable, paid no higher rate than if they had been of British origin. This leaves 38 per cent. (35 per cent, in 1921) with the disadvantage of the higher rate of duty applicable to foreign goods. Of the total imports of British original in 1931,51 percent. were classified as free.

Reciprocity With South Africa.

As stated above, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with British South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was revised in 1922, the duties on wines being increased and tobacco being deleted from the list. A further alteration, whereby maize and dried apples were deleted from the list, was made in 1925.

The main items of import benefited by the reciprocal arrangement are dried apricots and peaches and wine. The former pay no duty under the reciprocal tariff, as compared with 4d. under the general tariff and 2d. under the British preferential tariff in the case of dried apricots and certain other dried fruits. Sparkling wine is admitted at 9s. 6d. per gallon, as against 15s. under the general and British preferential rates. On still vine the rate is 3s. 6d. per gallon, as compared with 6s. Other items specially provided for are feathers, fish, fresh fruit, and tea; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits and tobacco, a reduction of 3 per cent, of the duty payable is made.

The following table shows the imports from South Africa during the last, ten years. Figures of exports from New Zealand to South Africa are also given.

Year.Imports.Exports to South Africa.
From South Africa.Of South African Origin.
 £££
1922152,386180,67217,993
192379,74210,3137,392
192462,86489,29528,585
1925104,520113,95019,306
1926121,240140,02131,540
1927119,305122,59731,251
192899,054104,04364,892
192998,839100,98851,707
193087,84992,00615,589
193169,47169,9788,052

The imports of South African origin during the last five years are classified into four divisions in the following table:-

-1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
 £££££
Special reduction or remission of duty61,34552,12631,57838,22024,457
Reduction of 3 per cent. in duty22,52720,36824,85721,79718,025
No reduction2,5253,7194,4503,4834,468
Free under general or British preferential tariff36,20027,83040,10328,50623,028
Totals122,597104,043100,98892,00669,978

Of commodities specially provided for in the reciprocal tariff, dried apricots represented £14,482 in 1931, other dried fruits £3,946, and wine £6,029. Bark and other tanning materials (£4,180), and ground or crushed maize (£17,462) accounted for the great bulk of the £23,028 free imports other than under the reciprocal tariff.

Reciprocity with Australia

Prior to the amendment of the Customs tariff in 1921 Australian goods entering the Domain were accorded British preferential treatment, although articles of New Zealand origin or manufacture entered Australia under the general tariff. From the 22nd December, 1921, however, goods produced in the Commonwealth were placed on the general tariff, and were required in consequence to pay the same duties as were levied on foreign goods. Since the 1st September, 1922, a tariff agreement, confirmed by the Tariff Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act, 1922, has been in operation, under which New Zealand and Australia grant mutual concessions in the matter of Customs duties.

The tariff agreement provides further that goods which are imported into Australia and are subsequently transhipped to New Zealand, and which, if they had been imported direct from the country of origin into New Zealand, would have been entitled to be entered under the British preferential tariff, shall be admitted to the Dominion under the British preferential tariff. A similar provision relates to goods imported into the Dominion and transhipped to the Commonwealth.

The main reciprocal agreement covers 129 items, in some cases the reduction of the rate of duty amounting to less, and in some more, than that accorded British goods under the ordinary scale of preferential duties. In any instance where the rate of duty has not been lowered at least to the extent provided for British goods, the reason may generally be found in the fact that protection is sought for the development of a secondary industry in the country retaining the higher rate of duty. Then, apart from the 129 items which are thus specifically mentioned, all other goods which are produced or manufactured in either Australia or New Zealand are admitted to the other country concerned at British preferential rates of duty.

Certain items of New Zealand produce (notably fish, bacon, ham, and tallow), which enter Australia at rates of duty lower than British preferential rates, show an appreciable advance since the agreement came into force, although the aggregate value of these exports to Australia does not as yet represent a large percentage of the Dominion's shipments to the Commonwealth.

Trade between New Zealand and Australia during the last ten years has been as follows:

Year.Imports from Australia.Imports of Australian Origin.Exports to Australia.
 £££
19224,213,0853,293,6322,208,280
19234,259,3233,653,4202,642,266
19246,303,0735,651,0272,509,322
19255,855,9895,249,4932,502,113
19265,059,7794,625,2003,054,433
19274,204,1753,869,2463,665,962
19283,808,2813,499,1513,402,655
19293,631,6253,258,7272,338,410
19303,674,0733,308,9151,562,281
19312,685,8082,437,9551,169,055

The next table shows for 1931 the imports of principal items specially affected by the reciprocal tariff. The group " lower than other British countries " includes items which are free under the Australian reciprocal tariff, but pay duty under the British preferential tariff.

It should be explained that the items shown do not necessarily represent the whole of the imports of Australian origin generally classed under the respective headings, some items of a group (e.g., boots, shoes, c.) coming within the scope of the reciprocal tariff, and others being treated as under the British preferential tariff. It should be further noted that the figures shown include imports of Australian origin by the New Zealand Government, which being free of duty from all countries, are not affected by the tariff agreement. In some cases, also, the rate of duty on Australian goods has been lower than British preferential rates for part only of 1931; but the tables have been compiled on the assumption that the rates of duty in force on 31st December, 1931, were in force during the whole year.

Imports Affected by Australian Reciprocal Tariff, 1931.

Imports Affected by Australian Reciprocal Tariff, 1931.

Dutiable at Hates lower than British Preferential Rates.
Confectionery41,432
Fresh fruits8,856
Oats8,786
Oats, ground or manufactured1,759
Sugar7,895
Fresh vegetables4,753
Chocolate1,750
Spirits and alcoholic beverages3,598
Flavouring essences2,476
Wine35,311
Hosiery and miscellaneous apparel24,767
Furs, dressed1,788
Silk piece-goods11,592
Timber, including poles and sleepers120,437
Bottles and jars4,567
Fancy goods and toys6,924
Sporting and athletic requisites3,875
Eucalyptus-oil3,623
Perfumes and toilet preparations26,854
Other items4,751
Total325,794
Preserved fruits58,252
Jams and preserves1,935
Macaroni and vermicelli6,341
Hats, caps, and millinery4.460
Boots and shoes, c.24,602
Pumps n.e.i.2,240
Tinware2,695
Asbestos sheets, c.13,254
Soap23,457
Other items4,061
Total141,297

Reciprocity with Canada.

From October, 1025, to May, 1930, certain items of New Zealand produce were admitted to Canada at rates much below These ruling for Canadian imports from other British countries with the exception of Australia. In particular, butter from Australia and New Zealand paid 1 cent per pound duty as compared with 3 cents in the case of other British countries.

The special rates were withdrawn in 1930 in the case of New Zealand goods, which were placed on the British preferential tariff. At the same time the duty on butter under this tariff was increased to 4 cents and later to 8 cents per pound as a result of which New Zealand's export of butter to Canada (which had risen to 335,126 cwt., valued at 2,707,669, in 1929) practically ceased.

In consequence of the removal of the special rates on New Zealand goods entering Canada, Canadian motor-vehicles, motor-vehicle engines, and tires were in August, 1930, removed from the British preferential tariff of New Zealand and made subject to special rates corresponding to These ruling for foreign goods of these classes prior to the tariff amendment of 1930. With the exception of these items, and of three-viz., gum boots, wire, and certain classes of paper which were admitted free under the British preferential tariff, all goods of Canadian origin paid from June, 1931, the full rates prescribed under The general tariff.

Negotiations between the Canadian and New Zealand Governments bore fruit in a trade agreement which came into force in both countries as from 24th May, 1932.

Under the new Canadian tariff on New Zealand produce are included, inter alia: Butter, 5 cents per lb.: cheese, 1 cent per lb.; and lamb, mutton, or beef, 3 cents per lb.; while sausage casings, hides, and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri-gum. and phormium fibre are amongst These admitted free.

The largest import from Canada is motor-vehicles, on which the duty is now: If not less than three-fourths Canadian origin, 10 per cent.; if not less than one-half Canadian origin, 20 per cent. In addition, in both cases there is a "body-duty" where such vehicles have passenger-bodies of 11 1/4 per cent, of the first $200 of total value and 61/4 per cent, of the remaining value. Other items of importance are: Salmon, l3/4d. per l b; 1. boots and shoes, c., 25 per cent.; electric cooking and heating appliances, 30 per cent: certain agricultural implements, 35 per cent.; and timber, 7s. 0d. or 9s. 6d. (rough sawn) and 19s. (sawn and dressed) per 100 super, ft.

SUBSECTION E.—TRADE OF PORTS.

OVERSEA IMPORTS.

New Zealand has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes, eleven in the North Island and ten in the South.

The following table gives the actual amount of imports for the several ports of entry for the five years 1927-31. Waitara had no overseas imports or exports during the period, and Tokomaru Hay had no imports.

IMPORTS BY PORTS.
Port.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
 £££££
Auckland14,870,82414,835,88315,740,70013,727,8778,283,171
Kaipara4,6593,6162,838352..
Tauranga13,6488,9778,6536,8534,621
Gisborne224,483208,711204,553187,31484,337
New Plymouth691,034641,844697,097627,117390,186
Patea35,34535,90634,81029,27314,834
Wanganui519,485439,956417,686394,867222,024
Wellington14,478,92515,231,67516,813,20315,194,7258,586,217
Napier882,389888,037841,562741,030414,010
Wairau (incl. Picton)78,92257,38063,98068,50728,678
Nelson212,905235,070258,333277,505178,653
Westport61,85755,95953,83864,46727,029
Greymouth134,427160,206138,137145,10666,659
Hokitika9,83310,55710,9659,2186,766
Lyttelton6,323,7266,073,5806,906,1415,737,9523,303,915
Timaru622,734531,313651,483741,287280,109
Oamaru105,81194,83798,517111,33566,809
Dunedin4,578,0344,552,9804,975,4514,141,0772,454,628
Invercargill933,905819,779880,030819,452400,312
Totals44,782,94644,886,26648,797,97713,025,91424,812,958

During each of the five years covered by the above table over two-thirds of the imports came in by way of Wellington or Auckland, the actual proportion in 1931 being 68 per cent. For the last four years imports into Wellington wore greater than the Auckland total.

OVERSEA EXPORTS.

From 1914 to 1921 the Customs Department allocated exports as far as possible to the appropriate district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or not, and no complementary figures are available to show the export trade from each individual port for this period.

The system of showing exports according to the district of production was introduced on account of complaints from the smaller ports as to the injustice done them when goods produced in their surrounding districts were shown as an export of one of the larger ports to which they had been sent by rail or by coastal vessel. The system, however, did not prove satisfactory in practice, and the former method of showing exports according to the port at which the goods are placed on board the vessel by which they leave the Dominion was reverted to from the 1st January. 1922.

The following table gives for the last live years the overseas exports according to the port at which they are actually placed on board the overseas vessel. During the five years 1922-26 and also in 1928 Wellington was the principal exporting port, Auckland occupying second position during these years but taking first position in all of the five years 1927-31 except 1928. These two ports together account for more than half the total exports of the Dominion.

OVERSEAS EXPORTS BY PORTS.
port.1927.1928.1925.1930.1931.
 £££££
Auckland12,960,08714,000,02014,721,52613,871,22811.413,486
Kaipara17,5919,9027,1504,5493,855
Tokomaru Bay292,962190,175154,127164,573139,190
Gisborne1,067,2591,316,541,1,238,2521,152,890821,899
New Plymouth2,058,0133,020,8842,941,8682,846,4502,382,687
Patea64....2115
wanganui2,036,785l,915,7421,808,4571,237,935952,566
Wellington12,490,11215,315,94114,665,54910,822,883,8,670,900
Napier3,705,36115,315,94114,665,54910,822,883,8,670,900
Wairau (incl. Picton)256,888238,075270,837241,043154,722
Nelson75,01978,157116,871141,51069,353
Westport67,76097,418130,907T65,11619,925
Greymouth342,537354,040383,163323,196248,050
Hokitika3,2383,4302,5752769,869
Lyttelton5,094,3555,907,2325,559,8084,051,2573,003,781
Timaru1,878,8002,273,2292,409,6531,864,3221,264,624
Oamaru384,041440,643402,158329,967404,852
Dunedin3,253,8763,946,4273,739,0252,187,3781,759,861
Invercargill2,422,9562,468,5022,796,5802,496,4102,127,380
Parcels-post88,65091,651115,58078,03145,007
Totals48,496,35456,188,48155,579,06344,940,69235,153,028

The west coast ports of both Islands, as well as Nelson and Wairau in the northern portion of the South Island, send much of their produce to Wellington for loading into overseas vessels, and all of these ports show considerable decreases as a result of The reintroduction of the system in force prior to 1914.

PORT TONNAGE STATISTICS.

In order to obtain statistics of the total trade of each port a system of monthly returns from the various port authorities was instituted in 1922, showing under some forty headings the quantity of goods handled, distinguishing inwards and outwards cargo, coastal and overseas, and transhipments. The resultant statistics show on a tonnage basis the total exports of each port, whether placed on the overseas vessel there, sent to a central port for shipment overseas, or despatched coastwise to another port for consumption in New Zealand. For obvious reasons, total values of goods shipped coastwise cannot be obtained.

The following table gives for all ports in conjunction a summary of the cargo handled during each year from 1922 onwards

Year.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.overseas.Coastal.Overseas.
*Excluding transhipment.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
19221,750,8991,357,094436,2731,860,153675,2396,515,931
19231,856,4951,754,917461,2851,928,154598,9107,061,046
19241,909,8832,261,822475,9631,958,615581,8147,664,060
19251,938,3662,318,613480,4741,993,132632,3077,843,366
19261,976,7132,309,056470,5532,071,638733,5648,032,077
19271,976,7132,309,056470,5532,071,638733,5648,032,077
19282,109,7242,147,103430,9252,207,194799,4218,125,292
19292,160,8832,319,471406,0542,176,878853,8108,323,150
19302,080,0862,106,784398,7392,115,759801,95987,902,066
19311,565,7951,556,275278,9271,637,703723,0236,040,650

The following table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1931. The high proportion of transshipments in the case of Wellington is very noticeable.

Year.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.overseas.Coastal.Overseas.
*Excluding transhipment.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Awanui4,180....1,919..6,099
Mangonui2,202....647..2,849
Russell4,702....2,5382,6039,843
Hokianga3,256....1,145..4,401
Whangarei23,356816..84,608473109-253
Kaipara3,315....2471,0574,619
Mangawai783....226..1,009
Auckland457, 427603,44051,249209,731171,5411,554,637
Onehunga10,223..2133,539..43,804
Great Barrier397..427..824..
Port Waikato4,695..5288..4,903
Raglan2,006....885..2,891
Kawhia1,079....1,037..2,116
Thames6,330....2,302..8,632
Coromandel1,440....1,037..2,477
Whitianga926....276..1,202
Tauranga11,536....2,679..14,215
Whakatane8,492....6,565..15,057
Opotiki8,127....3,881..12,008
Tokomaru Bay6,573..2321,9034,06713,007
Tolaga Bay7,141..958057578,893
Gisborne47,2071,09931517,41622,44188,793
Waikokopu7,100..2398493038,730
Wairoa2,756....1,340..4,096
Napier68,15023,9924,90216,46133,855152,262
Mokau202....554..756
Waitara608....195..803
New Plymouth54,35055,5501094,83342,782157,739
Patea3,288....18,079..21,367
Wanganui59,42829,241..22,09024,412135,171
Foxton7,282....606..7,888
Wellington374,861461,934200,037195,011197,9831,629,863
Picton26,592....37,0222,97966,593
Wairau4,212....5,449..9,661
Kaikoura296....104..400
Nelson56,7847,04313,95132,1452,377126,251
Mapua1,156....14,351..15,507
Waitapu2,562....1,322..3,884
Motueka7,157..1518,599..25,786
West port12,970..181346,62512,391372,348
Grey mouth11,01355..218,45622,801252,325
Hokitika800....980..1,780
Lyttelton107,456188,0711,641182,03064,855545,694
Akaroa133....60..193
Timaru22,36915,843..50,08725,153113,452
Oamaru6,9872,410..15,0657,21231,674
Invercargill149....174..323
Bluff34,30825,384..16,95546,073122,720
Half-moon Bay784....210..994
Totals1,565,7951,556,275278,9271,637,703723,0236,040,650

The penultimate column of the above table shows the quantity of cargo placed on board the overseas vessels at the respective ports, and a table will be found in Section XI showing the number and tonnage of overseas vessels calling at each port. These tables give a good indication of the extent to which each port enters directly into the overseas trade of the Dominion. The following table shows for the year 1931 the total shipments from each port (overseas and coastwise and including transhipments) of nine principal commodities exported overseas by the Dominion and clearly indicates from which ports they originate, thus showing the extent to which the various ports handle our overseas exports, although the goods may be sent outwards coastwise for transhipment at another port.

TOTAL OUTWARDS CARGO HANDLED AT EACH PORT IN 1931, SHOWING PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS SEPARATELY.
Port.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Butter.TallHides, Skins, and PetsCoal.Hemp (Flore and Tow).Timber.All other Goods.Total.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Awanui..................1,9191,919
Mangonui103..343....10......191647
Russell2012,247874..153154......1,5125,141
Hokianga....936..........209..1,145
Whangarei139..2,219..7815310,690..53471,26885,081
Kaipara................1,2031011,304
Mangawai8........4......214226
Auckland12,38020,15670,69517,5245,2238,8945,37652011,433280,320432,521
Onehanga1618116..1,017..36732,13433,560
Great Harrier..................427427
Port Waikato21........5175....92293
Raglan272..382..........53178885
Kawhia376..246....6......4091,037
Thames5..1661,19314........9242,302
Coromandel..................1,0371,037
Whitianga11..184..19....368276
Tauranga6..168..11218..91,1071,1602,679
Whakatane45..3,150..3013....1483,1796,565
Opotiki211..1,87068913......1,7103,881
Tokomaru Bay1,8692,483....226241......1,3836,202
Tolaga Bay946......4........7071,657
Gisborne7,03213,5321,759391,2021,278....33414,99640,172
Waikokopu455......7125......8401,391
Wairoa912........12......4161,340
Napier15,10917,9182,4 001461,7531,6002,472210113,71755,218
Mokau46........1182....325554
Waitara................5190195
New Fly-mouth69513,0509,52817,1901,0281,042......5,19147,724
Fatea....2,30714,7556166......89018,079
Wanganui7,57114,7563,8678,8571,7031,131868....7,74946,502
Foxton..........5..86..515606
Wellington31,55845,02519,50141,0026,8008,58440,5231,3203,676389,042593,031
Picton2,3432,346160571110134..702034,24740,001
Wairau505..22077..47......4,5915,449
Kaikoura16........3......85104
Nelson661531466741243529,6932368735,80248,473
Mapua..............12..14,33914,351
Waitapu121..617..117....15651,322
Motueka82..186........6..18,34018,614
West port17..81..5066353,043221,0444,274359,197
Greymouth27..41329205,193..34,8731,127241,257
Hokitika9......2015....727209980
Lyttleton18,24629,5402,0539784,6243,55762156255189,055248,526
Akaroa9....16..........3560
Timaru7,71913,0493568361,667939....94649,72875,240
Oamaru8575,400....85690....15,07422,27775,240
Dunedin15,07011,4996172,1941,7083,101..5424872,290106,793
Invercargill............7..33134174
Bluff7,21216,54150012,9291,8811,4422846952,20819,33663,028
Half-moon Bay..................210210
Totals132,887208,074125,872118,401118,401118,401630,1852,97560,2151,292,3112,639,053

TRANSHIPMENTS.

Transhipments of cargo during 1931 totalled 278,927 tons, of which 200,037 tons were transhipped at Wellington.

Transhipments are of four classes, as follows:

Coastal to Coastal.—Cargo which has been loaded on a vessel at one New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at another New Zealand port.

Coastal to Overseas.—Cargo which has been loaded on a vessel at a New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a port outside of the Dominion.

Overseas to Coastal.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a New Zealand port.

Overseas to Overseas.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge outside New Zealand.

The first class represents purely coastal trade, but each of the others may be added to the appropriate figures of overseas trade shown previously to ascertain the total tonnage of foods arriving from or departing overseas. The total inwards tonnage from oversell is found to be 1,664,329, and the total outward tonnage going overseas 840,045. It should be noted that in the compilation of statistics tonnage is reckoned by weight for some items and by measurement for others.

Two tables are appended showing the transhipment trade of each port affected for 1931, and the transhipments of the various items of merchandise, &c., a distinction being made in each case between the four classes referred to above.

TRANSHIPMENTS BY PORTS AND CLASS, 1931.
Port.Coastal to CoastalCoastal to overseasCoastal to CoastalCoastal to overseasTotals
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Auckland9,2185,17629,5607,29551,2411
Onehunga21......21
Port Waikato5......5
Tokomaru Bay14218....232
Tolaga Bay5045....95
Gisborne315......315
Waikokopu239......239
Napier2,2802,332290..4,902
New Plymouth109......109
Wellington37,03399,16561,7172,122200,037
Nelson12,591450910..13,951
Motueka..15....15
Westport8695....181
Lyttelton2601091,272..1,641
Dunedin1,047..4,888..5,935
Totals63,268107,60598,6379,417278,927
TRANSHIPMENTS BY ITEMS AND CLASS, 1931.
ItemCoastal to CoastalCoastal to overseasCoastal to CoastalCoastal to overseasTotals
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Beans and peas1011,013..1,233Totals
Butter726,650..586,780
Cement4,9001256..5,031
Cheese3123,225....23,256
Goat34,54019,861427654,834
Flour846..7371231,706
Fruit, preserved45..1,7781,3353,158
Fruit, fresh3,89134,1303,027..41,048
Hemp (fibre and tow)1728645..348
Hides, skins, and pelts742,247396362,753
Kerosene, petrol, c.215..32,8634822,753
Manures, artificial1,1221287,041..8,291
Meat, frozen (beef, mutton, and lamb)3378....111
Seeds18074429831,225
Sugar1,4005110J1,516
Tallow211,618....1,639
Timber7364885,1515766,951
Wines, spirits, ale, and beer955..74251,702
Wool21413,7184726314,467
All other goods13,8753,28945,4256,72969,318
Totals63,268107,60598,6379,417278,927

Chapter 11. SECTION XI.—SHIPPING.

REGISTERED VESSELS.

THE number and tonnage of the registered vessels belonging to the several ports of registry in the Dominion on the 31st December, 1931 (distinguishing sailing-vessels, steamers, and motor-vessels), were as follows:—

Port.Sailing vessels.Steam VesselsMotor vessels.
VesselsGross Tonnage.Net TonnageVesselsGross Tonnage.Net TonnageVesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage
Napier4266253194,1382,140101,548866
Wellington101,6951,55658110,74261,445184,2442,188
Nelson11919159,1004,197101,023536
Lyttelton82,1622,078159,1004,197101,023536
Timaru......19424881113
Dunedin......2825,74414,822710254
Invercargill......121,5256494614220
Totals656,6855,892231176,87995,92923416,3858,118

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 304 vessels on the Auckland register being only 51 tons. At Dunedin and Wellington many of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered, while several of the larger vessels of this company employed in both the coastal and foreign trade of the Dominion are registered in the United Kingdom. The registration figures at the end of each of the last ten years are as follows:—

YearSailing vessels.Steam and Motor vessels.Totals
VesselsGross Tonnage.Net TonnageVesselsGross Tonnage.Net TonnageVesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage
192213823,58321,484418127,00670,860556150,58992,344
192312721,71819,812428143,16480,850555164,882100,662
192412321,29719,812428168,84794,978564190,144114,370
192511721,24419,452462186,520104,241579207,764123,693
19269212,90011,634466189,454105,703558202,354117,337
19279012,65411,418475192,106106,386565204,760117,804
19288812.50411,303472181,80099.586550194,304110,889
1929719,8858,868470201,563110,649541211,448119,517
1930656,6855,892466194,965106,078531201,650111,970
1931656,6855,892465193,264104,047530199,949109,939

The number of sailing-vessels on the register has decreased rapidly during recent years, there having been a continuous decline since 1907, in which year 323 sailing-vessels were on the register.

Of the 192 vessels employed in the coastal trade only, 18 were sailing-vessels with an aggregate net tonnage of 808, and 174 steam and motor vessels of 34,114 tons. Sixteen of the sailing-vessels were under 100 tons, and of the two remaining vessels, 1 was of 100-200 tons, and 1 of 200-300 tons. The 19 vessels employed in the coastal and foreign trade were all steam-or motor vessels. Very few sailing-vessels are employed in the foreign trade, there being only 1 for 1931, with a tonnage of 785.

In the following table registered vessels in the Dominion have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given here do not agree with those shown previously, as in this table vessels employed exclusively in the river trade have not been included.

Size of Vessel.Employed In the Coastal Trade only.Employed partly in the Coastal and partly in the Foreign Trade.Employed in the Foreign Trade only.
Number of Vessels.Net TonnageNumber of Vessels.Net TonnageNumber of Vessels.Net Tonnage
Under 50 tons721,539........
50 tons and under 100453,258....4352
100 tons and under 200314,41634293407
200 tons and under 300164,0001234....
300 tons and under 40082,8502725....
400 tons and under 60063,099........
600 tons and under 80053,628....21,534
800 tons and under 1,00032,63332,7801822
1,000 tons and under 1,50045,26766,77622,661
1,500 tons and under 2,00011,66347,008712,347
2,000 tons and over12,629....933,245
Totals19234,9221917,952951,368

OVERSEAS SHIPPING.

Throughout the remainder of this section all tonnage figures relate to net tonnage.

The tonnage of vessels entered and cleared during 1931 amounted to 4,311,633, as compared with 4,611,134 for 1930. The number of vessels decreased from 1,199 to 1,123.

Of late years the tendency has been for vessels of a larger size to be employed in the New Zealand trade, in order to cope with the growing imports and exports of the Dominion and for the purposes of the passenger traffic. The increase over a period of years is thus more noticeable or a comparison of tonnage than by comparing the number of vessels. The number of vessels entered inwards and cleared outwards in 1921 was 1,350 of an aggregate tonnage of 3,884,577an average of 2,865 tons. The 1,123 vessels in 1931 aggregated 4,311,033 tons, the average being 3,839 tons. Dealing with steamships only (1,221 in 1921 and 1,123 in 1931), the average tonnage is found to be 3,101 and 3,839 tons respectively. The number of sailing-vessels arriving and departing decreased from 135 in 1921 to none in 1931.

Nationality of Vessels.

Of the 564 vessels entered into the Dominion in 1931, 264 were registered in the United Kingdom, 147 in New Zealand, 63 in other British countries, and 90 in foreign countries.

YearUnited Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.Total
VesselsTons.VesselsTons.VesselsTons.VesselsTons.
Entered
19223561,369,799200360,3651552,8235711,782,987
19233981,543,817242498,4832469,5796642,111,879
19243421,393540329691,27242128,1387132,212,955
19252751,297,136326674,70055150,9056562,122,741
19263981,376,546324706,06563178,7246782,261,334
19272921,385,601282620,18560190,0186342,195,804
19283001,444,808282563,76756172,3086012,180,883
19293281,564,678244588,19270190,4686422,343,338
19302891,472,906224547,64787276,5896002,297,142
19312641,388,307210453,62890313,9856642,155,920

YearUnited Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.Total.
VesselsTons.VesselsTons.VesselsTons.VesselsTons.
Cleared.
19223501,365,722203369,4911654,7675691,789,980
19233871,517,096237478,0802265,3206462,060,52
19243421,418,158322674,70242134,3477062,227207
19252861,318,6803236663,21554157,2976632,139,192
19262941,386,9673101,386,96761163,3466652,237,307
19273001,402,875273601,74160196,1476332,200,793
19283011,447,102244575,42560187,6816052,210,208
19293261,540,569236570,50468190,1546302,301,227
19302971,524,700216524,14186265,1515992,313,992
19312651,391,006213456,00381308,7045592,155,713

The number of vessels registered in the United Kingdom represented in 1931-47 per cent, of the total, but on a tonnage basis the percentage is found to increase to 64. The average tonnage of the vessels was 5,259. Although vessels registered in New-Zealand and other British countries comprised 37 per cent, of the total vessels, the tonnage on the other band was only 21 per cent, of the aggregate. The average tonnage was comparatively low, being only 2,160. Foreign vessels constituted 16 per cent, of the number, and 15 per cent, of the tonnage, with an average tonnage for each vessel of 3,489.

The foreign vessels entered inwards consisted of 33 American (128,913 tons), 23 Norwegian (72,865 tons), 14 Japanese, 13 Swedish, 3 Panama, 2 Dutch, 1 German, and 1 Danish.

Direction of Overseas Shipping.

Shipping between New Zealand and the principal countries for each of the last ten years is as follows:

YearAustralia. United Kingdom.United States.United Kingdom.Canada.Fiji.Pacific Islands (other than FIJI).
Entered
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1922872,175375,361211,223193,16157,70534,475
19231,045,264387,987298,470192,09853,77942,620
19241,082,982376,025351,511174,65458,23748,962
1925936,569433,956346,987195,85064,21165,638
19261,001520418,312424,886185,97058,49273,733
1927911,602409,892427,578191,88747,90975,030
1928798,516430,542438,665230,20457,57974,628
1929850,884483,014488,678195,08354,04379,563
1930805,956506,122478,694182,79238,85162,751
1931728,541526,844434,374155,71046,91875,195
Cleared
1922974,872543,821111,48370,14854,19018,314
19231,211,532523,66392,844105,21848,73753,228
19241,338,655525,230144,217104,53645,59435,655
19251,193,344524,962154,984125,41253,24952,004
19261,175,263539,910192,052121,02758,75172,768
19271,097,946546,790231,298130,31639,82090,663
1928971,239575,706292,110128,07947,764119,133
19291,009,999580,335286,876144,71254,377121,254
1930933,869676,139275,440139,84455,407104,859
1931923,722661,729239,032104,14460.35083,103

Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during the years 1930 and 1931 are given below:

Country.1930.1931.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom82506,122109676,13986526,844109661,729
India420,830....316,380....
Ceylon14,916............
Straits Settlements14,525............
Seychelles Islands12,077............
South African Union........24,570....
British West Indies15,23113,851........
Canada31182,79218139,84424155,71014104,144
Australia246805,956288933,869227728,541292923,722
Fiji1438,8511755,4071946,9182060,350
Nauru (Pleasant) Island823,522718,7981131,428412,196
Gilbert and Ellice Islands617,753618,834617,58412,694
Norfolk Island62,13072,139135,960135,950
Papua....23,819....13,926
Solomon Islands2806........2806
Tonga............12,634
Western Samoa914,8211426,106128,9881414,256
Belgium626,35213,246943,517....
France....27,500....26,997
Germany........13,926....
Norway18,127111,788........
China15,208............
Dutch East Indies1451,2381769,1561654,8811041,061
Japan310,29226,4661444,3161135,575
Juan de Nova25,422............
Morocco411,593............
Madagascar........12,774....
Chile....13,150........
Cuba515,109............
Mexico25,265....14,926....
Panama Canal Zone15,102............
Peru39.468............
United States of America115478,69471275,440104434,37453239,032
Hawaii....27,264....215,164
New Caledonia1166116622,09847,204
New Hebrides140338161403....
Society Islands............13,525
Tuamotu Archipelago13,150926,91738,734411,144
Tutuila............13,604
Antarctica37313731........
Whale-fisheries2635,6981721,18988,697....
Totals6002,297,1425992,313,9925642,155,9205592,155,713

Slightly less than 41 per cent, of the vessels and 35 per cent, of the total tonnage inwards during the two years covered by the foregoing table came from Australia, while a somewhat higher proportion of the shipping outwards was cleared for Australia. The United Kingdom ranks second, the United States third, Canada fourth, and the Pacific islands next.

SHIPPING-TRADE OF PORTS.

New Zealand has twenty one ports of entry for Customs purposes (vide Subsection E of Section X), and there are numerous other ports around the coast. A vessel arriving from overseas may call at several ports in the Dominion to discharge and load cargo, and is recorded as an overseas arrival at the first port of call, and as an overseas departure from the port from which it finally sails. Its movements from one port to another in New Zealand are treated as coastwise shipping. The figures in the following table must simply be taken as showing the extent to which various ports are made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure, and not as indicating the relative overseas trade of the various ports.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING, BY PORTS OF F IRST ARRIVAL AND FINAL DEPARTURE
Port.Entered.Cleared.
1929.1930.1931.1929.19301931.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Kaipara......2,3081,288674
Auckland1,348,2231,291,5251,214,453754,467829,010920,518
Gisborne5,4495,7365,10911,95729,84010,628
Napier23,63925,97314,95940,50369,42231,810
New Plymouth43,84139,60366,06525,23622,32021,435
Wanganui9,2325,54812,14312,35017,97029,423
Wellington629,692648,828575,386876,053854,540709,546
Picton9,56511,89412,023..5,4521,892
Nelson3758,9553428,1753,1175,054
Westport27,4931661,167184,91993,14329,707
Greymouth10,8773,6121,33037,98632,25920,792
Lyttelton65,84663,66886,91957,09981,53956,036
Timaru7,86611,802..15,19411,14115,875
Oamaru..5,3365,073......
Dunedin60,52349,39170,993188,802154,509208,515
Bluff100,717125,10589,95884,178108,44293,808
Totals2,343,3382,297,1422,155,9202,301,2272,313,9922,155,713

A series of tables showing for each port the total shipping entered and cleared, and distinguishing between overseas and coastal vessels, irrespective of whether the former had been entered or cleared overseas or coastwise, is published annually in Part II of the “Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping.” From these tables may be seen at a glance not only the total shipping of each port, but the number and tonnage of vessels calling there which are engaged in the overseas trade.

The movement of overseas and coastal vessels on the New Zealand coast is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the aggregate number and tonnage of the total calls made during each of ten years.

Year.Overseas Vessels.Coastal Vessels.Total.
Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.
19221,8285,955,45319,9695,062,15921,79711,017,612
19232,0857,054,97322,8825,474,33424,96712,529,307
19242,4127,767,82824,5575,439,87726,96913,207,705
19252,3887,832,10223.5195,535,56225,90713,367,664
19262,5868,324,12022,4025,450,82524,98813.774,951
19272,3548,237,45122,1235,633,29124,47713,870,742
19282,3938,369,17921,0285,463,60423,42113,832,783
19292,4078,752,83720,8065,447,17123,21314,200,008
19302,5959,494,30620,2385,150,03222,83314,644,338
19312,4128,357,86517,5734,658,13619,98513,016,001

The figures for overseas vessels in the above table show that these vessels are now making considerably more calls at the minor ports in the Dominion. The number of visits made by vessels engaged exclusively in the coastal trade reached its peak in 1924, since when there has been a continuous decline. The tonnage has not shown a similar movement, the figures indicating a tendency to employ a larger type of vessel in this class of trade.

Figures showing the number and tonnage of all vessels entered into each port during 1931 are given in the following table. In this table, however, no distinction is made between overseas and coastal vessels.

Port.Number.Tonnage.
Parengarenga302,841
Awanui1088,477
Mangonui849,796
Whangaroa20221,105
Russell24558,069
Hokianga10010,710
Whangarei647105,954
Kaipara163,632
Mangawai603,168
Auckland5,7162,383,549
Onehunga24033,165
Raglan547,212
Kawhia557,414
Coromandel15022,679
Whitianga12010,557
Thames55865,323
Tauranga17121,586
Whakatane836,627
Opotiki666,243
Tokomaru Bay188107,946
Tolaga Bay19248,959
Gisborne459357,503
Waikokopu10238,535
Wairoa853,702
Napier469506,509
Mokau23368
Waitara23368
New Plymouth303420,151
Patea14614,247
Wanganui463284,557
Foxton383,432
Wellington2,9253,349,212
Havelock8160
Picton388256,496
Wairau14912,923
Nelson1,109310,200
Mapua12214,272
Waitapu11011,272
Motueka27531,940
Westport406239,548
Greymouth218140,901
Hokitika221,009
Kaikoura153,360
Lyttelton1,4341,921,564
Akaroa262,312
Timaru401506,346
Oamaru181173,073
Dunedin5291,000,531
Invercargill10230
Bluff364459,234
Half-moon Bay977,034
Totals19,98513,016,001

Wellington ranks as the first port of the Dominion as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Napier, and Timaru, in that order. Wellington and Lyttelton are the termini of the daily inter-Island ferry service, and to this fact is due a large part of the coastwise shipping credited to these two ports.

The number and tonnage of overseas vessels included in the totals given above for the various ports concerned are now given. The table covers all vessels engaged in the overseas trade, whether entered overseas or coastwise, and the figures for individual ports differ greatly from those given in a previous table, wherein the tonnage of overseas vessels entered is counted only for the port of first entry in the Dominion.

Port.Number.Tonnage.
Mangonui18
Russell527,545
Hokianga1342
Whangarei2921,617
Kaipara3674
Auckland5111,913,270
Tolaga Bay310,703
Tokomaru Bay1167,052
Gisborne63260,480
Waikokopu213,605
Napier102415,504
New Plymouth95360,766
Wanganui47198,109
Wellington5982,124,766
Picton1455,283
Nelson1436,722
Mapua1166
Westport82103,165
Greymouth9097,618
Lyttelton1,235998,491
Timaru109342,247
Oamaru4091,827
Dunedin232813,676
Bluff124404,229
Totals2,4128,357,865

Overseas vessels are shown to have called at twenty-four ports during 1931. including nine which were not first ports of call for a single overseas vessel. The total entries of the 564 overseas vessels during the year were 2,412, which gives an average of over four ports called at on each visit to the Dominion. Many vessels as, for instance, those engaged in the transport of timber and coal, and those merely touching at a New Zealand port while en route between Australia and America call at only one port in the Dominion, while, on the other hand, vessels engaged in the United Kingdom trade generally call at half a dozen or more ports.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.

The examinations for masters mates engineers of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the Imperial Board of Trade, with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions; but the British Board of Trade recognizes the following New Zealand certificates only as of Imperial validity: Master, extra; master, ordinary; master, steamship; first mate, only mate, and second mate, ordinary and steamship; first-and second-class marine engineers, and first-and second-class motor engineers. It is a Condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the British Board of Trade.

New regulations for the examination of masters and mates were issued by the Board of Trade on 1st January, 1931, and corresponding regulations were made in New Zealand and came into force on the same date.

During 1931-32 some 266 candidates sat for examinations. Of the 153 who passed, 62 were masters, mates, and engineers of seagoing steamships; 1 was for voluntary examination in compass deviation: 8 were masters, mates, and engineers of steamers plying within restricted limits; I master of sailing-ship plying in harbours 1 certificate of efficiency, R.N.R.; 2 yacht masters in New Zealand waters; 4 signals examinations; 43 were engineers of seagoing motor-propelled boats; and 31 were engineers of such boats plying within restricted limits.

SURVEY OF SHIPS.

The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1908, and its amendments, provide for an annual survey by Government surveyors of all vessels, with a view to ensuring their seaworthiness. Certificates of survey wore issued in 1931-32 to 153 steamers, 401 oil-engine vessels, and 5 sailing-vessels. Vessels to the number of 266 were also surveyed for seaworthiness and efficiency under section 226 of the 1908 Act.

LIGHTHOUSES.

There are forty-nine coastal lighthouses of various types. The buildings also are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations. In twenty-four cases the light apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order i.e., a central lamp sending its rays through a combination of surrounding lenses. Automatic lights are used in the remainder of the coastal lighthouses.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen Island, which, placed some 600 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32 1/2 nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Brett light (altitude 510 ft.) and East Cape (505 ft.), both visible at 30 1/2 miles; Godley Head (altitude 450 ft.), visibility 29 miles; Cuvier Island light (altitude 390 ft.) and Moko Hinou (altitude 385 ft.), both of which have a visibility of 27 miles. Sixteen other fights have a range of 20 miles or over.

All manually-attended coastal lighthouses are equipped with signalling Hags and lamps, the keepers being competent to transmit or receive messages. Coastal lights i.e., those outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities are maintained by the Marino Department.

The average cost of erection and equipment of the main coastal lighthouses was about 6,000 per light. The two most costly were Cape Brett Lighthouse (11,237) on the Auckland Peninsula, and Dog Island Lighthouse (10,481) in Foveaux Strait. The cost of maintenance of all lighthouses under the control of the Marine Department was for 1931-32 Salaries, 14,3-10; stores and general maintenance, 6,904; working-expenses of tender, 17,557; administration expenses, 7,638; interest and sinking-fund charges, 18,486; depreciation, 11,304; total, 76,229. Light dues for 1931-32 totalled 78,334.

WRECKS.

In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer where the damage has resulted from his wrongful act or default.

Should any wreck occur on the coast the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

During the year 1931-32, 87 inquiries, of which 7 were Magisterial, were held into shipping casualties, the number of vessels involved being 95. The principal casualties were the loss of the motor-vessel “Ivotiti,” which foundered with the loss of seven lives, and the steamer “Progress,” which was wrecked at Ohiro Bay with the loss of five lives. A summary of the casualties is given.

Strandings-No.Tonnage.
Total loss1181
Slight damage2225,970
No damage3870
Collisions—
Slight damage1515,263
No damage81,659
Fires-No.Tonnage.
Total loss287
Slight damage713,815
Miscellaneous3765,324
Totals95123,169

Chapter 12. SECTION XII.—RAILWAYS

INTRODUCTORY.

RAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year I860 only. In that year a contract was let for the construction or a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton and the first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on the 5th February, 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

Although practically all the railways are State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and the Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companies.

In t he year 1876 the railways of New Zealand passed from the control of the Provincial Governments to the Public Works Department. A few years later the opened lines were handed over to the Working Railways Department, and in 1880 a Board of three Railway Commissioners was appointed. This form of management, however, lasted only for live years, at the end of which period a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, took over the administration, and this system continued for close on thirty years. In 1925 the system of railway management-was reorganized under the control of a Railway Board of three members, but in 1928 the system of control by a General Manager was again reverted to. Three years later legislation was passed constituting the Government Railways Hoard of five members, which took over the control and management of the railways from 1st June, 1931.

The development of automatic and electric-power signalling has been greatly extended since its introduction on the New Zealand railways some years ago. At the present time automatic signalling controlling the safe running of trains is in use on 63 miles 14 chains of double line and 190 miles 41 chains of single line.

In addition to automatic signalling, power signalling for the operation of yards has largely superseded the older form of mechanical signalling.

The use of electric power on the New Zealand railways is increasing to a great extent for many purposes, including pumping plants for the supply of water for engines outside stations, for driving electrical machinery in the shops, and for the lighting of stations, locomotives, and carriages. There are 17 railway substations, with a total capacity of 12,000 kv.a.

The Christchurch-Lyttelton section of railway, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1928-29. The Otira-Arthur's Pass section, including the Otira Tunnel, has been electrified since its opening in 1923.

MILEAGE OF STATE RAILWAYS.

At the 31st March, 1932, there were some 3,315 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into seven distinct sections, as follows:—

Section.Length. Miles.
North Island main line and branches1,449
Kaihu24
Gisborne60
Total. North Island1,533
SectionLength. Miles.
South Island main line and branches1,626
Westport36
Nelson64
Picton56
Total, South Island1,782

Government railways are constructed by the Public Works Department, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed. No lines were completed during 1931-32.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and a steel rail of 70 lb, weight per lineal yard is the standard for the permanent-way, and is in use on 1,829 miles of line. The great bulk of the remaining mileage is in 53 lb., 55 lb., and 56 lb. steel rails. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,100 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood or New Zealand silver-pine.

ROLLING -STOCK.

Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways in 1931-32 is given in the following table:—

Locomotives- 
Tender376
Tank250
Articulated (Garratt)3
Single Fairlie5
Electric11
Battery5
Clayton1
Totals651
Passenger-vehicles—
Sleepers21
Saloon30
First-class266
Second-class811
Composite454
Ladies'6
Postal19
Other14
Totals1,621
Wagons—
Horse-boxes296
Cattle774
Sheep2,574
Frozen-meat742
Cool-storage835
Covered goods812
High-side16,329
High-side bogie484
Low-side1,807
Brake-vans486
Other3,406
Totals28,545

All carriages and wagons required for use on the State railways have, since 1901. been manufactured in the railway workshops of the Dominion, with the exception of 2,500 four-wheeled wagons imported from England in 1921-22. Locomotives also are built in the railway workshops of the Dominion.

The weights of the locally-built tender-engines in working trim vary from 63 to 135 tons, while those of the tank-engines run from 291 to 71 tons.

The imported Garratt engines are 6-cylinder superheated simple engines of the4-6-2 2-6-4 type, and weigh 146 tons with a tractive force of 51,5801b.

The following engines of more recent construction deal with the hulk of the traffic

Class.Type.Traffic.Weight.Tractive Force.
   Tons.lb.
AB4-6-2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed8520,000
A4-6-2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderMixed7817,000
X4-8-2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderGoods9426,620
WAD and WS4-6-4 superheated: simple tank engineMixed7222,250
C2-6-2 superheated; simple, with tenderShunting6613,798

In addition to the above thirty new mixed traffic engines to be designated K Class are under construction at the Hutt shops. These are 4-8-4 type simple superheated tender engines weighing 135 tons with a tractive effort of 30,815 lb.

Standard carriages are 50 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate thirty to forty-four passengers, and lighted by electricity. Electric lighting in passenger-cars is now being substituted for gas lighting in the older cars, 548 carriages being so equipped at 31st March, 1932. Locomotives to the number of 262 are fitted with electric head-lights. The Westing house brake is fitted to all rolling-stock with the exception of that on the Kaihu, Picton, Nelson, and "West, port Sections.

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.

The following statement shows the number of miles of Government railways open in the Dominion, the number of train-miles travelled and of passengers carried, and the tonnage of goods traffic for the last ten years. Figures of passengers and goods include the Lake Wakatipu steamer service, but exclude road-motor services.

Year ended 31st March,Length open (Miles).Train-mileage.Passengers.Season Tickets Issued.Goods and Live-stock.*
Including Season-ticket Holders.Excluding Season-ticket Holders.
*The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given.
19233,0288.346,73128,221,36214,256,010485,0810,618,588
19243,0539,024,50328,436,47513,836,311525,7446,925,517
19253,0859,083,62326,106,85912,424,012537,5447,033,459
19263,13810,319,40727,653,41411,813,407600,2927,256,142
19273,16410,723,86426,002,13710,305,005585,0947,308,449
19283,18010,838,59425,379,6659,299,157632,7637,366,762
19293,28711,113,48225,574,8439,074,993656,1697,622,631
19303,28712,022,04325,413,6218,498,441667,4327,799,702
19313,32211,281,89822,813,7087,288,674600,4406,966,329
19323,31510,168,72019,184,5836,528,429459,0735,831,920

Live-stock carried in 1931-32 comprised 685,795 cattle and horses, and 10,698,584 sheep and pigs, equivalent to a tonnage of 553,131.

In addition to the 19,184,583 passengers shown in the foregoing table, 2,384,670 passengers were carried by the Railways Department's road-motor services in 1931-32. Excluding also steamer traffic on Lake Wakatipu, 19,155,600 passengers were carried on the railways during the year, the revenue in respect of these aggregating 1,339,589. Passenger train-miles run during the year totalled 4,440,491, and the revenue received represents 72-40 pence per train-mile and 404 per mile of line.

Detailed figures showing the number of passengers carried under various heads during the last five years are given in the following table:—

1927-28.1923-29.1920-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Ordinary and holiday excursion4,967,2454,815,8324,137,1013,519,7192,909,540
Suburban2,782,0402,586,8542,423,2742,055,4801,924,296
Other reduced fares1,549,8721,072,3071,938,0661,713,4751,694,593
Totals9,299,1579,074,9938,498,4417,288,0746,528,429
Season ticket-s issued Workers' weekly390,152412,005422,488366,459234,397
Weekly twelve-trip116,967110,609116,370114,070108,587
Trip-bearer56,41050,87256,20450,04357,182
School28,88529,53530,19029,39827,697
Tourist1,2321,1501,129906511
Travellers' annual15014114111481
Other38,96139,85740,90438,24430,618
Totals632,703656,169667,432600,410459,073

The following table gives interesting information as to the constitution of the goods traffic for the years 1927-28 to 1931-32. The figures are exclusive of steamer traffic on Lake Wakatipu.

Commodity.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Grain300,047355,522316,943265,925273,003
Meals126,580121,283117,901112,571109,908
Fruit, New Zealand37,79241,23941,77246,91943,121
Hoot crops, fodder103,897162,033163,173139,690120,395
Flax, green and dressed30,66227,02526,15911,0867,098
Seeds27,23224,27620,61616,60218,661
Cattle and horses139,317144,257151,333141,404121,996
Sheep and pigs371,439391,194414,445414,589430,564
Meat178,590171,964173,609191,384187,891
Butter94,982101,846122,749132,318122,604
Cheese75,27599,69193,220108,14880,903
Wool135,184141,235124,150117,991149,145
Dairy by-products10,00710,98918,06417,19215,302
Fat, hides, skins30,46733,35432,36637,58039,260
Fish6,7947,7438,2339,3707,711
Agricultural lime110,428142,213171,777157,211140,201
Coal, imported75,54259,6615,74937,30137,088
Coal, New Zealand hard1,102,1831,105,5091,242,6101,096,247763,926
Coal, New Zealand brown1,012,940999,017981,0931,020,454915,579
Road-metal277,217354,159413,551234,412113,410
Lime and coke54,59060,73465,01577,43854,495
Timber, imported32,70729,76930,99027,57710,308
Timber, New Zealand537,856538,252543,097375,524243,224
Firewood, posts,127,997126,693150,098123,13874,933
Benzine, kerosene,89,977123,937144,418145,086130,439
Cement78,48170,67982,54482,60666,863
Manures586,007712,741081,458503,417572,696
Miscellaneous1,520,1951,450,4301,451,1081,254,349962,087
Totals7,358,3977,013,4457,788,0736,957,7095,824,811

Information showing for the various commodities the tonnage carried, ton-miles, average haul, and revenue received during 1931-32 is now given:

Commodity.Tonnage carried.Per Cent, of Gross.Tons One Mile omitted.Average Haul.Revenue.
    Miles.£
Grain273,0034.0915,45457140,545
Meals109,9081.897,1496565,142
Fruit43,1210.747,55517562,730
Root crops, fodder126,3952.178,7066970,520
Flax, green and dressed7,0980.12417594,704
Seeds18,6610.321,2286615,132
Cattle and horses121,9962.099,44977143,389
Sheep and pigs430,5647.3930,89672411,306
Meat187,8913.235,54329130,590
Butter122,6042117,48961120,460
Cheese86,9031.494,0874778,443
Wool149,1452.507,70752147,992
Wool149,1452.507,70752147,992
Dairy by-products15,3020.261,3268714,945
Fat, hides, skins39,2600.671,6504237,757
Fish7,7110131,23916110,695
Agricultural lime140,2012.419,4236752,058
Coal, imported37,0880.637041914,026
Coal, New Zealand hard763,92613.1230,97441244,024
Coal, New Zealand brown915,57915.72107,926118583,667
Road-metal113,4101.942,8872528,325
Lime and coke54,4950.942,8695322,447
Timber, imported10,3080.186386210,494
Timber, New Zealand243,2244.1727,404113226,838
Firewood, posts.74,9331.295,3087130,059
Benzine, gasoline, kerosene130,4392.2411,37687223,495
Cement66,8631.157,68811571,017
Manures572,6909.8338,89368285,421
Miscellaneous902,08716.5249,26651829,255
Totals5,824,811100.00405,258704,081,488

The total number of freight train-miles run during the year 1931-32 in carrying the 5,824,811 tons of goods and live-stock was 5,728,229, and the total revenue received was 4,081,488. This revenue represents averages of 14s. 3d. per train-mile, 14s. per ton, and 2.41d. per ton-mile.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.

The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five years is given below. The reduction in 1931-32 was due to the writing-down of the capital by 10,400,000 as authorized in the Government Railways Amendment Act, 1931, this being the estimated amount of accrued depreciation and losses of capital not otherwise provided for up to that date.

 1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Lines open for traffic51,187,37056,508,59857,787,67160,545,15451,424,883
Lines under construction7,610,0825,707,6167,738,4188,133,8717,030,818
Totals58,797,45862,276,21465,526,08908,079,02559,055,701

So varied are the geographical features of the Dominion that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. The numerous mountain-chains and the innumerable rivers fed by the heavy rainfall make railway construction in general both difficult and expensive, as the next statement shows.

COMPARISON OF CAPITAL COST AND OF REVENUE OF EACH SECTION, 1931—32.
Section.Capital Cost of Open lines to 31st MarchCapital Cost per Mile (Open Lines).Net Operating Revenue, 1931-32.
Per Mile of open Line.Per Cent, of Capital Cost.

*Loss.

† Based on the total net revenue.

North Island£££ 
Kaihu.169,9537,0811ll*..
Gisborne.777,09312,952177*..
Main line and branches.28,989,38520,0062651.33
Totals, North Island29,936,43119,5282421.24
South Island........
Westport487,35013,5382011.48
Nelson511,7727,996203*..
Picton608,29310,86236*..
Main line and branches18,118,08411,143760.68
Totals, South Island19,725,49911,069650.59
Totals, Railways49,661,93014,9811470.98
Lake Wakatipu steamer service17,942......
Subsidiary services1,735,115......
General9,896......
Grand totals51,424,88315,513253l.64

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The railways have contributed in a great measure towards bringing the Dominion to its present high state of productiveness, have given practical assistance in the development of the country, and have encouraged local industry. For many years a profit of 3 per cent, was regarded as sufficient, and any excess over this rate was followed by reductions in passenger charges or in freights. Consequent on the extension of settlement and the soundness of the Dominion's industries, a higher rate than 3 per cent, has been aimed at in recent years. The rate looked for in 1909-10 was 3 3/4 per cent., and in 1910-11 4 per cent., followed in 1911-12 by a return to 3 3/4 per cent. These rates were obtained, but those for 1913-14 and 1914-15 fell below expectations, a result due in the earlier year to the extended strike which obtained during nearly three months of the year and to the outbreak of smallpox in the North Island, and in the later year to the outbreak of the European War. In 1915-16 and 1916-17, however, there were considerable increases, bringing the net revenue up to 4 3/4 per cent, and 5 1/4 percent. respectively. The returns for the next three years all fell slightly below the figure for 1916-17; in 1920-21 there was an abrupt fall to somewhat less than 3 1/2 per cent., aid in 1921-22 the unprecedentedly low figure of slightly over 1 percent, was reached, a state of affairs brought about by high running-costs, the competition of motor transport, and especially the state of depression which was in evidence during the year. The year 1922-23 showed a considerable improvement over the preceding period, the return being slightly over 3 per cent.; while for the year 1923-24 the policy rate of 3 3/4 per cent, was slightly exceeded. The restrictions imposed by the Health Department on account of the epidemic of infantile paralysis considerably affected the passenger traffic for the year 1924-25, and to this may be attributed the decrease in the rate of interest earn slightly over 31/2 per cent.

In 1924 the Government decided upon a financial reorganization of the railways, and an entirely new system of accounts, based on commercial practice, was brought into operation on the 1st April, 1925.

The first and most important step in this direction was the establishment of a separate Working Railways Account into which all earnings are paid and from which all working-expenses, superannuation subsidies, and interest on capital are met. The interest on capital is based on the actual rates payable on the various loans.

The new financial policy embodied the setting-up of Renewals, Betterments, and Equalization Funds, and also provided for payment of subsidies from the Consolidated Fund for losses on operation of certain developmental lines. This latter provision was cancelled from 1st April, 1929.

The total revenue and expenditure of the railways during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Gross Revenue.Expenditure.Net Revenue.Percentage of Net Revenue to Capital Cost.
 ££££ s.d.
19236,727,8025,502,4971,225,3053 0 10.
19246,984,2115,403,7661,580,4453 16 6.
19257,112,5245,545,4161,567,1083 11 0.
19268,460,7626,468,4281,992,3344 6 11.
19278,434,6656,490,8801,943,7743 19 10.
19288,524,5386,685,1231,839,4153 12 10.
19298,747,9756,849,3831,898,5923 9 0.
19308,288,1167,358,859929,2571 12 4.
19317,571,5376,882,810688,7271 3 3.
19326,508,9485,670,955837,9931 12 8.

The above figures are inclusive of subsidiary services, which in recent yens have increased considerably. From 1925-26 to 1928-29 also the figures of receipts are swelled by the inclusion of moneys transferred from the Consolidated Fund to make good deficiencies in revenue on branch lines and isolated sections. This provision, however, has now been cancelled. In 1931-32 the percentage of revenue to capital cost is affected by the writing-down of capital cost by 10,400,000. The revenue and expenditure for the last five years are now given, distinguishing between railway operating and other items:—

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Net operating Revenue.
Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.Subsidy from Consolidated Fund.Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.
*Discontinued as from 1st April, 1920.
 ££££££
19287,343,854691,125489,5686,302,119383,0041,041,726
19297,524,864724,174498,9376,374,579474,8041,150,285
19307,473,993814,123*6,848,026510,833625,967
19316,781,388790,149*6,406,143476,667375,245
19325,788,965719,983*5,301,653369,302487,312

The various subsidiary services now conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the year ended the 31st March, 1932, are as follows:

Service.Revenue.Expenditure.
 ££
Lake Wakatipu steamers8,01310,068
Refreshment service89,02686,335
Advertising service39,31236,414
Departmental dwellings138,725149,974
Leases of bookstalls.17,82210,820
Miscellaneous receipts354,345..
Totals719,983369,302

Interest on railway capital liability for 1931-32 (and not included in the foregoing figures of expenditure) amounted to 2,221,465, there thus being a deficit if 1,383,472 for the year, as compared with 1,566,018 for the preceding year. A aim of 688,784 was set aside for depreciation and provision for renewals, and is included in the total of expenditure for the year.

REVENUE.

In the following table the revenue during the last ten years is classified according to the class of traffic, from which it was derived. Total revenue is covered down to the end of the year 1924-25, and railway operating revenue the after.

Year ended 3lst March,Passenger fares.Parcels, Luggage, and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Labour, Demurrage,Rents and Commission.Total.
 ££££££
19232,420,620393,3223,671,008119,933122,9196,727,802
19242,349,600406,8323,953,213141,968132,5986,984,211
19252,288,571417,5504,122,017137,149147,2377,112,524
19262,537,014409,2074,499,160143,860..7,589,274
19272,304,180377,3674,596,166145,759..7,423,472
19282,145,296379,9334,680,135138,481..7,343,845
19292,124,746378,1414,846,125175,852..7,524,864
19301,995,927386,7924,904,324186,950..7,473,993
19311,778,726359,2764,487,357156,029..6,781,388
19321,339,589316,2454,019,600113,531..5,788,965

Revenue from the carriage of goods and live-stock had been steadily increasing up to 1910, but a decline is recorded for 1931 and 1932 due mainly to the economic depression Passenger traffic shows a tendency to decrease, owing to motor competition and the depression.

The operating revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1931-32 represented an expend hire on railway travel of 17s. 8d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total railway operating revenue was equal to 3 16s. 4d. per caput.

A table is added showing information as to railway revenue in each of the Australian Sates for the year ended 30th June, 1931. Figures for New Zealand for the year tided 31st March, 1931, are also given.

Railway Revenue for Each of the Australian States.

State.Miles of Line open.Train-miles run (,000 omitted).Gross Revenue (,000 omitted).Net Revenue.
Amount (,000 omitted).Per Train-mile.Per Cent. of Capital.
*Loss
   ££s.d. 
Queensland8,46010,8176,4121,4182 72.28
New South Wales6,04425,56216,0063,1062 52.34
Victoria4,71715,94510,0082,7393 53.10
South Australia2,5294,9922,5862631 00.94
Western Australia4,1815,4023,1996082 32.53
Tasmania6651,37340044*0 8*0 67*
Commonwealth Railways1,05240418854*2 8*0 69*
Totals for Australia25,64864,49538,7998,0302 62.39
New Zealand3,32211,2827,5726891 31.16

Expenditure.

The total railway expenditure in 1931-32 represented 87-13 per cent, of tie gross earnings, and the operating-expenses 91-58 per cent, of operating revenue. It is of interest to trace the movement over a period of years, as in the following statement. Here, also, figures for the last seven years relate to operating revenue and expenditure, while those for previous years show the proportion of total expenditure to gross earnings.

Percentage of Expenditure to Revenue.

Year ended 31st March.Per Cent.Year ended 31st March.Per Cent.Year ended 31st March.Per Cent.
191267.07191966.32192681.23
191368.13192071.37192782.96
191471.24192181.59192885.81
191571.14192293.89192984.71
191664.00192381.79193094.62
191760.97192477.37193194.47
191864.91192577.97193291.58

The expenditure under various heads is now given for each of the last ten years. For the Inst, seven years the figures are exclusive of subsidiary services, aid refer to railway operating expenditure only.

Year ended 31st March.Maintenance of Ways and works.Maintenance of Signals.Maintenance of Rolling stock.Locomotive Transportation.Traffic Transportation.Head office and General Charges.*Total.
*Including Superannuation subsidy
 £££££££
19231,040,89267,4251,043,5901,613,5641,541,132195,8945,502,497
19241,143,28170,9121,048,5671,395,4911,541,108204,4075,403,766
19251,113,04881,2011,083,7881,408,9271,611,947246,5055,645,416
19261,144,385105,0641,311,3171,636,6201,743,641223,5436,164,570
19271,074,334100,8611,303,4441,669,3521,752,998257,2946,158,283
19281,147,067102,8711,380,7261,662,0741,760,459248,9226,302,119
19291,111,229112,2061,424,1651,650,7931,825,965250,2276,374,579
19301,146,014117,5771,680,9191,755,2091,883,918264,3806,848,026
19311,150,329104,4641,502,6981,594,6721,798,490255,4906,406,143
1932997,629107,5851,270,5851,254,7691,424,520246,5605,301,653

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.

The number of persons employed in operating the State railways at the 31st March, 1932. was 16,114. The staff is divided into two divisions namely, the first or clerical division, and the second or out-of-door division and is further classed in four branches, as shown in the following table:

As at 31st March,General.Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive.Total
19281,7815,6094,5306,62118,541
19291,7105,7154,4966,61518,536
19301,8125,7494,6397,21019,410
19311,8215,5744,2687,17718,840
19321,5095,0563,4256,12416,114

Railway employees are under a system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since then.

Appeal Boards (one in each Island) are constituted to hear and redress grievances of men dissatisfied with decisions respecting the withholding of annual increments, promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. Each Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service elected by the members thereof. The Minister of Railways has the power of veto in respect of any decision of the Appeal Board.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railways service was established in 1903. Information concerning this is given in the section dealing with " Pensions, Superannuation,

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.

With the exception of the Ongarue accident in 1923 (when seventeen passengers were killed and twenty-nine more or less severely injured, through a falling boulder de railing the engine), the history of railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from accidents of a serious nature. A table is given dealing with railway accidents during each of the last five years.

Year ended 31st March,To Passengers.To Employees.To Others.Fatal.Other.Total.
1928321,66378471,7261,773
1929401,57797521,6621,714
1930411,84175501,9071,957
1931281,71576501,7691,819
1932191,21036371,2281,265

Of the persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1931-32, 8 were passengers, 12 employees, and 17 neither passengers nor employees. The last-mentioned included 11 killed at railways crossings.

Included in the total accidents (1,265) were 4 train accidents, 43 accidents on line, 83 shunting accidents, 24 railway-crossing accidents, and 336 accidents in railway workshops.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.

Private railways have a total mileage of 116 miles. A list is as follows:—

Railway.Location.Length of Railway.
  M.C.
Waipa Railway and Collieries (Limited)Ngaruawahia5 50
Taupo Totara Timber Company (Limited)Putaruru50 40
Waihi Gold-mining Company (Limited)Waikino5 72
Sanson TramwaySanson-Himatangi17 0
Castlecliff RailwayWanganui-Castlecliff3 40
Napier Harbour Board's linePort Ahuriri1 25
Waronui Coal CompanyMilton5 33
Taratu Coal CompanyLovell's Flat7 47
Kaitangata Coal CompanyStirling5 45
Dunedin City Corporation's Ocean Beach RailwayDunedin (about)3 14
Ohai RailwayFrom Wairio5 60
Denniston Incline (Westport Coal Company's line)Waimangaroa-Conn's Creek1 2
Paparoa Company's Railway(Worked by N.Z.R.)1 68
Reefton Coal CompanyReefton2 20
Tongariro Timber CompanyKakahi..
Total mileage..116 36

The above list represents available information, and it is not claimed that either omissions or inaccuracies are absent from it.

Chapter 13. SECTION XIII.—TRAMWAYS.

SYSTEMS AND ORGANIZATION

ELECTRIC-TRAMWAY services in New Zealand have since their inception been controlled by local authorities. This is, however, subject to two exceptions viz., (1) Auckland, where a public company carried on until 1st July, 1919, when the system was taken over by the Auckland City Council; and (2) Dunedin, where a section of the system was until 1921 operated by a private company. At the present time live of the seven electric -tramway systems are controlled by the council of the city or borough concerned. At Christchurch the Christchurch Tramway Hoard is the controlling body, while at Auckland the Auckland City Council has handed over the tramways to the Auckland Transport Hoard.

The local authorities derive their powers for controlling tramways from the Tramways Act, 1908. There are also special Acts empowering the construction, of tramways in certain places.

System.Year of Inauguration.Length of Track.Approximate Population served, April, 1932.
Thoroughfare.Single Line (including Loops).
Auckland190246 3086 67179,000
New Plymouth19166 578 3716,000
Wanganui190814 616 4625,000
Wellington190430 6148 0113,000
Christchurch190548 5872 50110,000
Dunedin189948 5817 7277,000
Invercargill19127 409 4022,000

The Gisborne tramways, opened in 1913, have since been replaced by omnibuses. The Napier tramways have ceased operations since the earthquake of 3rd February, 1931.

Passenger rolling-stock at 31st March, 1932, comprised 728 cars with a capacity of 31,079 passengers.

Generally speaking, it may be said that the policy of the local authorities controlling electric tramways is not the making of profit, but the arrangement of their finances so as to produce the barest possible surplus.

The Tramways Act provides that a separate account must be kept in each case of nil moneys received from the working of tramways, against which must be charged

  1. Interest payable and percentage required to form a sinking fund in respect of every loan raised for the construction of the tramway.

  2. The coat of maintaining the tramway in good repair, of providing and maintaining carriages and motive power, and of carrying on the traffic thereon.

  3. Any surplus remaining, which the local authority may transfer to the District Fund.

POWER CONSUMPTION

The electrical energy in Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin is now obtained from the hydro-electric works at Mangahao and Lake Waikaremoana, Lake Coleridge, and Waipori respectively, and until the breakdown at Arapuni, Auckland obtained its energy from the Horahora-Arapuni system. These are the largest hydroelectric works functioning in the Dominion, and energy is obtainable from them at comparatively cheap rates. According to the figures for the year ended 31st March, 1932, Christchurch 's train-power cost 0-53d. per unit, against 073d. for Dunedin, 0-90d. for Wellington, and 0-96d. for Auckland. In using these figures due attention should be paid to the fact that, with the exception of Auckland, power is purchased in bulk by the tramway authorities, and is adapted for the use of the trains over the tramway authorities ' own distribution systems. In Auckland the whole of the plant installed for the transformation and conversion of power for the tramways is the property of the authority supplying the power, the price paid by the tramway authorities being virtually for electricity delivered to the trams. The capital charges falling duo annually in connection with this transforming machinery are therefore included under the heading of " Cost of Power " in Auckland, and under " General Capital Charges " for the other undertakings.

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, the Christchurch Tramway Board generated a small part of the power used by it.

Figures for the fiscal year ending 31st March, 1932, are,

System.Total Units of Electrical Energy used.Cost per Unit.Units per Car-mile.*Passengers per Car-mile.

*All vehicles.

†Passenger vehicles

‡Estimated.

  d  
Auckland18,349,3500.973.078.18
New Plymouth688,6420.702.477.23
Wanganui950,0000.792.364.99
Wellington10,507,6620.902.549.27
Christchurch7,025,0000.532.446.79
Dunedin3,703,4600.732.2011.02
Invercargill623,0780.801.676.88
Totals41,847,1920.852.668.39

MOTOR-BUS COMPETITION.

Competition by motor-buses is a problem that is troubling tramway authorities the world over at the present time. In New Zealand the competition from buses has seriously affected many tramway systems. A series of losses on certain lines, as well as in whole systems, has been the lot of several of the tramway concerns. The competition is not confined to motor-buses, the increasing use of the motor-car and bicycle having told against tramway services. The competition from motor-buses appears to have become really effective against trams about 1921. Prior to that year the number of passengers carried per car-mile for all tramways manifested an upward tendency more or less commensurate with the increase in the population served. From 10.26 in 1910-11 this figure gradually rose to 11.22 in 1919-20, but since then a gradual but significant decline has been recorded. Within the eleven years following 1920-21 the figure declined from 10.71 to 8.39, a decrease of nearly 22 per cent.

The whole of the decrease in the passengers carried per car -mile is not attributable to bus competition. It is probable that the decrease is duo in some measure to the opening of new services in more sparsely populated areas and to increased services, but the fact that the growth of bus services synchronizes with the fall in the volume of tram traffic appears to indicate that the principal cause of the decrease lies in this direction.

In 1926 relief came in the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926, which prohibited the competition of buses with trams, except where the fare charged per section by buses is 2d. more than the tram fare.

As an indication of the trend of traffic development, it may be mentioned that the whole of the local authorities conducting tramway services now maintain auxiliary motor-omnibus services.

PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS.

The statistics for 1927-28 and subsequent years given in this table and elsewhere throughout this section are exclusive altogether of figures relating to the operation of buses run by the tramway authorities. Bus operations were included to an unknown extent in 1926-27 and previous years.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Under-takings.Number of Employees.Passenger Car-miles run.*Passengers carried.Number of Number of Car-mil.*

*Total car-miles for years prior to 1927.

1923102,95714,052,862145,598,47310.36
1924103,15114,774,262152,295,21510.31
192593,14415,551,322152,518,0609.81
192693,31017,289,576167,677,0579.70
192793,29117,066,086167,599,6619.82
192893,13616,857,342162,550,4829.64
192993,06216,565,221160,559,3139.69
193082,93616,298,984154,811,2629.50
193182,91516,459,615146,804,9708.92
193272,72315,692,505131,654,2868.39

During the year ended 31st March, 1911, 1,633 persons found employment in the various electric-tram services: by 1926 this figure had doubled, and was recorded as 3,310. Each subsequent year, however, has recorded a decrease. The frequency of the services as depicted in the car-miles run shows that great strides have been made in this direction. The tendency towards the development of the double in preference to the single track is a feature attendant upon the increasing density of the population served. The length of thoroughfare traversed by track (either double or single) at 31st March, 1932, was 172 miles, the total miles of track including loops, being 272 miles.

The financial operations of the tramways have increased along with the traffic operations

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Percentage of Expenditure to Revenue.Capital Outlay.Average Width.
Sinking Funds.Depreciation and Renewal Funds.Accident Funds.
 ££ ££££
19231,510,3911,445,94095.734,370,630403,127598,07355,890
19241,562,7911,495,18195.674,013,647478,241643,71762,666
19251,621,9351,568,53296.714,701,672553,990631,10367,789
19261,607,9691,584,01698.514,760,756632,732683,61471,736
19271,640,3301,659,802101.195,066,008770,100877,11686,889
19281,612,9641,574,59597.625,036,853915,301787,89184,887
19291,606,7421,531,55195.325,137,9181,015,920780,06798,131
19301,549,0021,499,74096.175,297,2231,126,850886,913109,033
19311,530,0101,506,15198.445,596,2601,231,0841,037,977113,603
19321,331,1731,379,596103.645,592,3371,306,9121,042,310112,313

The figures for the year ended 31st March, 1932, show that expenditure exceeded revenue by 48,423.

Figures showing details of the total expenditure during each of the last five years are given in the subjoined table:

Year ended 3lst March,Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges,Other Expenses.Total.
(a) Absolute Figures.
 ££££
19281,125,845399,43349,3201,574,598
19291,086,343392,40752,8011,531,551
19301,053,138397,22049,3821,499,740
19311,038,650418,59148,9101,506,151
1932913,307420,54145,7481,379,596
(b) Proportion of Total.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
192871.5025.373.13100.00
192970.9325.623.45100.00
193070.2226.493.29100.00
193168.9627.793.25100.00
193266.2030.483.32100.00

The percentage of operating expenditure to total expenditure has decreased from 71.50 in 1927-28 to 66.20 in 1931-32. Capital charges on the other hand have risen from 25.37 per cent, to 30.48 per cent. during the same period. Other expenses show very little movement.

The total capital outlay on the various tramway undertakings is given as £5,592,337 to the 31st March, 1932, and it is of interest to dissect this amount into the principal component parts and compare the figures with those for previous years. This has been done for each of the last five years, and the figures are given in the table following:

As at 31st March,Permanent-way.*Electric Equipment of Lines.Cars and other Vehicles.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and Undefined.Total.
*Including electric equipment of lines for years prior to 1029.
Absolute Figures.
 £££££££
19282,514,795..1,309,638166,800597,054448,5665,036,853
19292,092,519481,9751,301,930152,110596,051513,3335,137,918
19302,173,880499,2891,352,204151,588597,741522,5215,297,223
19312,327,574531,7381,451,657156,912608,323520,0565,596,260
19322,333,985543,4101,441,842163,652648,870460,5785,592,337
Proportion of Total.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
192849.93..26.003.3111.858.91100.00
192940.739.3825.342.9611.609.99100.00
193041.049.4225.532.8611.299.86100.00
193141.599.5025.942.8110.879.26100.00
193241.749.7225.782.9211.608.24100.00

Extensions and improvements to the permanent-way and the electric equipment of lines have accounted for an increased outlay of 362,600 between 31st March, 1928, and the corresponding date in 1932, the percentage that this amount bears to the total increasing from 49.93 to 51.40 during the five years. The amount expended on rolling stock rose from 1,309,038 in 1928 to 1,441,842 in 1932, while the percentage decreased from 20.0 to 25.78.

VOLUME OF TRAFFIC.

The number of passengers carried per car-mile is an excellent guide to the relative volume of traffic handled by the various undertakings. In the case of Dunedin, where a relatively large volume of traffic is handled on 18 miles of thoroughfare, the average passenger load per car-mile (1102) is considerably higher than in any other undertaking. Wellington follows Dunedin with 9.27 passengers per car-mile., with Auckland (8.18) coming next. Christchurch, with its long distance of thoroughfares traversed, 49 miles, falls below the other main centres with 0.70. In considering the fares charged on the Christchurch trams this fact should not be lost-sight of. The volume of traffic per car-mile in Invercargill and New Plymouth was recorded as 6.88 and 7.23 respectively, and it is only natural that those undertakings should be in a more healthy financial condition than Wanganui, whose tram service carried on the average 4.99 passengers for every car-mile run.

System.Total Passengers carried.Car-miles run (Passenger Cars and Trailers).Passengers per Car-mile.Average Fare per Passenger.
    d.
Auckland48,761,7305,961,5075.182.73
New Plymouth2,014,986278,6557.231.90
Wanganui2,003,390401,7974.992.79
Wellington38,301,2194,130,1109.272.31
Christchurch19,473,9512,865,9566.792.49
Dunedin.18,539,4321,682,24811.021.65
Invercargill2,559,578372,2326.881.79
Totals131,654,28615,692,5058.392.39

FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

The Auckland and Wellington services provided 70 per cent, of the total traffic revenue for 1931-32, the former returning 554,109 or 42 per cent, of the total, against 1*69,210, or 28 per cent., in the case of Wellington. Christchurch and Dunedin fall a long way below Auckland and Wellington in traffic revenue, with 202,049 and 127,185 respectively, while of the smaller undertakings the next in order is Wanganui with 23,289.

System.Total (Passengers and Freight).Traffic Revenue per Car-mile.*Other.Total.
Cash.Concession.
* All vehicles
 ££d.££
Auckland425,256128,85322,285,613559,722
New Plymouth6,8319,14713,7619216,170
Wanganui18,9514,33813,9194624,235
Christchurch134,39967,65016,85..202,049
Dunedin92,83434,35118,141,780128,965
Invercargill6,87912,23812,331,67420,791
Totals877,046433,89120,0320,2361,331,173

On the expenditure side it is interesting, in view of the bus competition, to note that the total expenditure-covering operating -expenses, capital charges, and other expenditure-was 48,423 above the total revenue for the year.

System.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges,Other Expenses.Total.
 ££££
Auckland394,749153,1148,195556,058
New Plymouth12,3748,10543520,914
Wanganui18,37221,0104,39543,777
Wellington259,534105,27118,167382,972
Christchurch128,11979,17112,446219,736
Dunedin.83,46547,9971,528132,990
Invercargill16,6945,8735,87323,149
Totals913,307420,54145,7481,379,596

The principal item comprised in the total operating expenditure in 1931-32 is expenses on account of traffic, which amounted to 529,773, or 58 per cent. Cost of power follows traffic expenses in order of magnitude, accounting for 147,393, or 16 per cent. Car-maintenance cost 106,050, or approximately 12 per cent, of the total, being much greater than the item track-maintenance, which stands at 64,294 (7 per cent.). Management and office expenses accounted for the remaining potion of the total (7 per cent.) with 65,297.

System.Power.Traffic.Car maintenance.Track-maintenance (including Electrical Equipment).Management and Office Expenses.Total.
 ££££££
Auckland73,934215,45843,24827,14334,966394,749
New Plymouth2,0007,1421,1751,0341,02312,374
Wanganui3,1467,6922,9503,4761,10818,372
Wellington39,395159,89735,06513,92511,252259,534
Christchurch15,60679,33614,8829,4668,829128,119
Dunedin11,23552,2086,3256,5397,15883,465
Invercargill2,0778,0402,4053,21196116,694
Totals147,393529,773106,05064,79465,297913,307

Annual capital charges in the way of provision for interest and sinking fund and depreciation, reserve, and renewal funds, comprised 30 per cent, of the total expenditure during the year ended 31st March. 1932. The magnitude of these charges is not surprising, having regard to the relatively large capital outlay that is a necessity of tramway undertakings. Of the total provision for capital charges for the year ended 31st March, 1932, over 60 per cent, consisted of interest charges, and 18 per cent, of sinking fund charges.

System.Interest.Sinking Fund Charges.Depreciation Fund Charges.Renewal Fund Charges.Reserve Fund Charges.Accident Fund Charges.Total.
 £££££££
Auckland100,37546,739........153,114
New Plymouth5,0351,9481,122......8,105
Wanganui15,4155,416......17921,010
Wellington41,88610,179..23,98523,9855,236105,271
Christchurch57,8503,14817,630....54379,171
Dunedin22,1534,8845,77214,788..40047,997
Invercargill4,1801,287291....1155,873
Totals252,89473,60124,81538,77323,9856,473420,541

Apart from general considerations the gross figures relating to revenue and operating-costs, indicate very little; if, however, the figures are reduced to a common relative basis they are of some value in showing the efficiency of the various undertakings. Reflected in the comparisons made between these figures can be seen the results of different methods of management and control, the suitability or otherwise of electric tramways for certain areas,. The usual basis upon which the gross figures are reduced in order to make them comparable is that of the car-miles run. The figures for each undertaking in respect of the traffic revenue, the operating costs, and capital charges have accordingly been reduced in this manner and are given here under:—

System.Per Car-mile* run, 1931-32.
Traffic Revenue.Operating-costs,Capital Charges.
* All Vehicles
 d.d.d.
Auckland22.2816.206.16
New Plymouth13.7611.036.98
Wanganui13.9113.6012.55
Wellington21.4516.146.12
Christchurch16.8511.726.60
Dunedin18.1412.136.85
Invercargill12.3311.143.79
Average20.0314.656.42

In point of revenue per car-mile Auckland, with 22.28d., comes first, closely followed by Wellington, with 21.45d. Adverting to the volume of traffic in these cases, it would appear that relatively high fares together with a high volume of traffic have been the responsible factors. The Dunedin system, which leads Auckland and Wellington in point of volume of traffic, corn-is next in revenue per car-mile (18.14d.), while Christchurch with its widespread system and relatively low volume of traffic showed 16.85d. per car-mile. Of the smaller systems, Wanganui, with an average of 4.99 passengers per car-mile, leads as regards revenue per car-mile, with 13.91d.

A study of the operating-co. ts per car-mile is attended with considerable interest. Of the four chief systems; Christchurch and Dunedin, with operating-costs per car-mile of 11.72d. and 12.13d. respectively, are considerably below Auckland and Wellington, which show 16'20d. and 1614d. respectively. The lowest operating-cost occurs in New Plymouth (11.03d.), followed closely by Invercargill (11.14d.).

From the above it is observed that in no case was revenue per car-mile sufficient to meet operating-costs plus capital charges.

CAPITAL OUTLAY.

Up to the 31st March, 1932, 5,592,337 had been sunk in existing electric tramways in the Dominion. Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, with 2,053,231, 1,357,182, and 1,304,572 respectively, provide the bulk of this figure. During the year ended 31st March, 1932, 134,688 was added to the capital outlay for all the tramway undertakings.

Closely allied to the capital outlay is the question of accrued funds. At the 31st March, 1932, these totalled 2,461,535, of which 1,306,912 represented accrued sinking funds, 1,042,310 accrued depreciation and reserve funds, and 112,313 accident funds. Eighty-one, thirty-seven, and seventy-five per cent, respectively of these funds are invested in securities outside the tramway undertakings.

Capital Outlay

System.permanent-way.Electric equipment of lines.Cars and other vehicles.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and undefined.Total.
(a) up to 31st March, 1932.
 £££££££
Auckland.1,047,415.218,009.514,220.29,686.178,301.65,600.2,053,231.
New Plymouth.63,434.9,158.23,855.730.5,300.1,523.104,060.
Wanganui.93,510.21,391.51,044.7,981.49,887. 223,813.
Wellington.437,360.130,848.407,880.50,030.199,530.125,534.1,357,182.
Christchurch.437,408.115,139.297,199.39,083.157,493.258,250.1,304,572.
Dunedin.210,404.41,077.108,035.29,990.50,387.8,095.447,988.
Invercargill.44,454.7,788.39,009.152.7,900.1,576.101,485.
Totals.2,333,985.543,410.1,441,842.103,052.048,870.460,578.5,592,337.
(b) During Year ended 31st March, 1932.
 £££££££
Auckland.56,505.14,844.25,349...0,118.3,288.100,104.
New Plymouth.....988.......988.
Wanganui.1,010...2,124.......3,140.
Wellington8,587488997..1202,92713,119
Christchurch.8,550.1,099.92.103.225.1,144.11,213.
Dunedin.....117...7...124.
Invercargill...............
Totals.74,65816,431.29,007.103.6,470.7,359.134,688.

CABLE TRAMWAYS.

There are four cable tramway systems in the Dominion, one in Wellington and three in Dunedin. The systems, all of which operate on a 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, extend over routes totalling 6 miles 43 chains. The total revenue derived from traffic during the year amounted to 48,251, showing an average of l-81d. per passenger carried. The total capital outlay, less depreciation, stood at 122,110 at 31st March, 1932.

The following summary sets out the principal statistics of cable tramways for the last live years:

Year ended 31st March.
1928.1020.1930.19311932.
Undertakings No.44444
Employees No.7676757778
Salaries and wages£.22,59022,34120,47020,99919,760
Capital outlay£112,461107,213113,512117,039122,110
Expenditure—     
Operating-expenses30,05338,16135,43435,66833,349
Capital charges9,75710,317110,59411,1219,716
Total45,81048,478146,02846,78943,065
Revenue.54,26254,04153,90752,66448,850
Passengers carried No.7,032,9307,022,8657,030,9926,772,2686,388,743
Car-mile's run (including No. trailer miles)419,314389,709393,397399,450400,276
Passengers per car-mile No.1718181716

Chapter 14. SECTION XIV.—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT.

ROADS AND BRIDGES.

THE total mileage of formed roads in the Dominion at the 31st March, 1931, was 49,578, in addition to which there were 5,643 miles of bridle-tracks, and 16,923 miles of unformed legal roads.

Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Total.
Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width and paved or surfaced with—Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
Bituminous or cement concrete1251941011340
Bituminous or tar1,0407875881,893
Other or unspecified material4571....116
Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width, but not paved or surfaced13, S72.19281229.14,374
Total formed roads43,9903,5045511,52749,578
Bridle-tracks5,4092461445,043
Unformed legal roads15,9273868252816,923
Total of all roads65,3923,9146392,19972,144

The formation of roads in many parts of the Dominion has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system of the Dominion as at 31st March, 1931, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft. or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges.

Material of which constructed.CountiesBoroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Totals.
No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.NoTotal Length.No.Total Length.
  Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft.
Iron and steel24629,897244,8172105....27234,819
Stone and concrete64555,880919,6036565923875160,292
Australian or other2,257238,40011312,032111,983155822,396253,057
Native timbers2,100159,807404,357156353812,1646164,940
Other and unspecified Totals203,7533423........234,176
Totals5,208487,86327731,232343,288279015,006523,284

ROADS ADMINISTRATION.

The control of roads and bridges in New Zealand comes under the administration of the Minister of Public Works, the main statutes covering roads administration being the Public Works Act, 1928, and the Counties Act, 1920, and amendments. The Main Highways Act receives specific mention later.

Outside of the cities, boroughs, and independent town districts, the local administration is very largely vested in County Councils, and all roads, unless specially exempted and declared Government roads, are controlled by the County Councils or by Road Hoards. Local authorities have the assistance and advice of the Public-Works Department through its various engineers stationed in most of the main centres.

The allocation and legalization of roads is arranged by the local authorities and the Public Works Department conjointly.

The Government assists materially towards the construction of roads and bridges, and grants and subsidies are given to the County Councils according to the particular circumstances of each individual case. The county quota of the cost is usually found by raising loans secured by a special rate levied over the area to be served by the road. In this connection it may be noted that local-body loans are now closely controlled, and under the Local Government Loans Hoard Act, 1926, a Board has been established consisting of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineering-Chief of the Public Works Department, and five other persons appointed by the Governor-General. The function of the Board is to consider and investigate all applications from local authorities for developmental loans. The ability of the district concerned to carry the loan and the soundness of the proposal generally are thus fully considered, and, moreover, the operation of the Board tends to exercise a check on excessive borrowing by local bodies.

By statutory provision loan-money is devoted solely to expenditure on construction, maintenance and general repairs being financed from revenue derived from rates, With the exception of main highways (for which special provisions have existed for some years, as will be seen farther on in this section), the Government's funds for roading purposes, from which the grants and subsidies above referred to are made, have hitherto been derived,—

  1. For construction work, from the Public Works Fund, consisting mainly of loan-money raised in Great Britain.

  2. For maintenance and repairs, from the Consolidated Fund.

The Finance Act, 1930, as amended in 1931 and 1932, makes provision for moneys in the Main Highways Account to be appropriated for the construction and maintenance of roads other than main highways, and thus adds a third source from which funds for general roading purposes may be furnished by the Government.

For the allocation of Government grants and subsidies to local authorities for road-construction works the Public Works Department ascertains, as early in the financial year as is possible, the approximate amount of Government money which will be available for that year's roading operations. This is then allocated to the several Public Works districts of control on the basis of each district's claim under such factors as area, population, rating, loans available, mileage of roads in use, estimated amount to complete all roads, value of Crown and Native lands suitable for settlement, and mileage of working railways in each district. These district quotas are then in turn allotted, on the same basis and taking similar\factors into consideration, to the various counties within each Public Works district. Each local body is then advised of the amount of Government money it is entitled to for the financial year, and in consultation with the District Engineer of the Department it in turn allots its quota to individual roads in order of urgency.

The benefit of the advice of the Government official receives any parochialism which might tend to arise, and by the operation of this scheme no one local authority receives a greater proportion of Government, funds than that to which it is justly entitled, nor does one local body benefit at the expense of another.

The allocations by the counties and the Department are subsequently submitted to Parliament for final confirmation and approval.

Maintenance of roads is administered almost entirely by local authorities, the necessary funds being obtained from general rating, but in cases of exceptional circumstances such as those of roads of considerable length in sparsely populated districts where the local rate is totally inadequate to cover efficient maintenance, the Government grants assistance by way of subsidies from the Consolidated Fund.

Since the advent of modern fast and heavy motor traffic efficient maintenance of roads is becoming increasingly important, and, with a view to protecting the capital expenditure on roads, no opportunity is lost by the Public Works Department of impressing on local bodies their responsibility in this direction. Some years ago the Public Works Department instituted a policy of obtaining from local authorities, before issuing any assistance for metalling work, a definite assurance that the Council was in a position and prepared to allot annually from its Revenue Fund sufficient money to maintain the metal efficiently when placed.

On account of New Zealand's climate and configuration damage to roads by heavy rains and flood frequently occurs, and in many instances the cost of restoration is beyond the financial resources of the County Council. In such cases the Government, through the Public Works Department, comes to the assistance of the local body in the way of further giants or subsidies from the Consolidated Fund.

From the inauguration of the public works scheme in 1870 until the 31st March, 1932, the sum of £21,416,464 has been expended out of the Public Works Fund on the construction of roads and bridges. Considerable further expenditure has been paid out of other accounts on the construction of roads to open up lands for settlement purposes, and out of the Consolidated Fund for the maintenance of roads. Expenditure out of the Main Highways Account is dealt with farther on in this section.

MAIN HIGHWAYS ACT.

Until a few years ago only a small proportion of the total road-mileage outside of boroughs was represented by roads with permanent surfacing. The advent of the motor-car, however, entirely changed the complexion of the loading problem in New Zealand, as elsewhere, and the demand for better roads arose very shortly after motor transport became an appreciable factor. Later on, with the rapid increase in the use of motor-vehicles, particularly heavy ones, the position became acute, and it was soon quite evident that the type of road that was suitable for slow-moving horse-drawn traffic was inadequate.

In counties where the country was sparsely populated, and the revenue derivable from rates was low, certain lengths of road had in the past been maintained more or less by means of grants or subsidies from the Government. It was found in New Zealand, as in other parts of the world, that under the strain of motor traffic the roads, particularly those running parallel with railways, were deteriorating, while the popular clamour that they be improved to meet modern conditions was insistent. This led in 1922 to the passing of the Main Highways Act. The Act of 1922 has since been amended in several respects.

For the purposes of the Act a Board called the “Main Highways Board” was set up. The Main Highways Board consists of six members, including two representatives of County Councils; one representative of owners of motor vehicles, and at least one officer of the Public Works Department.

HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

In 1924 the Dominion was divided into eighteen highway districts, composed of groups of counties, suitable by geographical situation and community of interest for being so grouped. In the majority of cases the constituent counties acquiesced in the grouping; in the few eases where they did not do so the Main Highways Board exercised the authority conferred by the Act.

Consequent on the provision of additional revenue accruing from the taxation of motor-spirits, the main highway districts wore redefined in. 1927 to include all boroughs with populations under 0,000. Town districts, both dependent and independent, are also included in the main highways scheme.

District Highway Councils are set up in each highway district, these Councils being constituted to include a Public Works Engineer, and one person to represent each constituent county, with an executive of three appointed by the members of the Council.

The functions of the District Highway Councils are to make recommendations for each year as to which roads within the several districts should be declared main highways, and what works should be done and what expenditure incurred on these highways during that period.

The District Highway Councils are guided by the following considerations when recommending roads for declaration as main highways:-

As to whether the roads may be regarded as arterial in that they carry appreciable volumes of though as well as local traffic:

As to whether the roads connect large centres of population within the highway district:

As to whether the roads carry appreciable traffic to and from seaports or railway centres within or without the highway districts.

LENGTH OF MAIN HIGHWAYS

The Main Highway Board assumed control of the main highways on the 9th June, 1924, on which date the first and principal schedule of main highways was proclaimed.

On the same date 1,046 miles (later increased to 1,637 miles) of main highways were gazetted Government roads, this action being in terms of section 22 of the Act, whereby the board might declare any main highway to be a government road, and might provide a greater proportion of the cost of works of (a) construction and reconstruction and (b) maintenance and repair. The highways which were declared Government roads were chiefly those in districts where settlement was sparse, and where the revenue from rates collectable by the local authorities was insufficient to meet the expenditure necessary for the construction, reconstruction, and maintenance of the highways therein.

A Main Highways Amendment Act passed in 1928 gave me Bard authority to increase its subsidies without the necessity of any highway on which such increased subsides are paid being declared a government road. Such an amendment was made necessary mainly in consequence of the increased subsides being paid by the Board towards the cost of reconstruction and surfacing of main highways adjacent to the large centres of population.

The lengths of main highways in each highway district were as follows at 31st March, 1932:-

Highway District.Ordinary Main HighwaysAdditional Main HighwaysTotal
 mchmchmch
1.Auckland North508263014680972
2.Auckland South557440321,0206
3.Tauranga43649234636716
4.Gisborne24956114836364
5.Napier4568232768815
6.King Country35020366606570
7.Taranaki308231291243735
8.Wanganui32458154047858
9.Wellington West314541434845822
10.Wellington East339312624655
Totals, North Island3,844612,20586,04969
11.Nelson 32733206505343
12.West Coast347101034851058
13.Canterbury North312201032641546
14.Canterbury Central405602531765877
15.Canterbury South348433535 70148
16.Otago Central340183632970347
17.Otago South295211544844969
18.Southland46352358308222
Totals, South Island2,840171,956134,79630
Totals, Dominion6,684784,16121 10,84619

The Main Highways Act, 1922, gave power to the Board to contribute towards the cost of maintenance or repair of any street in a borough which is a continuation of a main highway, the payment being limited to a rate equal to that paid in respect of the maintenance and repair of the adjoining main highway. The Board decided in 1925 that in all cases where the population of a borough did not exceed 6,000 inhabitants assistance would he given under this authority.

As a result of the imposition of the petrol-tax of 4d. per gallon in 1927 (increased to 6d. per gallon in 1930 and to 8d. per gallon in 1931 although revenue from the final increase is not payable to the Main Highways Account) the Board extended the assistance to boroughs under 6,000 inhabitants by declaring the continuation of all main highways to be main highways. This was done on the 23rd February, 1928, a total of 186 miles of streets in boroughs being included in the main-highways system.

SUBSIDIES.

Under the Act of 1922 it was provided that the Main Highways Board should pay one-half of the cost of construction or reconstruction of main highways and one-third of the cost of maintenance or repair. The Main Highways Amendment Act, 1925, however, authorized the Board to increase its subsidy on the cost of maintenance on ordinary main highways from one-third to one-half retrospective to the 1st April, 1925, while an amending Act passed in 1926 authorized a still further increase to three-fifths. The amendment of 1925 also enabled the Board to inaugurate a special system of graduated subsidies towards the cost of erection of large bridges. The amendment provided for payment by the Board of one-half of the cost up to 10,000 (b) three-fifths of so much of the cost as exceeds 10,000 but does not exceed 20,000, and (c) two-thirds of so much of the cost as exceeds 20,000. It also provided for (a) a more liberal subsidy than 1 for 1 in the case of a major deviation of a main highway, (b) the repair of any extraordinary damage, and (c) certain allowances out of the funds of the Highway Board to be paid members of the executive bodies of District Highway Councils.

In 1926 the Board was authorized, in special cases, to increase the maintenance subsidy to local authorities without the necessity for declaring the sections of main highways involved to be Government roads, in terms of section 22 of the original Act. The 1926 amendment further provided for additional assistance towards the cost of maintenance in boroughs where large bridges are situated on continuations of main highways, but by the declaration of these continuations as main highways it is no longer necessary for the Board to operate under this authority.

A still further amendment passed in 1928 gave the Hoard authority to increase the rates of subsidies, and under this the maintenance subsidy was increased to two-thirds and bridge subsidies generally were increased to 2 for 1 on expenditure up to 10,000, and 3 for 1 on expenditure in excess of 10,000. The Board may in special cases pay subsidies exceeding those rates.

In August, 1931, a further increase to three-fourths was made in the case of maintenance subsidies, made retrospective to 1st April. 1931.

FINANCE

The Main Highways Account is subdivided as under:—

  1. Revenue Fund, which includes proceeds of tax on tires and tubes, as collected through the Customs Department: 92 per cent, of net proceeds of motor-spirits taxation (6d. per gallon is credited to the Main Highways Account);registration and license fees of motor-vehicles, but not heavy traffic fees.

  2. Construction Fund, to which are paid all moneys borrowed as may be required for purposes of construction and reconstruction, to a limit of 3,000,000. This sum is intended to extend over a period of ten years. In addition, sums may be transferred from the Revenue Fund to the Construction Fund in terms of section 15 of the Main Highways Act, 1922.

The Revenue Fund also formerly received an annual transfer of £35,000 from the Consolidated Fund, and the Construction Fund one of at least 200,000 from the Public Works Fund. Both transfers have been discontinued since 1930. Interest is to be paid on the amount (£1,226,000) transferred to 31st March, 1930, from the Public Works Fund. In addition, subsidies to local authorities in respect of general rates collected are payable out of the Revenue Fund instead of the Consolidated Fund as formerly. Reference has been made earlier to the authority given for the utilization of highways revenue for the construction and maintenance of roads other than main highways.

The Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4), authorized the payment to County Councils and Road Boards out of the Revenue Fund, of a subsidy at the rate of two shillings and six pence the pound, on the amount certified by the in Government Statistician to be the average annual amount of all rates collected by each Council or Road Board during the triennium ended 31st March, 1930.

This subsidy was to be applied by these local authorities for the purpose of granting to ratepayers a refund or rebate of 12 1/2 per cent, on the rates levied for the year ended 31st March, 1932, end paid not later than that date.

The Finance Act, 1932, provides that the refund or rebate shall be payable to ratepayers notwithstanding that the rates may not be paid within the time limit referred to.

In addition, the Finance Act, 1932, authorizes during the financial year ending 31st March, 1933, the retention in the Consolidated Fund of an amount or amounts out of the tax on motor-spirits otherwise payable to the Revenue Fund, not exceeding 500,000.

The following account outlines the receipts and payments from the Highways Account during the financial year 1931-32:—

Receipts.£
Loan-money380,000
Fees and fines under section 24 of Motor-vehicles Act, 1924309,098
Tire-tax84,049
Petrol-tax1,231,202
Interest on investments25,040
Repayments of advances9,631
Recoveries and miscellaneous301
Total2,100,427
Payment£
Construction383,027
Maintenance1,047,205
Subsidies to local authorities444,970
Commutation of Hutt Road I fees22,240
Abolition of toll-gates1,807
Advances to local authorities26,067
Charges and expenses of raising loans814
Interest charges61,656
Amortization of debt56,618
Totals2,044,416

At the 31st March, 1932, there was a credit balance of 498,534 in the account.

The estimates of amounts required for maintenance and repairs, construction and reconstruction, and all other items are forwarded by the District Highway Councils, and after review by the Board are incorporated in the Estimates, which in turn are submitted for approval to Parliament, for inclusion in the annual appropriations.

The revenue from the license of motor-vehicles and from taxes on tires and tubes is apportioned between the North and South Islands in the discretion of the Board, but generally so that the amount apportioned to either Island is fixed by inference to the number of motor-vehicles in that Island. No statutory provision exists in the case of the petrol-tax, which is, however, apportioned approximately on the basis of the relative consumption of petrol in the two Islands.

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island as compared with the number of motor-vehicles in each island at the 31st March of each of the last six years gives the following results, expressed in percentages of the Dominion totals:

1926-27.1927-28.1928-20.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
North Island—
Maintenance expenditure64.8667.5166.1362.3059.2302.31
Motor-vehicles61.8662.1963.0863.6363.8463.77
South Island—
Maintenance expenditure35.1432.4933.8737.7040.7737.09
Motor-vehicles38.1437.8130.9230.3736.1630.23

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.

The following table shows, up to 31st March, 1932, the amount of construction work accomplished on main highways since the Main Highways Board commenced to function in 1924-25.

Year.Formation and Widening.Gravelling and Metalling.Tar and Bituminous Sealing.Bituminous Macadam (Penetration).Bituminous concrete.Portland-cement Concrete.Bridges.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Ft.
1924-25196366....2,434
1925-2045881045465,108
1926-27174151353812166,408
1927-281731338334..67,760
1928-292241851225114119,682
1929-301731791333931127,547
1930-31130128954114911,175
1931-321396912932934,062
Totals1,077996619286846354,236

At an early stage in the history of the main highways scheme, the District Highway Councils were advised that the standards of road-construction recommended for adoption should be such as are warranted by the present or early prospective traffic. To ensure uniformity in construction as far as possible throughout the Dominion the following standards for first-class, second-class, and third-class roads have been laid down:

  First Class.Second Class.Third Class.
Formation width, exclusive of water-tablesFt.24-3018-2414-18
Width of surfacingFt.18-2014-1810-14
Width of bridges between kerbsFt.2018101/2-12
Minimum radius of curvature—
Easy topographyChains64 1/23
Difficult topographyChains2141
Minimum visibilityFt.300200100
Maximum grades1 in 15 to1 in 201 in 121 in 10

As a guide to local authorities for the preparation of proposal the Main Highways Board has issued Bulletin No. 2, which comprises a number of typical standard specifications for all classes of road formation and surfacing, together with a series of helpful notes on highway design. These specifications are not laid down as hard-and-fast rules, local authorities must in every case adopt, but are regarded as standard practice, the following of which will result in satisfactory work. The standard of construction in all cases should, of course, be regulated by local conditions, and should be commensurate with the traffic requirements. As much construction work is financed wholly or in part by loan, it is essential that the character of the work should be such as to ensure a life at least equal to the period of tile loan.

It is interesting to compare the average cost of maintenance per mile per annum of the primary highway system during the eight years since the Board commenced its operations'. The figures are 1924-25, 51: 1925-26, 73: 1926-27, 111; 1927-28, 120: 1928-297 125; 1929-30, 151; 1930-31, 121; 1931-32, 116. The average cost per mile of the secondary highways for 1928-29 was 55-5: for 1929-30, 38-5: for 1930-31, 71; and for 1931-32, 55.

The use of up-to-date machinery on construction and maintenance of main highways is recognized to be in the interests of economy and efficiency, and. with the idea of encouraging local bodies to use such plant, power enabling the Main Highways Board to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, equipment, and appliances to local authorities on the hire-purchase system was given by the Main Highways Amendment Act, 1925. As a consequence of this legislation a great number of local authorities have purchased modern roadmaking plant through the Board.

A petrological laboratory was established in Wellington at the beginning of 1925. Full reports are made on the various materials submitted by local authorities for us; as road-metal as well as for other purposes.

Tests for bitumens, are carried out by the Dominion Analyst, Wellington, while the testing of steel is carried out by the Public Works and Railways Departments. and at the Canterbury School of Engineering.

MOTOR-VEHICLES ACT.

Before the Main Highways Act was passed the Government recognized the reasonableness of motor-vehicle owners contributing towards the cost of the construction and upkeep of the road-surfaces which were required principally for them.

Amongst the funds laid down in the Main Highways Act as being available for the Revenue Fund was a sum to be derived from the licensing of motor-vehicles. When the Main Highways Act was passed it was expected that a Motor-vehicles Act dealing with the registration and licensing of motor-vehicles would be simultaneously passed, but owing to the difficulty of co-ordinating all interests it was not until November, 1924:, that the Motor-vehicles Act came into being.

This Act provided for the registration and annual licensing of all motor-vehicles. Registration fees are 10s. for a motor-cycle and 20s. for any other motor-vehicle. License fees include 10s. for a motor-cycle; 2 for a motor-car; 5 for a motor-omnibus; 5 for a traction-engine; and from 2 to 5 for a motor-lorry, according to weight and tires. Other fees include drivers 'licenses, 5s.; changes of ownership, 5s.; and manufacturers 'and dealers' fees.

All such fees, except that for a driver's license, which is payable to the local authorities, have in terms of the Motor-vehicles Act to be credited to the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund.

The number of motor-vehicles registered to the 30th June, 1932, was 270,921, as compared with 263,607, 247,188, 217,357, 188,005, and 167,640 respectively at the corresponding date in the five years immediately preceding. These figures include registrations (57,665) subsequently cancelled, the number of motor-vehicles actually on the register at 31st August, 1932, being 220,336, made up as follows:

Class of Motor-vehicle.Number.
Cars149,553
Trucks—
1 ton22,238
2 tons8,516
3 tons1,678
4 tons746
5 tons292
6 tons40
Over 6 tons19
Omnibuses1,181
Traction-engines261
Trailers—
Two wheels2,031
Three or more wheels240
Tractors686
Miscellaneous469
Cycles32,386
Total220,336

These figures include dormant registrations i.e., those of vehicles the registration of which has not been cancelled, but which have not been cancelled, for the current year. Dormant registrations stand for two years, and are then cancelled if not previously re-licensed. The number of dormant registrations is always high in the early months of the registration year, but declines rapidly during the year.

Of the total motor-vehicles on the register at 31st August, 1032, 1-10,648- (including 95,015 cars and 19,606 cycles) were in the North Island, and 79,1555 (53,938 cars, 12,780 cycles) in the South Island.

The numbers of the principal classes of motor-vehicles on the register in each of the eighteen highway districts at 31st August, 1932, are as follows:

Highway District.Motorcars.Motor trucks.Motor omni buses.Motor cycles.Other Motor vehicles.Total (including Dormant Registrations).Dormant Registrations.
* Of these 17,184 were dormant 1930-31 registrations and 42,738 dormant 1931-32 registrations.
1. Auckland North5,7301,6851051,5941089,2222,180
2. Auckland South31,1807,9942696,78741446,64411,807
3. Tauranga3,8001,08432657625,6351,599
4. Gisborne3,51961535542484,7591,314
5. Napier9,6732,426641,67618214,0214,049
6. King-country2,12577017418453,3751,090
7. Taranaki8,5771,796352,1817412,6632,912
8. Wanganui6,3531,331431,194989,0192,516
9. Wellington West19,2644,3221473,91138828,0327,135
10. Wellington East5,3941,056306461527,2781,882
11. Nelson4,8831,033481,3621357,4611,897
12. West Coast2,27874652668883,8321,134
13. Canterbury North1,58136010208482,207557
14. Canterbury Central16,1842,896635,04367724,8637,497
15. Canterbury South8,6001,331591,57647712,0433,458
16. Otago Central3,994787416831565,6611,768
17. Otago South8,5011,891641,92534012,7213,710
18. Southland7,9171,406671,31519510,9003,417
Total dormant registrations34,3488,99125114,6901,642..59,922*

MOTOR TRANSPORT.

Half-yearly collections of motor-transport statistics have been made since 1928, covering only regular public services on defined routes, it being considered that this would give the best, indication of changes in the volume and character of the transport being developed by motor-vehicles on the roads of the Dominion. The figures cover the months of January and July respectively. In 1932 passenger services were no longer included in the field of inquiry.

The following table covers the last five collections (freight services only). Figures are for the month indicated.

July, 1930January, 1930July, 1931January, 1931July, 1932
Number of vehicles1,0661,1211,0161,1521,089
Approximate value £397,641403,739337,219376,274329,245
Persons employed—
Males1,2751,3261,1691,3781,338
Females6771657987
Mileage run829,8061,122,483790,4611,156,4911,062,890
Freight carried Tons89,18983,77952,65372,21552,904
Total receipts £52,93265,14739,10362,13243,165

The following table shows the quantities of the principal classes of freight carried during July, 1932:—

Class.North Island.South Island.Dominion.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.
Wool35579434
Dairy-produce4.3314364,707
Hides, skins, and tallow594323917
Live-stock3960791.075
Grain1,0947881,882
Fruit291269560
Phormium fibre or tow31114
Manures4,1210814,802
Timber3,5531,0245,177
Lime and cement1,5713081,939
Coal1,1192,2233,342
Metal, stone, gravel, &c.4,9554,6579,612
Fuel oils—benzine, kerosene, &c1,2057281,933
Furniture-removals443166609
General merchandise8,3083,56411,932
Other1,9291,9803,909
Totals34,32818,57652,904

Of the total number of vehicles operating motor-freight services in July, 1932, 70 per cent, were in the North Island. The average value of all vehicles was £302. Of the total mileage covered 07 per cent, was in the North Island. Average distance per vehicle was 974 miles, and the average trip (out and home) 46 miles.

Chapter 15. SECTION XV.—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC.

POST—OFFICES.

AT the 31st December, 1931, there were 1,738 post-offices in New Zealand, this number being exclusive of 42 receiving offices, 1 delivering office, 4 marine post-offices, and 3 railway travelling post-offices. At the same date there were 2,334 street letter-boxes in the Dominion. The number of post-offices, reckoning only those which are combined receiving and delivering offices, has been decreasing for several years past.

The decreases in numbers are indicative not of retrogression but of the growth of the rural-mail delivery system (referred to on the next page), which is steadily replacing the smaller post-offices.

POSTAL BUSINESS.

The following table, showing the number of articles posted and delivered during each of the last five years, gives an indication of the extent to which the people of New Zealand utilize the postal facilities:—

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Pattern-packets.Newspapers.Parcels.
1927297,478,2948,882,783136,199,17647,089,6526,903,535
1928298,548,3649,450,468154,512,60948,257,1946,981,085
1929309,162,1039,402,931157,966,11848,658,4706,881,027
1930313,148,0589,584,009165,180,05447,644,0986,447,194
1931263,633,9527,609,964151,369,56839,454,97133,415,554

Articles which are posted in New Zealand and delivered in the Dominion as well represent, of course, the great bulk of the business, and such articles are necessarily counted twice in the foregoing table. Separate figures of articles posted and delivered during the year 1931 are follows:—

 Posted.Delivered.
Letters and letter-cards126,587,274137,046,678
Post-cards3,457,1574,152,807
Books, &c.75,850,01375,519,555
Newspapers17,534,02221,920,949
Parcels1,597,5661,817,988

These figures include registered articles, of which 1,957,600 were posted in the Dominion and 2,173,800 wore delivered therein.

The average numbers of letters, &c., posted in the Dominion per head of mean population (including Maoris) during each of the last five years are:—

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Parcels.Newspapers.Total.
1927102.422.8350.9714.43170.65
192898.602.7854.3514.17169.96
1929101.282.8256.0514.66174.81
1930101.952.9157.8514.13176.84
193183.642.282.2811.58148.67

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY.

During recent years the Post Office has considerably extended its rural-mail delivery system. Tn January, 1922, a scheme was introduced whereby a nominal fee is charged for the service. This does not bear heavily on the small farmer, and it enables the Post Office to extend rural delivery benefits to districts which formerly lacked adequate mail facilities. The rural mail-carrier not only delivers and collects correspondence at or near the gates of farmers living in places far removed from the centres and even from a post-office, but he sells postage-stamps, and obtains as required money-orders and postal-notes. Thus the farmer has what practically amounts to a post-office at his gate.

An indication of the popularity of the system lies in the fact that the number of rural boxes increased from* 8,700 in 1920-21 to 22,500 on the 31st March, 1932.

OVERSEAS PARCEL—POST.

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and beyond the Dominion have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 22 lb. in weight being sent to Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Tonga, and of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to all other countries of the world. Inland parcels may weigh up to 14 lb.

Year.Overseas Parcels received.Overseas Parcels despatched.
Number.Weight.Declared Value.Customs Duty.Number.Weight.
  lb.££ lb.
1927322,8342,358,8011,491,441331,27703,105238,331
1928345,1472,584,5701,523,924351,89762,632245,763
1929361,2512,703,6021,048,250372,14463,649258,384
1930278,3822,065,1241,301,121332,79457,276225,456
1931189,2201,330,243744,530202,05045,629103,085

The figures show a huge preponderance of inward parcels. Of the parcels received from overseas in 1931 no fewer than 98,479 came from Great Britain (including those from foreign countries via London), while 32,393 came from the United States and 39,832 from Australia. These countries, to which 17,773, 3,624, and 17,197 parcels respectively were despatched, also ranked highest among countries to which parcels were sent from New Zealand.

NEWSPAPERS.

There are (August, 1932) 287 publications on the New Zealand Register of Newspapers. Of these, some 59 are published daily, 18 being morning papers and 41 evening papers. Twenty-seven appear three times per week, 20 twice per week, 03 weekly, 5 fortnightly, 1 four-weekly, 105 monthly, and 7 at irregular intervals.

MONEY—ORDERS.

During 1931 money-orders from places beyond New Zealand numbered 30,343 for the amount of £150,490, while those issued in New Zealand for payment overseas numbered 105,772, and represented an aggregate value of £325,352.

Calendar Year.Number of Ounces at end of Year.Money-orders issued.Money-orders paid.
Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
1927877803,5354,995,09024,775686,2604,634,479
1928879807,8854,977,52224,884686,3484,020,019
1929888835,3585,187,55325,673711,0514,815,808
1930889833,5055,069,62935,604719,1244,711,217
1931886714,4783,993,03540,704641,5083,838,829

POSTAL NOTES

The popularity of the postal-note system for remitting]small amounts is clearly illustrated in the table given below:—

Year ended 31st. March,Number of Offices at end of Year.Postal Notes issued.Postal Notes paid.
Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
   ££ £
19281,1723,614,2171,015,21323,8453,599,547988,821
19291,1783,575,9841,057,02424,2983,563,6861,030,485
19301,1823,816,6351,123,44625,7113,797,7941,092,627
19311,1203,907,2881,128,80726,0333,916,9711,106,918
19321,1072,884,654952,44422,70422,704941,990

British postal orders issued in the Dominion during the year ended 31st March. 1932, numbered 126,899, of a value of £70,044. Those paid numbered 30,084, and represented £17,030.

TELEGRAPH AND TOLL SERVICES.

Up to the 31st March, 1932, a total sum of £9,352,589 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1931-32 was £249,946.

There were 12,558 miles of telegraph and toll pole line in existence at the end of March, 1932, carrying 63,934 miles of wire. Of the latter, 5,142 miles were in use exclusively for telephone toll traffic, 9,035 exclusively for telegraph traffic, and 49,756 simultaneously or conjointly for toll and telegraph traffic, making totals of 54,898 available for toll traffic and 58,791 for the transmission of telegrams. A total of 14,185 miles of wire has been gained to the 31st March, 1932, for the purpose of telegraph transmission, by the superimposing of existing telephone circuits. The total length of additional, telephone, toll circuit improvised from the existing wire circuits by the use of subsidiary apparatus associated therewith (so-called phantom working) is 7,353 miles, while a further 3,682 miles of telephone, toll circuit has been made available by the use of carrier current telephony operating over the existing wire circuits.

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, the revenue from telegrams and toll communications was £714,371, to which should be added £1,218,072 revenue of telephone exchanges and £38,234 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £1,970,677.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Telegrams and Toll Messages forwarded during the Year.Revenue (including Miscellaneous Receipts).Value of Government MessagesTotal Value of Business done during the Year.
Paid.Free GovernmentTotalTelegraph and Toll.Telephone Exchange.
    ££££
192816,523,00444,51016,567,514832,7481,057,1773,6141,893,539
192917,516,34344,02917,560,372882,8141,135,7953,6982,022,307
193018,303,68043,41818,347,104936,2221,206,7143,8022,146,738
193117,185, 14437,01817,222,462886,2211,238,6492,9542,127,824
193214,132,95333,45014,166,403752,6051,218,0723,4081,974,085

The present rate for ordinary telegrams is 1s. for twelve words, the charge for each additional word being Id. For urgent telegrams the rate is 2s. and 2d. for each additional word, and for letter-telegrams 1s. for twenty-four words and 1d. for each additional two words.

TELEPHONE—EXCHANGE SERVICE.

At the 31st March, 1932, there were 349 telephone exchanges in the Dominion. Of this number 332 are of the magneto type, 2 common battery, and 15 automatic. The automatic exchanges are: Auckland, Hamilton, Hastings, Dannevirke, Stratford, Hawera, Wanganui, Marton, Palmerston North, Masterton, Wellington, Blenheim, Christchurch, Oamaru, and Dunedin.

The following statement shows the automatic-exchange equipment installed and in use in the Dominion on the 31st. March, 1932:—

 Capacity of Equipment installed. No.Equipment in use No.
Individual lines67,86052,279
Party-lines—  
Two-party3,1001,582
Four-party2,1001,531
Multi-party350250
  No.
Individual-line stations..52,693
Party-line stations..8,329
Total of main stations..61,022
Extension stations..19,838
Total number of automatic-telephone stations connected 80,800

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service during the last ten years:—

1922.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
Exchanges301342344351349349349
Subscribers, main stations76,307107,882114,079120,274126,763127,600125,826
Toll and service stations3,6664,0203,8803,9453,9463,9123,964
Public call offices339435546612679735745
Extension stations14,37119,74621,23523,10525,63525,51426,437
Telephone-station totals94,683132,089139,740147,936157,023157,767156,972

The total number of telephone-stations shows an increase of 62,289, or 65 per cent., during the period. Additional subscribers 'stations contributed largely to the growth, the increase in this respect being 49,519, or 64 per cent. The demand for public call offices is clearly revealed in the table, those showing an increase from 339 in 1922 to 745 in 1932. Extension stations have almost doubled. The growth that has been apparent during the last decade was not maintained during the financial year 1931-32.

In addition to the above, there are 3,807 stations connected by private telephone-lines with departmental toll-stations, making a grand total of 160,779 telephone-stations in New Zealand on the 31st March, 1932.

The "party" line system of telephone service is being largely availed of, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March, 1932, the number of party-line connections was 11,353, with a total of 45,196 stations.

The first public call offices (coin-in-the-slot telephones) erected in the Dominion were installed at Wellington in August, 1910. There were at the 31st March, 1932, 745 such instruments in use in the Dominion; the charge in 704 cases is Id., in 5 2d., and in 36 3d. The revenue of slot telephones during the year ended 31st March, 1932, was £39,120.

The telephone-exchange system included on the 31st March, 1932, 15,262 miles of pole line and 556,735 miles of wire.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &o., of the telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1932, was £8,404,987, equal to an average cost of £53 10s. lid. for each connection.

RADIO COMMUNICATION.

Government Stations.

The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on the 26th July, 1911.

There are now 20 stations under the control of the New Zealand Government, the principal being those at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Apia in Western Samoa, at Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations on the mainland or on adjacent islands are those at Kawau Island, Stephens Island, Puysegur Point, and Portland Island, while there is a radio beacon station at Cape Maria Van Diemen Lighthouse.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga-Radio through small feeders stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, and Mauke. Small stations at Aleipata, Fagamalo, Fakaofo, Niue, Salailua, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia-Radio.

By means of the radio-stations at Wellington, Apia, and Rarotonga, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the two latter stations having direct communication with New Zealand.

The radio business transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the last five years was as follows:—

Year ended 31st MarchForwarded.Received.
Messages.Words.Value.Messages.Words.Value.*
*Amount earned by New Zealand
   £  £
192814,440169,9875,68825,361290,9334,846
192914,345204,8576,52325,559290,1375,059
193013,921164,8215,53124,282272,3354,526
193112,959150,6735,10023,130259,9764,331
19328,88895,9263,34416,865174,1353,150

The foregoing table does not include free (service) messages.

The charge for the transmission of an ordinary radio-telegram to or from ships registered in New Zealand or Australia, or engaged exclusively in trading between these two countries, is 6d. per word. The rate for transmission to other vessels is lid. per word, with the exceptions that messages to His Majesty's ships are charged for at the rate of 3d. per word, and messages to vessels engaged in the Wellington-Lyttleton ferry service at the rate of 2 1/2d. per word. Ship stations registered in New Zealand numbered 4 at 31st March, 1932.

Private Stations.

Private radio-stations are governed by the Radio Regulations. 1932, which were gazetted on the 21st July, 1932.

The licenses for radio receiving-stations are designed to provide for reception from radio-telephone broadcasting stations as well as for experimental reception, and may be obtained at any postal money-order office or at any District Radio Inspector 's office on payment of the prescribed fee.

The licenses for private experimental (amateur) stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued subject to the qualifications of the applicants being satisfactory.

The licenses for private experimental (Research) stations are intended to provide facilities for the work of pure research in radio science, and are issued only to persons of recognized attainment in the theory or practice of radio-telegraphy, or to universities or other scientific institutions engaged in conducting experiments for the development of the science of radio—telegraphy.

The part of the regulations relating to “Radio-dealers “is intended to provide for the proper control of the sale of apparatus designed and intended for use in connection with wireless telegraphy.

Radio Broadcasting.

The regulations governing radio-telephone broadcasting are designed to render the broadcasting of music, lectures, religious services, news, and other items of interest, as widely available as possible. Prior to the 1st January, 1932, the broadcasting service was provided, under agreement with the Postmaster-General by the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand, Ltd. The service is now provided by the New Zealand Broadcasting Board, appointed under the provisions of the Broadcasting Act, 1931. The Board maintains stations at Auckland, Wellington. Christchurch. and Dunedin. The major portion of the fees collected from listeners is paid to the Board. Additional services are provided by privately -owned other stations operating independently of the Board: these, which are known as private broadcasting stations, at present number thirty-four, situated at Auckland (5). Dunedin (0). Gisborne (2). Greymouth (2). Hastings (2). Invercargill (2). Napier (2). Palmerston North (2). Christchurch, Eketahuna. Hamilton. Balclutha. Manurewa, Masterton. Nelson, New Plymouth, Wairoa, Wanganui, Wellington.

The number of radio licenses issued in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1932. was as follows:—

Receiving-stations.Transmitting-stations.Radio &-dealers.Total.
Auckland22,47511329522,883
Wellington 31,05521543531,705
Canterbury 11,96311515812,236
Otago 9,48752481139
Totals 74,9805241,02776,531

The numbers of licensed receiving-stations during the last six years have been: 18,162; 39,315; 44,810; 53,407;. 62,713; '4,980.

The total revenue derived from the issue of radio licenses in the year 1931-32 was £105,440, allocated as follows:—

 £
Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand, Ltd.62,596
New Zealand Broadcasting Board23,340
Post and Telegraph Department9,628
Amalgamated Wireless Australasia, Ltd. (royalty)9,876

The following are the particulars of the principal stations (the four controlled by the Broadcasting Board) operating in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1932:—

Power Input to Aerial.Frequency (Kilocycles).
 Watts. 
1YA, Auckland 500900
2Y A, Wellington5,000720
3YA, Christchurch 500980
4YA, Dunedin500650

Of these four stations, 2YA Wellington operates almost continuously between 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. Mondays to Fridays, 3 p.m. to 11 p.m. Saturdays, and 2 p.m. to 10 p.m. Sundays. The three remaining stations operate from, approximately. 3 p.m. to 10 p.m. on week-days, and 2 p.m. to 10 p.m. on Sundays.

Three of the stations observe one silent night a week, namely: Auckland, Monday; Christchurch, Tuesday; and Dunedin, Thursday. In addition to the usual transmissions, special transmissions are broadcast as occasions warrant.

OCEAN CABLES.

The Pacific cable, opened for traffic between New Zealand and Australia and Fiji on the 9th April, 1902, was completed to Bamfield, Vancouver Island, on the 31st October following, and opened for international business on the 8th December, 1902.

The route is from Auckland to Vancouver via Norfolk Island, Fiji, and Fanning Island. The Australian connection is at Norfolk Island. The deep-sea portion of the Vancouver-Fanning Island cable is stated to be the longest in the world.

Direct communication between Auckland and Sydney was established on the 31st December, 1912, thus giving the Pacific Cable Board an alternative route to Australia.

Additional facilities were provided between New Zealand and Fiji by the laying, by the Pacific Cable Board, of a new cable between Auckland and Suva. The work was completed on the 12th August, 1923. The duplication of the two northern sections -Vancouver to Fanning Island and Fanning Island to Fiji-was completed on thy 20th November, 1920. These new sections were opened for traffic on the 18th December, 1920.

The Pacific Cable Board and the Eastern Extension, Australasia, and China Telegraph Co. Ltd., previously controlling the two cable systems connecting New Zealand with overseas countries were, together with certain cable and wireless sen-ices in existence in other British countries, in 1929 absorbed in a merger company known as Imperial and International Communications. Ltd. As a result, the Eastern Go. 's station at Wellington, the New Zealand terminal of the “Eastern” cable, was closed on the 31st May, 1932, from which date all cable traffic to and from New Zealand has been handled by the Pacific cable office at Auckland, where the Pacific cable terminates. One of the two “Eastern” cables previously in use between Wellington and Sydney has been diverted to Auckland, while a considerable portion of the second cable-a portion extending from Wellington to a point several miles out to sea-has been picked up. The remaining portion has been left intact, and could again be brought into use if required.

The length of submarine cable in use in connection with the inland telegraph and telephone services is 348 nautical miles, containing 2,319 nautical miles of conductors.

STAFF.

The huge volume and multifarious nature of the business of the Post and Telegraph Department entail the employment of a large staff. The Secretary, under the Postmaster-General, is the administrative head.

The staff at 31st March, 1932, was as follows: Permanent, 8,.J8;J; temporary, 119: total, 8,704. In addition there are 1,692 country postmasters and telephonists who act as such in conjunction with other pursuits and do not rank as officers of the Department. There are also 83 officers of the Railways Department who act as postmasters.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the last two financial years are shown in the following table:—

RECEIPTS.1930-31.1931-32.
 ££
Postages1,221,3921, 395,399
Money order and postal-ones commission64,87760,877
Private-box and bag rents and rural delivery fees47,99645,853
Miscellaneous receipts290,522280,658
Paid telegrams376,989296,576
Paid tolls466,995417,794
Telephone exchanges1,238,6491,218,072
Totals£3,707,420£3,715,229
PAYMENTS1930-31.1931-32.
Salaries1,761,3461,580,356
conveyance of mails by sea94,94978,843
conveyance of inlaid mails145,285138,287
conveyance of mails by railway116,56391,502
Maintenance of telegraph and telephone lines136,17076,111
Depreciation Fund158,24889,029
Motor services and workshop333,77012,490
Miscellaneous354,319186,407
Interest on capital liability507,000550,000
Totals£3,304,648£2,794,565

The year commenced with a credit balance of £55,670. Of the gross balance of £976,334 at the end of the year, £941,616 was paid to the Consolidated Fund as profits, leaving £34,718 to he carried forward.

The growth of receipts and payments during ten years is shown by the following figures:—

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.Year ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.
*Excluding payment to Depreciation Fund and interest on capital liability, which were first included in expenditure in 1928-29
 ££ ££
19232,687,7682,114,99419283,329,5112,299,571
19242,688,9532,120,58519293,445,5452,442,158
19252,889,4502,416,25719303,707,4202,630,199*
19263,100,3972,409,55719313,641,6202,642,400*
19273,220,6662,346,27419323,715,2292,164,538*

Chapter 16. SECTION XVI.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, &c—

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

SURVEYS.

THE surveys of Crown lands, Native lands, and land purchased under the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, or the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands. and are carried out by staff and contract surveyors licensed by the Surveyors' Board constituted under the Surveyors' Institute and Board of Examiners Act, 1908.

In respects of surveys for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act, an additional and special license under the hand of the Surveyor -General is required, in terms of section 177 of the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

Any surveyor or other person, in pursuance of the written authority of the Surveyor -General or of the Chief Surveyor of the district, may enter upon Native land for survey purposes (vide section 501 of the Native Land Act, 1931).

Authority for a surveyor and his assistant,1 to enter on any land for the purpose of making a survey under the Public Works Act must be obtained from the Minister of Public Works, the Minister of Lands, the Surveyor -General or his Deputy, or the local body, as the case may be.

Regulations for conducting the survey of the Dominion lands are made by the Surveyors' Board in terms of the Surveyors' Institute and Board of Examiners Act, 1908, as amended in 1922. Power is conferred on the Surveyor -General to make necessary rules.

The Surveyor -General is the custodian of the legal standards of length for survey purposes. All measurements of land affecting titles are to be expressed in terms of the chain of 100 links, and all areas in acres, roods, perches, and decimals of a perch.

Full information as to the New Zealand system of survey will be found in the 1929 number of the Year -Book (pp. 438 -44).

OCCUPATION OF LAND.

The total area of the Dominion, excluding the Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901, is 60,390,202 acres. Of this total, 43,239,585 acres were returned in 1951 as being in occupation, including reserves and Native lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Native land held on the communal system.

According to information published by the Lands Department, the following is the condition of the land in the Dominion as at the 31st March, 1032:—

 Acres.
Total area sold or granted and held on freehold21,525,850
Total area reserved for public purposes15,218,139
Total area of Crown lands leased under all tenures (exclusive of reserves leased by the Crown)17,777,547
Crown land available for future disposal2,099,434
Total area of Native land4,550,518
Land unfit for settlement, including rivers, lakes, roads, &c.5,218,774
Total66,390,262

The numbers of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation in groups of sizes, as returned at the last -five collections available, are given below—

Area, In Acres.Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.*1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.*

* For 1930 the classification grouping is " 1 and under 10,” “10 and under 50,” &c.

1 to 1015,24215,20815,18414,94213,02917.7817.7617.7117.4615.30
11 to 5014,23214,12814,13014,07114,43516.6016.5016.4816.4416.95
51 to 10011,47411,47011,49211,59011,35013.3813.3913.4113.5413.33
101 to 20014,36714,45614,47514,55215,17216.7616.8816.8917.0017.81
201 to 3208,7628,7378,7948,7739,40910.210.2010.2610.2511.05
321 to 64010,30210,33910,30910.34210,33012.0912.0712.1012.0812.13
641 to 1,0004,3174,2944,2594,3024,2575.035.024.975.035.00
1,001 to 5,0005,8915,9145,9385,9596,1056.876.916.936.967.17
5,001 to 10,0005685625595485520.660.660.650.640.65
10,001 to 20,0002942962973033060.340.350.340.350.36
20,001 to 50,0001691691621651620.200.200.190.190.19
over 50,00056555755540.070.060.070.060.06
Totals85,73485,62885,71685,60285,167100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Seventy four per cent, of the holdings are seen to be not more than one -half a square mile in area. These, however, represent only a little over 13 per cent, of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion. Sixty -eight per cent, of the occupied land is held in areas of over 1,000 acres, and 41 per cent, in areas of over 5,000 acres.

Sizes of Holdings, in Acres.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1 to 1072,95772,38172,99472,58856,030
11 to 50404,817401,105402,040401,497354,903
51 to 100886,784885,056887,474895,983814,829
101 to 2002,119,2472,130,2132,131,2052,142,2792,118,903
201 to 3202,247,6092,239,0942,245,2572,241,3942,350,763
321 to 6404,722,1104,704,9134,722,3154,707,3854,076,166
641 to 1,0003,498,7393,465,4083,425,8033,465,7973,394,215
1,001 to 5,00011,595,78911,590,29711,711,35211.702,50611,844,345
5,001 to 10,0003.890,9343,870,7063,846,5593,759,9663,740,004
10,001 to 20,0004,102,3074.171,8184,188,1664,249,5544,251,895
20,001 to 50,0005,216,0275,213,1794,909,3055,018,8604,942,770
over 50,0004.783,4794,836,9284,852,9844,864,3224,823,710
Totals43.606,82943.587,59843,455,45443,522,13143,368,653

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS.

A special classification of holdings (according to purpose for which principally used) is made three times in each decennium. The following table gives for the year 1929 -30 the holdings of the Dominion classified according to purpose for which used and size of holding. Figures exclude borough Holdings and holdings under 1 acre in extent.

Class of Holding.Holdings.Area.
Number.Per Cent, of Total.Acres.per Cent, of Total.
Dairy -farming33,30139.103,484,6468.03
Sheep -farming17,25520.2629,073,22668.42
Mixed agricultural and sheep -farming4,6815.501,992,0234.59
Mixed dairying and sheep -farming6,8037.992,801,1626.46
General mixed farming2,9703.49421,4310.97
Fruitgrowing1,4741.7337,2790.09
Market -gardening9571.1210,8590.03
Poultry -farming2970.352,8940.01
Nurseries550.061,364..
Timber -growing1060.12322,3160.74
Flax -growing490.0645,9760.11
Idle and unused6,3307.431,898,7154.38
Other and unspecified10,88912.792,076,7626.17
Totals.85,167100.0043,368,653100.00

The foregoing table includes Maori holdings, which numbered 2,793 and comprised an area of 805,903 acres.

TENURE OF OCCUPIED LANDS.

Land in occupation in 1931 in each land district, tabulated according to tenure, is given in the following table:—

Land District.Total of Holdings.Freehold, including Land held on Deferred Payment (occupied by Owner).Leased from Private Individuals or Public Bodies.Held from Crown under different Tenures, not including Land held on Deferred Payment.

* Of which 3,448,981 acres were returned as leased from private individuals and 909,310 acres from public bodies.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland3,025,4942,338,972257,634428,888
Auckland4,228,7392,858,040484,790885,909
Gisborne2,671,7141,371,576710,701589,437
Hawke's Bay2,101,2121,426,113226,579448,520
Taranaki1,660,717895,217318,854446,646
Wellington4,929,7673,460,390806,155663,222
Nelson1,245,623639,10066,653539,870
Marlborough2,468,216832,94162,6631,572,612
Westland1,431,133158,99443,9911,228,148
Canterbury8,160,8163,145,910680,3654,334,541
Otago8,052,5661,672,375429,4975,950,694
Southland3,263,5881,478,426270,4391,514,723
Totals43,239,58520,278,0544,358,321 *18,603,210

The acreage in the last column does not agree exactly with the figures published in the report of the Lands and Survey Department, for the reason that, although these figures include Crown reserves leased, they do not include Crown lands not in occupation at the time of collecting the agricultural and pastoral statistics. Further, all land held on deferred payment is shown as freehold in the agricultural and pastoral statistics, the figures of which are as at the 31st January, while those published by the Lands and Survey Department are as at the 31st March.

Lands in occupation are not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown. It must also be remembered that not all of the freehold land in the Dominion is in occupation, while (as stated previously) holdings within borough boundaries or under one acre in extent are excluded from the annual statistics.

CONDITION OF OCCUPIED LAND.

The land in occupation in the Dominion at the 31st January, 1931, was classified according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.

* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.

In grain and pulse crops686,804*
In green and root crops717,852*
In fallow108,415
In sown grasses and clovers— Out for hay, seed, or ensilage532,272
Not cut for hay, seed, or ensilage16,513,560
In vineyards and orchards28,428
In market gardens, nurseries, and seed -gardens7,688
In private gardens and pleasure -grounds70,208
In plantations341,591
Total area in cultivation19,006,878
Unimproved land 24,232,707
Total area in occupation43,239,585

Of the total of 43,239,585 acres, unimproved land amounted at 31st January, 1931, to 24,232,707 acres, and improved land to 19,006,878 acres. As might be expected in a pastoral -dairying country like New Zealand, permanent pasture (17,045,832 acres) forms a considerable portion of the land occupied. Field crops, including grasses and clovers cut for hay, seed, or ensilage, aggregated 1,936,988 acres, or 4£ per cent, of the total area occupied.

Further details of land in cultivation and of the various crops grown are given under their respective headings in Subsection B of the next section. Unimproved lands are not again referred to, and accordingly a table is appended showing by land districts more detailed information as to the condition of unimproved occupied land.

UNIMPROVED OCCUPIED LAND, 1931.
Land District.Phormium (New Zealand flax).Tussock and other native Grasses.Fern, Scrub, and Second Growth.Standing Virgin Bush.Barren and Unproductive Land.Total Unimproved Occupied Land.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland13,843167,129719,305338,79855,1541,294,229
Auckland24,638154,039974,982505,40056,1051,715,164
Gisborne802169,875228,411284,05126,412709,551
Hawke's Bay928391,783150,85953,46522,637619,672
Taranaki39414,766155,174240,04115,358425,733
Wellington13,003517,377371,443331,83282,2811,315,936
Nelson6,765304,978213,987325,08544,130894,945
Marlborough1,6121,255,210241,929185,871390,6272,075,249
Westland12,519184,342163,077712,552197,7011,270,191
Canterbury1,9354,320,107188,348147,707767,5035,425,600
Otago6,9535,372,140416,829251,399513,5126,560,833
Southland7,8271,272,284325,366146,956173,1711,925,604
Totals91,21914,124,0304,149,7103,523,1572,344,59124,232,707

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Under the land transfer system introduced in 1870 the title to land is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land Transfer Department assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

The Land Transfer system of title by registration has great advantages over the older system of title by deeds, even when the deeds are duly registered. The state of a Land Transfer title can be ascertained by a search of the register with very much greater facility than can the state of a title under the other system, and the powers vested in Registrars under the Land Transfer Act enable them to keep the register simple, clear, and free from doubts; the simplicity of searching and of the preparation of instruments under the Land Transfer system enables transactions with land under that system to be carried out at less cost than under the other system; and under the Land Transfer system 'there is the Slate guarantee of a practically indefeasible title, as mentioned previously.

These considerations led to the passing in 1921 of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, which has for its object the bringing under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, 1915, of all land alienated by the Crown and not already under the provisions of that Act, except lands held by aboriginal Natives of New Zealand under their customs and usages.

The work of bringing all land titles under t he provisions of the Land Transfer Act as required by the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924, is still being proceeded with, and has been completed, except in the districts of Auckland. Nelson, and Otago, and except a few titles in other districts that it has been considered unwise to deal with at present owing to grave doubts as to ownership or for some other reason. A large amount still remains to be done in the districts mentioned.

Deeds Registration.

Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to th6 validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it.

Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production.

The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees.

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the last ten years is given in the following statement:—

Year ended 31st March,DeedsFees.Year ended 31st March,DeedsFees.
  £  £
192323,17620,897192816,52315,215
192425,41123,706192913,92512,622
192527,34725,152193012,83411,601
192628.78425,64919318,6607,746
192722,58520,10419324,7454,314

Land Transfer.

information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last ten years is given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March,Applications.
Number.Area.Value.
Town and Suburban.Country.
192340713034,515815,855
192444724125,6561,285,587
192642219425,720989,404
192727117517,983677,364
19282441263,689723,957
1929204868,084575,525
1930133728,238501,898
1931834924,353278,652
19324212755139,566

The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last ten years. Included in the totals are those certificates issued in lieu of Crown grants, 604 being the number for 1931 -32. Also included in the numbers for the last seven years are certificates (6,988 in 1931 -32) issued compulsorily under the Act of 1924.

CERTIFICATES OF TITLE ISSUED.
Year ended 31st March,Number.Year ended 31st March,Number.
192314,045192824,383
192414,077192922,630
192514,206193020,535
192623,654193119,189
192725,088193214.798

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last ten years:—

TITLES REGISTERED
Year ended 31st March,Number.Area.Consideration -money.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
192331,0217,9552,499,12329,980,153
192429,980,15310,6971,790,87133,871,246
192534,2898,5892,007,98433,625,622
192636,0388,6682,007,45135,195,960
192734,1068,095205,66632,338,860
192831,1418,1881,892,81930,157,665
192930,7607,5992,161,09631,155,226
193032,1127,7501,697,20830,832,305
193125,6266,8631,474,04022,068,8I4
193216,9434,1131,214,54013,205,708

Monthly statistics of transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act are given from April, 1931, onwards in the table which follows, a distinction being made between town and suburban transactions on the one hand and country transactions on the other.

Month.Town and Suburban Properties.Country Properties.All Properties.
Number.Consideration.Number.Consideration.Number.Consideration.
1932-32.
 ££ £  
April886436,942370818,7671,2561,255,709
May1,158720,929474629,7651,6321,350,694
June993512,891487740,8191,4801,253,710
July1,192613,405555800,4021,7471,419,807
August1,196592,713481695,6151,6771,288,328
September994459,410448843,5491,4421,302,959
October1,113494,667471578,0051,5841,072,672
November921435,183432528,9081,353904,091
December1,026469,042430487,0421,456956,084
January575246,939189268,255764515,194
February936506,678361412,5571,297919,235
March936483,779337423,4471,273907,226
Year 1931-3211,9205,972,5785,0357,233,13116,90113,205,709
1932-33.
April895410,275365624,2431,2601,034,518
May953400,010431550,2831,384950,293
June971526,475399547,6901,3701,074,105
July987407,0504291,059,0931,4161,466,143
August900385,473491636,1111,3911,021,584

Information, as lo mortgages registered under the Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Acts is contained in the section of this book dealing with mortgages.

SUBSECTION B.—CROWN LANDS.

ADMINISTRATION.

THE Crown lands are administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1924, the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, by the Minister of Lands at Wellington, his executive officer being the Under -Secretary of Lands, who is the permanent head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into twelve land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner of Crown Lands and a Land Board.

Commissioners of Crown Lands are executive officers of the land districts, having large discretionary powers under the Act. Each is the Chairman of the Land Board of his district, and transacts all its routine business in the sale, letting, and occupation of Crown lands. A Land Board consists of five members-viz., the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district (who is ex officio Chairman), three members nominated by the Governor -General, and one member elected by the Crown tenants of the district.

The Boards transact all business connected with the sale, letting, disposal, and occupation of Crown lands, and all matters connected with the management and control of the public lands in their hands. They are the sole judges of the fulfilment of conditions in leases and licenses, and they can declare them forfeit.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.

A selector may purchase for cash, or on deferred payment, or may select on renewable lease. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and may apply for Crown land solely for his own use and benefit' and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person. Including the land he applies for, he is not to be the owner, holder, or occupier under any tenure of more than one year's duration, either severally or jointly or in common with any other person or persons, of any land any where in New Zealand exceeding in the whole 5,000 acres of land, computed as follows:—

  1. Every acre of first -class land is reckoned as 7½ acres;

  2. Every acre of second -class land is reckoned as 2½ acres;

  3. Every acre of third -class land is reckoned as 1 acre.

Crown Land may be selected and occupied under the following tenures and systems:—

  1. Town, suburban, and village lands

    1. For cash and deferred payment, by public auction;

    2. By lease for terms up to ten years;

    3. By renewable lease for thirty -three years.

  2. Rural land (unimproved), (under optional system J.—

    1. For cash, by application:

    2. Purchase by deferred payment;

    3. Renewable lease for sixty -six years

  3. Village settlements—

    Under tho. three foregoing tenures of optional system.

  4. Special settlements (rural land)—

    On renewable lease for sixty -six years and under special regulations.

  5. Land -for -settlement estates (improved rural and pastoral land)

    1. Under renewable lease for thirty -three years, with right to acquire freehold of 400 acres of first -class land, 1,200 acres of second -class land, or 3,000 acres of third -class land;

    2. For cash or on deferred payment, by auction.

  6. Pastoral land

    1. By small -grazing -run lease for twenty -one years, with right of renewal (maximum area, 20,000 acres);

    2. By pastoral license on terms up to '.thirty -five years.

  7. Land within mining districts

    1. On pastoral licenses under special regulations, with right to acquire the freehold or exchange to a renewable lease;

    2. On occupation leases under special regulations, with similar rights as to purchase of freehold and exchange.

  8. Miscellaneous

    1. Temporary occupation on terms up to live years:

    2. Sale or occupation for special purposes;

    3. Outlying land

By the passing of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1926, it was provided that after the 9th September, 1926, no more Crown lands were to be disposed of under the occupation -with -right -of -purchase tenure, and that any lands which might have been so disposed of could be disposed of by way of sale on deferred payment in addition to the other modes of disposal provided by the Land Act.

Full particulars are given in the Crown Lands Guide, issued periodically and obtainable at any land office, as to the conditions of lease and occupation. Improvements to a certain value are required to be effected on rural land purchased for cash or on deferred payment or held on renewable lease, and residence is compulsory for certain periods on most Crown leaseholds.

DISPOSAL OF ENDOWMENTS AND RESERVES.

National endowments may be disposed of under renewable lease, small -grazing -run lease, or pastoral license. These lands are occupied on the same conditions as ordinary Crown lands.

Owners of renewable leases and small -grazing -run leases of national-endowment lands now have the right to acquire the fee -simple of their holdings on the conditions provided by the Act pertaining to each class of lease. A pastoral licensee of national -endowment land, if the area is not more than sufficient for the maintenance of the licensee and his family, can acquire the fee -simple.

Education endowments are available for leasing under the Education Reserves Act, 1928, which permits of a lease being granted under the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, as well as under the Land Act, 1924. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

Public reserves not vested in trustees or a local authority may be leased under the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, for any term not exceeding twenty -one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LAND DEVELOPMENT.

The Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929, deals chiefly with the promotion of settlement on undeveloped Crown lands. Power is given for the Crown to develop idle Crown lands, and also for the making of advances to Crown tenants holding undeveloped country for the erection of buildings, purchase of stock, and for clearing, grassing, fencing, &c. Settlers taking up unimproved sections may apply for financial assistance up to £1,250 each, the payments to be made as improvements are effected. The rate of interest has been fixed at 6 per cent. Crown tenants already in occupation of land coming under the designation of undeveloped are also eligible to apply for development advances. Loans approved to 31st March. 1932, numbered 324, totalling £120,058, while in addition £190,050 was expended by the State in the reading, surveying, and development of various blocks of land to be opened for settlement.

LANDS OPENED FOR SELECTION

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, an area of 202,417 acres of land was offered for selection under the various tenures provided by the Land Act, Land for Settlements Act, and Education Reserves Act.

Under renewable lease an area of 100,000 acres was offered, 10,315 acres being national endowment, 12,049 acres land for settlements, 71,394 acres ordinary Crown lands, and 248 acres educational endowment; while an area of 30,445 acres of ordinary Crown land was offered under the optional system. The pastoral -run area comprised 36,401 acres.

In addition to the above a total area of 1,340 acres of Crown, settlement, and national -endowment lands was set apart for selection by discharged soldiers, under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act and the Land for Settlements Act and the special tenures of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. Fuller particulars regarding these lands will be found at the end of this subsection.

The total selections during the year covered an area of 406,408 acres, by 1,448 selectors. These figures include, however, 166 purchases of small town, suburban, and rural lands, aggregating 4,413 acres, offered for sale at auction. The ordinary Crown lands holdings represented 249,611 acres; land for settlements and Cheviot Estate, 32,468 acres; national endowment, 90,316 acres; educational endowments, 29,718 acres; and other endowments, 4,295 acres. Selections by discharged soldiers are included in the foregoing totals.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.

Areas under this heading include all lands sold for cash or selected on the deferred -payment system, small grazing -runs, and leases under the following tenures: Renewable lease, mining districts land occupation leases, educational -endowment leases, and pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations

Year ended 31st March,Sold for CashDeferred payments LicensesLeases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small grazing -runsTotals
NUMBER
192821242547721,116
192925643455551,250
1930286490571 1,347
193121625056131,030
19321661584872813
AREA (ACRES)
19283,72219,112107,26614,114144,214
19295,72026,267163,06620,483215,536
19304,15934,771159,554 198,484
19317,42726,050147,3185,403186,198
19324,41337,278138,2706,525186,486

CROWN LAND HELD OR MADE FREEHOLD.

The following table shows the position at 31st March, 1932:—

Tenure.Total Numbers of Selectors.Total Area held from the Crown.Total Yearly Rental or Instalment payable.Total are made freehold
Number of Purchasers.Area.
* Excluding "cash lands.”
  Acres.£ Acres.
Cash lands........13,280,781
Deferred payment4,058538,171107,98711,3431,307,090
Perpetual lease1646,7511,0193,107864,816
Occupation with right of purchase3,223920,02675,2535,0351,286,231
Lease in perpetuity7,4991,584,651191,4083,238538,457
Renewable lease8,7632,496,518444,93733756,683
Agricultural lease9282211,408140,896
Mining districts land occupation leases68817,2761,9341554,942
Homestead......6180,453
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations597126,4973,2539018,673
Small grazing-runs7992,555,276108,1925866,175
Pastoral runs6108,953,24589,632723,412
Hanmer Crown leases64277174....
Miscellaneous leases and licenses6,5331,050,21641,87613212,728
Totals33,00718,249,1801,065,68624,971*17,681,337
Thermal-springs leases (Rotorua)3001,9831,83930206
Education endowments—
Primary3,629772,827120,650581
Secondary48740,78212,883....
Totals4,416815,592135,37235287
Grand totals37,42319,064,7781,201,05825,00617,681,624
Other endowment lands848348,67518,03666,105

National -endowment lands are included in the above table in the figures for the various tenures under which they are held. National -endowment lands of an aggregate area of 6,524,328 acres were held at 31st March, 1932, by 4,470 selectors, the annual rental payable being £141,401. Settlement lands under the Land for Settlements Act, which are dealt with later on in this subsection, are also included.

Crown Land Made Freehold, Year Ended 31st March, 1932.

Tenure (immediately prior to acquisition of freehold).Area.Amount realized.
 Acres.£
Cash lands sold3,7639,567
Freehold acquired under following tenures-  
Deferred payment3.51716,189
Occupation with right of purchase4,8654,380
Lease in perpetuity92206
Renewable lease1,2801,732
Mining districts land occupation lease1269
Small grazing -runs3,0013,108
Miscellaneous3201,009
Totals16,85036,260

SUBDIVISION OF LAND

Much of the land legislation of recent years has been in the direction of preventing large areas of good land from being acquired or retained by a single individual. Part VI of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provides for an agreement being made between the Minister of Lands and the owner in fee -simple of any land for the subdivision of that land, and for the disposal by public tender of the allotments by way of sale or by way of lease with right of purchase.

Section 97 provides for similar agreements between the Minister and the owners of Native freehold land in respect of the disposition by sale or lease of that land.

In Part VII of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provision is made whereby the Minister of Lands may at any time in writing notify an owner of land that such land or a portion thereof is required for purposes of settlement. The owner of the land is required, within six months after such notice has been gazetted, to notify the Minister whether he elects (a) to subdivide and offer the land for sale in subdivisions, or (6) to enter into an agreement with the Minister as above, or (c) that the land shall be taken compulsorily under the Act.

In sections 381 and 382 of the Land Act. 1921, provision exists for compulsorily taking private land (not within a borough or town district) in cases where in the opinion of the Dominion Land Purchase Board such land has been acquired by way of aggregation, and where such aggregation is contrary to the public interest. Compensation is payable for all land so taken.

LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS

The purchase of private lands by the Crown for closer settlement purposes is authorized by the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, a consolidation of former legislation.

The number of estates offered during the year ended 31st March, 1932, was 201 of an area of 361,134 acres, but the majority of these properties were not suitable for subdivisional purposes.

The area purchased during the year ended 31st March, 1932, was 4,815 acres, of a value of £62,525. The total number of estates purchased since the inception of the land for settlements scheme is 708, of a total area of 2,111,84s acres, the aggregate amount of purchase money being £13,907,805. These figures do not include any purchases under section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917.

Summary of Estates Acquired to 31st March, 1932.

Land DistrictsNumberAreaPurchase money

* including north Ackland.

† Including Gisborne

  Acres.£
Auckland*122427,7631,733,499
Hawkes Bay73332,5272,454,899
Taranaki2630,978375,881
Wellington155160,8282,350,297
Marlborough22224,090755,482
Marlborough22224,090755,482
Westland36,03214,062
Canterbury178451,2013,521,523
Otago81335,2122,029,409
Southland3494,396522,280
Totals7082,111,84813,907,805

The transfer of certain areas from Crown to settlement lands and the adjustment of areas to account for ascertained surpluses or deficiencies, bring the total area to 2,272,750 acres at the 31st March, 1932. Of this, 246,474 acres have been sold for cash or made freehold, the number of purchasers being 2,328 and total purchase -money £1,113,155 and 96,065 acres are occupied by roads or by reserves unlet. At the 31st March, 1932, 7,105 selectors were holding a total of 1,878,979 acres, the annual rental for which amounts to £548,644; and the remaining 51,228 acres were unlet. Rent and other payments received during 1931 -32 were £286,144, while total receipts from inception to 31st March, 1932, have been £10,627,344.

PURCHASE OF LANDS FOR GROUPS OF APPLICANTS.

Part II of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1928, gives power whereby two or more persons may purchase land acquired on their behalf by the Crown. Seven properties, of a total area of 2,772 acres, were purchased during the year ended 31st March, 1932, on behalf of eighteen applicants, and in the preceding year eleven properties (8,088 acres) on behalf of forty -seven applicants.

ASSISTING PURCHASE OF PRIVATE LAND.

Section 3 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932, provides authority for the making of advances to purchasers of part of private freehold properties up to 90 per cent, of the purchase money, all such advances to be secured by way of first mortgage.

LAND -SETTLEMENT FINANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

On the 1st January, 1910, the Land Settlement Finance Act, which is described fully in the 1915 issue of this book, came into force. The associations incorporated now number forty -six. There have been no transactions for several years past.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, and amendments, any person is entitled to the benefits of the Act who, was an honourably discharged member of a New Zealand Naval of Expeditionary Force in 1914 -18, or was a bona fide resident of New Zealand, and served during the war with other British Forces.

There is power to dispose of land under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act, 1924, and the Land for Settlements Act, 1925-i.e., for cash, on deferred payment, or on renewable lease under the former Act, and on renewable lease under the latter Act: also under the “special tenures” of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, which are cash, deferred payment, or a renewable lease with a purchasing clause.

Under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. 1915. 1,340 acres were proclaimed in 1931 -32 and a total of 1,442,964 acres has been proclaimed to 31st March, 1932, comprising 600,331 acres of ordinary Crown Lands; lands for settlement, 401,844 acres; national -endowment lands, 431,433 acres; and Cheviot Estate, 3,350 acres. Some 700,171 acres of this aggregate full under section 3 of the Act (ordinary tenures) and 742,793 acres under section 4 (special tenures).

During the year ended 31st. March, 1932, 22 applications were made under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, and allotments were made in the case of 16 applicants, the total area being 4,215 acres.

Financial Assistance.

The various systems of financial assistance in connection with the settlement of discharged soldiers were dealt with in the 1924 and previous issues of the Year -Book. Operations at the present time are confined mainly to advances on current account for stocking and developing farms.

From the inception of the scheme of discharged -soldiers settlement in 1915 to the end of the financial year 1931 -32, loans totalling £23,403,628 had been granted to 22:740 discharged soldiers, as follows:—

Class.Number of Soldiers.Amount.£
Advances on current account5,0915,521,430
Advances towards purchase of farms, market gardens, and orchards, and discharge of mortgages .5,5529,043,259
Advances towards purchase and erection of dwellings and discharge of mortgages thereon in town and suburb areas . .12,0978,838,933
Totals .22,740£23,403,628

Repayments of principal to the 31st March, 1932, total £10,451,018, of which £608,396 was repaid during the financial year 1931 -32. Receipts in respect of interest and sundries brought the total receipts for the year to £1,195,832.

During 1931 -32 loans totalling £134,183 were granted. Of this amount £18,310 was for the purchase or erection of dwellings, and £115,873 towards the improvement and stocking of lands. Advances actually made during the year, including loans previously authorized and readvances from current account, totalled £413,527.

Revaluation of Soldier Properties.

By the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1923, a Dominion Revaluation Board was constituted with power to revalue and reduce where necessary the capital values of lands leased by soldiers from the Crown, and also to reduce mortgages in cases where soldiers had acquired lands by means of Government advances. Reductions to the total of £2,871,159 were made in capital and mortgage values.

The Board was also engaged in investigating current accounts under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1924, and 4,017 accounts were subject to -investigation.

SUBSECTION C.—NATIVE LANDS.

DEFINITION AND KINDS OF NATIVE LAND.

NATIVE land is of two kinds-namely, customary land and Native freehold land. Customary land is land which has never been the subject of a Crown grant and is held by Natives under the customs and usages of the Maori people. It is land in respect of which the ancient customary Native title as recognized and guaranteed by the Treaty of Waitangi has not yet been extinguished. Such land, since it has not been Crown -granted, remains vested in the Crown, subject, however, to the customary title of the Natives, and to their right to have the customary title transformed into a freehold title by the Native Land Court.

Customary land has always been restricted from alienation except in favour of the Crown. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown, and in all statutes since passed the alienation of customary land to private individuals has been prohibited, and this prohibition is now extended to the Crown. Native freehold land is the land hold by Natives under an English freehold title, though subject to certain restrictions on alienation and other special incidents which are unknown to the ordinary law.

Whether land is Native or European land depends upon the beneficial ownership of it, and not merely on the legal ownership. If land is held by a European upon trust for a Native, it is Native land; if it is held in trust by a Native for a European, it is European land. There are, however, four exceptions to this:—

  1. When land has once become European land, it never again becomes Native land unless by special enactment.

  2. Land purchased by a Native from the Crown for a pecuniary consideration is not Native land.

  3. Land held by a Native in severalty may be declared to be European land by the Native Appellate Court.

  4. Under certain circumstances the Native owner may have been declared a European.

Even though one of many Native owners may sell, the land remains Native land until all have disposed of their interests, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. A “Native” means a Maori or half -caste, or a. person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half -caste.

The Native Land Act, 1931, and the Native Purposes Act, 1931. are consolidations, with amendments, of existing legislation.

THE NATIVE LAND COURT.

The Native Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor -General thinks fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise each jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor -General authorizes. The chief matters within the jurisdiction Action of the Court are:—

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Native freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. The sanctioning of exchanges for other Native land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and succession orders to Natives.

  5. Making orders for the adoption of children.

  6. Appointing trustees for Natives who are minors or under other disability.

  7. The incorporation of the owners of Native land.

  8. The determination of various claims as between Natives.

Business dealt with in 11)31 -32 was as follows:—

Number of sittings96
Number of cases notified16,416
Number of cases for which orders wore made6,348
Number of eases dismissed1,424
Number of cases adjourned sine die8,746
Number of partitions made216
Area affected (acres)54,425
Number of investigations of title10
Area affected (acres)106
Number of succession orders made6,129
Number of other orders made2,729

The Native Appellate Court consists of any two or any two or more Judges of the Native Land Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Native Land Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.

There are seven Maori Land Boards, each consisting of the Judge and Registrar of the Native Land Court district, the Judge acting as President. The chief functions of a Maori Land Board are—

  1. To grant confirmation of alienation of Native lend.

  2. To administer certain large areas of Native land vested in those Boards in trust for the Native owners, the Boards living extensive powers of sale lease, and management

  3. To act as statutory agent of the Native owners suspect of certain areas of Native land sot apart for Native settlement

  4. To control the administration and disposition of Native land, by resolution of the assembled owners.

  5. To assist Natives in farming their lands.

The total area vested in and administered by the various Maori Land Boards as at the 31st March, 1932, was 057,102 acres.

During the year 1931 32, 368 acres of vested land wore sold or revested in the Native J owners.

With regard to Native freehold land, the Boards during the year approved of leases comprising 27,837 acres, and confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 10,045 acres of freehold land.

POWERS OF ALIENATION.

The ordinary provisions as to alienation el Native land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Native cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Native cannot dispose of customary land, >whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Native land by a Native has any effect until it is confirmed by a Maori Land Board.

The Board, before confirming, an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Native alienating; that no Native is rendered landless; that -the consideration is adequate; that the purchase -money is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law.

A lease cannot be for a longer term than fifty years, and a mortgage must have the approval of the Governor -General in Council

PURCHASE OF NATIVE LAND FOR CROWN

For the purpose of effecting the purchase of Native land by the Crown there is constituted a Native Land Purchase Board, consisting of the Minister of Native Affairs, the Under -Secretary of Lands, the Under -Secretary of the Native Department, and the Valuer -General. The duty of the Board is to undertake, control, and. carry out negotiations for purchase, and the performance and completion of contracts entered into. Pending any purchase by the Crown the Governor -General may, by Order in Council, prohibit any attempt at alienation otherwise than to the Crown. Upon the purchase being completed the land is proclaimed Crown land, and is subject to administration under the Land Act, 1924. Where it is subject to lease when purchased the option may be extended to the tenant of purchasing the land from the Crown or having a renewable lease granted to him.

Since the Board was constituted, on the 1st April, 1910, a total of 1,539,818 acres of Native land has been purchased by the Crown. The total area of Native land alienated by way of sale to the Crown or to other purchasers since 1910 is 3,253,867 acres.

The area of Native land still held by Natives in the North Island is estimated at 3,864,042 acres, and in the whole Dominion at 4,117,153 acres. In many cases the Natives are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by Maori Land Boards and by the East Coast Commissioner.

NATIVE TRUSTEE.

The administration of Native funds and Native reserves, formerly conducted by the Public Trustee, was by statute transferred to the Native Trustee as from 1st April, 1921. This was part of a comprehensive scheme which seeks to rehabilitate the Maori by inducing him to farm and manage his own lands. As a further means to this end the Native Trust Office Board advances money to Natives on the security of their lands, the expenditure of this money and the management of Native farming operations generally being supervised in a helpful and sympathetic manner. The Native Trustee Act, 1930, consolidated existing legislation.

The Native Trustee administers many reserves of Native land on behalf of the beneficiaries, and grants leases thereof. The beneficial owners of these reserves have no power of alienation other than to the Crown.

The Native Trustee also, where necessary, acts as trustee for Natives who are minors or under other disabilities, administers special funds, and acts as executor or administrator of the estates of deceased Natives.

The funds of the Native Trust Office at the 31st March, 1932, were:—

Amounts held under—£
West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 189254,314
Native Reserves Act, 188261,172
Native Land Act, 1931 (Part X)118,421
Native Land Act, 1931 (Miscellaneous)214,590
Native Trustee Act, 193032,813
Miscellaneous funds77,518
Sundry creditors543
Reserve and Assurance Fund98,943
Investment Fluctuation Fund7,232
Advances under Finance Act, 193092,000
Advance under Native Land Act, 193117,840
Total£775,386

Of the total funds £597,285 was invested in the form of mortgages, and £11,895 in local bodies' securities.

Commissions, fees, charges, and net interest on investments for the year 1931 -32 totalled £23,071. The not profit for the year was £7,989, of which £7,191 was placed to the Reserve and Assurance Fund and £798 to the Investment Fluctuation Fund.

Chapter 17. SECTION XVII.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL

The Dominion of New Zealand is a country specially favoured for primary production. The soil covering is varied in character, a considerable portion of it being of exceptional fertility; but even the poorer soils are largely capable of profitable utilization by reason of the comparatively mild and equable weather conditions. The best grasses and fodder plants flourish in the congenial environment, and the country has gained a world-wide reputation for the quality of its pastures. Numerous streams intersect the country-side and present to the farmer a great potential source of cheap power. Electricity is now put to a variety of uses on the farm, but by far the most important is that of providing power for milking-machinery.

A conspicuous feature of New Zealand farming is that the stock do not require to be stalled in the winter, though the pastures are more or less supplemented by fodder crops in the colder months of the year.

New Zealand is primarily a grazing country, and, while more of the land is every year being given up to the cultivation of fodder crops, its future will, no doubt, be inseparably associated with stock-raising, principally of dairy cattle and of sheep. Though less than a century has elapsed since the colonization of New Zealand, over seventeen million acres of land in tin Dominion have been sown down in English grasses. A great proportion of the crops grown in the Dominion are for the production of such commodities as meat, wool, and dairy-produce.

Grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are grown on a fairly large scale in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island. Barley also is grown, but to a very much smaller extent. Much of the crop of oats produced is chaffed for stock-feeding purposes within the country. Root crops, principally turnips, are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock-fattening purposes, more particularly in the South Island. Owing to the comparative difficulty of growing large areas of turnips free from disease, other stock-foods are coming into prominence. Mangolds are being cultivated to a larger extent, and farmers are beginning to realize the great value of lucerne. Ensilage-making, particularly in the stack form, is increasing in the dairying districts. Quite a feature of milk -producing operations is the growing of green fodder crops to maintain the milk-supply during the drier months of the year. It will be seen that live-stock in New Zealand is for the most part maintained on food produced on the farm itself.

THE NORTH ISLAND

The North Island of the Dominion is remarkable for the congenial environment it furnishes for many phases of primary production. In no part is the winter really severe, and the question of stalling stock during the colder months of the year has not to be considered. It is more a grazing than an agricultural country, and practically all the crops raised are used for feeding farm stock. The dominant industries are dairying and sheep-faming. There is probably no finer sheep-country in the world than the limestone downs of Hawke's Bay. It may be said with every confidence that there is more butterfat produced to the acre on many farms in the Taranaki District than on any equal area in the world, when it is considered 'hat all the food provided for the stock is produced on the farm itself. The standard of dairy-farming is steadily improving, not only by reason of special fodder being provided for the drier parts of the summer and the colder months of the year, but on account of the fact that the farmer is coming to realize the value of herd testing and culling. Farmers have already recognized the advantages to be derived from the judicious application of top-dressing fertilizers to pastures.

In various parts of the Island fruitgrowing, principally of apples, pears, and peaches, is being placed on a sound commercial basis. In the northern portion citrus fruits can be successfully produced, and, with the adoption of better storage and marketing methods, lemons in particular are being cultivated on a considerable scale. Outdoor grapes are freely grown. Both the North and the South Islands have established an export trade in apples, and to a lesser extent in pears.

During recent years the Waikato district and the Auckland Provincial District in general have shown themselves to be admirably adapted to the dairy industry, and dairying has made remarkable development. The Auckland District, in fact, has become easily the largest exporter of butter in the Dominion, while it also leads in the production of milk-powder.

With the adoption of improved methods in the treatment of the land, and the demonstration of correct manurial treatment, farming in the Auckland Provincial District has been placed on a much more stable basis. Assisted by a favourable climate, of which a short and mild winter is a feature, stock-raising of all descriptions is being carried on with conspicuous success. The country is eminently adapted for the production of root and fodder crops, and stock can be brought to maturity and fattened for the market at a minimum of cost.

THE SOUTH ISLAND.

The South Island is the portion of the Dominion where agriculture proper was first established, the settlement of the land being greatly facilitated by the fact that on the eastern, southern, and northern portions large fertile plains, rolling downs, and hills were available, devoid of the forests which in a very large portion of the North Island have had to be cleared before the land could be utilized by the farmer. Agricultural operations in the South have been maintained at a high standard for many years, principally in Otago and Canterbury, many of the pioneers of which districts were British yeomen farmers who brought with them the best methods of the Old Land. So in the breeding of live-stock, many of the original holders of land in the South, and the shepherds and herdsmen they employed, had been well trained in stock-management by live-stock breeders of the Mother-country. The South Island may be fairly said to have been the nursery of the live-stock of the Dominion, and the high quality of the stock bred in the country is in a large measure due to the capacity of the men who founded and developed the flocks and herds in the eastern and southern districts. The growing of the finer wools, and the raising of fat lambs for the frozen-meat industry, are features of primary production in the South Island, while the dairy industry is also well represented, especially in Otago and Southland. The breeding of draught horses of a very fine stamp is carried on to some extent in certain districts.

While the climate in the southern districts of the South Island is not so congenial as that in the northern, there are only a few portions where the winter is at all rigorous. The Nelson Provincial District, in the north-west corner of the Island, is noted for its climate. Nelson has a sunshine-record which is equalled in but few parts of the Temperate Zone. The district is specially suitable for fruitgrowing, which has been developed extensively on commercial lines. The culture of tobacco-leaf is a comparatively recent activity which is progressing favourably in the district. At the other end of the Island, in Central Otago, a peculiar configuration of the country enables fruitgrowing to be prosecuted with great success. The winter is comparatively severe but the warm summer sun and the absence of wind make it an ideal environment for fruitgrowing.

In some sections, particularly in Canterbury, Otago, Southland, and Marlborough, grain-growing is prosecuted on a considerable scale. The Canterbury Plains, extending a hundred and fifty miles north and south and running inland for forty miles from the sea, represent an area of over 3,000,000 acres. This forms the principal grain-growing area. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated to a large extent. In Otago and Southland oats are the grain principally produced. In some of the richer lands the yield of wheat has reached very high figures, even up to 80 or 90 bushels per acre, while over 100 bushels to the acre have been recorded for crops of oats. In root crops up to 70 tons per acre of turnips have been secured, while the yield of mangolds has frequently reached 90 tons.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture the Department of Agriculture is a service which is mainly concerned in advancing the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock, Dairy, Fields, and Horticulture, also a Chemistry Section.

While the service is mainly educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Live-stock Division, all meat exported is inspected by qualified officers. Cattle are inspected for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles; sheep and swine also receive attention; slaughterhouses are licensed and controlled; and all stock exported and imported is examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in poultry-keeping, swine husbandry, and wool growing and handling. The Division is provided with a well-equipped laboratory at Wallaceville, Wellington, mainly devoted to veterinary research, &c.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, &c., is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy-produce is inspected and graded prior to shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture content of butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk-samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers.

The duties of the Fields Division comprise agricultural instruction, the control of experimental areas, advice regarding crops, pastures, and farm-management, co-operative experimental work, hemp-grading, and grain-grading. The Division also has charge of the system of seed certification introduced by the Department.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work and instruction to beekeepers and tobacco-growers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It also inspects orchards and apiaries, inspects fruit for export, and grades export honey. The Chemistry Section carries out analysis of soils, limestones, fertilizers, water, &c., also the inspection of fertilizers.

The Plant Research Station at Palmerston North conducts research in crop and grassland production, plant-breeding, and control of plant diseases and pests. Seed-testing and farm economics sections are also attached to the station.

The Department's principal farm establishment is the Ruakura Farm of Instruction at Hamilton, in connection with which a farm training-college for youths is also conducted. The To Kauwhata Horticultural Station, in the lower Waikato district, is mainly devoted to vine-growing and winemaking. There are also several other smaller experimental and demonstration areas.

The agricultural instructional work covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or by letters of advice. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. A monthly Journal, the New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, is published at a low rate of subscription, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer can obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination-capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described, and remedies suggested-all these services being rendered free of charge. Among other responsibilities of the Deportment is the registration of live-stock brands, slaughterhouses, dairies, dairy-factories, fertilizers, orchards, nurseries, apiaries, &c.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

By an Act of Parliament passed in 1913 provision was made for the establishment of a Board of Agriculture, consisting of not more than twelve members appointed by the Governor-General, of whom not more than four were to be appointed on the recommendation of the agricultural and pastoral societies of the North Island, and an equal number on the recommendation of such societies in the South Island. The functions of the Board are to advise the Minister of Agriculture on matters relating to the development of agricultural and other rural industries in New Zealand. In particular, but without limiting the application of the term " agricultural and rural industries,” the functions of the Board extend to the following matters:—

  1. The aiding, improving, and developing of Agriculture and all rural industries, including fruit-culture, horticulture, forestry, dairying, the breeding of stock and poultry, beekeeping, and the flax industry;

  2. The prevention and control of disease in stock and poultry, the control of rabbits and noxious weeds, and the dipping cf sheep;

  3. The establishment of agricultural colleges and agricultural education generally; and

  4. The aiding or facilitating of the carriage and distribution of produce.

COLLECTION OF AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL STATISTICS.

Commencing with the 1915-16 season, a new and comprehensive system of collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics was substituted by the Census and Statistics Office for the methods formerly in vogue. The amended system was based on personal canvass by the agency of officers of the Police Department. Within the scope of the collection are comprised all holdings of 1 acre upwards situated outside borough boundaries, but not inclusive of purely residential holdings or Maori lands held under the communal system. The questionnaire in use in New Zealand was found to comply with practically all requirements for use in connection with the taking of the World Agricultural Census in 1930 under the auspices of the International Institute of Agriculture.

Considerations of economy caused the substitution in the 1930-31 season of a postal collection embracing the most important particulars. A combination of postal collection and personal canvass was adopted in 1931-32.

Interim returns of principal crops and live-stock are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, and when the collection is completed final figures for the principal items are published in the next available issue of that publication. The full statistics are published in the " Annual Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production.”

In addition to the main collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics the following supplementary inquiries are undertaken: Stocks of wool in the Dominion as at the 30th June; areas sown or intended to be sown in wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes (taken at the end of September); stocks of flour, wheat, and oats in the hands of millers, merchants, storekeepers, and farmers (at the end of November); estimated yields of wheat and oats (early in February); and returns of wheat and oats threshed (throughout the threshing season). The results of these first three inquiries are gazetted, and they are also, together with the figures of threshings, published from time to time in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Stocks of eggs and egg-pulp in cold storage are ascertained six times each year, and the results are published in the press and in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

FARM MACHINERY

The following summary of farm machinery employed on holdings outside borough boundaries during the last five years is of interest as showing the greatly increased use now being made of electricity and of mechanical equipment as compared with the position disclosed only four years previously:—

Class of Machinery,&c.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.

* Not available.

Milking-plants17,09018,04918,75620,41522,547
Cream-separators45,24645,24645,78148,30247,112
Shearing-machines-
Plants6,3056,5186,8877,3948,191
Stands19,26919,67720,32921,48223,140
Wool-presses8,8329,0049,2359,906*
Agricultural tractors2,5882,8833,3773,8915,023
Reapers-and-binders15,28715,43215,17215,484*
Threshing-machines364406406418*
Chaffcutters2,5622,3262,2972,206*
Water-wheels or motors784932824923*
Electric motors8,43610,80613,37716,45622,520
Steam-engines435505397398*
Internal-combustion engines18,88518,32118,48919,16922,136

The 22,547 milking-plants in use in 1931 had a capacity for milking 79,437 cows simultaneously. Regarding agricultural tractors, electric motors, and internal-combustion engines shown above, the aggregate horse-powers returned were 79,129, 35,238, and 70,681 respectively.

SUBSECTION B—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

NEW ZEALAND is a country very favourably situated for grazing purposes, and consequently the cropping of the soil is not carried out on a very extensive scale, the greater proportion of the area in occupation cit or being under permanent artificially-sown pastures or still remaining in tussock or other native grasses. Certain districts in the Dominion, however, have been found to be particularly suited for the growing of wheat, oats, and other cereal crops, and the production of grain is now almost exclusively limited to those areas which are especially so suited. On the other hand, the desirability for supplementing the supply of fodder daring the winter months of the year, for the large number of sheep and cattle in the Dominion, has necessitated the cultivation of considerable areas of turnips, mangolds, and green fodder crops, besides the maintenance of large acreages of grasses and clovers and of lucerne for the production of hay and ensilage. Fairly large areas are also sown down annually in the better-class grasses and clovers for the production of grass-seed.

In general, agricultural farming in the Dominion may be said to be now limited to the growing of those crops necessary for the augmentation of existing pastures in order to maintain a high standard of production, and to the growing of grain for local consumption. Grass-seed and peas are the only two crops that regularly have a sufficient margin for export.

The necessity for strict economy in the 1931-32 collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics resulted in the adoption of a combination of a postal collection and personal canvass by agency of office officers. The system, while economical, has inevitably caused some delay in the compilation of the statistics, which are not available for inclusion in this section. Certain cardinal figures for the 1931-32 season will, however, be found at the end of this volume in Appendix (a) Latest Statistical Information.

AREA UNDER CROP.

Generally speaking, there is very little movement from year to year in the total area under field crops. Green and root crops comprise a high proportion, 717,647 acres, or 37 per cent., of the 1,936,783 acres under crop in 1930-31 being sown down in these crops. Of the total area under grain and pulse crops, approximately three-fifths is usually threshed, the remaining two-fifths being either cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage, or fed off to stock. The condition of the crop at the time of harvesting greatly influences the proportions utilized for either purpose.

In the following table the area under crop according to the different classes of crop is given for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Grain and Pulse Crops.Grain and Pulse Crops.Grasses, Clovers, and Lucerne.Total Area under Crop.
For Threshing.For Chaff, Hay, Ensilage, &c.Cut for Seed.Cut for Hay, Ensilage, &c
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1921-22588,141305,953742,13091,154187,3631,974,741
1922-23484,954329,117775,84986,727175,5581,852,205
1923-24299,938359,871752,07181,003188,9791,081,922
1924-25371,944327,900735,050103,159229,6441,768,303
1925-26310,289207,230703,80879,549224,7771,045,719
1926-27399,504272,300721,90487,699288,4551,769,802
1927-28412,431218,507712,50965,681280,2411,689,369
1928-29379,179213,228734,06968,017351,1071,746,200
1929-30348,929218,900716,11866,855412,5881,763,390
1930-31391,243295,021717,64789,184443,0881,930,783

The Canterbury Land District had 70 per cent, of the total area under grain and pulse crops for threshing, and 53 per cent, of the area for chaff, hay, ensilage, &c. About 75 per cent, of the area in green and root crops was grown in the Canterbury, Otago, and Southland Districts, while grasses and clovers cut for seed were mainly confined to Canterbury and Southland. On the other hand, grasses and clovers (including lucerne) cut for hay and ensilage show the North Island in a more favourable position, the predominating districts of Auckland and Taranaki accounting for 52 per cent, of the total area. Those two districts are the centre of the dairying industry in New Zealand.

Canterbury, Otago, and Southland together account for two-thirds of the total area under crop in the Dominion.

PRINCIPAL CROPS.

The areas under each of the principal crops for the last five years have been as follows:—

Crop.1920-27.1927-281928-29.1929-30.1930-31
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Wheat221,689262,799257,873238,653252,219
Oats386,762303,708283,133282,814367,551
Barley30,41421,75219,84018,63131,034
Maize10,97910,8409,2818,65212,103
Peas15,49525,12817,8939,85510,558
Beans170171140
Linseed4,9335,2132,8007,75712,200
Hops636649608598634
Potatoes24,61621,69321,30423,21428,459
Turnips462,360459,704479,994475,254493,902
Mangolds11,87010,3299,91410,51910,706
Onions765703880870771
Tobacco2246901,0001,073932
Green fodder219,031216,702219,088203,438180,308
Grasses and clovers for seed87,69965,68168,01766,85589,184
Grasses and clovers for hay, ensilage, &co.260,674250,984320,299380,898409,586
Lucerne27,78129,25730,80831,69033,502
Other crops3,9343,5373,2982,4482,994
Totals1,769,8621,689,3691,746,2001,763,3901,936,783

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS.

The total area under grain and pulse crops in 1930-31 was 680,864 acres, as compared with 567,829 acres in 1929-30. Of the total in 1930-31, 391,243 acres were for threshing and 295,621 acres were for chaff, hay, ensilage, &c., 57 per cent, of the total area under grain and pulse crops thus being threshed out during the year, as against 63 per cent. (348,929) acres in 1929-30. In the table below the areas of the principal crops threshed, and the total and per acre yields, are given for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas.*Linseed.
* Including beans prior to 1928-20.
AREAS.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1921-22352,918170,65533,07810,52212,7895,880
1922-23275,775143,89017,4739,73224,44910,645
1923-24173,86463,84221,2868,20818,67612,119
1924-25166,964147,38725,1388,62114,0276,679
1925-26151,673102,48525,9698,50811,7498,143
1926-27220,083117,32629,88610,24915,4954,933
1927-28260,98788,22321,09110,29125,1285,213
1928-29255,31273,10119,5008,98617,8932,800
1929-30235,94267,72218,2297,9579,8557,757
1930-31249,01487,15223,9527,16810,55812,200
TOTAL YIELDS.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1921-2210,565,2756,752,6631,151,813488,452339,39856,600
1922-238,395,0235,688,157598,040505,776697,548102,660
1923-244,174,5371,964,511597,416405,855362,78754,100
1924-255,447,7585,707,174798,128426,875410,58242,700
1925-264,617,0414,115,606947,002423,700287,77547,220
1926-277,952,4424,997,5351,243,333491,468454,72238,580
1927-289,541,4443,852,687861,985482,928802,41631,265
1928-298,832,8643,065,113781,102456,296527,50423,227
1929-307,239,5563,002,288755,007377,955294,24270,377
1930-317,579,1533,376,609837,696316,845241,40287,344
YIELDS PER ACRE.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1921-2229.9439.5634.8146.4226.549.63
1922-2330.4439.7534.2351.9628.519.64
1923-2424.0130.7728.0749.4019.434.46
1924-2532.6238.7231.7549.4729.276.39
1925-2630.4440.1436.4749.8024.495.80
1926-2736.1342.5841.6047.9529.357.82
1927-2836.5643.6640.8746.9331.936.00
1928-2934.6041.9340.0650.789.488.30
1929-3030.6844.3341.4247.5029.869.07
1930-3130.4438.7434.9744.2022.867.16

Wheat for threshing is grown principally in Canterbury, 80 per cent, of the total grain produced in 1930-31 coming from that district. Otago, with 13 per cent., supplied the bulk of the remainder. The growing of oats for threshing is also mainly confined to these two districts with the addition of Southland, the proportion of grain produced by each being 43 per cent., 25 per cent., and 29 per cent, respectively. Three-quarters of the barley produced in the Dominion is supplied by Canterbury and Otago, Marlborough furnishing most of the remainder. Maize, on the other hand, is almost exclusively confined to the northern part of the North Island, Auckland and Gisborne supplying 89£ per cent, of the total corn produced. Peas are grown to considerable extent only in Canterbury and Marlborough, while linseed is evidently not looked upon as a suitable crop outside of Canterbury.

WHEAT.

Wheat is one of the most important crops grown by the farmer, but in New Zealand the area now devoted to this purpose is not very considerable. At one time wheat occupied a very prominent position, for in the “eighties” the area under wheat was between 300,000 and 400,000 acres annually, and the production of grain more than sufficient for local needs, thus allowing for quite an appreciable export. The advent of butter and cheese factories and the introduction of refrigeration, however, gave a great impetus to the dairying and pastoral industries, resulting in a large proportion of the land formerly utilized for wheat-growing being sown down in grass and other fodder crops.

It may be said that, although from twenty to thirty countries in the world generally produce more wheat than does New Zealand, only one or two European countries have a better record of production per acre. This says much for the fertility of the soil of the Dominion, for cultivation here is naturally less intensive than it is in the closely settled Continental countries.

The area (for threshing) and the production of wheat per head of population (including Maoris) for the last ten years are now given. The population is taken at the 31st. March, a date corresponding approximately to harvest-time.

Year.Per Head of Population.Year.Per Head of Population.
Area.Production.Area.production.
 Acres.Bushels. Acres.Bushels.
1921-220.278.121926-270.155.53
1922-230.216.331927-280.186.56
1923-240.133.101928-290.176.01
1924-250.123.951929-300.164.86
1925-260.113.281930-310.165.02

CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT.

The following information is based on the production figures as ascertained at the five collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics previous to and including 1931, while due weight is given to imports and exports of wheat and flour (including exports to Cook Islands) and estimated carry-over

Year.Production of Wheat at Harvest.Excess of Imports over Exports of Wheat.*Total.

* Including flour converted on the basis of 48 bushels of wheat to 1 short ton of flour.

 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
19277,952,4421,418,7059,371,147
19289,541,4441,207,69710,749,141
19298,832,864495,5169,328,380
19307,239,556728,1797,967,735
19317,579,153749,3198,328,472
Total for five years41,145,4594,599,41645,748,875
Average8,229,092919,8839,148,975
Minus average net increase in carry -over195,036
Estimated average annual consumption8,959,939

The following quantities of these commodities were imported and exported during the years specified:—

YearImports.Exports.
Wheat.Flour.Wheat.Flour.
 Bushels.Tons.Bushels.Tons.
1927737,08114,32481364
1928761,0559,500605139
1929254,4919,775219,131160
1930280,1379,538510175
1931188,79411,821392125

Over the average of the last five years it has been found that the annual quantity of wheat consumed in the form of flour was 0,850,000 bushels. Thus, there is a difference of 2,100,000 bushels between wheat consumption and the amount converted to flour. Allowing an average of 1 £ bushels of seed-wheat to the acre, sowings would require about 375,000 bushels annually, leaving 1,725,000 bushels available for fowl and pig feed.

Returns furnished by threshing-millers show that 4.65 per cent, of the wheat threshed during the five seasons consisted of “seconds,” so that of a total yield of 8,230,000 bushels, 7,850,000 bushels may be taken as “firsts” and 380,000 bushels as “seconds.” In addition to the latter, some 1,345,000 bushels of firsts would appear to be used as fowl or pig feed.

Assuming that the whole of the requirements for seed and stock purposes are met out of local production, then, out of 6,850,000 bushels of wheat required to produce the Dominion's flour requirements, 0,125,000 bushels are available from local production, leaving 725,000 bushels of wheat (or the equivalent of this in flour) to be imported. Figures shown earlier give 919,883 bushels of net imports, but against this must be set the net increase in carry-over of 195,030 bushels.

Wheat-Production of Australia and New Zealand.

The area and yield of wheat in 1930-31 for each State of the Commonwealth of Australia and for New Zealand were as shown in the following table.

State.Wheat Crop.
Area.Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Queensland272,3165,107,56118.76
New South Wales (including Federal Territory)5,137,02165,905,29612.83
Victoria4,600,20053,814,36911.70
Western Australia3,955,76353,504,14913.53
South Australia.4,180,51334,871,5268.34
Tasmania19,107391,49020.49
Totals for commonwealth18,164,920213,594,39111.76
New Zealand249,0147,579,15330.44
Grand totals18,413,934221,173,54412.01

The average production per acre for the ton seasons ending with 1930-31 is, for New Zealand, 31-74 bushels per acre; and for Australia, 11-65 bushels per acre.

OATS.

In point of area oats is the most important grain crop of the Dominion. About 80 per cent, is grown in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, 5 per cent, in the remainder of the South Island, and 9 per cent, in the North Island. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chaff without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends partly on the condition of the crop and partly. on market conditions. In 1920-27, 30-34 percent. of the area harvested was threshed; in 1927-28, 29-05 per cent.; in 1928-29, 25-82 per cent.; in 1929-30, 23-95 per cent.; and in 1930-31, 28-02 per cent.

The total and average yields of grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the last ten seasons wore as follows:—

SeasonGrainChaff, Hay, or Ensilage
Total Yield.Average per Acre.Total Yield.Average per Acre.
 BushelsBushels.Tons.Tons.
1921-226,752,66339.56538,1941.56
1922-235,688,15739.75480,1471.59
1923-241,964,51130.77366,5461.12
1924-255,707,17438.72507,1731.64
1925-264,155,60640.14354,3731.45
1926-274,997,53542.58434,9671.70
1927-283,852,68743.66344,3221.71
1928-293,065,11341.93333,2201.71
1929-303,002,28844.33314,7341.65
1930-313,376,60938.74367,1981.64

POTATOES.

Potatoes are grown extensively in the Dominion, the total area in this crop in the season 1930-31 being 28,459 acres, with a total yield of 151,525 tons, equal to an average yield per acre of 5.32 tons. The figures for the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Tons.Tons.
1921-2219,418112,0905.76
1922-2320,197113,8265.63
1923-2420,993105,5525.00
1924-2523,092122,1845.27
1925-2623,484143,7816.09
1926-2724,616116,7714.73
1927-2821,693121,4025.59
1928-2921,304123,6075.77
1929-3023,214130,1075.60
1930-3128,459151,5255.32

Fifty-eight per cent, of the total potato area in 1930-31 was in Canterbury Land District.

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS.

Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, it has been found that at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order that the grassland may not become unduly exhausted, and also in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In midwinter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses a great amount of its nutritive value. During these periods, therefore, it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of ensilage, green fodder, or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures of the areas of the supplementary folder crops available during each of the last ten years:—

Year.Chair, Hay, or Ensilage.Green Fodder.Root Crops for feeding to Stock.Total Area of Fodder Crops.
Cereal Crops.Grasses and Clovers, including Lucerne.Wheat and Oats not harvested.Other Crops.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1921-22.347,135187,36318,818201,351520,8771,275,544
1922-23.304,564175,55825,353249,417505,7381,260,630
1923-24.329,829188,97930,042239,652491,0521,279,554
1924-25.310,474229,64417,426240,061471,9551,269,560
1925-26.246,810224,77720,412255,429484,4411,231,869
1926-27.257,558288,45514,742219,031477,4921,257,278
1927-28.203,838280,24114,669216,702472,1011,187,551
1928-29.196,545351,10716,683219,088491,8421,275,265
1929-30.192,660412,58826,240203,438486,9691,321,895
1930-31.228,215443,08856,735190,979506,1431,425,160

In 1930-31, grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage totalled 409,586 acres, and lucerne 33,502 acres; oats was the only cereal crop utilized in any quantity for this purpose, the area in 1930-31 being 223,869 acres. Of the cereal crops fed off to stock during the past year, oats comprised 56,530 acres of the total area. Turnips are the principal root crop grown in the Dominion, the total acreage in 1930-31 being 493,902 acres (including 53,688 acres of turnips and rape mixed). Other root crops comprised 10,706 acres of mangolds, and 822 acres of carrots and parsnips. Pumpkins and marrows were grown for fodder to the extent of 713 acres.

The total and per-acre yields obtained from the various crops out for chaff, hay, or ensilage are as follows for 1929-30 and 1930-31:—

Crop.1920-30.1930-31.
Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Total Yield.Yield per Acre
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Wheat1,9201.296,1542.02
Oats314,7341.65367,1981.64
Barley8242.051,7651.91
Maize2,6073.751,9184.56
Grasses and clovers812,2022.12948,3752.32
Lucerne81,7282.5892,4762.76

GRASS-SEED.

The total area of grasses and clovers cut for seed during the year 1930-31 was 89,184 acres, yielding 1,309,705 bushels of 20 lb., as against 1,002,005 bushels from 66,855 acres in 1929-30. Canterbury, Otago, and Southland Land Districts between them provide 88 per cent, of the area cut.

A considerable export of grass-seed has been built up during recent years, especially with the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America, the quantity exported to those countries in 1931 amounting to 36,727 cwt., valued at £138,833. The total quantity of locally-produced grass and clover seed exported to. all countries amounted to 40,953 cwt., with a recorded value of £155,410.

The areas and yields of the principal grass and clover crops actually cut for seed during each of the ten years 1921-22 to 1930-3! are given the following table. Second or catch crops are taken account of in the yield figures, the total yield including crops obtained from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. The areas, however, do not include second crops, and average yields cannot therefore be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area shown.

Areas.

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1921-2251,35614,9876,2316,7136,9103,030
1922-2334,85013,43110,3656,42313,4915,526
1923-2443,48711,6199,2794,7495,5434,101
1924-2566,76412,2584,4591,96910,4003,188
1925-2645,1549,7456,9022,6796,579.5,358
1926-2742,0829,8209,6349,3078,5404,029
1927-2823,54511,49310,0218,9487,8872,294
1928-2926,34311,2559,5065,7029,7503,338
1929-3030,05511,7299,8083,4044,7033,710
1930-3147,94214,00110,5933,3123,3233,339

Yields

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover and Cow-grass.white Clover.

* Of 20 lb.

 Bushels.*lb.lb.lb.lb.Ib.
1921-22952,9332,713,6481,650,3271,442,7881,518,824362,812
1922-23681,7091,971,1352,334,3861,259,0132,570,650870,087
1923-24725,9591,428,7591,499,177753,8361,213,835581,076
1924-251,517,5541,852,7541,198,111398,4322,015,480490,073
1925-261,041,7161,381,6071,574,502409,5981,517,763954,082
1926-27904,1561,858,0822,177,1251,482,2141,935,328671,828
1927-28523,4121,992,3772,084,6012,110,4882,041,413399,298
1928-29564,5112,048,8322,723,1241,270,7851,930,088566,395
1929-30641,3162,009,9702,416,381828,9281,040,022604,874
1930-31987,4662,666,2802,337,070575,664647,949574,224

PASTURE GRASSES.

Grass is by far the most important crop to the farmer, the soils, the climate, and other natural conditions obtaining in the Dominion being very favourable for the growth of grass. Wherever there is light and moisture English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off, and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are very few places where there is not some growth even in the coldest months of the year, enabling cattle to be kept all the year round in the open.

At the beginning of the year 1931 there were 17,254,485 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 532,272 acres cut for seed, hay, or ensilage during the preceding season), and in addition 14,124,030 acres still remained in tussock or other native grasses, making a total of 31,378,515 acres of grassland in occupation. The gradual increase in the area under sown passes and the decline in tussock and native grasses is clearly shown in the following table.

YearArtificially Sown Pasture GrassesTussock and other Native GrassesTotal Area under Grass
Cut for Seed, Hay, or EnsilageNot Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage
 Acres Acres.Acres.Acres.
1921-22278,51716,112,59814,609,60331,00,718
1922-23262,28516,258,65114,739,38231,260,318
1923-24270,04246,447,57014,806,23731,523,849
1924-25332,80316,450,62514,470,99031,254,418
1925-26304,32616,615,96014,298,61831,218,904
1926-27376,15416,680,34814,197,85331,254,355
1927-28345,92216,871,53014,091,71731,309,169
1928-29419,12416,855,51214,311,63031,406,266
1929-30479,44316,872,94814,182,15231,534,533
1930-31532,27216,722,21314,124,03031,378,515

During the year 1930-31, 129,532 acres of land which had not previously been cultivated was sown down in new pasture, as against 161,458 acres in 1929-30

PHORMIUM.

Large areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium, or New Zealand flax, the fibre of which id largely used for rope -making,& c. Of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion, 91,219 acres were returned as in phormium in 1930-31. the figure for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

YearArea
1921-2243,896
1922-2339,456
1923-2443,180
1924-2554,814
1925-2657,780
1926-2769,420
1927-2866,492
1928-2962,704
1929-3068,260
1930-3191,219

Seventy per cent, of the area in phormium in 1930-31 was in the North Auckland, Auckland, Wellington, and West-land Land Districts, the individual figures being 13,843 acres, 24,638 acres, 13,003 acres, and 12,519 acres respectively.

At the census of factory production for the year 1930-31 there were 22 flax-mills in operation, employing 177 hands, the total value of the output being £47,722. Flax used by the mills totalled 18,751 tons, resulting in 2,015 tons of dressed fibre and 466 tons of tow. The total area of flax cut by the above mills was 1,062 acres, and 5,627 acres attached to the mills were not cut or not ready for cutting during the year.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.

In 1930-31 there were 6,684 acres in market gardens. Nurseries and seed-gardens occupied 1,004 acres, while 70,208 acres were in private gardens, grounds, &c. The area in plantations (not virgin bush) was 341,591 acres, made up of 321,074 acres of conifers and 20,517 acres of eucalyptus and other broad-leaved trees.

The figures for the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Market Gardens.Nurseries,&Private Gardens,&Plantations.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1921-224,26239557,92752,462
1922-233,99638860,86857,500
1923-244,26441861,64866,056
1924-254,51648263,20671,218
1925-264,59950564,87288,656
1926-275,10246464,783160,188
1927-285,65548968,566232,083
1928-295,85558273,263293,911
1929-305,87165774,434289,020
1930-316,6841,00470,208341,591

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY

A great impetus to the planting of fruit-trees was given by the discovery some years ago that tracts of land, principally in the Nelson Land District, which formerly bore nothing but stunted manuka and were looked on as being practically useless, were eminently suited for growing fruit, particularly apples. For a time, considerable areas of this and other land were annually added to the Dominion's orchard area, but in the last few years planting has diminished to comparatively small proportions.

The position is fairly well indicated by the following table, which shows the area outside borough boundaries which has been returned as under fruit-trees at each of the last ton annual enumerations:-

 Acres.
1921-2231,121
1922-2330,843
1923-2429,089
1924-2527,525
1925-2627,068
1926-2725,377
1927-2824,987
1928-2924,538
1929-3024,861
1930-3128,134

Unfortunately, the area shown cannot be relied upon as being altogether accurate; and, though the position is improving in this respect, it would seem that the area (which as stated above is not inclusive of orchards within borough boundaries) is still to a certain extent overstated.

A good market exists locally for choice, clean fruit, but growers are mainly concerned with the export market, which offers more attractive prices for their produce. The export trade in apples and pears has been encouraged by the State, which guarantees to the grower of approved varieties and classes of apples and pears packed in compliance with its requirements a gross market price of list. Per case for “extra fancy” and “fancy” grades, and 7s. for “good” grade on all cases of such apples and pears exported. Claims on the guarantee in the 1931-32 season amounted to £19,171 owing to a serious drop in prices on the Continent. In 1931 the value of apples exported aggregated £641,055, of which exports to the United Kingdom represented £528,854. Pears exported aggregated £28,090 in value, the United Kingdom likewise receiving the bulk of the fruit. The rapid progress of the export trade can bow gauged by comparing the foregoing figures with those for 1927, in which year exports of apples and pears amounted to £204,446 and £8,450 respectively.

For the purpose of the proper control of the fruit industry the Fruit Control Act was passed in the session of 1924. Part I of the Act provides for a Dominion Fruit-export Control Board, to have power of control of all fruit intended for export.

Polls taken in December, 1924, resulted in the provisions of Part I being carried by a majority of 151 votes, Octagon Provincial District being, however, excluded from the operation of the control on account of a petition to that effect having been signed by 70 per cent, of the producers in that district.

The Department of Agriculture assists orchardists by supplying information on fruit growing generally, and as to the most up-to-date methods to adopt for the control of diseases and insect pests, pruning, &c. Practical demonstrations of pruning, spraying, and the grading and packing of fruit are given regularly by the Orchard Instructors attached to the Department-.

Extensive experiments have been carried out in the growing of tomatoes and the control of diseases affecting them, many thousands of pounds having been lost through failure of the tomato crops grown under glass during the last few years. The results of these experiments have proved of great value, and have enabled growers to adopt successful methods for the production of large and profitable crops. There are approximately 900 glasshouses in the Dominion used for the production of tomatoes, table grapes, &c. The area returned as being planted in tomatoes in 1929-30 on holdings situated outside borough boundaries was 426 acres.

The total acreage in vineyards outside of borough boundaries is 294 acres. The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay. The greater portion of the crop is used for wine-making, but considerable quantities of outdoor-grown grapes are sold for table use.

Since 1913 the State has had authority to borrow money for the purpose of making advances for the establishment of cold stores for fruit and of fruit-canning works, and otherwise for the assistance of the fruit growing industry.

The Orchard-tax Act, 1927, continuing legislation dating from 1916, provides for the levying in each year of a tax of 5s. per acre on commercial orchards, the proceeds to bow paid over to the New Zealand Fruit growers' Federation and to be expended in aid of the fruit growing industry, and for additional tax in the case of orchardists in commercial fruit growing districts for the purpose of combating firelight. No tax is payable in respect of any orchard with less than 120 fruit trees.

Registration of commercial orchards as at March, 1932, numbered 0,264, 2,954 being taxable and 3,310 non-taxable. The total orchard tax collected for the year 1931-32 amounted to £1,587.

TOBACCO.

Although the cultivation of tobacco leaf was initiated only a few years ago, the industry has made marked progress. Certain districts appear to be well suited to the growth of good quality leaf, and growers are becoming increasingly familiar with the methods and plant required for the production of cured leaf acceptable to manufacturers. Practically the whole of the leaf produced is now used locally in accordance with contracts arranged between manufacturers and growers.

Figures collected from occupiers throughout the Dominion of holdings of 1 acre or more situated outside boroughs show the following areas planted in tobacco in the years specified:—

 Acres.
1926-27224
1927-28690
1928-291,000
1929-301,073
1930-31932

Practically the whole of the tobacco crop is produced in Waimea County, and it would appear that the average area cropped by individual growers is in the vicinity of 3 acres.

TOP-DRESSING.

Farmers have come to realize that the production and maintenance of ample feed for stock depends to a large extent on the judicial application of artificial fertilizers to their pastures. This system of “grass-farming” by means of top-dressing is the logical method of achieving the greatest efficiency in farm-management, and is now largely followed by progressive farmers.

Top-dressing operations during the twelve months ended 31st January, 1931, covered a total area of 2,871,310 acres, as shown in the following table, an increase of 220,508 aorta over the area returned as top-dressed during the preceding twelve months:—

Nature of Top-dressing.North Island.South Island.Dominion.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Artificial fertilizers2,093,775338,6032,432,438
Lime307,334131,;>44438,878
Totals2,401,109470,2072,871,310

SUBSECTION C.—PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK

THE numbers of livestock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations available are as shown in the following table. With the exception of the figures for sheep as disclosed by the special annual collection of sheep returns as at the 30th April, the figures relate to the 31st January.

 1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.

* Not available

Horses303,713307,160298,986297,195295,743
Asses and mules222250193218*
Dairy cows1,303,2251,352,3981,371,0631,441,4101,601,633
Cattle (including dairy cows)3,257,7293,273,7693,445,7903,770,2234,080,525
Sheep shorn during season23,441,80823,958,57725,295,56026,999,41027,574,289
Lambs tailed during season12,009,68113,178,97213,855,95814,887,59914,528,309
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April25,649,01027,133,81029,051,38230,841,28729,792,516
Pigs Goats-520,143586,898556,732457,793476,194
Angora5,8165,8968,5909,514*
Other20,28318,35525,63629,613*

Sheep at 30th April, 1932, numbered 28,691,788. Other live -stock figures for the 1931 -32 season are not ready for inclusion! in this section, but will be found at the end of this volume in Appendix (a), giving the latest statistical information.

The following table gives the number of the principal kinds of live -stock in Australia and New Zealand for the year 1930 -31:—

State.As atSheep.Cattle.Horses.Pigs.

*Sheep, 30th April, 1931 other, 31st January, 1931.

Now South Wales Victoria30 June, 193153,366,0002,840,473524,512337,331
Victoria31 Dec., 193016,477,9951,429,920379,872281,245
Queensland31 Dec., 193022,542,0435,463,724480,970217,528
South Australia31 Dec., 19305,980,959218,985183,52982,991
Western Australia31 Dec., 19309,882,761812,844156,973100,664
Tasmania31 Dec., 19302,119,606230,25432,70054,556
Northern Territory31 Dec., 193015,838720,47033,363327
Federal Capital Territory30 June, 1931183,0774,24081537
Totals for Commonwealth 110,568,27911,720,9161,792,7341,071,679
New Zealand*29,792,5164,080,525295,743476,194

SHEEP.

The Dominion is eminently suited for sheep-breeding, practically every description of sheep finding a favourable local habitat. In the hilly and down country of the South Island the Merino has been bred for very many years, and was the original sheep depastured. In fact, the Merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock which has made Canterbury mutton famous on British meatmarkets. In the early days of the Canterbury meat trade the English Leicester of the original typo was the favourite ram for putting to the Merino ewe. Of later years the Lincoln has been largely employed to cross with the Merino, and black-faced rams have been further employed to put to the crossbred ewes. Systematic inbreeding of Merino longwool half-bred sheep produced the now world-known Corriedale breed. In the North Island the Romney sheep, which suits the rather moist climate of this portion of the Dominion, has become the most popular sheep; it is also increasing in numbers in the South Island. The Lincoln and the Border Leicester are also favoured in both Islands, while the Southdown is taking the lead for fat-lamb production throughout the Dominion.

The total number of sheep in the Dominion in 1932 shows a decrease of 1,100,728 compared with the figure for the previous year.

Year.North IslandSouth Island.Total.
192312,809,66310,271,77623,081,439
192413,478,71710,297,05923,775,770
192513,719,54110,828,41424,547,955
192613,830,25011,074,74324,904,993
192713,957,82011,691,19025,649,016
192814,482,10512,651,70527,133,810
192915,588,44413,462,93829,051,382
193016,535,91314,305,37430,841,287
193115,886,87613,905,04029,792,516
193214,946,98713,744,80128,091,788

In the foregoing table the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. In dealing with land districts, however, they are included with Wellington.

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding-owes, dry ewes, and lambs in the Dominion for the last five years:—

Year.Rams.Wethers.Breeding-ewes.Dry Ewes.Lambs.Totals.
Stud Sheep (entered in Flock-book).
192812,151..205,7207,347145,969371,187
192912,794..219,8027,203156,526396,325
193014,248..244,4807,884174,862441,474
193115,001..238,2818,081169,879431,242
193217,109..232,0067,855164,750164,750
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but not entered in Flock-book.
1928384,2001,042,1573,812,550212,5341,914,8841,914,884
1929409,5371,039,9433,886,345220,3321,925,6347,481,791
1930434,3091,051,2803,987,758261,9842,004,4297,739,826
1931-147,0081,250,6004,538,476370,7341,907,1458,513,963
1932451,8821,172,9734,783,296383,0932,012,4008,803,710
Crossbred and other Sheep., not otherwise enumerated.
1928 1,982,49011,515,781649,2461 5,248,78119,396,298
1929 2,249,19212,502,008655,1635,766,90321,173,266
1930 2,316,63013,331,937807,8046,203,61622,659,987
1931 2,178,94112,831,972831,8995,004,49920,847,311
1932 1,557,85312,047,758877,2304,983,45719,466,298
Totals.
1928390,3513,024,64715,534,051869,1277,309,63427,133,810
1929422,3313,289,13516,608,155882,6987,849,06329,051,382
1930448,6173,367,91617,564,1751,077,6728,382,90730,841,287
1931462,0093,429,54117,608,7291,210,7147,081,52329,792,516
1932409,0512,730,82017,063,0601,268,1787,160,67328,691,788

The average size of the flocks was 1,040 in 1928, 1,088 in 1929, 1,027 in 1930, 908 in 1931, and 942 in 1932. A classification according to size shows the following position:—

Size of Flocks.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
1 - 2005,8095,5517,1008,0608,624
201 - 5008,6246,3647,1847,3786,937
500 - 10005,9576,3136,7646,6926,652
1,001 - 2,5005,4155,9756,3186,1575,837
2,501 - 5,0001,6061,7241,8601,7591,669
5,001 - 10,000573613615571563
10,001 - 20,000139140151146143
20,001 and over2626302624
Total flocks25,98226,71230,02230,78930,789

The numbers of the different classes composing the flocks in April, 1932, were as follows:—

Breed of Sheep.Stud Sheep entered in Flock-bock.Sheep of a Distinctive Breed, not entered In Flock-book.Total.
Merino26,5241.170,7881,203,312
Lincoln7,86151,72059,587
Romney184,8523,915,5074,100,359
Border Leicester26,72653,81480,540
English Leicester26,65954,66781,3203
Shropshire3,55027,59031,140
Southdown95,043151,649246,692
Corriedale42,6701,241,3731,284,043
Ryeland4,1113,6537,764
Half-bred3,5782,123,3882,126,966 3,761
Other breeds2063,5553,761
Totals421,7808,803,7109,225,490
Flock sheep-Crossbreds and others not otherwise enumerated....19,466,298
Grand total....28,691,788

SHEEP FLOCKS OF THE WORLD

The latest figures obtainable showing the number of sheep in the principal countries for which information is available are given here under:—

Country.Number of SheepCountry.Number of Sheep

* Including goats.

Australia 110,568,279Bolivia 5,552,074
Russia (U.S.S.R.) 89,860,000Irak* 5,055,000
United States 53,912,000Abyssinia 4,000,000
South African Union 45,011,940Italian Colonies 3,800,000
Argentina 44,413,221Portugal 3,721,000
India (whole) 37,948,000Canada 3,608,321
China 35,000,000Germany 3,501,000
New Zealand 28,691,788Arabia 3,500,000
Uruguay 20,558,124Irish Free State 3,401,000
Spain 19,370,000Kenya 3,228,000
England and Wales 17,745,400Tunis 2,970,000
Persia 15,000,000Mexico 2,697,688
Rumania 11,920,502Syria and Lebanon 2,682,000
Peru 11,209,000Poland 2,594,000
Turkey 10,639,000Somaliland Protectorate 2,500,000
Brazil 10,500,000Basutoland 2,400,000
France 10,153,000Nigeria 2,376,000
Italy 9,890,038Tanganyika 2,202,000
Bulgaria 8,740,000Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 2,200,000
Yugoslavia 8,425,034Norway 1,692,400
French Morocco 7,970,000South West Africa 1,601,000
Scotland 7,697,100Hungary 1,440,409
French West Africa 7,000,000Dutch East Indies 1,408,000
Algeria 7,108,000Albania 1,380,000
Greece 6,799,100Finland 1,310,000
Chile 6,263,482Egypt 1,129,000

PRODUCTION OF WOOL

With the exception of some 6,000,000 or 7,000,0001b., the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported. From figures of exports, consumption by local mills, and stocks at the end of the season, it is possible to estimate the total production of wool with a fair degree of accuracy.

In the following computation of total production, scoured, washed, and slipe wool has been converted to a greasy basis on the assumption of an average loss of 33 1/3 per cent. in weight, while wool on skins has been taken at an average of 4 lb. per skin.

Year ended 30th June,
1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
Million lb.
Exports of wool250.3252.2207.2244.3248.1
Exports of wool on skins5.54.74.86.46.8
Acquired by New Zealand mills6.96.66.16.27.0
Variation in stocks262.7-0-5263.5+8.5218.1+54.8256.9+14.2261.9+20.9
Estimated production262.2272.0272.9271.1282.8

STOCKS OF WOOL.

Statistics relating to stocks of wool bold in the Dominion on 30th June are compiled from returns obtained from woolbrokers, woollen-mills, freezing-works, wool-scouring works, shipping companies, Harbour Board stores, farmers, and the New Zealand Railways Department. A little wool held by farmers is probably omitted, but the statistics are complete enough for practical purposes.

Comparative figures since the first complete official collection in 1927 are—

Year.lb.Year.lb.
192710,814,508193075,396,636
192816,368,173193188,146,717
192923,379,8411932107,129,300

The various interests at 30th June, 1932, hold quantities as under (data relate to possession and not to beneficial ownership): Wool brokers (holding permits), 40,229,0741b; farmers, 34,508,462 lb; woollen mills, 6,189,616 1b.; freezing works, 8,921,188 1b.; woolscouring works, 3,514,763 1b.; shipping companies, 12,937,345 lb; railway and Harbour Board stores, 828,858 lb

The above figures represent actual weights of the various classes (greasy, scoured, sliped, &c.) comprised in the totals without conversion to a greasy basis.

The wool returned by the classes of holders mentioned was classified as follows:—

Greasy.Scoured.Washed.Sliped.Crutchings, &c.Wool on Skins.Totals.

* including 2,319,800 lb, unclassified breed or class

 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
Merino2,043,453373,76028012,125156,53535,1402,621,293
Half-bred5,641,9171,129,15794,7161,790,179794,356166,9929,617,317
Corriedale877,03558,968  89,58713,5961,039,186
other (including cross breed)-       
Sheep63,219,9912,350,144524,7933,748,2345,625,7781,474,56276,943,502
Lambs2,700,259294,0061,006,4067,574,169337,530104,21012,076,580
Unspecified77,350207,90068,0442,008,654147,8561,8244,831,428*
Totals74,560,0054,413,9351,754,23015,133,3617,151,6421,796,394107,129,306*

The quantity of wool shown above represents approximately 118,000,0001b. in the grease as compared with 97,000,000 lb. at 30th June, 1931.

CATTLE.

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in the Dominion by herds bred on sound lines, though the development of the beef breeds in later years has received a check partly owing to the advance taking piece vu dairying operations and partly through the difficulties of competing with other -ountries in the British market. There are still very many fine Shorthorn herds of the beef type, while Hereford and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are also largely bred. There are herd-books for each of these breeds.

The breeding of dairy cattle has made great progress in recent years. Herd-book societies are established for the Jersey, Friesian, Ayrshire, Milking Shorthorn, and Red Poll breeds. The various societies have heartily cooperated in a scheme for establishing registers of merit in connection with the certificate-of-record testing of purebred dairy cuttle, thus giving a great fillip to tin breeding of purebred dairy stock. The dairy-farmer is encouraged to use purebred bulls and thereby to assist materially in raising the standard of the dairy stock of the country. He is now coming to appreciate the value of herd-testing work, and thus, knowing the really profitable cows in his herd, will be anxious to secure a bull which will enable them to perpetuate their good qualities.

The total number of cattle in the Dominion at the enumeration of 1031 was 4,080,525, as against 3,770,223 in 1930. The figures for the two years, according to the classification in use, are as follows:—

Bulls two years old and over, for breeding purposes—1930.1931.
For beef purposes14,58217,615
For dairy purposes50,79150,693
Cows and heifers two years and over, for dairying—
In milk1,389,5411,499,532
Dry51,869102,101
Cows and heifers two years old and over, other than for dairying527,714551,928
Heifers one and under two years old Intended for dairying450,939346,156
Heifers one and under two years old Intended for dairying450,939450,939
Other450,939151,217
Steers two years old and over323,333361,044
Steers and bulls one and under two years old177,000216,555
Calves under one year old—
Heifers Intended for dairying Other550,036370,697
Heifers Intended for dairying Other550,036165,378
Bulls and steers234,418247,096
Totals3,770,2234,080,525

By far the greater proportion of the total cattle in the Dominion is found in the North Island, the figures being 3,398,832 in the North Island and 081,093 in the South Island. The proportion of dairy cows in the North Island works out at 39 per cent., while the South Island figure is slightly greater, being 40 per cent.

Considerably more than half of the total cattle in Taranaki Land District, and almost half of those in Auckland Land District, are cows and heifers over two years old used or intended for dairying purposes. Auckland Land District has the greatest number of dairy cows, followed by North Auckland, Taranaki, and Wellington. The order of the principal land districts for cattle other than dairy cows is: Wellington, Auckland, North Auckland, and Gisborne.

Although the Auckland Land District has the greatest number of dairy cows, in point of density Taranaki takes first position with 140 to every 1,000 acres, Auckland coming next with 113, and North Auckland third with 93

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

In connection with the enumeration of live-stock, information is collected thrice in each decade as to breeds of cattle, horses, and pigs, in addition to the usual details of age, sex, &c. A summary of the results of the 1928 enumeration as regards cattle is given in the table following.

BREEDS OF CATTLE.
Breed.Total Cattle.
Purebred— 
Jersey39,379
Guernsey35
Alderney35
Friesian10,670
Ayrshire4,905
Red Poll831
Shorthorn (including Milking Shorthorn)6,829
Hereford4,210
Polled Angus4,269
Devon116
Crossbred with predominating strain of—
Jersey and other Channel Island breeds1,236,289
Friesian231,022
Ayrshire48,192
Milking Shorthorn440,585
Red Poll6,909
Other dairy breeds (including unspecified)1,286
Shorthorn417,493
Hereford426,241
Polled Angus351,118
Devon2,121
Other beef breeds (including unspecified)6,164
Total, purebred71,279
Total, crossbred3,167,420
Dominion totals3,238,69

THE WORLDS CATTLE.

The latest available information showing the number of cattle in the main countries of the world is as follows:—

Country.Number of Cattle.Country.Number of Cattle.
India (whole)149,438,000Sweden3,060,000
United States89,407,000Nigeria2,973,000
Russia (U.S.S.R.)52,582,000Paraguay2,973,000
Brazil34,271,324Rhodesia2,408,000
Argentina32,211,835Chile2,387,940
Germany18,431,000Netherlands2,300,000
France15,408,000Austria2,312,531
Australia11,720,910French Morocco2,092,000
South African Union10,517,999Venezuela2,077,084
Poland9,782,000Uganda Protectorate1,985,000
Canada7,990,875Finland1,903,000
Colombia7,343,000Bolivia1,855,000
Uruguay7,127,912Bulgaria1.817,437
Madagascar7,048,000Hungary1,807,429
Italy0,892,722Peru1,806,000
England and Wales0,004,300Belgium1,707,530
Mexico5,584,892Korea1,612,000
Kenya5,193,000Switzerland1,609,073
Tanganyika5,170,000Manchuria1,605,000
Cuba4,805,000Japan1,498,000
Turkey4,802,000Angola1,423,000
Siam4,584,000Norway1,309,656
Dutch East Indies4,473,000Anglo-Egyptian Sudan1,300,000
Czechoslovakia4,443,043Ecuador1,280,000
New Zealand4,072,383Scotland1,208,500
Irish Free State4,013,000Philippine Islands1,146,000
Yugoslavia3,871,550Lithuania1,119,980
Rumania3,834,133Latvia1,110,900
Spain3,050,000Italian Somaliland1,113,000
Denmark3,197,000Ceylon1,100,000

DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The Dairy Industry Act, 1908 (a consolidation of previous legislation), with its amendments of 1915, 1922, 1924, and 1920, provides for the appointment of inspectors of dairy stock and factories or other places used for the manufacture of dairy-produce, and power is given to condemn or forbid their use, if necessary. The sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited, and provision is made for the inspection, grading, and shipping of all dairy-produce exported. Butter containing less than 80 per cent, of butterfat or more than 16 per cent, of water must not be exported. A national brand is provided for by regulations gazetted in August, 1920. This brand is to be placed on every package forwarded for export and containing creamery butter or factory cheese grading 90 points or over.

Provision is made for the framing of regulations for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture or sale of the produce, the registration of trade-marks or brands, and for inspection and grading. A fine not exceeding £50 may be inflicted for any offence under this part of the Act.

Milk or cream purchased for the manufacture of dairy-produce and paid for according to the percentage of butterfat it contains must have this percentage determined by the Babcock, Gerber, or other prescribed test. A certified statement of overrun must be furnished to each supplier, and provision is made for an independent investigation by the Audit Department where a supplier is dissatisfied with the statement received.

The Act also provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies, and shareholders are protected in the event of certain contingencies. A dairy company must not include in its registered name the word “co-operative,” unless it is entitled to be registered as a co-operative dairy company under the Act.

The following table shows the number of factories registered under the Dairy Industry Act as at 31st March, 1932, together with the amount of butter and cheese forwarded for export during the preceding twelve months, and the number of suppliers to such factories:—

District.Number of Factories.Forwarded for Export, 1931-32.Number of Suppliers
Butter.Cheese.Dual PlantButterCheeseButter.Cheese and Dual Plant
    Tons.Tons.  
Auckland0330408,02014,88022,1861,470
Hawke's Bay91714,4403,5504,318741
Taranaki19073011,79736,0003,0293,928
Wellington1947911,13211,0736,2201,704
Nelson5311,4144501,071724
Marlborough332725804764200
Westland101 430276408
Canterbury111321,5291,4126,918494
Otago and Southland107011,47714,3716,2633.264
Totals, 1931 -3214920350100,97083,29951,40712,539
Totals, 1930 -311472705995,35890 90046,90613,839

From a survey in 1930-31, covering some 1,054 farms, the average per-acre production of butterfat was ascertained as 80 lb.

The estimated* yield per cow measured in terms of butter fat production has been—

 lb. lb. lb.
1901-2127.201911-12140.101921-22 .174.97
1902-3123.481912-13150.781922-23180.62
1903-4130.341913-14156.521923-24174.10
1904-5127.831914-15154.071924-25182.09
1905-6124.741915-16160.521925-20179.40
1906-7124.791916-17103.961926-27198.50
1907-8127.661917-18152.231927-28195.38
1908-9139.251918-19150.641928-29210.84
1909-10148.451919-20152.041929-30218.05
1910-11139.461920-21154.251930-31201.04

Statistics are compiled monthly showing by district of production the quantities of butter and cheese loaded out from grading-store for export. The districts adopted are the land districts, which in some cases have been further subdivided. A list of the counties included in the various production districts was given in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for March, 1927. The butter or cheese is in every case assumed to be the product of the district in which the factory at which it was manufactured is situated. Exports for the various production districts for the twelve months ended 31st July, 1932, are given in the table following, 40 boxes of butter or 14 crates of cheese being equivalent to 1 ton.

*Department of Agriculture.

It should be noted that the figures refer to butter and cheese exported, and do not include quantities graded and subsequently used for local consumption.

DistrictButterCheese
Land District of North AucklandBoxes.Crates.
Northern portion087,405..
Southern portion354,00513,225
Land District of Auckland -  
Western portion1,200,900162,499
Eastern portion350,30027,164
Land District of Gisborne -  
Opotiki County50,354762
Remainder of land district88,9031,156
Land District of Hawke's Bay109,49149,050
Land District of Taranaki355,083509,735
North -western portion153,7078,827
South -western portion291,52153,870
Eastern portion09,504109,918
Land District of Nelson05,5150,432
Land Districts of Marlborough28,90412,089
Land District of Westland16,789617
Land District of Canterbury -  
Northern portion48,29310,207
Southern portion13,7099,594
Land District of Otago33,13730,532
Land District of Southland24,253172,589
Totals, Dominion3,955,2791,184,272

Returns of factory production showed that during the 1930-31 factory year 2,300,842 cwt. of butter was produced by butter-factories in the Dominion. In addition to this, 35,213 cwt. of whey butter was manufactured. For the twelve mouths ended 31st January, 1930 since when the collection of this data has been discontinued”, 52,158 cwt. of butter was produced on holdings of 1 acre and over.

Returns from cheese-factories give the quantity manufactured during 1930-31 as 1,857,852 cwt.

The total export of butter and cheese in the last ten years, and the total quantity of each commodity sent to the United Kingdom, are tabulated below. The butter export figures for 1931 constitute a record, but the figures for cheese show a recession on the record set up in the previous year.

Calendar Year.Total Export of I Hitter.Butter exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
19221,120,2001,081,5121,161,1961,160,285
19231,250,1401,119,3551,441,4601,428,762
19241,269,4551,174,8941,594,4861,585,635
19251,245,3241,186,9651,376,7541,371,986
19261,168,0401,062,2781,461,5481,450,637
19271,455,5391,188,6641,492,7921,478,870
19281,449,5701,158,2341,567,2721,551,523
19291,053,8071,276,8411,779,0931,770,150
19301,884,2371.553,7251,812,9811,809,348
19311,988,5001.962,3201,636,3471,635,233

On a value basis, butter exports greatly exceed those of cheese, the figures for 1931 being £10,049,527 for butter and £4,401,293 for cheese.

Dairy -produce Extort Control.

Under the Dairy -produce Export Control Act, 1923, there has been established a Board consisting of two Government nominees, nine representatives of suppliers to dairy factories, and one -person representing exporters and manufacturers of dairy-produce. Broadly defined, the duties of the Board are to control the export of butter and cheese in the interests of the producers, and to aid in the marketing of dairy-produce outside of New Zealand. The London agency, under a manager in charge, is required to keep the Board informed as to current prices and other matters relating to the disposal of the New Zealand dairy-produce in England. The funds of the Board are derived from levies on butter and cheese exported, the present levies being d. per lb. on butter and “A, d. on cheese. The gross amount collected through the Customs Department in respect of these levies during the year ended 31st July, 1932, was £41,091.

The Board inspects the conditions of loading and discharging of dairy-produce; regulates quantities to be shipped each month; arranges contracts in regard to freight, marine insurance, cold storage and landing conditions; and conducts a continuous advertising campaign in England. The results have been shown in a steady reduction in freight and insurance rates.

Freight rates-Butter
1923-244s. 6d. per box
1931-323s. 4 Sd. per box
Marine insurance rates- 
1923-2410s. percent.
1931-326s. 4d. per cent.

The following table of monthly arrivals in Great Britain will give an indication of the trend during recent years, the aim being to keep New Zealand butter and cheese on the British market all the year round:—

Month.1925-26.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Butter (Boxes).
August50,854136,293124,232102,02295,082232,895193,849
September40,10551,02288,47064,60274,385147,357212,458
October6,679127,20674,170137,35658,014133,129160,593
November182,715110,744222,073225,188209,103299,486253,486
December200,051209,968243,435191,777274,928345,128600,660
January526,568287,012384,584379,962343,935477,783413,310
February179,108169,004391,401287,703292,603340,868426,653
March137,710328,470361,079483,140267,425382,839404,309
April240,138226,674147,059220,260429,405412,303360,939
May252,305195,308179,729246,447255,699313,285397,399
June105,270273,786150,334132,144131,005212,270232,791
July119,736175,074120,880127,336157,324304,493233,382
Totals2,041,2992,351,4612,488,1362,597,9372,588,9083,601,8363,889,835
Cheese (Crates).
August45,16782,31956,49274,17370,526102,54437,390
September7,30020,30959,19614,86939,97770,19244,267
October4,71127,727..7,23021,70616,67447,652
November6259,27061,28266,44846,29464,90830,296
December92,52859,87069,07181,99899,184133,283135,898
January208,900150,546123,850159,315159,562178,977136,516
February68,53092,579153,174176,931126,406105,693148,800
March70,494143,263162,183148,258134,635156,865130,813
April120,420140,49378,487108,941147,286174,355107,280
May136,88372,880139,010124,243113,679136,780156,859
June59,486145,915103,55695,67588,97864,31595,316
July127,56792,83452,18188,70690,42087,80983,699
Totals948,6711,047,0051,058,4821,146,7871,144,6531,292,3951,154,786

The Board has spent the sum of £110,000 on advertising spread over six years, and results have been shown in a greatly increased demand for New Zealand dairy-produce, more especially in the North of England. This part of England is the main market for Danish butter

Generally, the Board works in close co-operation with the Dairy Division of the Department of Agriculture in assisting to maintain and improve the quality of dairy-produce.

The Board has power to exercise either limited or absolute control over the export of dairy-produce. Absolute control was instituted from midnight on 3; it August, 1926, but limited control was reverted to as from midnight on 30th September, 1927.

World Production of Dairy-produce.

The following table shows the production of butter and cheese in the principal dairying countries:—

Country.Year.Butter.Cheese
QuantityPlace on listQuantityPlace on list
  1,000 lb. 1,000 lb. 
Argentina T.193074,0051333,71813
Australia T.1930300,473530,12514
Canada T.1930270,0886119,5887
Chile F.19305,517197,72718
Czechoslovakia T.193022,0461617,63715
Denmark T.1929394,023358,42210
England T.1924147,0001164,8009
Finland T.1930352,7364390,8283
France F.192840,819149,85410
Germany F.1930152,4091053,43711
Irish Free State T.1930161,100910019
Netherlands T.1930192,3328297,1914
New Zealand T.1930228,5227199,6115
Norway F.19307,7141833,74012
Russian Soviet Union T.1927786,85421,885,3071
Sweden T.1929105,5671265,2838
Switzerland F.193035,27415124,3390
Union of South Africa F.193018,448178,49417
United States T.19302,164,8261512,3192

Note.-The letter “T” denotes total production, while the letter “F” denotes production of creameries and factories only.

The following table, taken from the July, 1932, issue of the International Review of Agriculture, shows the quantities of butter and cheese exported from the principal countries engaged in the export trade during the last five calendar years:—

Country.1927.1028.1029.1030.1931.
Butter.
 1,0001b.1,0001b.1,0001b1,0001b.1,0001b.
Denmark315,725325,714350,620372,582378,429
New Zealand163,026162,353183,879209,881220,814
Australia75,341112,355102,917326,325208,924
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania50,08559,24008,87397,96492,348
Netherlands105,716103,488104,32592,37472,660
Russia73,06671,62657,84626,01568,024
Argentina46,81044,18336,81148,94351,167
Sweden40,09738,65854,98358,80443,162
Irish Free State65,64962,65602,83658,80442,307
Finland33,23729,48936,61037,69938,307
Poland16,26124,19433,24826,67627,470
Cheese.
 1,000 lb.1,000 lb.1,000 lb.1,000 lb.1,000 lb.
Netherlands214,568203,002211,237206,794190,460
New Zealand167,195175,537197,777201,944181,703
Italy70,07980,46772,41380,91089,032
Canada110,604114,15192,94567,02184,790
Switzerland75,05962,69569,73565,91854,307
Czechoslovakia8,4047,9217,0508,27410,981
Denmark11,64513,41714,51312,5669,381

CONSUMPTION AND EXPORT OF MEAT.

MUTTON AND LAMB

Figures showing sheep and lambs slaughtered for food purposes, together with the exports of frozen mutton and lamb, are given in the tables following.

The balance between killings and exports during the period represents an annual consumption of 78 lb. of mutton and lamb per head of population, including Maoris.

YEARSlaughterings.Exports (including Pieces) during Twelve Months ended 31st March.Balance for Home Consumption
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses during Twelve Months ended 31st March.On Farms during Twelve Months ended 31st January.TotalNumber.Approximate Weight.
Mutton.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
1926-273,257,386553,3433,810,7292,027,2161,783,513955,453
1927-283,180,354523,0953,703,4492,220,9721,482,477794,184
1928-292,980,066527,7053,507,7711,919,7941,587,977850,702
1929-303,420,282571,9433,992,2251,971,0302,021,1951,082,783
1930-313,563,952699,5844,263,5362,581,4771,682,059906,051
Totals for five years16,402,0402,875,67019,277,71010,720,4898,557,2214,589,173
Lamb.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
1926-275,494,41150,4395,544,8505,048,186496,664159,642
1927-285,932,43748,3415,980,7785,804,901175,87756,532
1928-296,149,48246,8656,197,3475,869,465327,882105,391
1929-306,594,63547,1326,651,7676,283,960376,807118,223
1930-318,902,795104,5758,197,5527,819,980377,572121,362
Totals for five years32,263,760308,53432,572,29430,826,4921,745,802561,150

Beef.

New Zealand mutton and lamb meet with a ready sale in the London market, but the Dominion's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that exports of frozen beef from the Dominion have declined in recent years.

The following table, which is exclusive of veal, shows the number and approximate weight of cattle slaughtered for food purposes in each of the last five years, together with the weight of beef exported. In the figures of slaughterings an average weight of 700 lb per carcass is taken, and the export figures include potted and preserved meats, the greater portion of which is beef.

YearSlaughterings.Exports during Twelve Months ended 31st March.Balance for Home Consumption "Approximate Weight”.
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses during Twelve Months ended 31st MarchOn Farms during Twelve months ended 31st January.Total.Approximate Weight.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
1926-27404,9858,070413,0552,581,594435,5482,146,046
1927-28462,6887,651470,3392,939,619641,0202,298,599
1928-29403,3305,598408,9282,555,800644,7921,911,008
1929-30362,9684,364367,3322,295,825413,9661,881,859
1930-31326,1368,635334,7712,092,319364,1191,728,200
Totals for five years1,960,10734,3181,994,42512,465,1572,499,4459,905,712

VEAL

The tendency in recent years has been for veal to assume a more important position in the meat trade. Although exports have increased appreciably, the principal increase is in the amount consumed locally. The extent of these increases is strikingly illustrated in the following table:—

Year.Slaughterings.Exports during Twelve Months ended 31st March.Balance for Home Consumption (Approximate Weight).
At Abattoirs and Slaughter-houses during Twelve Months ended 31st March.On Farms during Twelve months ended 31st January.Total.Approximate Weight.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.Cwt. Cwt. 
1926-27102,9583,132106,090113,66852,57061,098
1927-28163,2802,240165,520177,34335,598141,745
1928-29394,9872,077397,064425,42662,616362,810
1929-30440,3743,341443,715475,40965,448409,961
1930-31551,7627,444559,206599,14983,582515,567
Totals for 5 years1,653,36118,2341,671,5951,790,995299,8141,491,181

Meat-Export Control

The New Zealand Meat-producers Board was constituted under the provisions of the Meat-export Control Act, 1921-22. It consists of eight members-five representing the producers of meat for export, two representing the Government, and one representing the stock and station agents. Briefly, the objects of the Board are to control the export of meat in the interests of the producers.

The following table sets out the shipping freight rates when the Board was constituted in 1922, and the rates now current, together with the reductions obtained:—

Description.Rates when Board constituted in 1922.Rates obtained for a Three-years Contract commencing with 1930-31 Season.Reduction on 1922 Rates.
Per 1bPer Animal.Per Cent.
Per lb.Per lb.    
 Plus 21/2—Net—d.Based on— s. d. 
Mutton15/8d.0.929d.0.73660 lb. sheep = 3 8.1644.18
Lamb13/4d.1.089d.0.70435 lb. lamb = 2 0-6439.24
Veal15/8d.0.743d.0.922120 lb. calf = 9 2.6455.35
Pork15/8d.0.743d.0.922120 lb. pig =9 26455.35
Beef, quarters13/8d.0.743d.0.666720 lb. bullock=40 047.25
Boned beef, cases15/8d.0.743d.0.922500 lb. cow =38 555.35
Boned beef, bags13/4d.0.743d.1.050500 lb. cow =43 958.53
Frozen sundries, bags13/4d.0.637d.1.028..61.71
Frozen sundries, bags13/4d.0.637d.1.156..64.44
Mutton pieces, cases15/8d.0.956d.0.709..42.56
Mutton pieces, bags13/4d.0.956d.0.837..46.66

Since its inauguration the Board has performed a great deal of useful work. Probably one of its most important functions is to regulate shipments so as to keep a steady flow of meat going on to the British markets over the twelve months of the year, having due regard to the months of the highest consumption of each class of meat. The Board is enabled to carry out this work as it has the freight arrangements for the shipment of New Zealand meat in its hands under its statutory powers.

Another very important section of the Board's work comes under the heading of advertising. Along with the Dominion's increasing lamb-production, the Board is making every effort to expand our trade by advertising, and has spent large sums of money in the United Kingdom for this purpose.

Amongst other reductions in costs secured by the Board, special mention should be made of the reductions in cold-storage rates in London, secured in 1928.

Other important functions of the Board include supervision of grading, inspection of loading and unloading of vessels, trial shipments to new markets, scientific survey work, and grants to the Royal Agricultural Society and other bodies to encourage production of suitable export types of lambs, pigs, &c.

The following table shows shipments during each month of the season 1930-31 and the first ten months of the season 1931-32:—

Month of ShipmentSeason 1930-31.Season 1931-32.
Beef.Mutton.Lamb.Beef.Mutton.Lamb.
 Quarters.CarcassesCarcassesQuarters.CarcassesCarcasses
November7,302160,566112,23120,339111,472322,379
December8,430119,469352,6481,297101,211532,286
January8,683239,490855,4661,014184,679635,048
February7,004244,125886,5301,295317,5331,011,206
March19,915254,3341,271,6773,020355,486984,759
April8,740113,496540,3159,541330,4831,242,138
May18,175170,272996,60727,778323,312323,312
June4,107274,2031,188,92231,476231,273907,652
July7,575230,756602,46729,085224,673753,486
August8,703149,694513,53338,697358,329781,681
September22,570203,881303,857......
October18,006171,679200,804......

HORSES.

Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,284 was reached, horses have tended to decline numerically. The number recorded as at 31st January, 1931, was 295,743, and shows a recession of 1,452 from the 1930 figures.

Totals for the last five years are as follows:—

Year Horses on 31st January
1927303,713
1928307,100
1929298,980
1930297,195
1931295,743

The following numbers of horses were returned in 1931 in the classes specified:—

Draught and three-quarter draught133,044
Spring-cart, or light artillery "including half-draught”50,197
Hacks and light working horses95,207
Thoroughbred and other horses17,235
Total horses295,743

PIGS.

After earlier vicissitudes, pig-breeding showed signs of being in a more stable condition, as increases in the total number were recorded in each year from 1919 until 1928. A check then occurred, the figures gradually receding from 586,898 in 1928 to 476,194 in 1931.

The following table shows the classification by breeds as at the special collection conducted in 1928. The figures are exclusive of pigs within borough boundaries.

Breed.Pigs under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Totals.
Pure Berkshire 56,4415,77216,54578,758
Pure Yorkshire 5,5996422,3148,555
Other purebred 9,5201,4914,54515,556
Crossbred 410,3737,46259,000476,835
Totals481,93315,36782,404579,704

Figures (including pigs within borough boundaries) as for each of the years shown are given in the next table.

Year.Pigs under Six Months OldPigs Six Months and under one Year OldBoars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Unspecified.Total Pigs.
1927364,96213,80469,48725,409520,143
1928411,44315,50383,103..586,898
1929488,29215,26774,692..556,732
1930302,880110,48512,72261,706..487,793
1931291,737106,59212,88464,981..476,194

During the five years ended the 31st March, 1931, 2,265,007 pigs were slaughtered at abattoirs and registered slaughterhouses, and during the quinquennium to 31st January, 1931, 225,677 were slaughtered by farmers on holdings of 1 acre or over, the total slaughterings during the five years representing approximately 2,500,000 cwt. of pork, bacon, and ham, of which total 28 per cent, was exported. The balance of 72 per cent. was consumed in the Dominion, the average annual consumption per head of population being 27 lb. The figures for each year are—

YearPigs Slaughtered.Export of Frozen Pork and Bacon and Ham during Twelve Months ended 31st MarchBalance for Home Consumption.
At Abattoirs, &c.On FarmsTotal.Approximate Weight.
 NumberNumberNumberCwt.Cwt.Cwt.
1926-27402,72041,601444,321444,32195,320349,001
1927-28455,39742,836498,233498,233127,673370,560
1928-29470,49346,391516,884516,884165,163351,721
1929-30485,90743,669529,576529,576155,288374,288
1930-31450,49051,180501,670501,670150,024351,646
Totals for five years2,265,007225,6772,490,0842,490,684693,4681,797,216

POULTRY.

The number of poultry in New Zealand at the taking of the 1926 census was ascertained to be 3,781,145, a decrease of 209,864 as compared with the number for the year 1921 (3,991,009). The number of poultry per head of population was 2.8, which is the lowest figure since 1864.

The figures of poultry for each of the last five censuses are as follows:-

Census Year.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.Total.
19062,784,269281,99944,30077,1013,187,669
19113,215,031329,23045,38997,9333,687,583
19163,141,354220,80846,95556,5213,465,638
19213,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009
19263,308,384352,03043,87976,8523,781,145

In connection with the census of 1926, statistics were compiled as to the sizes of flocks of fowls, and the results are instructive as showing that, though poultry-farming as a definite branch of farming exists to some small extent, poultry-keeping is generally carried on merely as a side-line.

The average number of fowls per flock was only twenty-one. The total number of households keeping poultry of any kind was 158,856, of which no fewer than 68,133 were in cities and boroughs.

The Poultry Act, 1924, provides for the regulating of poultry-keeping and of the sale and export of poultry and eggs. Provision is made for the appointment of inspectors, on whom certain powers of entry for purposes of inspection of poultry or eggs intended for export are conferred. Poultry are required to be kept under sanitary conditions, and cruelty to poultry is made an offence. Every owner of poultry is required to notify an inspector of any outbreak of disease among his poultry and to comply with the inspector's directions. It is an offence to sell diseased poultry. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to declare diseases, to appoint ports of export, and to appoint grading-stores.

BEES.

The dairying-lands of the Dominion are eminently suited for the rearing of bees, and a very high-grade product is put on the market from local apiaries. The export trade is, of course, small when compared with the main primary industries, but is capable of considerable development. Honey from the apiaries of the Dominion is much appreciated wherever it is known.

In New Zealand the Department of Agriculture devotes proportionately the same attention to detail in the case of honey for export as is given to butter and cheese forwarded for consumption beyond the Dominion. Honey must be forwarded to grading-stores at Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Lyttelton, Greymouth, Timaru, Dunedin, and Bluff for grading prior to export, and may be exported only through those ports. The Apiaries Act, 1927, which came into operation on 1st January, 1928, was passed to consolidate and amend the law relating to the bee industry. Stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee-moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register their apiaries, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that in September, 1932, 6,461 apiaries, representing 103,529 colonies, were registered.

Exports of honey for the last five years were—

Year.Quantity. Ib.Value.£
1927850,01125,170
19282,329,13177,495
19292,365,88782,743
1930171,5366,216
1931584,73919,401

A system of control on much the same lines as in the case of meat and dairy-produce was introduced by the Honey-export Control Act, 1924. The function of the Board set up (after a poll of producers, who decided by a large majority in favour of the scheme) is to control all honey intended for export.

Chapter 18. SECTION XVIII.—FORESTRY.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE administration of the State forests and of the afforestation activities of New Zealand are controlled by the State Forest Service.

The legislation governing the State forests is contained in the Forests Act, 1921-22, and its amendments of 1925 and 1926, and in section 17 of the Finance Act, 1924. Section 5 of the Finance Act, 1930 (No. 2), authorized the borrowing of a maximum of £1,000,000 for the purposes of the Forests Act, 1921-22. Regulations have been issued under the State Forests Act, 1908, and the Forests Act, 1921-22.

In 1920 a forest policy was evolved which had for its main objectives the economic development of timber areas, the regulation of stream flow, the conservation of water-supplies, and the maintenance of climatic stability.

FOREST AREAS AND RESOURCES.

The areas of indigenous forests estimated at intervals since the settlement in the Dominion are —

  Acres
184727,600,000
186923,500,000
188621,200,000
189320,500,000
190917,000,000
1923-3212,600,000

Kauri is now practically a State monopoly, as the remaining privately -owned stands of importance are being milled. It has been the policy during the past few years only to dispose of kauri existing in isolated clumps which were in danger of destruction by fire, their inaccessibility presenting difficulties in efficient patrolling.

STATE FORESTS.

At the 31st March, 1932, the area of State forest was 2,196,033 acres, and of provisional State forest 5,632,090 acres, these totals including 162,815 acres and 1,739,430 acres respectively of national -endowment lands. The aggregate area (7,828,123 acres) represents 11.8 per cent, of the superficial area of the Dominion.

Purchases of forested lands or lands for afforestation through the medium of the State Forests Account are made from time to time, and such areas are included in the total area shown. In accordance with Government policy in respect to land-utilization, forest areas are carefully examined when milling operations are completed, and in this respect 21,000 acres which were considered suitable for agricultural purposes and not required for forestry were demarcated and made available for settlement during 1931-32. Settlement lands are likewise rigidly excluded, as far as possible, from all afforestation projects.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIGENOUS FORESTS.

The forests of New Zealand, as a whole, belong to that great division of the earth's vegetation entitled rain—forest -a community with its most extreme development in the tropics. New Zealand rain -forest may be naturally divided into the two classes, subtropical rain-forest and subantarctic rain -forest, the former, in regard to its trees, being a mixed community of broad - leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of beech (Nothofagus). For practical purposes the names rain -forest proper and beech - forest suffice. Between these two classes there are many intermediates, the one gradually grading into the other.

Rain -forest proper consists of a good many kinds of tall, medium-sized, and small trees, together with a dense undergrowth made up of numerous species of shrubs and ferns. Woody lianes and huge epiphytes are characteristic, and bryophytes abound. This class of forest is generally confined to the coastal, lowland, and montane belts—the upper altitudinal line of the last -named becoming gradually lower in proceeding from north to south.

In regard to appraisal of timber, rain -forest proper is divided into the following groups, to each of which is appended its distribution: The kauri (extending north -wards from a lino joining Port Waikato to Tauranga); the rimu (throughout all three Islands, its heaviest stands in the central part of the North Island and on the west coast of the South Island); the kahikatea (throughout the North and South Islands, occupying low -lying swampy ground); and the totara (throughout, but mainly in the central part of the North Island).

Beech-forest must be divided into milling-forest and protection-forest. The former consists of (1) forest where the hard-beech (Nothofagus truncata) and the black-beech (Nothofagus Solandri) are present in quantity; or, where there is only the latter, it extends from the south of lat. 38° southwards to northern Nelson, Marlborough, and eastern Canterbury; (2) forest where the silver-beech (Nothofagus Menzicsii) and the red-beech (Nothofagusfusca) are either the sole or the principal species; they extend from the Thames mountains in the montane and lower subalpine belts southwards to north-western Nelson, Westland (but absent from the Taramakau River southwards for one hundred miles), an the fiord country of Otago; and (3) forest where the silver-beech is pure or nearly so, such principally in southern and western Southland, and extending over the western slopes of the Dividing Range. Protection-forest, where beeches dominate, particularly the mountain-beech (Nothofagus cliffortioides), is essentially high-mountain forest, but on Mount Egmont and on the western side of the Southern Alps, from somewhat north of the Taramakau River for rather more than one hundred miles southwards, the forest is modified rain-forest proper with thin-bark totara (Podocarpus Hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus Bidwillii) as important trees. In Stewart Island Nothofagus is absent, and the trees of the upper forest are mainly kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa) and southern-rata (Metrosideros lucida).

In addition to the high forests there are scrub-forests, of which those made up of manuka (in a wide sense)-Leptospermum scoparivm and L. ericoides—are commercially important on account of the value of their wood for fuel, and because, in many instances, they are an early stage of rain-forest.

The foregoing gives merely a general classification of the forests, but, from the aspect of forestry, a division into smaller groups is essential, such to be based on the composition, structure, and life-history of each group. In this regard, altitude, climate, latitudinal change, and the nature of the soil have to be taken into consideration, as well as the combination and forms of the species composing the forest and their arrangement within the forest. In all forests changes, progressive or retrogressive, are taking place, and, so far as rain-forest proper is concerned (leaving swamp-forest on one side), that of the North Island and the northern part of the South Island is tending towards the dominance of the tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), and, for the remainder of the South Island and Stewart Island, to that of the kamahi. On the other hand, beech-forest regenerates into similar forest.

Though the forest-trees of New Zealand number about 112, there are only some twenty of them which are of value as timber-trees; in fact, at present only six are being used to any extent by sawmillers, and, of these, five are coniferous (softwood) timbers. There are several—e.g., puriri, kohekohe, pukatea-which possess very high qualities, but which are now to be obtained only in such small quantities that they are of little commercial importance.

CHIEF FOREST TREES.

A brief description of the principal forest-trees, with their distribution and the uses of their timber, is now given. The weights shown for the timber are per cubic foot, air-dry.

SOFTWOODS.

KAHIKATEA; WHITE-VINE (Podocarpus dacrydioides).—This tree occurs to some extent in all forests except the beech-forests from north to south of the North and South Islands; formerly it was found in almost pure stands in swampy areas, but most of these stands have now been exploited. The average height of the tree is about 120 ft., and the average diameter about 32 in, The sapwood, which comprises the greater part of the log, is white, and the heartwood yellow. The timber (29 lb.) is straight in the grain, easily worked, and long, clean lengths can be obtained. The yellow heartwood is durable, but the sapwood is very susceptible to the attacks of the larvae of the white-pine borer. The timber is inodorous, and is at the present time used mainly for butter-boxes, cheese-crates, and other packages.

KAIKAWAKA; MOUNTAIN-CEDAR(Libocedrus Bidwillii).—Though the distribution of this tree is often local, its range extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the forests of South Otago. It is most plentiful on the west coast of the South Island. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., with an average diameter of about 18 in. The timber (27 lb.) is dark red in colour, easy to work, light, and rather weak; it has considerable resemblance to totara, but is not so strong, and generally not so durable. The timber has been used for telegraph-poles, shingles, and palings, and, with the lessened supply of totara, its use for these purposes will increase. It has also been proved suitable for the manufacture of second-grade lead pencils, and at the present time is used for the manufacture of window-frames in the districts where it is obtainable. Being difficult to burn, it is specified for the construction of fireproof doors. Unfortunately, though occurring over a wide area, it is limited in quantity, and, if used freely, the supply would soon be exhausted.

KAURI (Agathis australis). This, the largest tree of the New Zealand forest and the most celebrated, is rather restricted in its distribution, extending as it does only from a little to the north of lat. 38 ° S. to the extreme north of the North Island. Its average height is about 100 ft. The maximum diameter which has been measured is 22 ft., and a few trees still exist with diameters of 14 ft. The average diameter is, however, about 40 in. The timber (301b.) is light yellowish-brown in colour; it is straight in the grain, strong, easily worked, and remarkably free from knots and defects; probably there is no more generally useful softwood in the world. Though formerly much used for house-building, its present high price confines its use to railway-carriage building, and cabinet and general joinery purposes. Mottled and figured kauri is much prized for cabinet-work. The kauri yields a very valuable resin called kauri-gum. It is regrettable that the remaining stands of this valuable timber-tree are now very limited.

MATAI; BLACK-PINE (Podocarpus spicatus).—This tree occurs more or less plentifully in forests throughout the North, South, and Stewart Islands. Its average height is about 60 ft., and average diameter about 24 in. The timber (38 lb.) is light yellowish-brown in colour, straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle and rather heavy. In the ground it is of second-rate durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is used chiefly for weatherboarding, flooring, and exterior joinery.

MIRO (Podocarpus ferrugineus).—This tree occurs in lowland and montane forests from the north of the North Island to the south of Stewart Island, but is most abundant in Southland. The average height is about 65 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber (30 lb.) is used in house-building, and is often sold as rimu, to which it bears considerable resemblance. The heartwood is brownish in colour, very fine in the grain, easily worked, and of exceptional strength, though not durable in the ground.

RIMU; RED-PINE (Dacrydiwm cypressinum).—This, the principal timber-tree of the New Zealand forest, is to be found more or less in all forests except the pure beech-forests. The average height is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber (37 lb.) when first cut is reddish-brown, but it changes when seasoned to a light brown with darker and lighter streaks. It is fairly straight in the grain, easily worked, and it is the chief timber used in house-building. It is often beautifully figured, and such is used for furniture, doors, and panelling. A high grade of kraft pulp may be produced from rimu.

SILVER-PINE; YELLOW SILVER-PINE; PINK-PINE (Dacrydium Colensoi, D. intermedium, and D. biforme).—The group of small podocarps, here taken together, is far from well known, more than three species being possibly included; while as commercial timbers there is no uniformity in the timber supplied, that of D. Colensoi and D. intermediumbeing both sold as “silver-pine.” In the case of the so-called “yellow silver-pine” the timber is white and not yellow. As at present defined, D. Colensoi occurs from near Kaitaia (but only occasionally) to the volcanic plateau, where it is fairly common, and in the South Island it forms (or originally formed) considerable stands in north-western Nelson and Westland. D. intermedium has much the same range in the North Island, but rather wider (Thames mountains, Ruahine-Tararua Mountains), and in the South Island it occurs in north-western Nelson, south-west Otago, and Stewart Island. D. biforme, except in the southern part of its range, belongs essentially to the mountains, and extends from the volcanic plateau to Stewart Island, but only where the rainfall is high. Considering here only the extremely valuable timber (39 lb.) of the silver-pine, it is whitish when first cut, but darkening to a light yellowish-brown; it is straight in the grain and easy to work. Owing to its extreme durability it has been used mainly for railway-sleepers, telegraph-poles, and posts; it is occasionally beautifully mottled, and is then used for cabinet-work. The remaining supplies are now very limited.

TANEKAHA (Phyllocladus trichomanoides).— This tree occurs, but not in great numbers, throughout the North Island and in the South Island in northern Marlborough and Nelson, extending southwards to near Westport. In height it is from 50 ft. to 70 ft., with a diameter of 1 ft. to 2 ft. The timber (42 lb.) is yellowish-white, free from knots, close-grained, dense, heavy, and very strong, and shrinks very little in seasoning, and for this reason is favoured for the manufacture of astragals in greenhouses, which have to remain straight in varying conditions of heat and moisture. Tanekaha is the strongest New Zealand softwood. It is of uncertain durability' in the ground, but is very durable out of the ground. In the past it was used for bridge-building, sleepers, and mine-props. It is now used in railway-carriage construction. The bark is very valuable, for it contains as much as 28 per cent, of tannin.

TOTARA (Podocarpus totara and P. Hallii).—These trees, which are very closely related and hybridize freely, extend throughout all three Islands (P. Hallii only in Stewart Island and subalpine forests), though in many localities the totara is rare. It is most plentiful in the forests of the central portion of the North Island. The average height is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber (30 lb.) is reddish when first-cut, seasoning to a reddish-brown. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle. Its great durability (that of P. totara being the most durable) has caused it to be much used for railway-sleepers, wharf-piles, telegraph-poles, and posts. Its high price and its freedom from warping and shrinking are now, however, causing it to be used for such special purposes as window and door frames; it is also much used for veranda-posts, flooring, and steps.

HARDWOODS.

BLACK-BEECH (Nothogagus Solandri).—This tree occurs in abundance—but not everywhere—in the lowland and montane belts of the North Island southwards from about lat. 38° S. (but absent in south-western Auckland and western Taranaki), and, in the South Island, in northern Marlborough and Nelson, extending southwards through eastern Marlborough and Canterbury to Banks Peninsula and Alford Forest. The timber (49 lb.) is pale-reddish, or greyish, and frequently streaked with black. Probably it is fairly durable when in the ground, and it is suitable—to say the least—for rough buildings, fencing-posts, and structural purposes. At present it is used only-for fencing-posts and firewood

HARD-BEECH (N.-truncata).—This tree occurs in a few localities in the North Island from Kaitaia southwards to the Thames mountains, whence its distribution is the same as that of N. Solandri. In the South Island it is abundant in northern Marlborough, and extends through Nelson with its southern limit just north of the Taramakau River. Its height ranges from 60 ft. to 100 ft. or more, and its diameter from 2 ft. to 5 ft. Until recently its timber (weight 48 lb. per cubic foot) was confused with that of the red-beech, but it is harder and probably more durable. When first cut it is pinkish in colour. Its uses are the same as those of its near relative, the red-beech. With the black-beech it forms many hybrids

RED-BEECH (N. fusca).—This tree extends from about lat. 37° S. on the Thames mountains southwards throughout the North Island in the montane belt (Mount Egmont excepted), and throughout the South Island whore the rainfall is high (except southwards from the Taramakau River for one hundred miles), and in the south of Southland. It is a tall and massive tree, ranging from 60 ft. to rather more than 100 ft. in height, and 3 ft. to 6 ft. in diameter. The timber (44 lb.) when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split, durable, and of about the same weight as English ash. It is difficult to season, being particularly prone to honeycombing in drying, and for this reason has not been much used for house-building, except at one time on the Otago goldfields, where it has proved very durable; it chief use at present is for posts and mine-props, and it is used to a small extent for sleepers and bridge-work. It is valuable for furniture and bentwood work. With the increasing scarcity of Australian hardwoods it is certain to have a much more extended use in the future.

SILVER-BEECH (N. Menziesii).—This tree has much the same distribution as the red-beech, but it ascends higher, and is plentiful in the west of Southland, east of the Divide, extending to the Longwood Range. It also occurs at several places near Dunedin, and in the vicinity of Mount Cook and on the Blue Mountains. The average height of the tree is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about, 2 ft. The timber (34 lb.) is of a pinkish colour when first cut, but it changes to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, and strong; it is, however, not durable in contact with the ground. It is now being used for flooring, interior finish, furniture, bentwood work, agricultural implements, bodies of motor-cars, billiard-tables, tool-handles, dowels, rifle-stocks, shoe-heels, casks, barrels, cheese-crates, and packing-cases, and its use for these and in other directions is sure to extend.

BLACK-MAIRE (Olea Cunninghamii).—This tree occurs in all forests (except the beech-forests) throughout the North Island, but it is only in the central portion that it is fairly plentiful. In the South Island it is found only in Marlborough, and is very rare. It occasionally reaches a height of 70 ft. and a diameter of 4 ft., but the average height and diameter are 40 ft. and 18 in. respectively. The wood (62 lb.) is light brown, often with dark streaks, and bears considerable resemblance to that of its relative, the European olive. It is extremely dense, heavy, hard, strong, and (out of the ground) durable. It has been used to a small extent for framing for machinery and for bridge-building, but owing to its exceptional heat-giving property its chief use has been for firewood.

HINAU (Elaeocarpus dentatus).—The hinau is fairly common from the North Cape to South Otago. It is from 40 ft. to 00 ft. in height, and from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter. The sap is white in colour, and the heartwood dark brown; it is heavy (45 lb.), very strong, tough, and durable. The trees are frequently hollow, and are seldom milled. Owing to the great durability of the heart timber it is much used for fencing-posts.

KAMAIU (Weinmannia racemosa).—This tree is extremely common in forests at all altitudes—pure beech-forest excepted—from somewhat to the north of lat. 38° S. to the south of Stewart Island. In its life-form it varies considerably; in some places it has a short irregularly formed bole which is often hollow, but in some localities (especially in the South Island) it forms a clean solid bole. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber (40 lb.) is dark brown or reddish in colour, and often has dark streaks running through it; it is strong and tough, but rather irregular in the grain; when worked up it has a very handsome appearance, but it is difficult to season without warping and checking. At present it is used to a limited extent only as rails for bush tram-lines.

The closely-related towai (W. sylvicola) is the representative northwards of the kamahi. It occurs in abundance, but its dimensions are smaller, and the economic value of its timber similar.

KOHEKOHE (Dysoxylum spectabile).—This tree—sometimes called “cedar”—is abundant in forests near the coast of the North Island. In the South Island it is found only in forests bordering the Marlborough Sounds and on D'Urville Island. It reaches a maximum height of 60 ft., with a diameter of 3 ft.; the average height is about 45 ft., with a diameter of about 18 in. The timber (34 lb.) is reddish in colour, rather soft, but strong and tough, very ornamental, and easily worked. It much resembles Honduras mahogany, and could be used for the same purpose. Unfortunately, kohekohe is not now found in large quantities, and the tree also suffers from heart-rot

MANGEAO; TANGEAO (Litsœa calicaris).—This tree is found from the North Cape to the East Cape on the east coast ad Mokau on the west coast, but it is nowhere plentiful. It is from 30ft. to 40 ft. high, with a diameter of 1 ft. to 2 1/2ft. The timber (39 lb.) is light brow in colour, of great elasticity, and about the same weight as English ash. It is used in coach and railway-carriage building and from ships' blocks, and only its scarcity prevents its wider use.

MANUKA, RED TEA-TREE; and KANUKA, WHITE TEA-TREE (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides).—The manuka extends throughout all three Island, but the kanuka only reaches Foveaux Strait. Either may be merely shrubs, but L. ericoides is frequently a tree, 15ft. to 50ft. high ad 1 ft. to 2 ft. diameter. O the other hand, L. scopariumrarely exceeds 20ft. in height or 1 ft. diameter. The wood of L. ericoides is light brown, dense, heavy, straight-grained, hard, very strong, tough, ad elastic. Owing to its exceptionally good burning-qualities it has been very much used for fuel, but settlers and miners have made considerable use of it for handles of axes, picks, bill-hooks, &c. It makes good wheel-spokes. Manuka proper (L. scoparium) is usually too small for any other use than firewood, but for this important purpose it is excellent, while the supply is considerable and could readily be greatly increased.

PUKATEA (Laurelia novae-zelandiae).—This tree was formerly abundant throughout the North Island especially in swampy situations; though still well distributed, it is nowhere plentiful. In the South Island it is found in Nelson and Marlborough, but is rare and local. It is a fall tree with an average height of about 90ft. and an average diameter of about 2 ft. above its big basal buttresses. The wood is pale brown in colour, frequently with darker or paler streaks, and often very ornamental. Though soft, it is strong, very tough, light (30 lb.), difficult to split, and takes a fine finish. In the ground it is of uncertain durability, but is very durable out of the ground. It is a timber which has been much neglected, having been used only to a small extent for boatbuilding, weatherboards, furniture, ad posts in sandy land.

PURIRI (Vitex lucens).—The inland distribution of this tree extends from the North Cape to the vicinity of Te Aroha, but it follows the coast on the east as far south as Poverty Bay and on the west to New Plymouth. Its average height is about 40 ft., and the average diameter about 22 in. The timber when seasoned is a dark rich brown; it is extremely hard, dense, strong, durable, and heavy. Owing to its interlaced fibres it is difficult to work. It has been so much used for railway-sleepers, posts, and house-blocks that the supply is now almost exhausted.

NORTHERN-RATA and SOUTHERN-RATA (Metrosideros robusta and M. lucida).—The first-mentioned of these trees is found in most forests below 2,000 ft. in the North Island; it is rather rare in the South Island, being found only occasionally in the lowland forests of Marlborough and Nelson. This tree generally commences life as a “perching-plant” in the forks of other large trees, and therefrom sends down huge roots, which generally envelope and strangle the supporting tree. These roots usually (but not always) coalesce, and so form a huge bole with an average diameter of about 54 in., which is generally hollow. The southern-rata, though found only rarely in the North Island, is plentiful in the South Island and Stewart Island. It has usually the same habit of growth as an ordinary tree; its average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter is about 20 in. The timber of both trees is reddish-brown in colour, extremely hard, heavy, strong, and (out of the ground) very durable; it is highly valued as firewood. On account of the difficulty of seasoning southern-rata (71 lb.) without excessive twisting and warping it has not the same value as the northern species (55 lb.), which is used to a small extent for cross-arms for telegraph-poles and for wheelwrights' work.

REWAREWA; HONEYSUCKLE (Knightia excelsa.).—In the North Island this tree is common in most forests (it is absent from beech-forest), but in the South Island it is rare, and is found in the forest bordering Cook Strait. It occasionally reaches a height of 90 ft. and a diameter of 3 ft., but the average height and diameter are respectively about 60 ft. and 20 in. The timber is yellowish-brown, and when cut on the quarter the medullary rays show as reddish-brown splashes, and it is then extremely handsome. It is very strong, tough, and elastic. Its chief use is for cabinet-work, ornamental turnery, and inlaid work, and its employment in these directions might be much extended.

TARAIRE (Beilschmiedia taraire).—This tree is plentiful to the north of Auckland City, but to the south it occurs locally only as far south as the East Cape on the east coast and Raglan Harbour on the west coast. The average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter about 18 in. The timber (42 lb.) is light brown in colour, straight in the grain, easily worked, and somewhat resembles oak in appearance. It has a limited use for furniture-making and picture-mouldings, but should find more extensive employment for flooring and interior finish.

TAWA (Beilschmiedia tawa).—This tree is to be found in most forests of the North Island up to an altitude of about 1,700 ft. In the South Island it occurs in the coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is light brownish-white in colour, rather hard, straight in the grain, but somewhat brittle. It is difficult to season satisfactorily, and requires special treatment to ensure fungi-free timber. At present it is used for clothes-pegs and to a small extent only for inside lining and packing-cases, but, as in the case of taraire, should find more extensive employment for flooring and interior finish. It has been proved most suitable for the manufacture of many classes of pulp and paper.

OUTPUT AND CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER.

The principal timbers milled in New Zealand at present are rimu and kahikatea. The subjoined table gives particulars regarding the output of timber by species for the last five years, together with the relative position each species of timber occupies in regard to the total production:—

Species of Timber.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.
 Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.
Kauri18,474,98115,874,47810,742,96710,471,2978,943,480
Rimu170,498,282156,313,561156,239,992163,293,288124,998,825
Kahikatea65,490,05953,735,88956,790,30658,505,36449,009,109
Matai19,380,46915,207,40615,752,74417,972,24313,917,187
Totara14,179,46210,727,5058,610,0399,046,1599,467,697
Beech8,595,8987,923,0699,845,60610,225,2557,680,913
Pinus radiata (insignis)6,667,9767,694,9579,168,41210,381,58512,739,925
Other and unspecified2,388,1312,306,4093,063,7542,509,9822,710,886
Totals305,675,258269,783,274270,214,420282,405,173229,468,022
 Per Cent. ofPer Cent. ofPer Cent. ofPer Cent. ofPer Cent. of
 Total.Total.Total.Total.Total.
Kauri6.045.883.973.713.90
Rimu55.7957.9457.8257.8254.47
Kahikatea21.4219.9221.0220.7221.36
Matai6.345.645.836.366.06
Totara4.643.983.193.204.13
Beech2.812.943.643.623.35
Pinus radiata (insignis)2.182.853.403.685.55
Other and unspecified0.780.851.130.891.18
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The total of 2,710,886 ft. b.m. shown for “Other and unspecified” species for 1930-31 is made up as follows:—

Species.Ft. B.M.Species.Ft. B.M.Species.Ft. B.M.
Miro1,077,903Pukatea68,332Hinau12,785
Tawa454,979Blue-gum60,727Rewarewa8,624
Silver-pine345,514Poplar51,267Kamahi5,283
Rata293,709Taraire35,000Unspecified43,610
Puriri132,862Kawaka27,227  
Tanekaha68,340Mangeao24,724Total2,710,886

Exports of New Zealand timber during the calendar year 1931 amounted to 17,532,304 ft. b.m., valued at £172,633, the principal species being kahikatea (14,822,985 ft.), rimu (928,599 ft.), beech (739,598 ft.), kauri (450,581 ft.), and Pinus radiata (418,488 ft.). Imports during the year comprised 9,449,127 ft. b.m. of sawn timber (including 2,950,391 ft. of Oregon pine (Douglas fir), 4,474,513 ft. of Australian hardwoods, 1,028,252 ft. of redwood, 119,091 ft. of hemlock, 656,671 ft. of oak, and 51,904 ft. of cedar), valued at £108,217; 2,251,798 ft. b.m. of logs and poles, valued at £23,061; 3,610,564 ft. b.m. of butter-boxes and cheese-crates, valued at £44,989; and laths, sleepers, and other items of a value of £46,414. The figures of exports and imports of timber during the last five years are—

Year.Exports of New Zealand Timber.Imports of Timber.
Measured in Feet.Other Items.Total Value.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Ft. B.M.£Ft. B.M.£££
192737,147,798425,45356,413,365704,44095,703800,143
192835,028,338377,47756,806,334661,68688,386750,072
192939,102,831439,34261,004,182713,90276,271790,173
193026,676,131300,58259,324,130718,484199,029917,513
193117,532,304172,63315,888,663183,47939,202222,681

RESEARCH.

As a result of re-organization, the Forest Biological Research Station at Nelson, which was established in co-operation with the Cawthron Institute, was closed during the year, and forest entomological research on a reduced scale was continued as a function of the State Forest Service, the Entomologist being stationed in Nelson. A forest mycologist is located at the Plant Research Station, Department of Agriculture, Palmerston North.

SILVICULTURAL INVESTIGATIONS..

Investigation has centred round kauri and rimu. Experiments have been made to test the value of underplanting cut-over bush lands with exotics, but further time must elapse before definite conclusions can be arrived at.

A silvicultural research station is established in the Waipoua Forest, which is the largest remaining kauri forest.

FOREST UTILIZATION.

Investigations have been continued into the use of tawa and silver-beech in the various wood-consuming industries. Silver-beech, in particular, was investigated for use as wine-casks, rifle-stocks, and flooring, and promising results were obtained. During these tests the necessity for improved seasoning and grading became apparent, and both these phases of the industry are now receiving attention, The investigation into the use of tawa for the manufacture of clothes-pegs was brought to a successful conclusion. The physical and mechanical property tests made of that timber indicated that it was the only common species in the Dominion, light in colour and staining, and comparable in cleavage strength with Canadian birch, so widely favoured for clothes-pegs. A New Zealand factory is now producing tawa clothes-pegs at the rate of 400 gross per day.

During 1931, two modern kiln-drying units were erected; one of these is drying timber for box-manufacture alone at the rate of over 100,000 ft. per month.

Practically every major avenue for the utilization of plantation thinnings has been explored, and it would appear that the greatest possibility of economic success is the sawing of the material for boxes and crates by the use of special machinery. The demand for such products is proved by the fact that last year over 1,000,000 apple-cases were manufactured from insignis pine (Pinus radiata); several hundred thousand fruit-boxes for the Pacific Islands fruit trade, over 100,000 benzine-eases, and several hundred thousand cheese-crates, besides numerous other containers.

TIMBER-SALES.

Under the timber-sales policy in operation for the disposal of the mature timber in State forests the standing timber is appraised and disposed of by tender as a block sale, the quantity of each species being shown in cubic feet, with the equivalent board-foot measurement. During the depressed state of the timber-market, timber has not been offered for sale unless definitely applied for.

Year.Timber sold.Sale Price.
 Ft. 13.M£
1927-2824,310,10034,000
1928-2941,465,36544,732
1929-3060,053,00073,865
1930-3142,118,02441,883
1931-3212,240,00016,435

FINANCE.

Up to and including the financial year 1915-16 the expenditure on afforestation was provided out of rents and royalties received from State Forest reserves and by an annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund. In 1916-17 provision was made for the borrowing of money for forestry purposes, and since that date all receipts and payments are shown in a State Forests Account.

 1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Receipts.
 £££££
Timber-sales (native forest)75,75649,00960,71156,39136,320
Timber royalties and trespass5,6287,9556,7903,5383,751
National-endowment allocation9,8988,24912,1569,8666,391
Leases—Grazing3,0882,3322,1152,0931,704
Sawmill-sites, &c.1,8451,3392,8501,6361,865
Opossum revenue4,0984,7414,953....
Nurseries and plantations11,27012,42611,3307,4683,278
Miscellaneous3,8154,0634,7323,7232,249
Total115,39890,114105,63784,71555,558
Payments.     
Interest and loan expenses35,04044,18959,88482,80990,223
National-endowment and local-body allocations20,86814,75318,49319,84112,753
Staff salaries43,67044,54847,81749,52640,974
Management, &c., native forests19,31422,03328,52032,33114,471
Nurseries and plantations111,794159,128248,404194,556107,795
Research, &c.7,2406,9506,3874,8671,199
Land-purchase19,18223,21112,9586,3616,874
Miscellaneous6,22310,35S4,9552,774888
Total263,331325,170427,418393,065275,177

The revenue from indigenous forests is heavily reduced by statutory payments in favour of local bodies and the National Endowment Account, and during recent years the residue has been little more than sufficient to meet the expenses of supervision and management; consequently the establishment of plantations has been financed almost exclusively from loan-moneys.

FOREST-FIRE PROTECTION.

One of the greatest problems of forest-conservation is that of fire-prevention, and fire-fighting methods have been improved by the establishment of fire lookout stations, access tracks, tool caches, improved telephone communication, and the provision of mobile fire-fighting equipment. The fire districts constituted to minimize the fire risks and danger to the indigenous and exotic forests total forty-two, and private fire districts, eight. In many localities the honorary rangers (135 at the end of 1931-32) function as local agents, reporting and assisting to suppress fires, detecting poaching, trespass, shooting of native birds, &c.

STATE AFFORESTATION.

State afforestation on an organized basis dates from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed, and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island, and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, when a total of 54 acres was established.

Figures of each year's plantings in the last decade are shown below.

Year.Acres.
1922-232,794
1923-247,275
1924-2510,459
1925-2615,875
1926-2722,305(1,257)
1927-2836,792(2,576)
1928-2960,635(3,215)
1929-3056,630(30)
1930-3153,847(95)
1931-3240,979

NOTE.—Figures in parentheses are areas of direct formation and have been included in the totals with which they are associated.

STATE PLANTATIONS.

The total area of State plantations is now 348,266 acres. In the North Island the main plantations are: Auckland District-Riverhead (10,744 acres) and Maramarua (11,954 acres: Rotorua District—Kaingaroa Plains (198,781 acres); Wellington District—Karioi (14,708 acres).

In 1930 a new plantation project was inaugurated at Tairua and comprises an area of approximately 50,000 acres on the eastern side of Coromandel Peninsula. At the 31st March, 1932, 7,580 acres had been planted at this station.

While many species were experimented with in the initial stages of the work, the chief species used to any considerable extent in the Rotorua district were European larch, Austrian pine, Corsican pine, Western yellow-pine, and a number of eucalypts. Of more recent years the species used for planting have been Douglas fir, Western yellow-pine, insignis pine, Corsican pine, and, to a smaller extent, Weymouth pine.

In the South Island the main plantations are situated in the northern portion of the Canterbury Land District, at Balmoral (24,071 acres) and Eyrewell (19,267 acres); and in Nelson, at Golden Downs (13,702 acres).

In 1930 a new plantation was started at Pebbly Hills, near Hedgehope (Southland), and the area planted up to 31st March, 1932, was 3,760 acres.

In the South Island practically all the best-known commercial trees of the Northern Hemisphere have been experimented with, but many have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, until at the present time operations are being conducted with a comparatively small range of conifers of proved economic importance, which experience has shown will most readily adapt themselves to local conditions. The principal species now being raised for afforestation purposes are Pinus ponderosa, P. Laricio, Pseudotsuga Douglasii, and Pinus radiata (insignis).

Cleaning and thinning of the older-age classes in the plantations was continued during the year as an unemployment relief measure, and resulted in 1,359 acres being cleaned by under scrubbing, &c., while thinning was carried out over 2,239 acres, making the total areas dealt with up to the 31st March, 1932, as follows: Thinning, 7,000 acres; under scrubbing 17,511 acres.

COMMERCIAL AFFORESTATION.

INTRODUCTORY.

In 1923 the planting of forests was undertaken by commercial concerns. Two classes of companies have been formed to carry out the various ventures. The first is the ordinary joint-stock company, where the property is vested in the company and the shareholders receive a pro rata share of the profits according to the amount of capital contributed; the second is a private company registered with a comparatively small capital, but of which the investing public do not become shareholders. The company contracts with each investor that in consideration of his paying the prescribed amount of cash it will convey to him at the end of a given term a certain area of land duly planted according to a prescribed agreement. The interests of the investing public are watched over by trustees appointed by investors, and the lands concerned are conveyed by way of mortgage to the trustees until the time for conveyance to the investor arrives. Of the twenty-eight returns received from companies engaged in afforestation operations during the year ended 31st March, 1931, ten were from companies organized in the latter basis; but, though in the minority in point of numbers, their operations form the greater part of the work carried out during the year. The figures for the year ended 31st March, 1931, show that liabilities, assets, and receipts recorded hardly any movement in comparison with the year 1929-30. Payments, however, receded by 7 per cent., from £841,522 in 1929-30 to £785,223 in' 1930-31. At 31st March, 1931, the total number of acres planted amounted to 212,018.

LIABILITIES.

The following comparative statement shows a classification of the liabilities for all afforestation companies as at 31st March in each of the last five years:—

 1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
 £££££
Paid-up share capital339,662436,272715,463824,899814,106
Loan-money23,63116,02240,18424,8186,801
Forfeited Shares Account3,8282,4733,1695,71010,705
Mortgages266,933183,043255,228286,464128,454
Sundry creditors54,84586,744192,766129,330158,816
Bondholders720,8391,154,3371,654,3622,291,2802,411,079
Other39,183120,393134,414160,651193,709
Totals1,448,9211,999,2842,995,5863,723,1523,723,670

ASSETS.

The following comparative statement shows a classification of the assets of afforestation companies as at 31st March in each of the last five years:—

 1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
 £££££
Land for afforestation purposes459,012441,610512,197554,993545,596
Land for other purposes3931213,6951,301..
Development Account676,6301,094,091,653,4102,082,5251,911,978
Investments94,100169,438464,110700,879786,700
Goodwill and preliminary expenses48,22258,789132,860109,36668,800
Other170,564235,234229,314274,088410,596
Totals1,448,9211,999,2842,995,5863,723,1523,723,670

RECEIPTS.

The following statement shows a classification of the receipts recorded for afforestation companies for each of the last five (March) years:—

 1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.
 £££££
Share capital131,127117,316124,566101,02578,952
Instalments on bonds367,693417,880607,889662,876624,568
Loan-money16,7625,2432,4002,230..
Other receipts10,54121,87547,35272,049137,968
Totals526,123562,314782,207838,180841,488

Attention is drawn to the fact that the figures in the foregoing table represent receipts from the cash point of view and should not be confused with revenue.

PAYMENTS.

The following table shows a classification of the payments recorded in the last five (March) years:—

 1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.
 £££££
Tree-raising20,03020,29022,19125,16923,057
Establishment charges74,557114,345134,81691,50885,168
Maintenance5,50113,60222,02432,29628,767
Management, &c.178,363172,266226,628223,338277,469
Land-purchase89,32690,91079,372100,00570,515
Other150,776136,951308,346369,206300,247
Totals518,553548,370793,377841,522785,223

SALES OF FOREST AREAS.

The ten companies engaged in the sale of forest areas effected sales involving 27,030 acres of land during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1931, making a total of 247,472 acres sold up to that date. The instalments paid in accordance with the contracts of sale entered into during the year under discussion amounted to £515,436, while the total instalments paid up to 31st March, 1931, on all bonds amounted to £2,932,351. The total commitments of the investing public on account of contracts entered into during the year amounted to no less than £642,163, bringing the total for this item to £6,215,859 at 31st March, 1931.

Against the foregoing must be set contracts involving 77,796 acres, of a total selling-price of £ 2,099,404, which have been cancelled by the purchasers. Instalments amounting to £ 95,236 were paid up on these cancelled contracts.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The average number of employees engaged during 1930-31 was 742, of whom 96 were engaged in tree-raising; 272 in planting; 149 in maintenance; 170 in fire-prevention; and 55 in management. This number represents a decline of 149 from the peak year, 1930. The total wages and salaries paid during 1930-31 was £140,677.

PLANTING OPERATIONS.

The following table shows particulars regarding the species and number of trees planted during the year ended 31st March, 1931, together with particulars as to the areas planted:—

Species.Number of Trees.New Area planted during the Year.Total Area planted to 31st March,1931.
To replace Blanks.On New Areas.
Acres.Acres.
Pinus radiata (insignis)7,589,87019,535,57925,810200,618
Pinus ponderosa599,5751,371,5508812,620
Pinus pinaster4,000....570
Pinus Laricio55,875....178
Redwood214,0001,461,8401,1554,441
Douglas fir2,9001,584,3501,0191,442
Cupressus Lawsoniana..960,000415433
Cupressus macrocarpa......208
Poplar69,0502,000100158
Eucalypts6,25011,6305703
Unspecified800....647
Totals,1930-19318,542,32024,926,94929,385212,018

LAND HELD FOR AFFORESTATION PURPOSES.

At 31st. March, 1931, the total area of land held by companies for afforestation purposes was 276,924 acres, valued at £575,606, which amounts to £2 1s. 7d. per acre.

STATE ASSISTANCE TO AFFORESTATION.

The method first adopted in New Zealand for encouraging the planting of trees for the production of timber was by means of “land grants” —a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. Several large plantations were established in Canterbury by this method. The Selwyn and Ashburton County Councils are the outstanding examples of local authorities which took advantage of this scheme, and are now receiving substantial revenues from their tree plantations.

The State assists also by reduction of rent to Crown tenants planting trees on their land.

Under the system of taxation in operation in New Zealand, encouragement is given to the conservation of indigenous forests and plantations, and to the establishment of new plantations by exempting the trees from land-tax and local rates.

The taxes to which indigenous forests and plantations are subject are—(a) Land-tax; (b)income-tax; (c) local rates; (d) stamp duties; (e) death duties; (f) levy on sawn timber (indigenous forests only).

Land supporting indigenous forests and plantations is subject to land-tax. The tax, however, is assessed on the unimproved value, which for taxation purposes does not include the value of any trees or the value of the labour or capital expended in planting them.

Local rates on land supporting indigenous forests and plantations are levied on the value of the land only. A County Council is empowered to make an annual levy of 1/2d. per hundred feet board measure on timber in the county converted from the log into sawn timber; but this levy is not applicable to timber cut from plantations.

Appraisements of timber are not liable to stamp duty if made for the Crown, for a local authority, or for the information of one party only.

Licenses granted by the Crown to cut timber are exempt from stamp duty; other licenses are not exempt.

Land on which trees of any kind are growing is subject to death duties (estate duty, succession duty, and gift duty), which are assessed on the capital value of the land, which includes the value of the trees.

Chapter 19. SECTION XIX.—FISHERIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

WITH its great extent of coast-line, splendid natural harbours, and numerous sheltered bays, New Zealand has from the earliest times been famed for the productivity of its coastal fisheries. Off its more northerly coasts, which come within the influence of the south equatorial current, a rich variety of subtropical fish life is found, as exemplified by such species as the flying-fish, the sunfish, the swordfish, and several shark species. On the other hand, its southern coasts, washed by the antarctic drift, are the natural haunt of the fur-bearing seal, and yield varieties of fish which are characteristic of cold-water conditions. Up to the present only the east coast fishing-grounds have been regularly exploited on a commercial scale. Some of the western fishing-grounds remain in practically virgin condition, and offshore deep-sea fisheries have been neither exploited nor explored.

The ease with which abundant catches were made led to a certain wastefulness in the utilization of the fisheries in the past, but with the development of a more rational appreciation of the value of the marine natural resources it is certain that the fishing industry will become increasingly important as a source of food-supply to the population of the Dominion and as a means of providing an export trade to countries less favoured by nature.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the flounders of different species Rhombosolea), which occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters, the snapper (Pagrosomus auratus), which is particularly abundant in the north, the blue cod (Parapereis colias), which provides the staple product of the southern line fisheries, and the groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios), which is caught on lines in the deeper water from the North Cape to Stewart Island.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.

A statement is compiled annually by the Chief Inspector of Fisheries as to the weight and value of fish caught. The figures for each fishing-port are as follows for the year ended 31st March, 1932, a period of financial depression and diminished demand in both Dominion and export markets:—

Port.Principal Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.
*No return.
   £
RussellSnapper, mullet, hapuku, flounder, kahawai, kingfish, maumau, crayfish1,460cwt.1,818
WhangareiSnapper, mullet, flounder, hapuku3,770cwt.5,719
KaiparaSnapper, flounder, mullet, kahawai, trevally, gurnard.5,439cwt.5,720
Auckland DistrictSnapper, tarakihi, trevally, flounder, sole, gurnard, hapuku, john-dory, kingfish, moki, rock-cod, kahawai, butterfish, barracouta, mullet, garfish83,753cwt.69,046
 Crayfish1,453cwt.2,102
 Mussels4,242sacks1,294
ThamesSnapper, hapuku, gurnard, trevally, john-dory, butterfish, cod, kingfish, mullet, moki, Tarakihi21,302cwt.21,116
Mercury Bay 7,431cwt5,053
TaurangaSnapper, hapuku, trevally, kahawai, rock-cod, garfish, moki, flounder, crayfish8,818cwt.7,750
GisborneTarakihi, gurnard, snapper, flounder, sole, kahawai, hapuku, crayfish2,937cwt.3,993
NapierTarakihi, snapper, moki, kahawai, gurnard, trevally, hapuku, southern kingfish, barracouta, john-dory, flounder, sole, brill11,100cwt.19,320.
 Crayfish228cwt.225
New PlymouthSnapper, hapuku, kingfish, tarakihi, kahawai, cod, crayfish, gurnard2,111cwt.2,367
WanganuiBlue cod, hapuku, flounder, snapper40 cwt.96
WellingtonTarakihi, gurnard, flounder, sole, snapper, ling, warehou, hapuku, moki, butterfish, blue cod, southern kingfish, crayfish63,421 cwt.66,248
PictonHapuku, moki, butterfish, garfish, crayfish, blue cod1,780 cwt.2,942
BlenheimRed cod, sole, flounder, ling, snapper, moki, hapuku, gurnard, tarakihi, mackerel, butterfish, crayfish2,830 cwt.2,530
NelsonSnapper, flounder, gurnard, bream, hapuku, cod, crayfish, barracouta3,443 cwt.4,856
GreymouthWhitebait, flounder, sole, cod, hapuku, snapper, herring1,720 cwt.2,275
KaikouraHapuku, ling, trumpeter, southern kingfish, butterfish, tarakihi, moki, crayfish2,912 cwt.4,077
AkaroaHapuku, ling, conger eel, flounder, sole, brill, blue and red cod, crayfish, barracouta, kingfish, kahawai, moki, butterfish4,055 cwt.6,254
LytteltonHapuku, barracouta, red cod, ling, flounder, sole, gurnard, brill14,282 cwt.16,424
TimaruFlounder, sole, brill, hapuku, ling, red cod, gurnard, kingfish, barracouta8,030 cwt.12,045
OamaruHapuku, red cod, blue cod, moki, barracouta, ling1,999 cwt1,980
MoerakiHapuku, blue cod, red cod, ling, moki, barracouta3,100 cwt.3,138
Dunedin and Otago DistrictHapuku, ling, red cod, barracouta, kingfish, blue cod, moki, trumpeter, tarakihi, trevally, mullet, garfish, kahawai, gurnard, kelpfish, sole, flounder, brill, skate41,134 cwt.20,560
Bluff and InvercargillHapuku, blue cod, flounder9,463 cwt.14,300
 Oysters36,538 sacks22,836
Stewart IslandBlue cod, hapuku, trumpeter, moki7,866 cwt.8,406
Chatham Islands..**
Minor ports..1,823 cwt.2,795

The quantity of fish recorded as having been brought in from the fishing-grounds for the year ended the 31st March, 1932, was 316,019 cwt., which, with 4,242 sacks of mussels, and 2,083 cwt. of crayfish, represented a wholesale value of £342,622. The wholesale value of the oysters landed from the various beds was £27,850, and the produce of the mainland whale-fisheries was 530 tons of oil and 74 tons of bone-dust and fertilizer, the value of which is estimated at about £6,000.

Included in New Zealand produce exported during the last five years were—

Item.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
 £££££
Fish74,19484,87183,00070,72144,588
Oysters5617724361,480531
Whalebone190..50....
Whale-oil7,00912,0817,6254,9853,761
Ambergris....7,200....
Other products of fisheries26106185014
Totals81,98097,83098,32977,23648,894

The value of fish (chiefly preserved) imported in 1931 was £73,294.

VESSELS PERSONS EMPLOYED IN FISHING INDUSTRY.

A table showing the various classes of vessels engaged in the fishing industry, together with the number of persons employed, is given below for the year ended 31st March, 1932:—

 Whole. Time.Part Time.Total.
Vessels engaged in fishing for wet fish—   
Steam trawlers112133
Motor trawlers205171
Steamers—Danish seining213
Motor-vessels—Danish seining442367
Motor-vessels—Set-net and line fishing559223782
Sailing-boats122840
Row-boats137285422
Vessels engaged in shell-fishing—   
Oyster-dredging vessels6..9
Mussel-dredging vessels235
Crayfishing-vessels11115126
Number of persons employed—......
Fishermen1,6541,0192,673
Others (excluding retailers)30161362

A summary table giving similar information for each port in the Dominion follows:—

Port.Vessels engaged in Fishing for Wet Fish.Vessels engaged in Shell-fishing.Number of Persons employed (excluding Retailers).
Steam-vessels.Motor-vessels.Sailing-boats.Row-boats.Fisher-men.Others.Total.

* Including Manukau, Mercury Bay, and Coromandel.

† Including Moeraki.

Russell..17..16290494
Kaipara..25..3..34..34
Whangarei..8..1..18826
Auckland*41302401041894512
Thames..40..5210825133
Tauranga..3026..72678
Gisborne1151102757360
Napier1430..681016028188
New Plymouth..21..191286894
Wanganui..23......28..28
Wellington270..373733623357
Picton136..1..81..81
Blenheim..7....113..13
Nelson42214249958
Greymouth31015..30..30
Kaikoura..20..1138139
Akaroa..42..10643144
Lyttelton36713113827790367
Timaru..28..1..35338
Oamaru..41..2161667
Otago District479..33918519204
Bluff and Invercargill..94..10814522167
Stewart Island..36......88997
Chatham Islands (no return)................

OYSTER-BEDS.

The principal oyster-beds round the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland Peninsula. The Foveaux Strait beds are very extensive.

During the 1931 season 36,538 sacks of oysters, valued at £22,836, were dredged from the Foveaux Strait beds, as compared with 42,744 sacks, valued at £26,715, in 1930.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but owing to stripping of the beds close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. In 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock-oysters from the North Island beds was undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. Oysters picked and sold by the State in 1931 realized £5,430 (1930, £6,432); the cost of picking and selling this item, including interest and depreciation on the cost of the oil-launches used by the Inspectors, was in 1931 £4,591 (1930, £5,039). A profit accrues to the State, and the scheme has, moreover, resulted in the conservation and extension of the beds.

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

WHALING.

The whaling industry in New Zealand has gradually declined in importance until at present only two stations remain. The whales caught are mostly of the hump-back variety. At Whangamumu, North Auckland, a very serviceable whaling plant has been established. Forty-eight whales were taken last season (1931) in this locality, yielding 240 tons of oil and 44 tons of bonedust The product of the Marlborough whale-fisheries in 1931 was 290 tons of oil and 30 tons of fertilizer, &c. Sixty-two hump-back whales and one blue whale were taken.

A reference to the whaling operations carried out in the Ross Sea appears in the section on “Dependencies.”

SEALS.

For many years past the taking of seals has been prohibited, the close season originally declared having been extended from time to time for periods of three years. The latest extension carries the close season to 30th November, 1934.

MARINE FISH-HATCHERY.

The erection of the marine fish-hatchery at Portobello, Otago Harbour, was carried out by a Board set up to superintend the work of the hatchery, funds being provided by the State, and grants being made by the Otago Institute, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and a number of acclimatization societies. The State makes an annual grant towards the maintenance of the hatchery, the buildings and equipment of which have also been added to from time to time.

Experiments have been carried out with a view to introducing certain English food fishes to New Zealand waters—viz., lobsters, edible crabs, and turbot. Valuable work has also been done in the direction of hatching the spawn of various indigenous fishes and in making a study of their life-habits.

INLAND FISHERIES.

The early colonists who emigrated from Britain to New Zealand were much surprised to find a country with such splendid rivers and lakes, but with no fish of any commercial or sporting value in them. In a few years the question of introducing some of the British salmonidæ was considered, and as early as 1864 the matter assumed definite shape when the Otago Provincial Council took it up, and voted a sum for the importation of Atlantic salmon and English brown trout.

There was, however, some delay in arranging for shipment, and it was not until 1868 that the first consignments of salmon and trout eggs arrived. Since that time the English brown trout (S. fario), Loch Leven (S. levenensis), American rainbow (S. irideus), American brook-trout (S. fontinalis), Quinnat salmon (O. tschawytscha), Atlantic salmon, English perch, and tench, have been successfully acclimatized.

Ova of the sockeye or blue-back salmon were imported in 1902, and specimens of this fish were said to have been caught in 1907. A number of dwarf sockeye exist in Lake Ohau, having acquired a land-locked habit. These fish run up creeks at the head of the lake and spawn there every season in March and April.

Several shipments of whitefish-ova were made in 1898 and succeeding years, the fry being liberated in Lakes Kanieri and Tekapo. Reports as to the fish having been seen were received from time to time, but so far as is known no whitefish have yet been caught.

With the exception of the Hot Lakes District, which is under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs, the propagation of trout and the oversight of fishing operations is carried out by thirty local acclimatization societies, fishing licenses being issued on payment of a small fee. The Department of Internal Affairs maintains hatcheries at Tokaanu (Tongariro) and Rotorua.

The acclimatization of sporting varieties has been attended with such remarkable success that now, and for many years past, the widespread fishing waters of New Zealand have been unexcelled as an angler's Paradise.

ATLANTIC SALMON.

The first shipment of Atlantic-salmon eggs arrived in 1868, but up to 1908 there was no proof that these fish had been acclimatized, and the Government in that year decided to make a vigorous and systematic effort to establish them, concentrating on a single river, the Waiau, in Southland, and a hatchery was erected near the lower end of Lake Te Anau. The first definite results were obtained in 1921, and the Atlantic salmon is now established in the Waiau River system.

The fish appear to have increased rapidly, but of recent years, with improved access to Te Anau, the fishing has also greatly increased. In 1930 certain restrictions were imposed on the fishing, and a limit was placed on the number which might be taken in any one day. Last spawning season the weather and river conditions were very unfavourable for collecting salmon-eggs, but over 397,500 were secured, from which 342,000 fly were liberated in the Upokororo and Eglinton Rivers. Stocking the Wanganui River, in the North Island, with these fish has been attempted, most of the eggs collected during seven seasons having been hatched out at the Government hatchery on Waitea Creek, on the upper Wanganui, and the young fish liberated in suitable tributary streams and in the main river. It would appear that the North Island waters are not suitable for the species.

QUINNAT SALMON.

The first importation of quinnat-salmon ova was made in 1875, and from that date to 1880 several shipments were made without result.

In 1900 the Government decided to make a vigorous effort to establish this fish, and from that year to 1907 annual importations of half a million eggs were made, the young fish being liberated in the Waitaki. The result of the systematic effort made to' establish the quinnat has been highly successful. There has been a steady increase in the Waitaki every season, and they have now spread northward into all the larger rivers of Canterbury as far as the Waiau, North Canterbury. They occasionally make their way into North Island rivers. Last season a quinnat was taken in the Wanganui River, and the previous season a fish was caught in the Tarawera River, Bay of Plenty, which proved to be an undoubted quinnat salmon. These are cases of the furthest north distribution so far ascertained. Licenses for £1 for the season are issued to anglers empowering them to sell their catches, and sea-fishermen, on payment of a license fee of £1, are allowed to take salmon and market their catches.

Chapter 20. SECTION XX.—MINING.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN no other country of equal size to New Zealand are indications of a greater number of economic minerals to be found, yet, with the exception of iron-ore, the known mineral reserves are not great in comparison with those in many other countries. The coal reserves of the Dominion are considerable, however, and their duration will be extended by the utilization of the enormous water-power resources of the country.

The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, has again come into prominence, mainly on account of the enhanced price of gold. The present depression has also caused a large number of unemployed men to turn their attention to gold prospecting.

The following statement shows the production of metalliferous mines, of stone-quarries under the Stone-quarries Act, and of coal-mines:—

Mineral.1930.1931.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Oz.£Oz.£
Gold and silver639,795550,978564,871657,189
Platinum2 1/2161/25
 Tons cwt. Tons cwt. 
Tungsten-ore23 131,207....
Iron8,075 040,3753,460 017,300
Silica sand53 192735 1118
Quicksilver1 161,08015 57,296
Stone..413,291..316,366
Pumice2,559 08,4722,321 07,589
Sulphur849 013,261....
Coal2,542,092 02,542,0922,157,756 02,157,756
Totals..3,570,799..3,163,519

The production of gold and silver is of necessity taken together, as separate figures are not available. Kauri-gum, the (chiefly) fossilized resin of former kauri forests, is counted as a mineral, but, the production figures are not available.

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals and allied substances exported:—

Mineral.1930.1931.Increase or Decrease.Total from 1st January, 1853, to 31st December, 1931.
*Ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.
 ££ ££
Gold*550,678577,612Inc.26,93495,036,124
Silver44,53434,424Dec.10,1103,224,098
Tungsten-ore1,469320Dec.1,149311,529
Antimony-ore..36Inc.3655,081
Manganese-ore5..Dec.562,011
Pig iron29..Dec.296,615
Quicksilver1,1887,760Inc.6,57217,284
Other minerals9,4377,780Dec.1,657445,060
Kauri-gum189,635128,095Dec.61,54022,959,862
Coal186,21083,393Dec.102,8177,155,125
Totals983,185839,420Dec.143,765129,272,789

GOLD-MINING.

The actual figures of gold-production are not available owing to no distinction being made between gold and silver in the case of mines which produce both. The following statement shows bullion-production during 1931:—

Production of Bullion.*Number of Persons ordinarily employed at Productive and Unproductive Mines and Dredges.Number of Productive Mines and Dredges.
Quantity.Value.
*Including a proportion of silver.
 Oz.£  
Quartz-mining538,070532,15296832
Dredge mining11,49554,927975
Alluvial mining15,30670,110805726
Totals, 1931564,871657,1891,870763
Totals, 1930639,795550,9781,539335

The bullion this year is estimated to contain 129,861 oz. gold and 435,010 oz. silver, an increase in gold of 8,930 oz. and a decrease of 83,854 oz. silver as compared with 1930. The increase in gold accounts for the higher value recorded.

The export of gold according to districts of production during 1930 and 1931. together with the total since April, 1857, when the first parcel was exported, is as shown in the next table.

District.1930.1931.Total, 1857-1931.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Oz.£Oz.£Oz.£
Auckland83,163348,59183,254348,8397,716,22230,084,254
Wellington........188706
Marlborough1455431,6436,630110,338429,759
Nelson1746481,0384,0751,743,8006,913,902
West Coast32,693128,82040,773162,5866,664,30826,453,887
Canterbury........157620
Otago16,99969,80912,22851,2057,808,15931,101,286
Unknown5752,2671,0384,27712,85651,710
Totals133,749550,678139,974577,61224,056,02895,036,124

The most important gold-mining operations in New Zealand now consist in the working of quartz lodes and the extraction of the precious metals therefrom. Quartz-mining in the North Island is conducted now mainly in Waihi Borough, whence was derived the greater part (£343,724) of the gold exported during 1931. In the South Island quartz-mining operations are carried on principally in the Reefton and Blackwater districts and in Otago. The average value per ton of ore treated during 1931 amounted to £2 2s. 4d., as compared with £1 18s. Id. during 1930.

Alluvial gold, the production of which in 1931 was greater by 0,352 oz. than in the previous year and the value by £35,043, is found chiefly on the West Coast of the South Island and in Otago, where mining operations have been conducted over an area of 17,000 square miles. Greatly increased activity has taken place in prospecting the auriferous alluvium of the West Coast of the South Island and Otago during the year.

Gold-dredging has rapidly declined in importance, the number of productive dredges having decreased from 167 during 1906 to five during 1931. Of the total dredge production of £54,927 in 1931, £48,627 was won by three dredges on the West Coast, the largest producer of which was the Rimu dredge with £37,890, and SECTION £6,300 by two dredges in Otago.

WORLD'S GOLD-PRODUCTION.

The following figures showing the world's gold-production for the last ten years have been compiled from official sources by the American Bureau of Metal Statistics:—

Year.Fine Ounces.
192215,444,830
192317,786,472
192419,050,134
192519,031,137
192619,369,364
192719,445,612
192819,583,153
192919,584,821
193020,293,159
193121,334,787

SILVER.

Nearly the whole of the silver exported from New Zealand, amounting in value up to the end of 1931 to £3,224,098, has been obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz-mines, principally those of the Hauraki Goldfield, where gold and silver are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in this country.

IRON-ORES.

The most extensive iron-ore deposits occur near Parapara and Onakaka, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Provincial District. The limonite deposit of this locality is of great extent, and it is estimated in “Iron-ore Resources of the World,” published by the International Geological Congress, to contain 64,000,000 metric tons, of which about 30,000,000 tons occur in the Onakaka Block.

During 1931 3,460 tons of pig iron were produced at Onakaka, valued at £5 per ton. The Onakaka pipe-making plant was in operation for seven months during 1931, and produced 1,400 tons of cast-iron pipes, of sizes ranging from 4 in. up to 2 ft. in diameter, all of which were supplied to various local bodies and gas companies in New Zealand.

A trial of the Onakaka pig-iron carried out during 1931 yielded the exceptionally good test of 35,000 lb., British standard specification showing a test at 28,000 lb.

Several attempts have been made to smelt Taranaki ironsand, but the results have not been quite satisfactory, as the cost was too high.

During 1914 the Government, with a view to stimulating interest in this industry, passed an Act having for its object the payment of fairly large bonuses for the production in New Zealand of pig iron, puddled bar iron, and steel.

TUNGSTEN-ORE.

Scheelite, one of the principal ores of tungsten, was for a number of years mined on a fairly extensive scale in conjunction with gold, the principal gold-scheelite mines being those at or near Glenorchy, Paradise, Macrae's, Stoneburn, Hyde, and Barewood, Otago and at Wakamarina Valley, Marlborough.

Exports which in 1910-19 averaged £26,000 annually fell to a low figure from 1920 onwards. No scheelite was produced during 1931, on account of the continued low values.

The total quantity exported to 31st December, 1931, was 2,458 tons, valued at £311,529.

COPPER.

Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities, but the total recorded copper-production to the end of 1931 amounted in value to only £19,390. There has been no production for a number of years. Prior to the inauguration of systematic records there was a considerable production from mines on Great Barrier and Kawau Islands.

MANGANESE-ORE.

Manganese-ore has been found at Otau, Wairoa, Bay of Islands, Purua Bay, Mangapai, Otonga, Waiheke Island, and Taieri Mouth, and has been mined at Tikiora, near the Bay of Islands, and at Waiheke Island. Fluctuating prices have prevented expansion of this industry. The total quantity of manganese-ore exported to the end of 1931 amounted to 19,387 tons, of a value of £62,011.

CINNABAR.

Production in 1931, 15 tons 5 cwt., valued at £7,296, was derived from the works at Ngawha Springs, North Auckland. Owing to the difficulties that lay in the way of recovering the mercury and the substantial fall in the price, all active work has now stopped.

The total quantity of quicksilver exported to the 31st December, 1931, was 33 tons 11 cwt., valued at £17,284.

TIN.

Cassiterite in the form of “stream-tin” occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, where it has been worked to some extent. “Lode-tin” has been found in the same locality. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Reefton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.

In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand platinum is stated to occur in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been exported.

The Customs Department has not kept any separate record of the quantity and value of platinum entered for exportation, the value of this metal exported being included in a general total of exports by parcel-post, by which means platinum has generally been despatched from the Dominion.

During 1931 10 dwt. of platinum, valued at £5, were recovered from alluvial and sea-beach claims at Orepuki.

SULPHUR.

Native sulphur in sufficient quantity to be worked profitably occurs in the thermal districts of the North Island, near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island.

White Island also contains several guano deposits, but no reliable estimate has yet been made of the quantity and quality available.

Sulphur is mostly disposed of locally as fertilizer, but exports to the end of 1931 have aggregated £13,241. None of the sulphur deposits were worked during 1931.

COAL.

Coal, varying in grade from anthracite to lignite, occurs in many parts of New Zealand. In proportion to the present yearly consumption of about 2,500,000 tons the supply may be considered relatively large, but in comparison with probable future needs it is decidedly small.

An estimate of the proved coal resources of New Zealand prepared in 1927 is as follows (millions of tons): Anthracite, very little bituminous, 206; semi-bituminous, 60; brown, 247; lignite, 150; total, 663. The probable resources are estimated at 1,631,000,000 tons.

The following table summarizes coal-mining operations:—

YearOutput.(Tons.)Persons employed above and below Ground.Tons raised per Person employed Underground.Lives lost.
Number.Per Million Tons raised.Per Thousand Persons employed.
19221,857,8194,55655263.231.32
19231,969,8345,00054052.541.00
19242,083,2074,869594104.802.05
19252,114,9954,77760683.781.67
19262,239,9995,159586156.692.90
19272,366,7405,374593104.231.86
19282,436,7535,37660893.691.67
19292,535,8645,497614124.732.18
19302,542,0925,867574145.502.38
19312,157,7565,74549841.850.69
Totals to date75,998,547....4515.93..

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1931 is summarized as follows:—

Class of Coal.Northern (North Island).West Coast (South Island)Southern (South Island)Totals.Total Output to the End of 1931.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous and sub-bituminous129,725849,911..979,63645,548,721
Brown705,17439,824324,7511,069,74925,900,980
Lignite..759107,612108,3714,548,846
Totals, 1931834,899890,494432,3632,157,75675,998,547
Totals, 1930766,3121,286,071489,7092,542,09273,840,791

The gross output of coal for 1931 was 384,336 tons less than the total for 1930, and shows the greatest annual decrease yet recorded. The heavy decline in output is due to the lessened demand occasioned through the general depression, also to the increasing use of fuel oil and electricity for power purposes. The industry was fairly free from stoppages due to labour trouble. Co-operative mining still continues to be successfully carried out in the Northern and West Coast districts.

The chemists employed upon coal-research work at the Dominion Laboratory have continued with important investigations. With the small experimental briquetting plant purchased by the Coal Research Association trials were made of Westport, Paparoa, and Reefton coals singly and blends of Reefton and Waikato coals with varying quantities of bituminous coal. Briquettes of Westport and Paparoa proved excellent household fuel. Those from Reefton No. 4 coal alone were somewhat dull in an open fire, and were greatly improved when blended with 20 per cent. of Westport or Liverpool coal. Excellent though rather quick burning briquettes were made from blends of 80 per cent. Waikato coal and 20 per cent, strongly caking bituminous coal.

Further experiments with swelling and non-swelling coals have been carried out, and blends suitable for use in gasmaking can now be recommended.

Progress abroad in treatment and utilization of coal, including hydrogenation, for the production of oil has been carefully followed, but during 1931 nothing outstanding has been put forward that would be applicable to New Zealand conditions.

STATE COLLIERIES.

The Coal-mines Act of 1901 provided for the acquisition and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines. At the present time two State collieries are in operation.

During 1931-32 the Liverpool Colliery produced 114,560 tons of marketable coal, a decrease of 10,870 tons on the previous year's production. The James Colliery produced 36,622 tons of marketable coal during the year, a decrease of 4,459 tons on the production for 1930-31.

The disposal, inclusive of stocks on hand at the beginning of the year, was as follows:—

Supplied toTons.
Depots41,237
Railways19,328
Other Government Departments6,376
Shipping companies11,687
Gas companies56,004
Other consumers9,280
Total143,912

The total sales of State coal from the Liverpool Mine for the year amounted to 107,944 tons, value £135,505, as compared with 124,324 tons, value£172,639, for 1930-31, a decrease of 16,380 tons, in value£37,134. The values include sales made c. and f. and f.o.b. as well as f.o.r. The average price realized by the mine on the total sales for the year was£1 5s. l.3d. per ton, a decrease of 2s. 8d. on the previous year's average.

The total sales of State coal from the James Mine for the year amounted to 35,908 tons, value£43,785, giving an average of£1 4s. 4-2d. per ton, a decrease of l-4d. on last year's average. As compared with 1930-31 there is a decrease in quantity of 5,193 tons, and in value of£6,574.

The sales of coal, &c., through the medium of the depots totalled 106,083 tons, value£190,818, as against 133,220 tons, value£246,870, for 1930-31. The net profit for 1931-32 at the mines was£4,598, and the net. profit at the depots, &c.,£11,434, making a total net profit of£16,032. The sum of£7,886 was applied to Sinking Fund Account, and£5,000 was transferred to the Consolidated Fund on account of past administrative services, leaving a balance of£3,146 in the Profit and Loss Account.

WORLD'S COAL-PRODUCTION.

In the 1932 number of the Statesman's Year-Book the world's production of coal is estimated at 1,196,003,000 tons for the year 1930, as compared with 1,311,114,000 tons in 1929 and 1,222,300,000 tons in 1913. Figures for 1931, complete for practically all producing countries, show an almost universal decline below 1930 production.

PETROLEUM.

Drilling for petroleum has in recent years been carried out in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Southland, and Westland. A considerable number of deep boreholes in search of petroleum have been drilled, the deepest being at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which has attained a depth of approximately 6,000 ft. Petroleum of good quality but in limited quantity has been proved, but up to the present time boring for petroleum in the Dominion has attained only a small flow.

During 1931 drilling was carried on in the Gisborne district at Waitangi Hill and on several areas in the New Plymouth district; also at Kauai in the Hokonui Survey District, Southland. The aggregate footage bored was 11,228 ft. A total production of 111,568 gallons of oil was obtained from two wells at New Plymouth, of which quantity Moturoa No. 2 well produced 71,568 gallons of crude oil and Blenheim No. 2 well 40,000 gallons. The total production of crude petroleum oil to the 31st December, 1931, is estimated at 1,669,728 gallons.

Oil-prospecting operations throughout the Dominion have received very liberal financial assistance from the Government in the form of bonuses, subsidies, and loans.

KAURI-GUM.

The European market for kauri-gum—used in the manufacture of varnish and linoleum—being greatly restricted by the war, new but smaller markets were obtained. The Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1914, providing for State purchase of gum from diggers and the disposal of the gum, served a useful purpose in enabling the industry to keep going in spite of the disorganization occasioned by the war.

A system of control of the trade in and export of kauri-gum was provided by the Kauri-gum Control Act, 1925.

During 1931, 3,058 tons of kauri-gum, valued at£128,095, was exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1931 being 420,180 tons, valued at£22,959,862.

PHOSPHATE ROCK.

At Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, considerable deposits of phosphate rock were discovered in 1902, and up to recent years were actively worked. There has been no output, however, since 1924. A thin bed of phosphatic rock has been identified at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, in Marlborough. A similar bed occurs near Port Robinson. Phosphatic nodules are found in the Kaikorai Valley (near Dunedin), at Weka Pass (North Canterbury), and elsewhere. A limestone containing 10-6 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate occurs in the neighbourhood of Onewhero, Waikato district. Other districts where phosphatic material of good quality, though, so far as known, not in commercial quantity, is found are Amberley, Dipton, Oamaru, Waimate, Wangapeka, Clarence Valley, Tutira Block (Mangaharuru Survey District, Hawke's Bay), and Whangarei.

GREENSTONE.

The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” whenever observed in situ, occurs as rounded segregations in talc or talc-serpentine rocks. These segregations vary up to 2 ft. or even more in lateral dimensions. As a rule they average less than 1 ft. in width. So far as is known, the mineral has been found in its original locus only in the Griffin Range, Turiwhate Survey District, North Westland.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.

New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, andesite, porphyrite and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. In addition there are the Whangarei limestone and the Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there is the granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay, and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. The Parliamentary Buildings at Wellington were constructed of this marble. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, North Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there are the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

The following table relates to quarries under the Stone-quarries Act for the year 1931.—

Provincial DistrictNumber of Working Quarries under the Act.Number of Persons ordinarily employed.Output of Stone
Stone or Gravel for Macadamizing or Ballast.Stone for Harbour works.Bulling or Monumental Stone.Limestone for Agriculture.Limestone for Cement or Mortar.Miscellaneous.Value at Quarry.
   Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.£
Auckland1781,031508,324..10,98856,049148,961..154,307
Hawke's Bay3414130,975....15,831....9,877
Taranaki105024,366....2,900....10,757
Wellington3921981,084....8,847..2,84826,279
Nelson1818016,01722,167626,06636,8791,73017,547
Westland
Marlborough
Canterbury39374210,91598,3251,08281,46640,407..97,599
Otago
Southland
Totals, 19313181,995871,681120,49212,132171,159226,2474,578316,366
Totals, 19303181,9581,107,033126,6493,696204,811299,84831,204413,291

The Stone-quarries Act, 1910, and amendments, applies to every place, not being a mine, in which persons work in quarrying stone and any part of which has a face more than 15 ft. deep, and also to any tunnel in the construction of which explosives are used. The Act, however, does not apply to any Government operations, or any road or railway cutting, or excavations for buildings.

PERSONS ENGAGED IN MINING AND QUARRYING.

The following table shows the number of persons employed in or about mines and stone-quarries during the last five years:—

1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Metalliferous mines1,7711,5401,6111,8162,010
Coal-mines5,3745,3765,4975,8675,745
Stone-quarries2,3412,1612,1301,9581,995
Totals9,4869,0779,2389,6419,750

STATE AID TO MINING.

In no other country does the State offer such liberal and varied assistance to miners and prospectors as in New Zealand. State aid to mining in this Dominion is given in several forms, viz.:—

(1) Geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) Government prospecting-drills; (4) loans for mining operations; (5) schools of mines; (6) subsidized roads to mining-fields.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Since the first discovery of coal and the precious metals in New Zealand the Government has employed skilled geologists, who have reported, after examination, on all the known mineral deposits. Since 1916 the Geological Survey has been enlarged, and has included on its staff the most eminent geologists of the Dominion.

FINANCIAL AID TO PROSPECTING.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, loans, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. Ho may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Native land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licenses for coal.

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, a total of£4,811 was actually expended in subsidies for prospecting, and 278 persons were employed in connection therewith. In addition, between 500 and 600 men were assisted up to 31st March, 1932, under the Unemployment Board's prospecting schemes at an approximate cost of£6,000.

GOVERNMENT PROSPECTING-DRILLS.

Prospecting-drills of various types suitable for the conditions existing in the Dominion are lent to bona fide prospectors. A monthly rental is charged for the plant, and the hirer is required to maintain it in good order and condition. Working-expenses are also paid by the hirer, including renewals, &c., and the loss on carbons.

The hirer is required to furnish to the Mines Department weekly reports of boring results.

Considerable use was made of the Government prospecting-drills during 1931, an aggregate of 5,645 ft. being drilled in 45 holes for six parties.

SCHOOLS OF MINES.

For the education of prospectors and mining students six schools of mines are subsidized by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Westport, Reefton, and Runanga. Six scholarships, tenable for four years, are offered annually by the Mines Department.

The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended the 31st March, 1932, was£3,641, as against£3,672 during the previous year.

SUBSIDIZED ROADS.

The expenditure in the form of subsidies and direct grants upon roads on gold-fields during the year ended the 31st March, 1932, amounted to£2,872, as compared with£5,381 during the previous year.

FAVOURABLE FIELDS FOR PROSPECTING FOR GOLD.

Another form of Government assistance to mining consists of the publication of information as to localities recommended to the attention of prospectors. Particulars of localities so recommended may be obtained from the Mines Department.

Board of Examiners.

The Board of Examiners annually conducts examinations of candidates for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers and mine-surveyors under the Coal-mines Act. Examinations of candidates for certificates as underviewers and firemen and deputies under the Coal-mines Act are held periodically when necessary. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners. Fifty certificates were issued in 1931.

SICK AND ACCIDENT AND COAL-MINERS' RFUNDS.

As required by the Coal-mines Act, 1925, the owner of every coal-mine contributes 1/2d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of coal-miners who may be injured while working, and for the relief of families of coal-miners who may be killed or injured.

Under that Act the Miners' Sick and Accident Funds were as from the 1st April, 1926, abolished and incorporated in the Coal-miners' Relief Fund. All accident relief payments are now made from the Coal-miners' Relief Fund, which is administered by the Public Trustee with the assistance of local committees.

The income from the£1/2d. per ton contribution was£4,405 during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1932, as compared with£5,580 during 1930-31, and interest earnings brought the total receipts to£5,594 and£6,820 for the respective years. The total expenditure for the year ended 31st March, 1932, amounted to£6,362, as against£7,110 for the previous year. The amount standing to the credit of the fund as at the 31st March, 1932, was£23,122, as against£23,891 twelve months earlier.

MINER'S PHTHISIS PENSIONS.

Information concerning pensions for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis appears in the section of this book dealing with pensions, superannuation, &c.

Chapter 21. SECTION XXI.—FACTORY PRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

AT present the Dominion's industrial field is for the main part limited to the treatment of the principal primary products. Statistics for recent years, however, indicate advancement among the principal branches of manufacture, as well as a tendency, with the increasing population, for greater diversity in the branches covered.

Statistics of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census—viz., in 1867, 1871, 1874, 1878, and 1881, and quinquennially thereafter. Commencing with the year 1918-19, the collection became an annual one.

Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of factory production a "factory" is defined as an establishment engaged in the manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export, which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies, waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even although employing less than two hands and not using motive power: Tanneries; bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories; brickyards; ad limeworks.

The definition is fairly comprehensive, and clearly includes such industries as, for instance, jewellery and watch repairing, boot, shoe, and saddlery repairing, and similar trades. Small establishments thus engaged were at one time included in the statistics, but they are now excluded unless they are also engaged in actual manufacture and have at least two persons engaged or use motive power.

Other classes of establishments formerly covered by the statistics but excluded from 1921-22 onwards are those engaged in dressmaking and millinery (unless manufacturing wholesale for sale in retail shops), bespoke tailoring, and establishments engaged in tea blending and packing, bottling liquor, stone quarrying and crushing, asphalting, or monumental masonry. The latter industries were excluded to bring the statistics into line with those of other British countries. In addition, returns are not required from plumbers or from builders who make joinery for their own building contracts. Builders are, however, required to furnish annual returns of building and construction, which are dealt with in the next section.

It should be noted that these statistics do not cover, and do not purport to cover, all establishments registered as factories in the Dominion, for the following reasons: "One man" businesses are excluded with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap, or candle factories, brickyards, or limeworks; some small repair-shops (as explained previously) are excluded even although they may employ two or more hands; and in some cases where a factory has two or more branches it has been found impracticable to obtain separate returns, and all branches have been treated as one establishment. The effect of this is seen from the fact that while for the year 1930-31 17,019 factories, employing 104,377 hands, were registered under the Factories Act, only 5,203 factories (with, however, 80,829 persons engaged) were covered by the statistics of factory production.

NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS.

The establishments recorded in 1030-31 numbered 5,203, an increase of 26 as compared with the number recorded in the previous year. The table following shows the number of establishments, classified by industries and provincial districts, for the year ended 31st March, 1931:—

Class of Industry.Auckland.Hawke's Bay.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago.Southland.Totals.
Animal food1362811610191410483975576
Vegetable food34611724..38284134
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants63231550818935199249
Animal matters (not otherwise)25762023..145183
Working in wood1823114103163356433942559
Vegetable produce for fodder5..12......31113
Paper manufactures7....4......14218
Heat, light, and power3913142849527116156
Processes relating to stone, clay, grass, &c.86128513103312514243
Metals other than gold or silver1392921983115735315437
Precious metals121..10......69139
Books and publications1111515875104554016358
Musical instruments3..............2..5
Ornaments and minor art products142215..1..1110358
Designs, medals, type, and dies9....8......21..20
Machines, tools, and implements20..214......179567
Carriages and vehicles3358071224133417164105551,098
Harness, saddlery, and leather Ware4112617..2..35188139
Ships, boats, and their equipment2941711..610160
House furnishings1361820813114671510365
Chemicals and by-products153327..1..1414..77
Textile fabrics31..4......26..16
Apparel130231091..167596378
Fibrous materials8....71..164633
Miscellaneous10....4......44..22
Totals1,5922773191,088711621157695302805,203

The principal increases during 1030-31 occurred in—Motor-engineering, 38; and sawmilling, 11. Chief among those recording decreases were—Flax-milling, 35; and butter and cheese, 9. The substantial increase in the number of motor-engineering establishments during recent years is the natural concomitant of the phenomenal development of motor transport in the Dominion.

The number of establishments is not a very satisfactory basis on which to judge of the development of the various industries. In those industries where the initial capital outlay is large and the materials operated upon are easily transferable e.g., meat-freezing, &c.), there is a tendency for the establishments to expand within themselves, while in other cases, such as motor and cycle engineering, where the initial capital outlay is small and where each establishment supplies the needs of individual communities, a considerable growth in the number of establishments is evident.

An interesting classification of establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, for the last five years is—

Year.10 or under.11-20.21-50.51-100.Over 100.Totals
1926-273,4557735631761215,088
1927-283,5437655701591295,166
1928-293,4747755841701335,136
1929-303,4778005941651415,177
1930-313,6077565521541345,203

The movements in the numbers of establishments under each heading are given in the following table, which shows the percentages of each group to the total over the last five years:—

Year.10 or under.11-20.21-50.51-100.Over 100.Totals
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1926-2767.9015.1911.073.462.38100.00
1927-2868.5814.8111.033.082.50100.00
1928-2967.6415.0911.373.312.59100.00
1929-3067.1615.4511.483.192.72100.00
1930-3169.3314.5310.612.962.57100.00

The table following shows the number of employees engaged in factories of the various categories, with the percentage of each to the total, and the number of employees per establishment.

Year.10 or under11-2021-5051-100Over 100Totals.
Number of Employees.
1926-2715,21911,35417,21612,12825,98781,904
1927-2815,48811,15717,15611,03126,92481,756
1928-2915,32011,30817,66011,39727,99583,680
1929-3015,48011,78518,09111,73128,71085,797
1930-3114,97510,98516,67510,65027,54480,829
Percentages of Total.
1926-2718.5813.8621.0214.8131.73100.00
1927-2818.9513.6520.9813.4932.93100.00
1928-2918.3113.5121.1013.6233.46100.00
1929-3018.0513.7421.0813.6733.46100.00
1930-3118.5213.5920.6313.1734.09100.00
Employees per Establishment
1926-274.4014.6930.5868.91214.7716.10
1927-284.3714.5830.1069.38208.7115.83
1928-294.4114.5930.2467.04210.4916.29
1929-304.4514.7330.4671.10203.6216.57
1930-314.1514.5330.2169.16205.5515.54

The proportion of the total employees engaged in factories having 20 hands or under was 32.44 per cent, in 1926-27 against 32.11 per cent. in 1930-31, while larger factories accounted for 67.56 per cent, of the employees in the first-mentioned against 67.89 per cent, in the last-mentioned year.

EMPLOYEES.

The following table shows the total employees returned at each of the last five collections, classified by provincial districts:—

YearAucklandHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotals
Numbers
1927-2726,9022,7862,57618,3245381,3631,63413,87210,6743,23581,904
1927-2826,8153,0152,61017,7615371,3751,43714,12910,6673,41081,756
1928-2927,0073,1672,62818,8064991,4371,44814,26010,9393,48983,680
1929-3028,0213,2062,72619,2384941,4821,64314,55011,0933,34485,797
1930-3126,6722,8622,50018,2425141,5291,42813,54510,4223,11580,829
Percentages of Domination Total
1926-2732.853.403.1422.370.661.662.0016.9413.033.95100.00
1927-2832.803.693.1921.720.661.681.7617.2813.054.17100.00
1928-2932.283.793.1422.470.591.721.7217.0413.084.17100.00
1929-3032.663.743.1822.420.571.731.9116.9612.933.90100.00
1930-3133.003.543.0922.570.641.891.7716.7612.893.85100.00

The gross figures for the latest collection show that eight out of the ten districts show decreases, the only increases being in the eases of Marlborough and Nelson.

The following table shows the average (monthly) number of wage-earners and of total persons engaged in each class of industry during the year ended 31st March, 1931:—

Class of IndustryWage-earning EmployeesTotal Employees
M.F.M.F.
Animal food8,0509610,094424
Vegetable Food1,9971,5702,4941,735
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,4725211,988625
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)830851,001119
Working in wood6,628167,582103
Vegetable produce for fodder3917413
paper manufactures198253247276
Heat, light, and power5,801277,001408
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass &c.2,45732,89176
Metals other than gold or silver5,2641126,269302
Precious metals133217715
Books and publications5,1461,1946,5741,618
Musical instruments17..221
Ornaments and minor art products1653521645
Designs medals, type and dies117115210
Machines, tools and implements749761,048143
Carriages and Vehicles4,82996,042312
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware8021311,045156
Ships, boats, and their equipment8027392793
House-furnishings1,9492712,430352
Chemicals and by-products8602591,122333
Textile fabrics8861,2829941,306
Apparel2,2567,8732,9778,242
Fibrous materials3406940076
Miscellaneous1676919485
Totals51,95414,02863,96116,868

It is not surprising to find that the distribution of the sexes among the employees shows a considerable preponderance of males. The number of females per hundred males in each of the five years ending 1930-31 has been: 22, 24, 25, 25, and 26.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any extent, and the preponderance of males in such districts is very great; but this preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in greater demand. In Otago the excess of males is less than in any other district, the position being accounted for by the comparative importance of the woollen-milling industry in this district.

The following figures show that for every nine wage-earners there is one proprietor (actively engaged), manager, or overseer. This proportion may appear high, but it must not be overlooked that the New Zealand factory is as yet a small unit.

Group1929-301930-31
Number of PersonsPer Cent of TotalNumber of PersonsPer Cent of Total
Proprietors actively engaged2,6553.102,4192.99
Managers, overseers, &c4,9515.774,6985.81
Accountants, clerks, &c8,0409.377,7309.57
Wage earning employees70,15181.7665,98281.63
totals85,797100.0080,829100.00

SALARIES AND WAGES.

The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages cover the amounts paid in the ordinary way as salaries and wages, as well as bonuses and overtime. Between 1905-06 and 1929-30 the annual amount paid in wages almost quadrupled, rising from £4,457,619 to £17,621,464. A fall to £16,397,600, however, occurred in 1930-31.

The following table shows the wages paid during the last five years according to provincial districts:—

Provincial District.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.
 £££££
Auckland5,684,7485,682,5345,626,1885,754,5035,304,355
Hawke's Bay617,604627,694654,011678,62608,378
Taranaki577,685579,390588,116600,412553,627
Wellington3,902,9943,825,4983,906,9604,084,3903,844,267
Marlborough104,34196,70495,642100,527106,573
Nelson268,608275,989281,746288,310299,592
Westland392,299337,929343,581387,746313,159
Canterbury2,818,1812,782,3232,823,1652,941,2992,736,342
Otago1,998,6711,982,4882,070,4672,089,3861,964,515
Southland682,592687,229698,869696,263666,792
Totals17,047,72316,877,77817,088,74517,621,46416,397,600

The amounts received by male and female employees, and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below:—

Year.Males.Females.Both sexes
 Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 ££££££
1926-2715,534,622231.91,513,101101.417,047,723208.1
1927-2815,300,988231.81,576,790100.116,877,778206.4
1928-2915,413,399229.41,675,346101.517,088,745204.2
1929-3015,870,516231.91,750,948100.917,621,464205.4
1930-3114,747,987230.61,649,61397.816,397,600202.9

Owing to the fact that employees who were engaged for part of the year only were not excluded from the figures in computing the averages given above, and, further, as it was not practicable to take into consideration other factors which would disturb their accuracy, the averages shown cannot be regarded in other than a general way.

The table following shows the total salaries and wages paid in each class of industry during the year ended 31st March, 1931.

Class of Industry.Males.Females.
 ££
Animal food2,595,72348,455
Vegetable food570,775144,253
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants515,86865,634
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)237,00213,082
Working in wood1,615,43710,987
Vegetable produce for fodder16,9601,027
Paper manufactures59,81325,240
Heat, light, and power1,856,35353,079
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.628,1168,778
Metals other than gold or silver1,331,14931,680
Precious metals38,8351,543
Books and publications1,624,133181,487
Musical instruments4,05350
Ornaments and minor art products38,8143,578
Designs, medals, type, and dies35,136794
Machines, tools, and implements229,37815,466
Carriages and vehicles1,172,40530,537
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware224,86213,588
Ships, boats, and their equipment198,0899,587
House-furnishings484,05434,820
Chemicals and by-products271,31734,200
Textile fabrics209,598128,315
Apparel678,310779,432
Fibrous materials69,6076,282
Miscellaneous42,2007,719
Totals14,747,9871,649,613

MOTIVE POWER.

A supply of cheap motive power is essential for industrial development. New Zealand industries have in the past been somewhat handicapped in this respect, as coal and oil, which were in the earlier days the only sources of power, were by no means cheap. The difficulties in the way of obtaining a plentiful supply of cheap motive power are now being overcome by the development of hydroelectric power, for which New Zealand is topographically well suited. The State has in recent years developed this phase of the Dominion's resources, and in doing so has provided a margin of power for attracting special industries depending on a supply of cheap motive power, as well as amply meeting present demands.

The following table shows the numbers of each class of engine used in factories for the last five years, with figures of horse-power:—

Class of Engine.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.
Steam No.2,0241,9111,8471,8181,791
H.P.134,285125,792130,686129,347130,736
Coal-gas. No.297252191162149
H.P.6,8587,7955,8465,3645,080
Suction gas No15914813012394
H.P.9,4558,7238,5138,3735,974
Oil No.321328335336372
H.P.9,89411,99416,07017,45621,016
Electric No.11,32412,42813,73815,02916,027
H.P.102,816111,942119,637131,463136,240
Water No.269255252232205
H.P.145,431150,859182,914295,549224,601
Totals No14,39415,32216,49317,70018,638
H.P.408,739417,105463,666587,552523,647

It should be borne in mind that the figures relating to the horse-power represent the indicated horse-power of the engines installed. This may be, and probably is, in many cases quite a different thing from the actual horse-power used. Attention is also directed to the fact that the statistics include the horse-power of turbines, pelton wheels, and other engines used in the generation of electric current.

A drawback to the statistics arises through the lack of information relating to the actual or estimated period during which the engines or motors were in use. This is an important aspect of considerations affecting the quantitative measurement of the motive power in use.

The table which follows shows the engines in use and their available horse-power in 1925-26 and 1930-31, classified according to the various classes of industries:—

Class of Industry.1925-26.1930-31
Number of Engines.Horse-power.Number of Engines.Horse-power.
Animal food3,18460,5594,03066,387
Vegetable food5529,50288712,143
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants5763,8839596,078
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1492,0302262,633
Working in wood1,74538,7002,23038,942
Vegetable produce for fodder3742128490
Paper manufactures703,724943,904
Heat, light, and power201175,652202309,050
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c55918,97889429,265
Metals other than gold or silver9268,9471,48112,214
Precious metals58765577
Books and publications1,4136,8792,1489,388
Musical instruments18601033
Ornaments and minor art products27563256
Designs, medals, type, and dies234067136
Machines, tools, and implements1621,2792581,385
Carriages and vehicles1,0143,5381,7714,959
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware3293,1823533,012
Ships, boats, and their equipment1036901351,130
House-furnishings5543,6528984,617
Chemicals and by-products3103,4465385,865
Textile fabrics1945,6192215,724
Apparel5822,4009312,760
Fibrous materials1785,6761052,645
Miscellaneous3626585754
Totals13,000359,25418,638523,647

Mainly owing to the enormous development of hydro electric undertakings, the total horsepower of engines engaged in the production of heat, light, and power increased from 175,652 in 1925-26 to 309,050 h.p. in 1930-31, and the following classes of industries also show considerable increases: Animal food, from 00,559 h.p. to 66,387 h.p.; vegetable food, from 9,502 h.p. to 12,143 h.p.; processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c., from 18,978 h.p. to 29,265 h.p.; books and publications, from 6,879 h.p. to 9,388 h.p.; and chemicals and by-products, from 3,446 h.p. to 5,865 h.p.

CONSUMPTION OF COAL.

During the year 1930-31, 900,935 tons of coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production, as against 816,206 tons in the previous year. Of this amount, 840,785 tons represented New Zealand coal, and the balance (60,150 tons), imported coal.

Five industries utilized approximately 80 per cent, of the total coal used for the year—namely, gas-making, 239,788 tons; butter, cheese, and condensed-milk making, 115,184 tons; lime crushing and burning, 95,735 tons; meat freezing and preserving, 96,306 tons; and electricity generation and supply, 170,189 tons.

MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.

The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. For instance, materials used or operated upon in the tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring industry were in 1930-31 valued at £720,833, while those used in printing, publishing, and bookbinding were valued at £1,170,299. If, however, value of output is considered, it is found that the figure for printing and publishing (£4,509,786) is over £3,500,000 greater than that for tanning. &c. (£1,000,138).

The appended table gives the value of materials used in manufacturing industries, according to provincial districts, for five years.

Provincial District1926-271927-281928-291929-301930-31
 £££££
Auckland17,752,56419,639,55021,349,62022,063,55117,856,575
Hawke's Bay2,379,0792,978,0183,374,1613,042,4762,075,522
Taranaki3,759,2504,731,4785,045,9384,704,0203,620,501
Wellington10,073,75811,115,09511,827,76711,718,22010,299,388
Marlborough332,761372,794414,850407,812351,631
Nelson533,521609,882666,099631,242591,920
Westland172,103199,274200,866209,196180,223
Canterbury8,836,1128,996,8089,720,1859,122,1957,732,649
Otago4,228,2324,417,3904,743,5574,873,1014,197,379
Southland2,146,1022,247,9082,527,5272,436,9942,278,171
Totals50,213,48255,308,197,59,870,57059,208,80749,183,959

The cost of materials used in the various classes of industries during the last five years is given in the table hereunder:—

Class of Industry.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.

*Included with “Miscellaneous.”.

† Included with "Machines, tools, and implements.”

 £££££
Animal food27,187,68731,370,79335,326,98034,135,15026,415,232
Vegetable food4,367,3544,669,1074,452,5244,489,3534,255,257
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,014,8181,066,6411,211,4191,351,6741,438,897
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)750,105738,155808,000734,610682,621
Working in wood1,881,9761,670,0691,708,3581,787,3501,410,431
Vegetable produce for fodder69,64556,82467,13571,78880,644
Paper manufactures166,770160,572171,824183,972187,848
Heat, light, and power3,573,0374,221,1364,448,6504,797,3334,955,975
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.472,470452,549452,151493,471419,953
Metals other than gold or silver1,395,1271,334,7711,423,6421,457,1601,263,259
Precious metals44,20239,40239,79338,29337,491
Books and publications1,106,0241,134,8731,165,9381,203,1311,170,299
Musical instruments13,5328,2811,6601,7931,208
Ornaments and minor art products54,10452,29445,75545,58941,983
Equipment for sports and games7,842**
Designs, medals, type, and dies11,05911,57511,48916,28212,080
Machines, tools, and Implements351,235344,372462,138501,138344,623
Carriages and vehicles808,297839,442888,244966,966863,767
Harness, saddlery, and leather ware1,714,9091,646,2181,668,9361,388,177828,737
Ships, boats, and their equipment200,263170,889170,632185,587146,786
House-furnishings806,259720,476752,556755,774642,987
Chemicals and by-products1,025,2641,242,4431,287,2081,232,1161,079,409
Textile fabrics533,653618,561624,658513,501359,165
Apparel2,141,1842,237,8542,305,7382,431,5662,245,597
Fibrous materials338,565307,262272,354298,822173,137
Miscellaneous178,101192,738102,788128,211126,573
Totals50,213,48255,308,19759,870,57059,208,80749,183,959

In considerations affecting the cost of materials used it should be borne in mind that the semi-primary industries (meat-freezing and butter and cheese making) bulk very largely therein. In 1930-31, for example, these industries accounted for £25,737,245 out of a total of £49,183,959 for cost of materials used. The butter and cheese industry is operated principally by co-operative enterprises on the part of the producers, and the cost of material given in such cases represents the difference between the return from the manufactured product and the expenses of manufacturing and marketing. Constituting as they do over 50 per cent, of the total cost of materials used in all industries, the figures for the semi-primary industries strongly colour the total figures for any year. Indeed, a study of the total cost of materials over a number of years shows that the frequent and wide oscillations in primary-produce prices are clearly reflected therein.

PRODUCTS.

The products of manufacture are valued at the current selling-price of the goods manufactured or work done at the factory, where a valuation on this basis is possible, but in many of the principal industries, such as butter, cheese, &c., and meat-freezing, where the commodities are marketed abroad, the values are based on the prices realised in the overseas markets.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which constitutes more than half of the total value; in fact, the cost of materials used has represented no less than 60, 63, 64, 63, and 61 per cent, respectively of the value of the products in the last five years. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling — are treated again in other industries, such as furniture-making, joinery, &c., it must be obvious that part of the value of timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of joinery and furniture made. Duplication of this kind is apparent in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of products by provincial districts for the years 1926-27 to 1930-31:—

Provincial District1926-271927-281928-291929-301930-31
 £££££
Auckland29,061,53030,780,74332,401,44533,747,31428,626,966
Hawke's Bay3,608,7344,280,2434,725,4914,369,6883,204,808
Taranaki5,248,8736,054,7176,525,0216,229,3554,955,761
Wellington17,108,45018,010,25919,083,70619,174,11517,290,152
Marlborough508,797554,425576,008589,186540,984
Nelson1,071,2111,162,8951,302,1061,217,2331,190,534
Westland898,217843,047862,939939,509747,166
Canterbury14,107,51714,304,33815,120,88714,549,18812,741,363
Otago7,977,1058,143,2798,639,7258,805,3517,829,418
Southland3,422,0693,598,0573,934,8943,843,5873,618,274
Totals83,012,50387,732,00393,172,22293,464,52680,745,426

The following table shows the gross value of products by classes of industries as recorded in the last five collections:—

Class of Industry.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.

*Included with "Miscellaneous.”

† Included with " Machines, tools, and implements.”

 £££££
Animal food33,880,83038,265,28542,088,15440,611,11232,799,192
Vegetable food6,255,9036,639,4176,309,2516,488,0226,287,174
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants2,467,1432,577,6582,988,3163,259,9473,291,686
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1,266,2341,260,0451,313,0091,238,5171,194,128
Working in wood5,834,3355,086,7975,045,1445,356,2324,334,966
Vegetable produce for fodder90,33876,87995,973109,826115,139
Paper manufactures343,738350,039372,999377,316389,073
Heat, light, and power6,109,8616,601,8506,970,2757,414,7107,554,287
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2,222,5372,226,2872,277,4742,367,0182,106,103
Metals other than gold or silver3,637,6433,527,8763,730,2723,798,9673,402,773
Precious metals109,17897,21596,542101,169100,564
Books and publications4,527,6964,411,0524,642,7254,772,8114,509,786
Musical instruments31,64218,6159,71314,2626,887
Ornaments and minor art products146,538133,990125,505123,937105,291
Equipment for sports and games27,242**
Designs, medals, type, and dies55,89151,18158,98477,02871,482
Machines, tools, and implements737,626730,266912,8091,025,366746,067
Carriages and vehicles2,515,0262,691,5712,794,4093,120,4602,652,608
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware2,342,9412,263,6812,210,6021,848,8041,220,015
Ships, boats, and their equipment496,557471,107480,571523,296446,087
House-furnishings1,717,9861,622,4011,674,1141,697,0511,420,441
Chemicals and by-products1,895,0362,146,5822,273,6142,319,3252,063,302
Textile fabrics1,107,3331,269,4191,303,6141,156,686954,229
Apparel4,104,0934,284,2444,532,8714,757,6094,410,722
Fibrous materials826,404733,860632,878641,535317,234
Miscellaneous262,752294,686232,404263,520240,190
Totals83,012,50387,732,00393,172,22293,464,52680,745,426

ADDED VALUE.

As indicated under the heading of " products,” the value of products is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. Another part, and in many cases by far the larger portion, represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, therefore, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost or materials used from the gross value of the products, and is referred to as the " added value.” As the basis of the added value is the value of products, it is clear that it must be affected by fluctuations in values, and this fact should not be lost sight of when use is made of these figures.

Since the added value represents the value added to the material in the processes of industry, it represents, as already indicated, a valuable index of the volume of production. It suffers the serious drawback, however, that it is affected by price fluctuations, which to a certain extent obscure the movements resulting from increased or diminished production. A special series of index numbers prepared from wholesale-price quotations relating to the commodities covered by the statistics, with special weights corresponding to their relative importance in the national volume of production, are given in the subjoined table. These index numbers have been used in obtaining the “corrected” figures, which merely represent, in short, the value of production in each year expressed in terms of the general price level ruling in 1909-13. The relative numbers given in the last column show at a glance the percentage difference between the figures for any year and the year ended 31st March, 1920.

It is not claimed that the figures following are quite free from the effects of price-fluctuations—no attempt having been made to allow for changes in quality or in the relative production of different commodities — but the gross figures for each year, having been reduced to a common price-level, are sufficiently accurate to be comparable, and can be accepted as an index, though only an approximate one, of the value created in the factories and works during the years given. Even though the adjusted figures are of necessity only roughly approximate, they are much more truly indicative of the actual state of affairs than the unadjusted figures.

Year.Added Value (uncorrected).Index of Prices of New Zealand Manufactures (1900-13=1000).Added Value (corrected).Relative Numbers (Corrected Figures, 1919-20=1000).
 £ £ 
1919-2021,538,2091,59213,529,0251000
1920-2125,555,2201,73714,712,2741087
1921-2227,101,9441,67016,228,7081,200
1922-2328,757,7361,46719,603,0921,449
1923-2429,969,3641,65018,163,2501,343
1924-2531,939,8931,75018,251,3671,349
1925-2632,569,4301,69019,271,8521,424
1926-2732,799,0211,54521,229,1391,569
1927-2832,423,8061,52721,233,6641,577
1928-2933,301,6521,63320,392,9281,507
1929-3034,255,7191,55921,972,8791,624
1930-3131,561,4671,33223,694,7951,751

The rapid growth in the Dominion's industrial activity during recent years is reflected in the added-value figure recorded at successive collections. The added value, which appeared at £21,538,209 in 1919-20, reached £31,561,467 in 1930-31, an increase of 32 per cent. When correction is made for price movements, the increase is found to be 75 per cent.

The added value by provincial districts for the last five collections, taking all industries into account, is given in the table hereunder:—

Provincial District.1926-271927-281928-291929-301930-31
Aggregate Added Value.
 £££££
Auckland11,308,96611,141,19311,051,82511,683,76310,770,391
Hawke's Bay1,229,6551,302,2251,351,3301,327,2121,129,286
Taranaki1,489,6231,323,2391,479,0831,525,3351,335,260
Wellington7,034,6926,895,1647,255,9397,455,8956,990,764
Marlborough176,036181,631161,158181,374189,353
Nelson537,690553,013636,007585,991598,614
Westland726,114643,773662,073730,313566,943
Canterbury5,271,4055,307,5305,400,7025,426,9935,008,714
Otago3,748,8733,725,8893,896,1683,932,2503,632,039
Southland1,275,9671,350,1491,407,3671,406,5931,340,103
Totals32,799,02132,423,80633,301,65234,255,71931,561,467
Proportion of Total
Auckland34.4834.3633.1934.1134.12
Hawke's Bay3.754.024.003.873.58
Taranaki4.544.094.444.454.23
Wellington21.4521.2721.7921.7722.15
Marlborough0.540.560.480.530.60
Nelson1.641.711.911.711.90
Westland2.211.991.992.131.80
Canterbury16.0716.3716.2215.8415.87
Otago11.4311.4611.7011.4811.51
Southland3.894.174.224.114.24
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

For the last five years the Auckland Provincial District has contributed the largest proportion of the total added value, with Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago following in that order, and Southland, Taranaki, and Hawke's Bay in excess of one million each.

In 1919-20 the added value per person engaged was £312, while in 1930-31 it had reached £390, an increase of 25 per cent. The index numbers of prices computed in regard to New Zealand manufactures decreased considerably from 1592 in 1919-20 to 1332 in 1930-31, or by 16 per cent. During the same period the aggregate mechanical power available increased by 172 per cent., which is quite out of proportion to the increase of approximately 22 per cent, in the total persons engaged. In view of the above it seems a reasonable conclusion that the increase in the added value per employee since 1919-20 has been due to increased motive power, combined to a certain extent with an increase in the productivity of labour. The added value per employee has remained practically stationary for the last five years.

The following table shows various percentages and rates that have been computed in connection with the added value for the last five years:—

1926—27.1927—28.1928—29.1929—30.1930—31.
 £££££
Added value per head of mean population23.0922.4622.8123.1822.07
Added value per person engaged400.46396.59397.96399.26390.47
Added value per £100 expended on salaries and wages192.39192.11194.87194.40192.48
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Percentage of salaries and wages to added value51.9852.0551.3151.4451.95
Percentage of added value to cost of materials used65.3258.6255.6257.8664.17

Although the relation between the aggregates of wages paid and of added value bears out to a certain extent the changing times through which industry has passed, definite conclusions cannot be arrived at without due regard to the effects brought about by the increased use of machinery and changes in the relative importance of different groups of industries. Some idea of the effects of the latter consideration can be seen from the following table showing the percentages of salaries and wages to added value in some principal classes of industries during the last five years:—

Class of Industry.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1920-30.1930-31.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Animal food37.4236.3038.6840.7741.42
Vegetable food35.7935.5236.1235.5435.19
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants35.7735.4731.9431.4031.39
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)45.3746.1347.9448.0548.89
Working in wood56.7457.2856.9255.3255.61
Heat, light, and power70.5777.7874.0270.8073.49
Books and publications51.2155.1152.8752.0854.07
Machines, tools, and implements60.4553.5649.6152.3660.99
Apparel69.9768.9667.0665.7167.33
Fibrous materials58.9155.5654.9159.0052.67

The table given here under shows the added value by classes of industries for each of the last five years:—

Class of Industry.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.

*Included with " Miscellaneous.”

† Included with " Machines, tools, and implements.”

 £££££
Animal food6,693,1436,894,4926,761,1746,475,9626,383,960
Vegetable food1,888,5491,970,3101,856,7271,998,6692,031,917
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,452,3251,511,0171,776,8971,908,2731,852,789
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)516,129521,890505,009503,907511,507
Working in wood3,952,3593,415,8283,336,7863,568,8822,924,535
Vegetable produce for fodder20,69320,05528,83838,03834,495
Paper manufactures176,968189,467201,175193,344201,225
Heat, light, and power2,536,8242,380,7142,521,6252,617,3772,598,312
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,750,0671,773,7381,825,3231,873,5471,686,150
Metals other than gold or silver2,242,5162,193,1052,806,6302,341,8072,139,514
Precious metals64,97657,81356,74962,87663,073
Books and publications3,421,6723,276,1793,476,7873,569,6803,339,487
Musical instruments18,11010,3348,05312,4695,679
Ornaments and minor art products92,43481,69679,75078,34863,308
Equipment for sports and games19,400**
Designs, medals, type, and dies44,83239,60647,49560,74659,402
Machines, tools, and implements386,391385,894450,671524,228401,444
Carriages and vehicles1,706,7291,752,1291,906,1652,153,4941,788,841
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware628,032617,468541,666460,627391,278
Ships, boats, and their equipment296,294800,218309,939337,709299,301
House-furnishings911,727901,925921,558941,277783,454
Chemicals and by-products869,772904,134986,4061,087,209983,893
Textile fabrics573,680650,858678,956643,185595,064
Apparel1,962,9092,046,3902,227,1332,326,0432,165,125
Fibrous materials487,839426,598360,524342,713144,097
Miscellaneous84,651101,948129,616135,309113,017
Totals32,799,02132,423,80633,301,65234,255,71931,561,467

FIXED ASSETS.

The values of the fixed assets give some idea as to the permanency and stability of the manufacturing industries in New Zealand, and afford the means of judging to some extent of the amount of capital that has been sunk therein.

In connection with the statistics of fixed assets it should be understood that the figures given are of necessity only approximate, the principal reason for this being that where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries an apportionment has to be made between the industries, and this cannot be done with accuracy. Furthermore, in many instances fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an understatement owing to appreciated site-value, or an overstatement owing to insufficient allowance being made for depreciation, obsolescence,&c. Where premises occupied are rented or leased (particularly if only a portion) it has been found impossible to arrive at the correct value. In such circumstances the practice has been to ascertain the annual rental value and capitalize this.

The following table shows the value of land, buildings, and plant and machinery recorded in the years 1926-27 to 1930-31 by provincial districts:—

Provincial District1926—27.1927—28.1928—29.1929—30.1930—31.
 £££££
Auckland21,337,90322,016,69922,559,57125,777,78826,091,527
Hawke's Bay2,264,4172,450,7873,547,5752,654,1012,544,110
Taranaki2,730,5452,703,7152,700,3772,852,4882,881,255
Wellington15,262,43615,741,04116,374,30117,639,96317,609,329
Marlborough338,854585,334596,771603,643606,073
Nelson944,352934,9141,006,1651,137,7021,193,188
Westland834,302850,449724,783944,162938,845
Canterbury10,166,68510,317,33810,302,70610,442,47110,556,872
Otago5,371,1935,694,0026,247,1216,353,7926,735,635
Southland3,472,4383,379,8213,278,6273,249,0443,257,576
Totals62,723,12564,674,15067,337,99771,655,15472,414,410

The value of land, buildings, and plant and machinery may be taken as representing approximately the fixed capital, and a classification by classes of industries is therefore interesting, as it shows to a certain extent the amount of this capital required in the various classes. It is recognized that electric-supply undertakings and gasworks require heavy expenditure on plant and machinery, &c., and it is not surprising that the value of fixed assets employed in the industries coming under the” "Heat, light, and power" class is much greater than that for any other class, notwithstanding that the added value in this case is relatively small It is particularly interesting to note that while the added value in the “Animal food” class amounts to £6,383,960, as against £2,598,312 for heat, light, and power, the fixed capital in the latter case is £37,001,477, while in the former it is £8,833,588— over £28,000,000 less. The following table shows the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery by classes of industries for the last five collections:—

Class of Industry.1926-27.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.

*Included with "Miscellaneous.”

† Included with "Machines, tools, and implements.”

 £££££
Animal food8,731,7978,743,4088,890,8299,006,9958,833,588
Vegetable food2,225,0202,286,9942,267,9162,316,7542,392,286
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,394,7621,425,2821,599,5201,960,9011,877,682
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)545,148578,859698,009521,662526,894
Working in wood3,340,0683,189,9062,877,8562,958,8912,846,835
Vegetable produce for fodder56,61148,99255,47062,09375,118
Paper manufactures261,818276,527278,768260,463268,689
Heat, light, and power28,514,59530,087,31432,100,86935,322,68737,001,477
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,747,7301,804,0821,970,0002,122,6152,101,929
Metals other than gold or silver2,306,9072,376,8922,463,6522,638,9142,608,034
Precious metals112,783104,09291,02193,559113,408
Books and publications3,407,7473,580,2304,050,2724,008,0934,093,463
Musical instruments29,28318,58719,9758,5367,361
Ornaments and minor art products130,922140,744126,011121,655106,480
Equipment for sports and games15,289**
Designs, medals, type, and dies53,64458,95651,51975,13973,591
Machines, tools, and implements418,562391,736332,135416,549409,128
Carriages and vehicles2,743,0832,759,0362,698,3312,863,7002,677,912
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware604,447593,842539,152518,736468,346
Ships, boats, and their equipment268,088254,527288,500292,505286,663
House-furnishings928,127926,998961,288932,737884,123
Chemicals and by-products1,504,9681,563,0821,640,7601,770,3821,675,929
Textile fabrics973,197967,343926,407950,472856,222
Apparel1,696,7871,781,2371,822,6771,900,3221,890,482
Fibrous materials573,735565,781374,223367,900191,217
Miscellaneous138,007149,703212,837162,894147,553
Totals62,723,12564,674,15067,337,99771,655,15472,414,410

Successive substantial increases in the total value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery have been recorded for many years past. The figure registered for 1930-31 (£72,414,410) is £759,256, or 1.1 per cent., above 1929-30. The continued expansion recorded each year for the electric-supply industry is the main contributing factor to these increases. This industry increased the value of its land, buildings, plant, and machinery by £1,233,792 for 1930-31 as compared with 1929-30.

The relation between the value of (a) land and buildings, and (b) plant and machinery illustrates the tendency for the latter to increase at a proportionately faster rate than the former. In 1905-06 the proportions per cent, of land and buildings and of plant and machinery to the total fixed assets were 57 and 43 respectively, but these positions are now more than reversed, the percentages in 1930-31 being 33 1/2 and 66 1/2. Each collection since 1906 has shown a gradual and consistent decrease in the percentage of the value of land and buildings to the total fixed assets, and an increase in the figure for plant and machinery. The table given hereunder shows the movement during the last five years:—

year.Land and BuildingsPlant and Machinery.Total Amount.
Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.
 £ £ £
1926-2722,875,44736.4739,847,67863.5362,723,125
1927-2823,301,44936.0341,372,70163.9764,674,150
1928-2924,118,54935.8143,219,4486,41967,337,997
1929-3025,446,80935.5146,208,34564.4971,655,154
1930-3124,329,07733.6048,085,33366.4072,414,410

CAPITAL.

Although information as to the amount of capital sunk in each factory has been collected for some years, the figures in this respect have been found to be inaccurate and have not been made use of. The chief factors militating against the collection of satisfactory information in this connection are the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning the capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing. In the case of joint-stock companies the capital figures have been found to be reasonably accurate, and have been published in the "Annual Statistical Report on Factory Production" for some years. The following table shows, for each of the last five years, particulars of the capital employed in factories operated by joint-stock companies:—

Year ended 31st March,Number of Companies.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Percentage of paid-up Capital to Total Capital.Loan and Reserve Capital (excluding Bank Overdraft).Percentage of Loan Capital to Total Capital.Total Capital.Paid-up Shares issued Vendors as Part of Purchase Consideration, included under heading "Paid-up Capital.”
Private Companies
  ££ £ ££
19271,22512,683,83211,616,74981.302,672,18418.7014,288,9331,783,645
19281,24212,400,64711,424,06180.682,734,94419.3214,159,0051,773,875
19291,29713,768,53412,705,86781.682,849,70818.3215,555,5752,287,685
19301,40013,981,43712,888,12781.003,022,38819.0015,910,5152,269,966
19311,44713,953,26512,843,08082.172,787,23117.8315,630,3111,930,318
Public and Co-operative Companies.
192777424,538,35422,057,23382.404,710,06417.6020,767,2973,443,051
192876824,793,46922,323,99981.655,015,74818.3527,339,7473,373,069
192975325,774,08123,107,01780.225,695,97719.7828,802,9943,495,440
193074625,835,55723,092,85178.966,151,85921.0429,244,7103,710,008
193172825,873,18023,074,21480.175,706,58719.8328,780,8014,228,743
Total (all Companies).
19271,99937,222,18633,673,98282.027,382,24817.9841,056,2305,226,696
19282,01037,194,11633,748,06081.327,750,69218.6841,498,7525,146,944
19292,05039,542,61535,812,88480.738,545,68519.2744,358,5695,783,125
19302,14639,816,99435,980,97879.689,174,24720.3245,155,2255,979,974
19312,17539,826,44535,917,29480.878,493,81819.1344,411,1126,159,061

From 1911 onwards from 10 to 20 per cent. of the capital invested in the factories and works operated by companies had been obtained by way of loan. Public companies work on a slightly higher percentage of loan capital than private companies, and from 1916 onwards the paid-up and loan capital of private companies has been consistently in excess of the subscribed capital, while public companies have only on three occasions between 1911 and 1925 — and then by comparatively small margins — had the use of paid-up and loan capital in actual excess of the subscribed capital.

The following table, showing the added value per £100 of capital (loan and paid up) for private and public companies, throws considerable light on the relative returns received on capital invested in both kinds of companies:—

Year.Added Value per £100 of Capital.
Private Companies.Public and Co-operative Companies.Total.
 £££
192273.5749.0857.55
192370.3448.1555.91
192473.5640.8151.74
192581.3460.9567.62
192676.5652.0659.95
192772.1855.5361.33
192873.3453.7561.09
192972.4152.0559.19
193076.1752.3760.76
193179.0850.5757.75

The figures show that the added value per £100 of capital is higher in the case of private companies than for public companies, but it must be remembered that the industries in which the capital of private companies and that of public companies is embarked are not necessarily identical.

In considering the figures given in regard to capital it must be borne in mind that the registered capital is taken in each case, except where the company may not be fully engaged in manufacture (in which case an apportionment on the basis of fixed assets is taken), and that the capital necessarily includes capital invested in securities outside the company. This excess capital, as it may be called, would for various reasons be more likely to be found to any great extent in public companies than in private companies, and has, no doubt, the effect of swelling the capital figure for public companies to some considerable extent, beyond the amount actually invested in the various factories. The smaller return for each £100 of capital invested in the case of public companies is no doubt due in some measure to this fact.

CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION.

Information as to the character of organization of the establishments engaged in factory production is given in the following table for each of the last three years.

Character of Organization.1928-20.1929-30.1930-31.
No.Added ValueNo.Added ValueNo.Added Value
  £ £ £
Individual1,8333,080,1631,8143,006,7321,7992,471,116
Private firm or partnership7892,015,9017551,810,0847311,470,710
Public registered company49311,743,08548111,822,03249811,117,845
Private registered company1,40811,264,4661,49512,118,3791,56211,089,357
Municipal1421,949,0361442,004,7571461,973,902
Co-operative and miscellaneous4713,249,0014883,493,7354673,438,537
Total5,13633,301,6525,17734,255,7195,20331,561,467

The figures in the preceding table show that the excellent facilities offered by the limited-liability company have been taken advantage of by the larger manufacturing establishments. Although the majority of establishments were either individual or partnership concerns, the actual added value of such concerns during 1930-31 was only 12.5 per cent. of the total added value. Public and private registered companies contributed slightly over 70 per cent. during the same period.

AGES OF INDUSTRIES.

Out of the 5,203 manufacturing establishments in existence in New Zealand during the year ended 31st March, 1931, only 1,797 were shown to have been in operation prior to 1910, so that, excluding those cases where the date of establishment is unknown, 2,946 of the present establishments came into existence during the last two decades, at an average rate over the whole period of approximately 147 per annum. Some 1,062 date from the decade 1910-19; 883 from the quinquennium 1920-24, 885 from 1925-29; and 116 from 1930; while in 460 cases the date of establishment was not given.

ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY.

New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, bot industry is as yet organized on a relatively small scale. The statistical evidence does not appear to indicate a concentrative tendency so marked as in older countries where the industrial arts are in a relatively more advanced stage.

The law in the Dominion restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 10 persons, a private company to not less than 2 or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not less than 7 persons. Co-operation in industry is characteristic of the semi-primary industries engaged in the preparation of primary produce for the market. The principal of these is the butter and cheese making industry. Municipal enterprises are confined mainly to public-utility industries—e.g., gasworks, generation and distribution of electricity, and electric tramways — while the State operates the chief central hydro-electric generating stations and the Government Printing Office.

There are considerable differences in the average size of the industrial units operated under the different kinds of organization; the order of magnitude, however, has remained substantially the same over the last decade. The public companies show the highest added value per establishment, municipal organization comes next, after which there is a substantial drop to co-operative organization. Private companies follow co-operative organizations fairly closely, but there is a big gap between this class and the partnerships and individuals. The average for the individuals is, of course, considerably below that for partnerships. The following table shows the added value per establishment according to the organization for ten years.

ADDED VALUE PER ESTABLISHMENT.

Year.Individual.Partnership.Joint-stock Companies.Municipal and General GovernmentCo-operative and Miscellaneous.Total.
Public.private
 £££££££
1921-222,1963,02321,4288,07011,7808,4506,484
1922-232,1473,03523,3577,96412,5758,4496,634
1923-242,1023,19723,8148,19312,7058,7806,718
1924-252,1392,87823,5098,41613,7109,5077,024
1925-262,1492,77324,8128,32013,6076,2856,776
1926-271,8602,65124,6787,97013,5816,9996,568
1927-281,7292,38123,6657,80812,9786,7046,276
1928-291,6802,55523,8198,00013,7266,8986,484
1929-301,6582,39724,5788,10613,9227,1596,617
1930-311,3742,01222,3257,09913,5207,3636,066

The above figures represent the arithmetic average in each case—i.e., the total added value for each class divided by the number of establishments.

The table following shows the relative position of each kind of organization to the total for all classes in respect of the number of establishments, the number of persons engaged, the total horse-power of engines in use, and the added value.

Year.Individual.Partnership.Joint-stock Companies.Municipal and General Government.Co-operative and Miscellaneous.Totals.
Public.Private.
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ESTABLISHMENTS.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1926-2735.3817.249.6125.472.899.41100 00
1927-2836.2616.419.6225.752.719.25100.00
1928-2935.6915.369.6027.412.779.17100.00
1929-3035.0414.589.2928.882.789.43100.00
1930-3134.5714.059.5730 022.818.98100.00
PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERSONS ENGAGED.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1926-2713.188.7331 0533.868.284.90100.00
1927-2813.168.0032.0133.837.925.08100.00
1928-2912.427.6631.5035.507.915.01100.00
1929-3012.057.0029.9038.447.495.12100.00
1930-3110.686.2730.4639.018.345.24100.00
PERCENTAGE TOTAL HORSE-POWER.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1926-273.632.6121.7914.1552.555.27100.00
1927-283.642.5223.1414.2651.604.84100.00
1928-293.092.1920.8514.4754.684.72100.00
1929-302.491.5516.9012.0762.984.01100.00
1930-312.661.9119.7513.4457.974.27100.00
PERCENTAGE TOTAL ADDED VALUE.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1926-2710.026.9636.1130.915.9710.03100.00
1927-289.996.2336.2732.035.609.88100.00
1928-299.256.0535.2633.835.859.76100.00
1929-308.785.2834.5135.385.8510.20100.00
1930-317.834.6635.2335.146.2510.89100.00

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES.

An attempt has been made to classify industries broadly according to the nature of the work carried on. The results of a classification drawn up specially for this purpose are presented in the tables that follow. The principal object of the classification made use of is the segregation of those industries which because of their close association with and dependence on the great primary industries of the Dominion, or the fact that they represent the provision of public utilities under monopoly conditions, are not generally associated with the somewhat vague but popular expression " secondary industries.” It is recognized that the term "manufacturing industries" is more appropriate than this term. The main basis of the classification is the relationship between the value of the material worked upon and the value of the finished product, as expressed in what is known for statistical purposes as the "added value.” In those industries which may for some purposes be regarded as extensions of the primary industries the raw material undergoes only slight changes in the factory or workshop, with the result that the " added value " created is relatively small. In the genuine manufacturing industries (e.g., boot and shoe manufacturing) the raw material is subjected to much more detailed and elaborate processes. The " added value " in these industries is therefore relatively high.

Group I comprises those industries engaged in the preparation of farm-products for the market, with resulting by-products. In this group the " added value " is relatively small in proportion to the value of the output.

Separate figures were not available for tanneries in 1920-21. The figures for this industry have therefore been included in Group I for both 1920-21 and 1930-31. The total value of the output of this industry in 1930-31 was £481,518,

The specific industries falling within this group are as follows:—

Meat freezing and preserving. Fellmongering and wool-scouring.
Ham and bacon curing. Tanning.
Butter and cheese making. Boiling-down and manure-making.
Sausage-casing. 

Group II covers those industries which provide public-utility services under monopoly conditions in so far as competition within the industry is concerned. It covers gasworks, electricity generation and supply, and electric tramways.

Group III covers what are generally referred to as semi-primary industries. They are based upon the application of labour to natural resources. The "added value" in these industries bulks large in proportion to the value of the output and represents principally wages.

The following industries comprise this group:—

Fish-curing. Brick, tile, and pottery making.
Sawmilling. Concrete-block and fibrous-plaster making.
Lime-crushing. Flax-milling.

Group IV covers all industries for which statistics are available and which have not been included in the previous groups. It includes several industries, such as grain-milling, iron-smelting, &c., which may be regarded as being on the borderline between it and Group III, and several industries, such as motor engineering and repairing, piano-repairing, &c., which are not perhaps covered by the term " secondary industry " as generally used.

The following table shows the principal statistics for the various industries for the years ended 31st March, 1921 and 1931, classified into the groups already referred to:—

Group.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Materials used.Products.Added Value.Land, Buildings, Plant, and Machinery
Absolute Figures.
1920-21
  £££££
I14,8122,960,73232,112,83338,065,7255,952,8929,762,243
II5,4831,190,0381,898,0093,637,6051,739,59610,922,598
III12,1592,620,3231,865,0346,437,0214,571,9874,448,619
IV39,8327,039,90817,695,22330,985,96813,290,74512,572,742
Totals72,28613,811,00153,571,09979,126,31925,555,22037,706,202
1930-31
I11,8862,949,59627,537,85434,424,0816,886,2279,301,730
II7,4091,909,4324,955,9757,554,2872,598,31237,001,477
III9,8092,101,5472,058,0636,557,3044,499,2415,601,576
IV51,7259,437,02514,632,06732,209,75417,577,68720,509,627
Totals80,82916,397,60049,183,95980,745,42631,561,46772,414,410
Group.Persons engaged.Salaries and wages.Materials usedProductsAdded valueLand, Buildings, Plant, and Machinery
Percentage of each Group to Total.
1920-21
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
I20.4921.4459.9548.1123.2925.89
II7.598.623.544.600.8128.97
III16.8218.973.488.1317.8911.80
IV55.1050.9733.0339.1052.0133.34
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00
1930-31
I14.7017.9955.9942.6321.8212.84
II9.1711.6410.089.308.2351.10
III12.1412.824.188.1214.267.74
IV63.9957.5529.7539.8955.6928.32
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

It is not claimed that the classification adopted will suit all requirements. Some rearrangement may be necessary to meet particular cases. Nov is it claimed that it is mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive throughout, although this can be said of Groups I and II as between themselves.

As between the four groups for 1930-31. "Group IV, Manufacturing Industries,” provides employment for 63.99 per cent. of the total persons engaged, pays 57.55 per cent. of the total wages paid, and contributes 55.69 per cent. of the "added value" for all industries, but has a capital investment (as indicated by the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery) which represents only 28.32 per cent. of the total. It is perhaps not generally realized that three public-service industries (gasworks, electricity generation and supply, and electric tramways) in the Dominion represent a capital investment of over £37,000,000, against approximately £20,500,000 in manufacturing industries. The figure for manufacturing industries is more than twice that for Group I, and over three and a half times that for Group III.

When comparing the “added value” of the four groups allowance should be made for the method adopted in arriving at the figures for Group II. The headings “Materials,” “Products” and “Added Value” are not strictly applicable to the statistics of the public utility industries—i.e., Gasworks, electric-supply, and electric tramways. In order, therefore, to obtain a uniform classification, certain modifications have been made for these industries. Gross revenue including rates has been adopted to represent “value of products.” The heading “materials” on the other hand presents more difficulty and a different method has been adopted for each of three industries comprising Group II. “Materials” has been taken to cover cost of coal in the case of gasworks, total expenditure less salaries and wages for electric tramways and total expenditure less salaries and wages met out of revenue from sale of current for electric supply. From this it is observed that “added value” for Group II which as in the other groups represents the difference between products and materials is not a true index of the value created by the industries in this group and for that reason is of little use in making comparisons.

Comparisons between the relative percentage figures for each group of industries in 1920-21 and 1930-31 reveal some rather striking tendencies in the Dominion's industrial field. In respect of capital invested in fixed assets, the public-service industries came second in 1920-21 with 28.97 per cent. of the total, against 33.34 per cent. for Group IV. Between 1920-21 and 1930-31 over £26,000,000 increase in the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery was recorded in the three principal public services, but mainly in the electric-supply industry This had the effect of making the figure for Group II in 1930-31 51.10 per cent. of the total, against 12.84 per cent. for Group I and 28.32 per cent. for Group IV.

The absolute figures show that Group I decreased from £9,762,243 in 1920-21 to £9,301,730 in 1930-31, and Group III increased from £4,448,619 to £5,601,576; while Group IV, manufacturing industries, rose from £12,572,742 to £20,509,627. The flow of capital into the public services, particularly the electric-supply industry, during the last ten years has, however, completely submerged the fairly substantial increases in the other groups.

The number of persons engaged in the various groups also shows changes. The proportion of the total employed in Group I dropped from 20.49 per cent. in 1920-21 to 14.70 per cent. in 1930.31; Group II increased from 7.59 per cent. to 9.17 per cent.; Group III dropped from 16.82 per cent. to 12.14 per cent.; while Group IV, manufacturing industries, rose from 55.10 per cent. to 63.99 per cent.

EMPLOYMENT AND WAGES.

In connection with the statistics of factory production, special annual returns as to wages and employment are collected. The information contained in the returns is tabulated under the following headings: (a) Wage-rates and number of employees; (b) overtime; (c) short time.

WAGE-RATES AND NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES.

The period covered by the returns in this case is the nearest normal week to 31st March in each year, and the data collected include the number of employees engaged at each wage-rate, as well as the total employees and the total earnings during the specified week. Working proprietors, managers, overseers, accountants, and clerks do not come within the scope of the return, which covers wage-earning employees only, and out-workers, if any. All wage-earning employees of either sex are covered, irrespective of age, and the figures are therefore inclusive of many young male and female workers receiving low wages. The inclusion of these workers has had the effect of making the average earnings lower than they would otherwise have been, and this fact must not be overlooked when the figures are made use of.

Due attention should also be paid to the fact that, although every endeavour is made to choose comparable weeks each year, certain factors may disturb the comparability of the figures from year to year. An unduly late or early season, abnormally wet weather, &c., would conceivably operate to affect the usefulness of either the number of employees or their earnings as indexes of the volume of employment. In using the average earnings it should be borne in mind that these have been computed from the amount earned during the specified week, and are, of course, affected by overtime and short time.

The following table covers the nearest normal week to the 31st March in the years 1922 to 1931:—

Year.Total Wage-earning Employees.Earnings during Specified Week.
Total.Average.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
   £££ s. d.£ s. d.
192249,23510,841220,03620,5184 9 51 17 10
192353,07112,130227,21022,6224 5 71 17 4
192454,65211,820235,11721,9754 6 01 17 2
192556,98312,048254,98221,3994 9 61 15 6
192656,84812,287255,02023,3454 9 91 18 0
192756,61312,807253,32024,4394 9 61 18 2
192857,15313,224253,71525,5294 8 91 18 7
192957,43813,696258,82027,0514 10 11 19 6
193060,21714,823276,91227,8804 12 01 17 7
193151,30712,776223,75822,9444 7 31 15 11

In the table following a summary showing the number of employees within the various wage-groups is given for the specified weeks covered by the returns in 1922 and 1931. Some noteworthy changes in the distribution have occurred in the nine years.

Weekly Rate of Wages.Males.Females.
1922.1931.1922.1931.
Under 20s.9391,0509061,055
20a. and under 25s.1,3111,5971,0821,540
25s. and under 30s.1,0851,0381,2071,440
30s. and under 35s.1,2261,6741,3181,478
35s. and under 40s.7331,182917985
40s. and under 45s.8918921,0481,047
45s. and under 50s.5771,2352,0502,711
50s. and under 55s.5687681,0591,100
55s. and under 60s.388517457640
60s. and under 65s.960907385413
65s. and under 70s.508577146120
70s. and under 75s.1,0207069476
75s. and under 80s.1,5187923533
80s. and under 85s.3,2443,7265137
85s. and under 90s.5,3253,6631114
90s. and under 95s.6,1276,1962524
95s. and under 100s.4,2966,62088
100s. and under 105s.5,2725,1241317
105s. and under 110s.3,6273,09798
110s. and under 115s.2,9052,63146
115s. and under 120s.1,2541,26362
120s. and under 130s.2,7792,63697
130s. and under 140s.8911,014..7
140s. and under 160s.9931,379..4
160s. and over7981,02314
Totals49,23551,30710,84112,776

OVERTIME.

The following table shows the total hours overtime worked by male and female wage-earners, together with certain other averages, for the years ended 31st March, 1923 to 1931. As the particulars collected can be readily ascertained from the records kept in the wages-books, the information may be accepted as being fairly accurate.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Hours Overtime worked during Year.Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Overtime during Year for all Employees, whether working Overtime or not.
 Males.Females.Totals.M.F.M.F.
19231,676,902122,3311,799,2336.25.931.810.1
19241,636,049100,6421,736,6916.05.629.98.5
19251,720,798153,2041,874,0026.56.030.013.0
19261,928,908154,0912,082,9995.95.433.912.5
19271,808,403178,7801,987,1835.65.031.914.4
19281,933,641187,4292,121,0706.26.233.810.2
19291,963,639213,1392,176,7785.75.334.215.6
19301,976,454243,4092,219,8635.45.732.816.4
19311,547,392117,6291,665,0215.25.230.29.2

The general upward trend in the aggregate overtime recorded for some years past received a severe check in 1930-31. The figure for 1930-31 dropped by 25 per cent. in comparison with the previous year. The average number of hours per male employee affected per week is the lowest yet recorded.

As between industries, it is interesting to note that electric tramways and the meat-freezing and preserving industry between them accounted for nearly 45 per cent. of the total overtime worked by male workers in 1930-31, the former accounting for 336,314 hours, or 22 per cent., against 351,882 hours, or 23 per cent., for the latter.

Although, broadly speaking, overtime may be regarded as an indication that the industries for which it has been recorded are undermanned, it is not always to be taken as an indication that there is a demand for more labour in these industries. In rush periods suitable labour is not always readily offering for the short period necessary, and overtime is generally spread over a number of establishments and over various grades of employees in amounts insufficient to warrant the engagement of additional labour.

The table hereunder gives particulars of overtime in those industries in which over 50,000 hours were worked during the year ended 31st March, 1931:—

Industry.Number of Hours Overtime worked during Year.Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Overtime during Year for all Employees, whether working Overtime or not.
 M.F.M.F.M.F.
Clothing-manufacture8,52845,6685.75.310.98.2
Electric supply82,352..5.2..29.9..
Electric tramways336,314..4.2..116.3..
Engineering (general)85,159..4.9..34.8..
Lime and cement59,046..5.6..78.3..
Meat freezing and preserving351,8821866.84.748.523.3
Motor and cycle engineering77,799..3.0..22.3..
Printing and publishing94,50818,3214.15.025.317.9
Ship and boat building58,617..10.1..92.6..

SHORT TIME.

The following table gives particulars relating to short time in industries covered by the census of factory production during eight years:—

Year ended 31st March,Number of Hours Short Time worked during Year.Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Short time during Year for all Employees, whether working Overtime or not.
 Males.Females.Totals.M.F.M.F.
1924593,00166,219659,22011.918.510.95.6
1925724,686161,550886,23612.614.312.713.8
1926712,834141,279854,11312.717.612.511.5
1927966,922163,7411,130,66312.419.917.112.8
19281,469,649154,9421,624,59111.616.725.711.7
19291,066,137154,2331,220,37011.816.618.611.3
1930922,743192,8971,115,64012.315.115.313.0
19312,740,834722,8233,463,65713.315.253.456.5

For statistical purposes short time is deemed to be time lost through machinery, tools, &c., being out of order, lack of materials, adverse market conditions, cessation of work due to weather conditions, and other cognate causes. Time lost through holidays (annual, ordinary, or public holidays) and sickness, however, is not counted as short time. Information as to how much short time can be attributed to each cause is, unfortunately, not available. It is interesting, however, to note that the sawmilling industry accounted for 46 per cent. of the total hours of short time suffered by male employees in 1930-31.

Comparisons with the figures for 1923-24 should not be pressed too closely, as the data for that year are not so reliable as those for subsequent years. The outstanding point in the above table is the high aggregate for 1930-31. The total short time for that year (3,463,657 hours) was 210.5 per cent. above the figure for the previous year, or over three times as great.

As in the case of overtime, short time does not affect all employees, and out of the total employees (51,312 males, 12,791 females) only 9,586 males and 3,507 females were directly affected during the whole year. It would appear, however, that those who were affected suffered considerably, the average number of hours per employee affected per week being 13.3 hours in the case of males and considerably more (15.2 hours) in the case of females. Averages is taken over the total establishments and employees and the total hours short time for the year disclose the fact that if the short time were evenly distributed each male worker would have lost 53.4 hours, and each female worker 56.5 hours.

Subjoined is a table giving particulars of short time suffered in those industries in which short time amounted to 50,000 hours or more during the year ended 31st March, 1931.

Industry.Number of Hours Short Time during Year.Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Short Time during Year for all Employees, whether working Short Time or not.
 M.F.M.F.M.F.
Agricultural machinery making90,188..8.5..233.0..
Biscuit and confectionery making59,03686,48414.815.459.667.7
Boot and shoe making135,57572,22717.611.6126.898.5
Clothing-manufacture39,708285,48418.219.548.351.4
Engineering78,108..13.7..31.9..
Furniture or cabinet making97,4397,72414.714.965.867.7
Meat freezing and preserving192,477..8.1..26.5..
Motor and cycle engineering120,450..9.6..34.5..
Printing and publishing61,27834,92814.512.616.434.2
Sawmilling, &c.1,269,066..18.2..244.1..
Woollen-milling58,563143,7656.38.472.7113.0

DETAILS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.

The principal statistics regarding the leading factory industries for the last three years are set out in the following pages. Fuller details for individual years are given in successive issues of the “Annual Statistical Report on Factory Production.”

STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.

1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.

∗Including 73,423,227 lb. of milk in making casein, dried whole milk, and condensed milk.

† Including 2,979,844 lb. of butterfat contained in milk used for making casein, dried whole milk, and condensed milk.

‡ Including beer duty.

∗Included with motor-spirit.

Meat Freezing and Preserving.
Number of—
Works..404040
Persons engaged..6,5816,1395,891
Salaries and wages paid£1,564,6521,570,9311,623,385
Frozen sheep—
CarcassesNo.2,067,1852,404,3162,557,661
Value£2,144,3932,306,5821,806,597
Frozen lambs—    
CarcassesNo.6,089,4916,284,0527,314,040
Value£6,654,2286,353,8196,017,173
Frozen mutton and lamb pieces—
QuantityCwt.15,89619,64715,152
Value£39,84240,85822,240
Frozen beef—
QuantityCwt.858,082589,960581,687
Value£1,261,205902,861838,856
Frozen rabbits—Value£16,63223,48044,587
Preserved meats—
QuantityCwt.87,24476,82369,856
Value£388,485327,856205,418
Tallow—
QuantityCwt.386,658386,166399,822
Value£641,440581,401436,087
Bonedust—
QuantityCwt.45,15967,02571,925
Value£21,12832,10627,911
Other manures—
QuantityCwt.589,924561,771575,325
Value£197,356197,118184,333
Hides and pelts—    
QuantityNo.8,439,33711,186,93210,807,200
Value£1,701,3371,438,5361,042,959
Wool—
Quantitylb.27,213,80527,681,35732,669,471
Value£1,920,4901,364,188980,628
Total value of output£16,640,52715,312,45612,970,384
Ham and Bacon Curing.
Number of—
Works..454541
Persons engaged..374396380
Salaries and wages paid£90,53994,27092,692
Pigs dealt with—
Number..203,991216,571189,898
Cost£645,284801,650574,251
Cost of other materials used£46,33935,79349,810
Hams and bacon—QuantityCwt.175,824179,080164,205
Lard—QuantityCwt.8,1389,4869,569
Total value of output£989,6721,156,621949,597
Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories.
Number of—
Factories..490491482
Persons engaged..4,2884,2284,184
Salaries and wages paid£945,005957,438914,396
Number of separators—
At home..41,77345,75346,524
At factories..502524484
Butterfat separated—
At homelb.169,041,751193,230,405196,702,460
At butter-factorieslb.9,992,62813,546,41312,829,536
Milk received by cheese-factorieslb.1,946,195,1071,994,094,5632,025,426,540
Butterfat receivedlb.77,964,07880,423,48183,494,891
Value of materials used£20,716,49420,317,53315,080,881
Butter produced (including whey butter)—
QuantityCwt.1,988,4162,286,6752,342,055
Value£15,881,18715,992,74713,096,692
Cheese produced—
QuantityCwt.1,782,2371,781,9181,857,852
Value£24,362,13324,039,98118,788,730
Grain-mills.
Number of—
Mills..525450
Persons engaged..693731692
Salaries and wages paid£173,920182,104173,463
Wheat used—QuantityBushels6,300,0456,390,6426,281,635
Total grain—Cost£2,151,9422,192,9772,175,141
Flour producedTons135,722136,917135,732
Oatmeal producedTons4,2824,3284,332
Other oaten productsTons3,2333,2773,735
Total value of output£2,945,1583,001,3232,995,357
Biscuit and Confectionery Making.
Number of—
Works..685960
Persons engaged..2,5702,7192,716
Salaries and wages paid£344,463358,422367,944
Flour usedTons5,4795,3794,896
Sugar usedTons7,1337,2076,756
Cost of other materials£552,219595,430557,586
Biscuits and confectionery made£1,431,3531,619,8021,533,397
Total value of products£1,547,3411,676,4401,596,660
Fruit-preserving and Jam-making.
Number of—
Works..9710
Persons engaged..325298352
Salaries and wages paid£56,86254,98363,128
Fruit usedTons3,9813,2193,539
Cost of—
Fruit used£79,89266,71569,067
Sugar and other ingredients£60,09452,11666,290
Jams and jellies made—
QuantityCwt.51,92948,24054,657
Value£175,746158,637165,655
Fruit bottled or canned£55,34855,01645,763
Other products—Value£96,62886,771119,104
Total value of output£327,722300,424330,522
Breweries and Malt-houses.
Number of—
Establishments..515151
Persons engaged..981987952
Salaries and wages paid£262,936273,460266,017
Barley used in production of Bushels malt
Hops usedCwt.5,8185,0694,555
Sugar usedCwt.25,83426,77623,51
Total cost of materials used£477,510472,304422,76
Ale brewedGallons11,516,98611,543,56310,404,1
Stout brewedGallons1,284,6731,336,1551,108,08
Value of output£2,027,5112,018,7061,813,952
Aerated-water and Cordial Factories.
Number of—
Works..131130127
Persons engaged..698697601
Salaries and wages paid£151,764153,988134,010
Total cost of materials used£133,272123,63092,423
Other expenses£96,468100,67991,485
Aerated waters—In bottlesDozen2,242,9192,157,5651,801,763
Aerated waters—In bulkGallons446,144332,600593,811
Cordials—In bottlesDozen106,01958,86348,873
Hop-beer—In bottlesDozen140,568128,15691,729
Hop-beer—In bulkGallons223,840175,919129,819
Total value of manufactures£455,136435,748370,974
Sauce, Pickle, and Vinegar Making.
Number of—
Works..242322
Persons engaged..283262234
Salaries and wages paid£50,57748,65245,270
Cost of materials used£103,99894,61087,131
Other expenses of manufacture£36,41935,93833,981
Total value of manufactures£230,769218,832203,741
Soap and Candle Works.
Number of—
Works..231822
Persons engaged..474452438
Salaries and wages paid£100,15597,20996,919
Soap manufacturedTons7,3946,9677,240
Soap-powder (including washing powderlb.2,609,9982,562,1252,594,575
Candles manufacturedlb.2,826,0332,635,9772,541,361
Total value of products£523,230508,020478,896
Clothing and Waterproof Factories.
Number of works..228237244
Number of persons engaged—
Males..1,1991,2621,228
Females 6,3026,5906,462
Salaries and wages paid—
To males£310,635306,596305,545
To females£632,563663,421610,500
Cost of materials used£1,331,9371,391,3171,319,127
Output—
SuitsNo.214,415166,008159,331
ShirtsDoz.135,25495,769103,769
Hats and capsDoz.43,78040,89317,049
Total value of products£2,691,6902,811,0132,597,928
Hosiery-factories.
Number of—
Works..232426
Persons engaged..701729736
Salaries and wages paid£89,33291,06991,931
Cost of materials used£210,052205,809192,881
Total value of manufactures£389,348405,854380,767
Boot and Shoe Factories.
Number of works..757172
Number of persons engaged—
Males..1,4521,4341,459
Females 841873905
Salaries and wages paid—
To males£304,539305,415296,211
To females£87,96090,40986,873
Cost of materials used —
New Zealand leather£328,194343,092291,440
Imported leather£162,359159,851157,108
Other materials£90,374116,297101,871
Total£580,927619,240550,419
Manufactures—
Adults' boots and shoesPair1,251,4421,354,7851,351,256
Children's boots and shoesPair111,520119,888103,147
SlippersPair7,731137,768212,216
UppersPair1,7771,9871,561
Total value of manufactures£1,144,8691,208,7121,142,281
Flax-mills.
Number of—
Mills 605722
Persons engaged 879903177
Salaries and wages paid£145,348147,83026,223
Raw material used—
QuantityTons101,327105,15918,751
Cost£68,43583,9288,141
Fibre dressedTons11,73411,7252,015
Tow producedTons2,2762,389466
Total value of output£329,340319,36947,722
Sawmills.
Number of—
Mills 380390401
Persons engaged 7,1307,3816,390
Salaries and wages paid£1,613,5851,659,0191,368,563
Sawn timber—
QuantityFt.270,214,420282,405,173229,468,022
Value£2,399,3472,533,8881,965,498
Posts, rails, &c.—Value£16,12813,96417,119
Resawing, planed flooring, skirting. &c.—
QuantityFt.68,291,58272,295,90862,824,620
Value£1,162,2021,219,8871,039,147
Doors and sashes—Value£106,115139,930119,619
Other products£389,762388,281279,003
Total value of output£4,073,5544,295,9503,420,386
Gasworks.
Number of—
Works..464646
Persons engaged..1,8491,7961,778
Salaries and wages paid£464,122452,656438,553
Coal used—
QuantityTons220,825227,521239,788
Cost£478,301460,802479,883
Total gas generated1,000 cub. ft.4,047,3284,143,6024,230,264
Gas sold1,000 cub. ft.3,437,1323,528,3533,594,111
Coke soldTons77,39979,60077,763
Tar soldGallons2,244,8472,424,7482,535,708
Total receipts£1,530,5511,557,4531,578,137
Total expenditure£1,334,9601,357,2721,376,110
Electric Current (see also Section XLII).
Number of—
Works..9697101
Persons engaged..4,3763,9514,083
Salaries and wages paid£1,068,830978,2001,004,175
Horse-power availableH.p.260,358375,244309,050
Fuel used—
CoalTons177,47390,106170,189
Motor-spiritGallons1,125,454265,43552,373
Crude oilTons4,745
Units generated or purchased 940,667,8731,169,516,9061,212,935,406
Revenue£3,832,9824,308,2554,446,140
Expenditure£3,851,1584,237,3014,440,820
Units retailed 423,698,251500,511,359590,756,732
Lime and Cement Works.
Number of—
Works..293140
Persons engaged..875 I928912
Salaries and wages paid£223,219222,831205,414
Cost of materials used£192,714190,232184,966
Total value of output£914,232928,200878,732
Brick, Tile, and Pottery Works.
Number of—
Works..676661
Persons engaged..1,2331,156946
Salaries and wages paid£278,965248,429213,895
Bricks manufactured—
CommonNo.57,358,21053,279,05636,613,123
FireNo.1,382,6271,264,4621,027,252
Total value of all bricks manufactured£278,623270,454221,177
Value of pottery manufactured£380,836327,194279,550
Total value of manufactures£666,450,645,209564,489
Tinware and Sheet-metal Works.
Number of—
Works..132132127
Persons engaged..1,4191,4941,448
Salaries and wages paid£275,709285,868273,647
Cost of materials used£379,321,417,146388,276
Total value of manufactures and repairs£833,700902,464843,765
Iron and Brass Foundries.
Number of—
Works..504546
Persons engaged..850798751
Salaries and wages paid£187,636182,589163,553
Cost of materials used or operated on£132,987126,341105,160
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£430,979416,607355,097
Engineering-works
Number of—
Works..205205200
Persons engaged..3,7413,8903,455
Salaries and wages paid£803,273809,884725,690
Cost of materials used£729,961719,266576,834
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£2,005,9781,982,7201,692,214
Printing and Publishing Establishments.
Number of works..358350358
Persons engaged—
MalesNo.6,6586,5246,574
FemalesNo.1,6641,7311,618
Salaries and wages paid —
To males£1,646,4841,659,9741,624,133
To females£191,778199,208181,487
Cost of materials used£1,165,9381,203,1311,170,299
Total value of output£4,642,7254,772,8114,509,786
Agricultural and Dairying Machinery and Implement Making.
Number of—
Works..263132
Persons engaged..826963850
Salaries and wages paid£183,266211,383179,137
Cost of all materials used£417,314423,991272,999
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£800,911844,880574,721
Coachbuilding-works
Number of—
Works..170166166
Persons engaged..1,4051,5221,385
Salaries and wages paid£290,153326,082279,516
Cost of materials used£252,953286,200237,031
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£685,948754,774610,990
Motor and Cycle Works.
Number of—
Works..839894932
Persons engaged..4,5225,5114,969
Salaries and wages paid£877,5611,087,311923,426
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£2,108,4612,365,6862,041,618
Tanning, Fellmongering and Wool-scouring
Number of—
Works..554947
Persons engaged..816839749
Salaries and wages paid£191,336194,679165,958
Cost of materials used£1,522,8191,237,972720,833
Materials operated upon—
Sheep-skinsNo.834,555940,716686,032
Greasy woollb.17,223,82916,932,27614,106,197
Hides, pelts, &c.No.1,244,003945,955894,843
Bark usedTons2,1802,0521,837
Output—
Scoured and sliped woollb.12,748,96213,866,6448,863,511
PeltsNo.127,64595,882196,373
Leatherlb.3,755,6004,434,6344,806,603
Basilslb.295,096156,99670,162
Pickled peltsNo.1,458,7201,301,6821,047,169
Total value of output£1,920,9551,547,0381,000,138
Ship and Boat Building.
Number of—
Establishments..353333
Persons engaged..753750808
Salaries and wages paid£166,085178,029172,064
Number of vessels built..85110119
Total value of manufactures and repairs£328,588361,203327,838
Furniture-making works
Number of—
Factories..334334335
Persons engaged..2,7052,7742,378
Salaries and wages paid£522,170541,235451,376
Cost of materials used£591,818598,673506,804
Total value of manufactures£1,357,5901,381,9951,156,512
Woollen-mills
Number of—
Mills..121210
Persons engaged..2,5762,4782,237
Salaries and wages paid£399,560364,549328,826
Scoured wool used—
Quantitylb.4,095,1613,468,8983,345,880
Cost£509,079405,896266,749
Output—
Tweed and clothYards1.061,8881,024,3321,014,095
FlannelYards1,350,499841,527541,099
BlanketsPairs129,741114,656121,194
Rugs and shawlsNo.81,18760,51263,306
Yarnlb.531,083463,785258,878
Total value£1,236,5781,085,279896,677

Chapter 22. SECTION XXII.—BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN 1925 the annual collection of returns covering the operations of builders and contractors, on the same lines as the returns of factory production, was instituted. The basis of the annual inquiry is the list of builders and contractors subscribing to the Carpenters and Joiners' award as members of the New Zealand Federated Builders and Contractors' Industrial Association of Employers, together with such other builders and contractors as can be traced through various sources.

The regulations empowering the collection of the statistics defined the term “building and contracting establishment” as including establishments engaged in the construction or repair of buildings, wharves, jetties, bridges, or other construction work which employ two or more hands, inclusive of working proprietors, and the period to be covered as the twelve months ended the 31st March each year.

LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS.

The statistics of building and construction do not include the construction of railways, roads, streets, bridges, wharves, buildings, &c., erected by the Public Works Department or local authorities, except in the case of bridges, wharves, and buildings where the work has been carried out by contract. Particulars are included in respect of local authorities which carry on building contracts in their own name or have a special staff engaged on repairing and making alterations to existing structures.

From the nature of the industry, it is obviously impossible to collect returns from all who engage in building operations. Undoubtedly many who only intermittently undertake building contracts or whose operations are small do not furnish returns. Nevertheless, the statistics cover the great bulk of building operations throughout the Dominion, all builders and contractors engaged in a large way or on big contracts and the majority of others regularly undertaking building and construction work being included among those from whom returns have been received in the six years since the collection was initiated.

The value of building permits issued in boroughs, town districts, and certain suburban counties and road districts during the year ended 31st March, 1931, was £4,240,238 for new work and £1,233,157 for alterations and additions to existing premises, compared with work amounting to £5,230,024 and £1,463,523 respectively actually done throughout the Dominion by concerns furnishing returns. The smaller total represented by permits as compared with building returns for the same year is due chiefly to the fact that permits are necessarily antecedent in time, and so respond more quickly to economic stresses. Secondary causes are first that no permits are included for the great majority of counties, and second that the permit totals are exclusive of such construction work as bridges, wharves, &c., which may (as above) be included in the building returns.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

The explanations given hereunder will be found of assistance in interpreting the terms used in connection with the statistics:—

  • “Average number of persons engaged”: This represents the sum of the persons engaged each month during the year covered, divided by twelve.

  • “Cost of materials used”: This covers materials supplied by the builders as well as payments to subcontractors.

  • “Other expenses of operation”: This heading comprises expenditure on fuel and power, insurance, depreciation, and other items not coming under the headings of salaries and wages or cost of materials.

  • “Value of work done”: This represents the total contract price of the work actually commenced and finished during the year. Where contracts were not commenced and finished within the period covered, the value of the work done was assessed as being a proportion of the total contract price, equal to the proportion which the total expenditure during the period bears to the total estimated expenditure on the contract.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The number of persons engaged (including working proprietors but excluding subcontractors) and the salaries and wages paid to these during the year ended 31st March, 1931, are given hereunder:—

 Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.
Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.
    £££
Proprietors1,281..1,281331,413..331,413
Managers and overseers243224594,60533694,941
Accountants, clerks, &c.14010524530,00811,80741,815
Wage-earners7,734..7,7341,628,251..1,628,251
Totals9,3981079,5052,084,27712,1432.096,420

The total number of persons engaged fell from 11,312 in 1929-30 to 9,505 in 1930-31, while the total salaries and wages paid declined from £2,665,458 to £2,096,420 during the same period. There was a considerable decrease in the number of working-proprietors covered, the figures being 1,444 and 1,281 for the two years respectively. Wage-earners decreased from 9,366 in 1929-30 to 7,734 in 1930-31. Excluding female employees, the figures for whom are exceedingly small, the average amount received in salaries and wages was £245 in 1925-26, £237 in 1926-27, £231 in 1927-28, £235 in 1928-29, £237 in 1929-30, and £222 in 1930-31. Wage-earners averaged £233, £225, £220, £224, £226, and £211 in the respective years.

MOTIVE POWER.

Motive power is utilized in the building industry for concrete-mixers, hoists, air-compressors, &c., and in joinery-factories operated by builders in conjunction with their building operations. Particulars regarding the number and horse-power of engines and motors in use during the last three years are given below:—

Kind of Power1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.
Number.Horse-power.Number.Horse-power.Number.Horse-power.
Steam348323863029662
Coal-gas272642019017166
Suction-gas672457470
Oil2181,1822091,0542001,184
Electric9995,9851,0436,4821,0496,724
Water53314967
Totals1,2898,3681,3158,4171,3088,873

MATERIALS USED AND WORK DONE.

Compared with the corresponding figure for 1929-30, the total cost of materials (including payments to sub-contractors) recorded in 1930-31 (£4,600,059) showed a decrease of £1,410,054, or 23 per cent.

A classification of the value of work done during the years 1928-29, 1929-30, and 1930-31 is given hereunder:—

 1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.
 £££
Buildings7,666,0967,294,7295,230,024
Bridges, wharves, jetties201,534197,790233,589
Other construction work344,263280,823289,491
Jobbing and repair work1,692,1691,634,5391,463,523
 £9,704,062£9,407,881£7,216,627

The jobbing and repair work in 1930-31 accounted for 20 per cent. of the total value of work done.

Number—1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.
Private dwelling3,8373,8682,590
Business premises735783457
Other9971,4541,088
Totals5,5696,1054,135
Value—£££
Private dwellings3,311,3283,277,2832,196,857
Business premises2,708,9692,365,0361,866,388
Other1,116,5511,148,2631,458,777
Totals£7,136,848£6,790,582£5,522,022

The term “Other” includes in 1930-31 thirty premises erected as flats to the value of £126,328.

BUILDING-COSTS.

The following table shows, for the last two years, the number of dwellings completed, together with the total cost and cost per room, classified according to the number of rooms:—

Number of Rooms.Number of Dwellings.Value.Value per Room.
1929-30.1930-31.1929-30.1930-31.1929-30.1930-31.
 Number.Number.££££
One11511112,41611,595108104
Two18510336,12120,88198101
Three21716178,78662,876121130
Four1,038595718,057404,149173170
Five1,4961,0991,318,706933,133176170
Six545346595,108389,369182188
Seven14280211,188122,969212220
Eight6243117,89982,753238241
Nine162135,90352,095249276
Ten341979,13653,195233280
Over ten181273,96363,842....
Totals3,8682,5903,277,2832,196,857....

No special definition of the term “room” is made on the forms, and the customary interpretation must therefore be placed upon it. Under this, bathrooms, pantries, and kitchenettes are not counted as rooms.

Taking the average cost per room of the four-, five-, and six-roomed houses as being the most representative types, the average values are found to be highest in Wellington and Otago Provincial Districts, the actual average cost per room being £196 for the former and £178 for the latter. Next in order come Hawke's Bay, £173; Canterbury, £172; Southland, £162; Nelson, £161; Auckland, £157; Marlborough, £143; Taranaki, £142; and Westland, £131.

CLASSIFICATION BY DISTRICTS

The subjoined table shows the principal statistics for the year 1930-31:—

Provincial DistrictEstablishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials (including Payments to Subcontractors).Value of Buildings completed during Year.Total Value of Work done.
   ££££
Auckland2502,310521,5111,213,3511,572,9851,850,019
Hawke's Bay73536121,386263,952222,725410,311
Taranaki3925449,27589,617101,364153,065
Wellington3002,831643,2151,416,7471,740,9012,202,612
Marlborough1814429,14756,55263,309106,419
Nelson3024947,995118,634117,074178,388
Westland1010825,80844,13553,01976,870
Canterbury2261,702366,541732,941832,6811,214,647
Otago1441,096234,454503,803641,936794,217
Southland6227557,088160,327176,028230,079
Totals1,1529,5052,096,4204,600,0595,522,0227,216,627

Of the total number of persons finding employment in the building industry (9,505), no fewer than 5,141, or 54 per cent., are located in the Auckland and Wellington Provincial Districts. As between Auckland and Wellington, Wellington leads in the volume of building done during each of the six years for which statistics are available.

BUILDING PERMITS.

Statistics of building permits have been collected annually since 1921-22 for all boroughs and town districts. In 1926-27, certain road districts in Eden County (suburban to Auckland) were added, and in 1928-29 two counties (increased to four in 1929-30), adjacent to Wellington and Christchurch, were also incorporated in the collection.

Year.Number of New Private Dwellings,Value of New Buildings, all Classes,Total Value of all Building Operations.
  ££
1922-235,0256,124,4397,101,681
1923-246,2457,708,9339,146,479
1924-255,8057,823,3319,304,160
1925-266,8508,613,54910,169,530
1926-277,1799,357,97711,019,389
1927-285,6908,127,7329,665,216
1928-295,2127,326,4649,054,421
1929-305,7477,917,3499,959,877
1930-313,4634,240,2385,473,395
1931-321,5551,936,4472,728,486

The outstanding feature of the building activities for the year 1931-32 is the decrease of approximately £2,750,000, equivalent to 50 per cent. of the 1930-31 figures.

A more detailed summary for the last three years follows:—

BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED: CITIES, BOROUGHS, TOWN DISTRICTS.
Private dwellings,—   
New buildings—1929-301930-311931-32
Number5,7473,4631,555
Value£5,105,002£2,898,720£1,003,467
Value of alterations and additions£699,784£503,523£348,293
Business premises—   
New buildings—   
Number725475347
Value£1,730,308£834,255£525,858
Value of alterations and additions£1,012,809£552,932£330,162
Total, including other building,—   
New buildings—   
Number6,7054,1112,131
Value£7,917,349£4,240,238£1,936,447
Value of alterations and additions£2,042,528£1,233,157£792,039

The average value of private dwellings, as shown by returns of building permits, was £888 in 1929-30, £837 in 1930-31, and £684 in 1931-32.

Of the £1,063,467 covered by permits for new dwellings in 1931-32, £940,495 represented wooden residences and £122,972 houses in other materials.

Building operations in respect of new private dwellings show a decrease of 1,908 (value, £1,835,253), as compared with the previous year. New business premises show a decrease on the previous year by 128 in number, and £308,397 in value. Compared with the peak year, 1926-27, the total value of all building operations in 1931-32 showed a decline of £8,290,903. It is probable that the 1926-27 level was the highest in the history of the country.

The following table arranges districts with minimum building values of £50,000 in descending order. The large totals for Napier and Hastings are the result of restoring buildings damaged by the earthquakes of 1931.

 £ £
Napier Borough339,850Dunedin City New147,978
Wellington City296,498New Plymouth Borough90,905
Hastings Borough215,187Palmerston North City79,112
Auckland City211,578Lower Hutt Borough60,999
Christchurch City181,101Nelson City50,094

MONTHLY PERMIT STATISTICS

In addition to the comprehensive annual returns of building permits obtained from all boroughs and town districts, monthly returns are also collected from twenty-one principal towns, with their suburban boroughs and town districts, and certain adjacent counties and road districts. These monthly returns, while not giving a complete record for all towns in the Dominion, nevertheless cover a population of nearly 800,000 and afford a good index of the movement in building activity.

BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER TOWNS

Month.Alterations to Existing Buildings.New Buildings.Total Permits.
Number.Value.Dwellings only.Totals.Number.Value.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
1931 £ £ £ £
September56166,47010275,385151171,422712237,892
October49248,73510577,876155128,622647177,357
November51242,91610164,846142110,711654153,627
December39248,6906947,94810194,696493143,386
1932.        
January40544,1019466,444128141,845533185,946
February48848,7629259,60612777,891615126,653
March52345,0136543,89210279,949625124,962
April50833,2026337,847107100,994615134,196
May57148,4625131,7069464,151665112,613
June54549,2387344,06910971,570654120,808
July45144,8177945,552122169,525573214,342
August55042,6618056,062129171,288679213,949
September61055,71812277,595159157,806769213,524

Chapter 23. SECTION XXIII.—PUBLIC FINANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1926, which consolidated and amended the then existing enactments on the subject. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post and Telegraph Department, the Government Insurance Department, the Public Trust Office, the Native Trust Office, the State Advances Office, the State Fire and Accident Insurance Office, the various Public Service Superannuation Funds, and the National Provident Fund, are paid into one account at the bank called the “Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following funds or accounts in the books of the Treasury: The Consolidated Fund; the Public Works Fund; separate accounts or funds specially created.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The revenue of any financial year is the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the years together with that received into the Public Account at London of which advice is received in time for inclusion in the accounts for the year. The expenditure is the money paid (a) at the Treasury within the year, (b) by imprestees of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year, and (c) at London of which advice is received in time for inclusion.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Act of that year lapses, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The usual practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year, and to vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.

In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees, temporary officers, and officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; unauthorized expenditure; transfers between Government accounts; or expenditure chargeable against the accounts of local bodies. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the Head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

TOTAL RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The aggregate receipts of all accounts included in the public accounts for the financial year 1931-32 amounted to £90,927,420, and the gross payments to £91,832,544. The omission of credits-in-aid from both receipts and payments reduces the former to £84,061,871, and the latter to £84,966,995. Details for each account are given in the statement which follows. The State Advances Account covering State advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities, together with several minor accounts dealing with advances for various purposes, which are administered directly by the State Advances Board, are not included; not are the other funds mentioned in the first paragraph on the preceding page. Particulars concerning these funds and the working of the Departments concerned will be found elsewhere in this book.

Account.Balance, 1st April, 1931Receipts.*Credits.Payments.*Balance, 31st March 1932.
*Excluding credits.
Consolidated Fund—£££££
Ordinary Revenue278,60138,564,7335,038,45537,675,5521,167,782
Nauru and Ocean Islands3,05636,512..36,5802,988
Nauru and Ocean Islands4911,616..11,60065
Sinking Fund     
Local Bodies6,12539,163..30,86814,420
Deposits313,2811,246,073..1,215,022344,332
Public Works Fund—     
General Purposes1,340,0363,513,039913,2453,070,0411,783,034
Waihou and Ohinemuri5,518....5,518..
Rivers Improvement     
Electric Supply150,0091,710,03616,6801,850,8209,225
Electric Supply Sinking42,65519,504..10062,059
Fund     
Bank of New Zealand Shares1,859,375245,313..245,3131,859,375
Discharged Soldiers Settlement259,5311,188,0046311,252,626194,909
Discharged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act 1920580,96213,863..594,825..
Depreciation Fund     
Education Loans12,867....12,867..
General Purposes Relief23,7563,575..3,46023,871
Hauraki Plains Settlement13,94113,7264,22327,62245
Howard Estate1......1
Hunter Soldiers Assistance6,837646..3607,123
Trust     
Hutt Valley Lands Settlement13914,800..14,84792
Kauri-gum Industry1,588....1,588..
Land for Settlements742,106410,2453,792961,319191,032
Loans Redemption344,18220,359,821..20,335,100368,903
Main Highways—     
Construction Fund102,637430,06585,093433,02799,675
Revenue Fund339,8861,720,36172,4451,661,388398,859
Mining Advances362171..4529
Native Land Settlement28,908277,52926,706302,4963,941
Public Debt Repayment321,279,463..1,264,33015,165
Rail ways Improvement420,784....420,784..
Authorization Act 1914     
Rangitaiki Land Drainage5,3069,7564914,26510,797
Remittances from London4641,200..1,664..
Remittances to LondonDr. 3,2183,722,596..3,719,378..
Reserve Fund2,068,5649,57123976,9661,101,169
State Advances Loan40,00223,557..63,383176
State Coal-mines40,810257,4211,524252,14746,084
State Coal-mines Sinking7,7397,951..7,7007,990
Fund     
State Forests31,104261,8282,814281,44411,488
Swamp Land Drainage6,33816,7497,20114,0789,009
Unemployment Fund69,1152,370,084972,254,232184,967
Westport Harbour1,75836,80614438,086478
Working Railways496,4646,246,094691,9855,925,595816,963
Totals9,641,67084,061,8716,865,54984,966,9958,736,546

NET RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

Many of the accounts have their receipts and payments swollen through the transfer of moneys from one account to another. Some of these transfers rank as credits, and have already been taken into account in arriving at the totals of £84,000,000 (receipts) and £85,000,000 (payments) given in the table under the previous heading. The principal transfers between accounts which are treated as credits in reduction of expenditure are recoupments to the Consolidated Fund in respect of interest paid by that fund on loan-money.

There are, however, substantial transfers between accounts (or between items of an account) which rank as receipts of the receiving account. These are not always disclosed in the published statements, but an approximate total can be arrived at. This is found to have been in the neighbourhood of £8,400,000 for the year 1931-32. One of the principal items was the transfer of £1,279,200 from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Debt Repayment Account in accordance with the scheme of debt-reduction. An even greater amount was represented by the transfer of £1,231,202 petrol-tax receipts and £454,775 tire-tax and fees, &c., under the Motor-vehicles Act from the Consolidated Fund to the Revenue Account of the Main Highways Fund. The sum of £1,118,753 was paid by way of subsidy from the Consolidated Fund to the new Unemployment Fund, and approximately £80,000 was paid to various accounts as interest on balances of accounts invested in Government securities.

On the other hand, the Consolidated Fund received a good deal of revenue from other accounts, the principal items being reserve moneys aggregating £1,494,825 (from three accounts), £841,720 from the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability, £245,312 by way of dividends first paid into the Bank of New Zealand Shares Account, and £144,667 from the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account as interest on surplus moneys transferred from the Consolidated Fund some years ago and now forming part of the Public Debt Redemption Fund. The Public Works Fund received balances aggregating £439,170 from three accounts closed during the year.

Most payments from one item of the Consolidated Fund to another rank as credits, but there are two classes of exceptions—viz., interest payments on certain balances and receipts of the Printing and Stationery Department from other Government Departments. The former totalled approximately £120,000 in 1931-32 and the latter £160,000.

Although, as stated previously, post and telegraph receipts and payments are not included in the public accounts, profits of the Post and Telegraph Department are now payable to the Consolidated Fund. Receipts from this source totalled £941,616 in 1931-32, but as costs of other Departments for postages and for other services performed by the Post and Telegraph Department aggregated approximately £180,000 for the year, this latter amount represents in effect a transfer to the Consolidated Fund revenue from various votes of that fund and of other accounts.

The revenue of the Working Railways Account also includes a considerable amount received from Government Departments and paid out of the Consolidated Fund and other accounts. The amount under this head in 1931-32 was approximately £350,000, exclusive of payments from the Post Office Account.

In addition to the £8,400,000 transfers referred to in the foregoing paragraphs, temporary transfers between accounts and repayments thereof (shown only in the statement for the borrowing account) swelled receipts by £91,000 and payments by £76,000. Similarly, Treasury bills raised in anticipation of revenue swelled nominal receipts by £15,845,000 and payments by £12,815,000.

Per contra entries, associated principally with the renewal of loan-moneys, involve considerable nominal additions to receipts and payments, no less a sum than £19,940,172 coming within this category in the receipts and expenditure of the Loans Redemption Account in 1931-32. The elimination of this amount and of certain transfers reduces the receipts of the Loans Redemption Account from £20,359,821 to £356,447, and the expenditure from £20,335,100 to £394,928. The Remittances from and to London Accounts, with aggregate receipts and payments of £3,723,796 and £3,721,042 during 1931-32, merely cover the withdrawal of money in London or Wellington for remittance to or from New Zealand, and are in practically the same category as the Loans Redemption Account, the receipts and payments representing book entries only, and usually balancing. Other small items bring the total of per contra items to slightly over £23,700,000.

Further reductions have still to be made from the gross totals before a figure approximately representing true Governmental revenue and expenditure (apart from State advances and other activities not included in the public accounts) can be arrived at. The Accounts of Local Bodies merely record the receipt of moneys collected by the Government on behalf of local bodies and the payment of these to the local bodies concerned. The Deposits Account represents only lodgments and withdrawals of non-Government moneys. The State Advances Loan Account covers the raising of moneys for advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities, and the transfer of these to the State Advances Office, whose operations are, as previously stated, outside the public accounts. The three accounts referred to had in 1931-32 an aggregate of £1,308,793 receipts and £1,309,273 payments.

The total deductions to be made from gross receipts are thus approximately £49,350,000, and from gross payments £46,300,000, leaving net totals of £35,700,000 receipts and £38,700,000 payments for the year.

The totals would be still further reduced if only the net increase in loan-money were taken into account as a receipt, and both receipts and payments diminished by the amount of loan-money redeemed (£1,917,858).

THE CONSOLIDATED FUND.

The Ordinary Revenue Account of the Consolidated Fund covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the General Government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, &c. Until recent years its operations afforded an excellent comparison of State revenue and expenditure from year to year, but changes in system during the last few years have largely destroyed the comparability of the figures. The principal of these changes are as follows:-

The removal of railway revenue and expenditure from the Consolidated Fund from 1st April, 1925. Consolidated Fund receipts now include an amount paid by the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability.

Similar action in regard to post and telegraph revenue and expenditure from 1st April, 1928. In addition to interest on capital liability, the Consolidated Fund now (commencing 1931-32) receives Post and Telegraph Department profits.

Payment of motor-vehicle taxation receipts into the Consolidated Fund since 5th December, 1927, the great bulk of the money being later transferred to the Main Highways Account, into which these receipts were previously paid direct.

The transfer of reserve moneys, aggregating £1,494,825, into the Consolidated Fund in 1931-32.

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Surplus (recorded).
Recorded.Adjusted.*Recorded.Adjusted.*

*See letterpress.

†Deficit.

 £££££
192327,579,44318,868,12826,263,76019,326,1281,315,683
192427,960,37019,011,51726,148,00519,000,4801,812,365
192528,643,00019,501,76127,399,20019,726,4841,243,800
192624,725,76220,681,85223,570,08321,094,6541,155,679
192724,943,10721,094,50824,355,96522,121,731587,142
192825,123,98020,992,44624,944,90522,459,579179,075
192923,599,67621,793,72824,176,92823,680,350—577,252
193025,349,86123,747,95825,200,88225,020,953148,979
193123,068,93122,786,70324,708,04224,708,042—1,639,111
193222,719,73320,383,18824,860,55224,860,552—2,140,819

It is possible to make adjustments covering these principal items, and this is accordingly done in the preceding table covering the last ten years. All railway moneys are omitted throughout, and transfers of reserve moneys in 1931-32, while taxation receipts paid direct to the Main Highways Account have been added on for 1927-28 and preceding years. In the case of post and telegraph finances, a difficulty arise in that part of the profits in 1931-32 was due to higher postage rates imposed for the purpose of assisting the Consolidated Fund. In the circumstances, the gross excess of post and telegraph revenue over expenditure (i.e., without deduction for interest charges) has been counted for the ten years.

The adjusted figures, it should be noted, are comparable vertically only, and not horizontally, the net amount deducted from the revenue figures being in each year considerably higher than that deducted from the expenditure side.

REVENUE.

The revenue of the Consolidated Fund is now derived principally from taxation and from interest on the Public Debt Redemption Fund and other public moneys, with transfers from the Working Railways Account and from the Post and Telegraph Department in respect of interest on capital liability. An additional source—viz., profits of the Post and Telegraph Department—was added in 1931—32 in which year also certain reserve moneys were paid into the Consolidated Fund Details of revenue during the last three years are given in the table which follows.

Source.Year ended 31st March.
1930.1931.1932.
*This excludes unemployment-taxation receipt, which are not paid into the Consolidated Fund.
From taxation—£££
Customs revenue8,897,0477,605,9765,904,348
Motor-vehicles—Duties, licenses, &c.1,510,7901,840,5901,814,186
Excise duty620,312575,100641,080
Film-hire tax..41,75641,207
Land-tax1,506,9111,145,617542,128
Income-tax3,533,7644,003,6064,447,814
Death duties1,727,4391,809,7351,444,298
Duty on instruments457,148326,121228,975
Bank-note duty193,017233,318260,206
Totalizator revenue542,899529,143410,878
Amusements-tax79,887105,93674,763
Other stamps taxation401,917380,558378,288
Total taxation*19,471,13118,597,45616,188,171
Registration and other fees253,788223,206199,032
Marine114,267103,81193,930
Interest on Public Debt Redemption Fund996,695858,893699,790
Interest on public moneys803,491866,981776,628
Interest on railway capital liability2,132,324685,000841,720
Interest on post and telegraph capital liability481,000504,000550,000
Post and Telegraph Department profits....941,616
Tourist and health resorts77,23570,45659,985
National Endowment revenue..118,86979,824
Other territorial revenue214,228187,409153,894
Departmental receipts545,952548,894405,697
From reserves....1,494,825
Miscellaneous (including recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years)259,750303,956234,621
Totals25,349,86123,068,93122,719,733

EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure from the Consolidated Fund is divided into two main groups, according to whether it is made under permanent or under annual appropriation. The latter heading covers the expenditure under the various departmental votes, while the former covers interest on and amortization of the public debt, and expenditure under special Acts including that on pensions, superannuation, subsidies to the Unemployment Fund and to Hospital Boards, and disposal of special taxation for main highways.

Expenditure under the main heads of permanent appropriations and each head of annual appropriations during the last there years was as follows (the figures are net—i.e., exclusive of credits):—

Head.Year ended 31st March,
1930.1931.1932.
*Paid out of accumulated surplus in 1930-31.
Permanent appropriations—£££
Civil List30,52830,86226,821
Interest on public debt9,136,3019,266,6769,035,025
Amortization of debt1,563,6411,638,6721,421,751
Pensions, including family allowances2,749,9832,852,0303,075,414
Subsidies to superannuation funds and National Provident Fund381,548165,096198,749
Subsidy to Unemployment Fund..*1,118,753
Subsidies to Hospital Boards732,456670,847642,809
Subsidies to local bodies on rates219,688....
For education purposes140,561124,345158,872
Advance to Working Railways Account....150,000
Transfers to Main Highways Account Revenue Fund1,420,4601,742,1941,685,977
Motor-spirits tax paid to borough councils74,56583,012100,541
Contribution towards Singapore Naval Base125,000125,000100,000
Other502,871337,129289,750
Totals, permanent appropriations17,227,60517,035,86317,854,462
Annual appropriations— 
Legislative Departments99,25198,99098,046
Prime Minister's Department13,81714,66515,374
Treasury Department41,94140,32937,385
Land and Income Tax Department65,31466,26268,202
Stamp Duties Department99,339104,83997,394
National Provident and Friendly Societies Department25,58625,0964,697
Public buildings69,45162,38141,683
Government and other domains4,9394,498..
Maintenance and repairs to roads79,50432,8489,917
Maintenance of irrigation works, &c.16,31016,24212,818
Native Department35,71435,72065,709
Cook Islands34,38942,895..
Department of External Affairs36,61241,2131,956
Department of Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and Publicity101,739132,532122,954
Department of Justice135,383135,702139,806
Prisons Department88,443100,71396,713
Crown Law Office5,8245,7275,143
Police Department452,883456,672413,821
Pensions Department176,743173,176160,564
Mines Department27,53130,93418,679

Department of Internal Affairs

351,039278,517196,841
Audit Department27,26027,77324,505
Public Service Commissioner's Office6,3747,1404,666
Printing and Stationery Department214,976228,287138,044
Mental Hospitals Department307,040303,459264,427
Department of Health247,250244,671199,387
Naval Defence437,573418,837344,674
Defence Department454,828277,799182,974
Customs Department112,087111,53286,282
Marine Department133,706172,509101,975
Department of Labour60,98555,40041,475
Department of Lands and Survey192,819165,146162,888
Scenery Preservation2,3912,303..
Valuation Department55,56655,02738,900
Electoral Department11,2669,99166,120
Department of Agriculture435,283388,277440,630
Education Department3,218,8283,230,1392,851,922
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research65,77463,37151,535
Transport Department5,3135,9824,813
Services not provided for22,2064,58518,698
Exchange....374,473
Totals, annual appropriations7,973,2777,672,1797,006,090
Grand totals25,200,88224,708,04224,860,552

The amounts shown above under the head of “Education Department” do not represent the full payment on education services, expenditure under special Acts and from certain reserves revenue not being included. Excluding capital expenditure on school buildings and subsidies to the Teacher's Superannuation Fund, education expenditure totalled £3,551,340 in 1929-30, £3,556,442 in 1930-31, and £3,101,667 in 1931-32.

A system of Departmental balance-sheets and statements of accounts was inaugurated on commercial lines in 1920 to show the true cost of the various Departments and services, as distinct from payments out of appropriations on the basis referred to at the beginning of this subsection. These balance-sheets and statements of accounts are published annually in Parliamentary Paper B.-l [Part IV], to which the reader is referred for details of income, expenditure, &c., in respect of the various Departments and services. A State balance-sheet covering all Departments and services, with the exception of the Post Office Savings-bank, the Public Trust Office, and the Insurance Departments, is now included in the publication mentioned.

PUBLIC WORKS.

For the prosecution of the policy of public works inaugurated in 1870 there was set up a Public Works Fund. For many years all expenditure on public works was borne by this fund, but in course of time separate subsidiary accounts were established to deal with certain special activities. These subsidiary accounts have in general either become merged in the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund or have ceased to exist on the completion of the work for which they were called into existence. A list of the subsidiary accounts of the Public Works Fund, with the year of commencement and of termination, was given in the 1930 number of the Year-Book.

The Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account, which was established in 1923-24 to provide finance for the construction, reconstruction, &c., of main highways, is analogous to the Public Works Fund, and its operations are included in the following brief conspectus of public works receipts and payments. Similar action is taken with three accounts (Hauraki Plains Settlement, Rangitaiki Land Drainage, and Swamp Drainage) which also properly rank as public works accounts, although their operations are under the control of the Lands Department. These three accounts have all been set up for similar purposes—viz., the drainage, reclamation, and roading of low lying or swampy land for the purpose of rendering it fit for settlement.

RECEIPTS.

A summary of the receipts of the accounts covering the construction of public works is given below for the last five years. The figures are exclusive of credits, and transfers between the accounts considered are omitted, as are also temporary transfers from other accounts.

Year ended 31st MarchLoan-money.Transfers from Consolidated Fund or other AccountsRecoveries on account of Expenditure of Previous YearsInterest on Investments, &c.Sales of Electrical Energy.Other and Unspecified.Total.
 £££££££
19286,986,750551,30440,09822,025367,94753,0868,021,210
192911,598,247396,743123,27917,801413,98839,66612,589,724
19303,029,550610,62364,09735,279607,26243,9374,390,748
19318,820,700153,73646,97533,469686,44340,9099,782,232
19324,393,5502,83672,45615,628648,02920,3175,152,816

The principal transfers during the last five years have been from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account to the Construction Fund. There was a transfer of £250,000 from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Works Fund in 1927-28, and various small transfers are made from the Consolidated Fund to certain other of the public works accounts.

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of the various accounts dealing with the construction of public works is summarized below for the last five years. As in the case of receipts, the figures have been diminished by the exclusion of credits and of transfers between the various accounts.

Year ended 31st MarchPublic WorksMaintenance and Working Expenses*Charges and Expenses of raising or transferring Loan-moneyAmortization of DebtInterestManagement Charges of Consolidated StockOther Items (Non-captial)Total
*Where shown separately.
 ££££££££
19286,925,3728,662172,90334,698356,2692,3478567,501,107
19297,648,513221,984603,15435,312418,3477751,8108,929,895
19307,505,496193,917713,68550,374481,2612,9219548,948,608
19318,221,64685204,14423,783505,8402,2382,8308,960,566
19324,634,4752,754129,33317,163537,3042,3694555,323,853

For the years 1928-29 and 1929-30 a distinction was made in the accounts between capital and maintenance expenditure out of vote, but this has now been discontinued, as has also a similar distinction in the case of other accounts. The item “Departmental” in the Public Works Fund covers both construction and maintenance, and other items are probably also affected.

The principal items of public-works expenditure included in the first column are as follows for the five years:—

Year ended. 31st March,Railways.Roads.Telegraph Extension.Development of Water power.*Public Buildings.Lands and improvement irrigationImmigration.Departmental and other.
*Including maintenance except in 1928-29 and 1929-30.
 ££££££££
19282,517,4571,253,801625,5401,389,341592,019265,92267,157214,135
19293,115,8091,770,073624,414965,560588,856273,86450,266259,671
19302,980,7432,158,055594,383504,235771,614262,00941,756192,701
19313,015,2922,233,430419,7561,187,797924,364233,52633,545173,936
1932952,3881,465,237249,9781,241,796454,803117,5605,266147,447

The total shown for lands and river improvement includes a certain amount of expenditure on roading, which is not shown separately in the Hauraki Plains Settlement, Rangitaiki Land Drainage, and Swamp Lands Drainage Accounts. In addition to expenditure on roads included in accounts taken as covering public works, there is the expenditure incurred in roading Crown lands and lands purchased for settlement, which is a charge on the Land for Settlements Account and is included in the values upon which the rentals of the Lands are based.

A more detailed statement of the net expenditure out of public works accounts during 1931-32 is now given:—

 £
Public works, departmental151,376
Railways952,388
Public buildings— 
General33,226
Courthouses3,513
Prison buildings and works2,621
Police-stations2,535
Postal and Telegraph104,505
Mental-hospital buildings45,938
Health and hospital institutions3,316
Timber-supply, sawmills, c2,012
quarries107
Lighthouses5,046
Harbour-works6,987
Development of tourist resorts87,609
Immigration5,266
Main highways383,027
Roads, &c1,082,210
Telegraph extension249,978
Hauraki Plains drainage, &c22,600
Rangitaiki land drainage4,265
Swamp land drainage14,046
Lands, miscellaneous38,900
Irrigation, water-supply, and drainage37,749
Development of water-power1,241,796
Plant, material, and storesCr. 105,690
Subsidy to Ellesmere Lands Drainage/Board439
Administration expenses in
connection with Ellesmere lands
2,754
Rates16
Charges of raising loans119,983
Stamp duty189
Interest recouped to consolidated Fund537,229
Interest on temporary transfers75
Management charges of
Consolidated stock
2,369
Exchange9,161
Amortization of debt17,163
Totals£5,323,853

GENERAL PURPOSES ACCOUNT.

The total net expenditure of the Public Works Fund proper from its inception in 1870 to 31st March, 1932, has been £120,940,314, spread over the various classes of public works as follows:—

Class.£Class.£
Immigration3,314,905Plant, material, and stores168,006
Public works, departmental2,858,295Charges and expenses of raising loans3,811,842
Railways57,049,532coal-mines10,835
Roads21,416,464Interest and sinking fund218,500
Land purchases2,061,147Irrigation and water-supply1,006,492
Development of mining881,065Timber supply, sawmills &cCr. 3,877
Telegraph extension11,180,447Acquisition and operation of quarries9,743
Public buildings11,543,773Motor transport service33,635
Lighthouse, harbour works, and defences1,303,850Transfer to Main Highways 
Contingent defence1,402,548Account Construction Fund1,226,000
Rates on Native lands68,672Total£120,940,314
Thermal springs14,600  
Development of tourist resorts664,231  
Lands improvement699,609  

The total receipts of the fund to 31st March, 1932, were £122,723,348, of which £107,050,592 represented the proceeds of loans, and £14,555,000 transfers from the Consolidated Fund. The largest item in the residue of £1,117,756 was an amount of £506,820 in respect of sinking funds set free, next in importance being receipts from stamp duties to 31st December, 1876 (£264,658). The balance of the fund at 31st March, 1932, was £1,783,034.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS.

The various accounts dealing with the settlement of lands comprise an important group in the public accounts. Their operations consist in the main of the purchase of land and its preparation for settlement on a system of sale or lease, or the making of advances to the selectors themselves for the purpose of acquiring or improving properties.

The principal advances accounts, those relating to State advances to settlers and workers, are, as stated earlier in this subsection, outside the public accounts and are not included here. The list of accounts (as in 1931-32) covering land-settlement and included in the public accounts is—

Land for Settlements Account.

Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account.

Discharged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act 1920 Depreciation Fund Account.*

Native Land Settlement Account.

Hutt Valley Lands Settlement Account.

*Closed during 1931-32.

To these might be added the Hauraki Plains Settlement, Rangitaiki Land Drainage, and Swamp Land Drainage Accounts, all of which are concerned with the preparation of land for settlement or the improvement of lands. At present, however, much the greater part of their operations is in the nature of public-works construction out of borrowed money, and they are accordingly included among the public-works accounts under the preceding heading.

A summary of the receipts and payments of the land-settlement accounts is now given for the last three years. Transfers between the various accounts in the group, temporary transfers, and credits are excluded.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.
 1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.

*Excluding Native lands. †Not included under other headings.

Receipts.£££
Repayments of advances1,025,939715,348638,001
Sales of land204,515116,80963,357
Rents685,942510,665344,789
Survey liens7,4076,40911,525
Valuation fees..380417
Interest—   
On advances682,201576,394499,807
On sales of land55,32547,05335,421
On survey liens1,9301,7391,004
On investments72,12170,33358,267
On temporary transfers3661,81669
Loan-money615,000514,000175,000
Transfers from other accounts59,3271,5005,132
Profit on realization of securities2,993....
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years22211796
Farm accounts9,2613,2406,100
Sale of live-stock, &c...1583,915
Domain funds transferred..25..
Suspense Account (net)....755
Totals£3,422,549£2,565,986£1,843,655
Expenditure.£££
Administration*73,99484,41557,928
Purchase of lands*428,734275,228159,260
Incidental expenses—roading, surveys, &c.*52,22026,31711,710
Purchase and improvement of Native lands150,638221,532268,969
Development of unoccupied lands4,86261,945130,718
Payments to lessees for improvements67232..
Refunds of rent, &c. (deteriorated lands)1,84458631
Farm accounts5,8516,5827,949
Advances made706,424572,501456,354
Interest payments1,198,2061,147,859995,699
Management charges of consolidated stock1,4879911,015
Expenses of raising or transferring loan money1,4992,4681,876
Exchange..1,7977,268
Amortization of debt426,310157,91730,773
Transfers to other accounts6,28176,977950,394
Payment to Domain Board....95
“Halves,” “thirds,” and “fourths” to Local Bodies' Deposits Accounts9,9215,9211,288
National-endowment residue for education and old-age pensions124,886135,008..
Suspense Account (net)729380..
Totals£3,193,953£2,778,656£3,081,327

The dropping in the Public Accounts after 1929-30 of the distinction between administration, purchase, and roading, surveying, &c., of Native lands has diminished the utility of the figures for the first three items of expenditure. The necessary adjustment has been made in the figures for 1929-30.

On account of a distinction not being made in one or two cases between rents and other items, the whole amount has been treated as rents in the above summary.

TRADING ACCOUNTS.

Several important trading operations of the Government (Public Trust, Post and Telegraph, fire, life, and accident insurance) are outside the orbit of the public accounts, while certain others are still included in the Consolidated Fund; and the Electric Supply Account covers both construction and trading operations. Trading accounts other than those which might be so regarded but have already been dealt with under previous headings are as follows:—

Working Railways Account.

Westport Harbour Account.

State Coal-mines Account.

State Forests Account.

Kauri-gum Industry Account (closed in 1931-32).

The revenue of these five accounts during the last three years was as follows:—

Item.Account.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
  £££
Railway revenueWorking Railways8,033,6457,294,6666,227,488
Transfers and advances from Consolidated FundDitto179,929....
Contributions and subsidy to Railway Employees Sick Benefit FundDitto29,46529,3118,000
Port charges, coal rate, &c.Westport Harbour44,54234,14121,271
Endowments and rentsDitto22,26719,82513,306
Advance from Consolidated FundDitto..5,0002,000
Sale of coal and wood, rents, &c.State Coalmines328,050284,591253,776
Forests revenueState Forests104,40183,12754,959
Administration expenses recoveredState Forests2,4921,620602
Loan-moneyState Forests352,000285,000200,000
Sale of gumKauri-gum15,4633,010..
Interest receiptsVarious27,59412,90017,982
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous yearsVarious5491,1472,831
Totals..£9,140,397£8,054,338£6,802,215

Expenditure during the three years was compared of the following amounts:—

 1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Out of appropriations—£££
Working railways6,729,4136,214,1605,075,875
Westport Harbour55,29837,21520,498
State coal-mines295,466292,976238,324
State forests360,812300,939180,887
Kauri-gum industry2,305767..
Interest2,224,572794,281954,233
Management charges of consolidated stock1197979
Charges and expenses of raising or transferring loans809912510
Exchange..1,373..
Amortization of debt11,44730,08712,530
Transfers to other accounts6,9719,4957,925
Subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit Fund8,0008,0008,000
Totals£9,695,212£7,690,284£6,498,861

Credits in aid, credits in reduction, and temporary transfers are excluded from the foregoing figures of receipts and payments.

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.

TOTAL TAXATION.

ALL revenue collected by means of taxation was until the end of the financial year 1921-22 paid into the Consolidated Fund and applied to general purposes. From 1922-23 to the 5th December, 1927, however, certain items were paid into the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund to help to defray the cost of improving and maintaining roads. From the last-mentioned date all such moneys are paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first instance, and (with certain exceptions) transferred to the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund.

The proceeds of the unemployment taxation introduced in 1930-31, less a deduction made by the Post and Telegraph Department to cover cost of collection, are paid direct into the Unemployment Fund.

Particulars of tax collections during the last ten years, under the main headings, are shown in the following table. The total taxation from 1922-23 to 1927-28 includes amounts paid direct into the Revenue Account of the Main Highways Fund, while for 1930-31 and 1931-32 gross collections of unemployment taxation are included.

Year ended 31st March,Customs and Excise Duties.*Land-tax.Income-tax.Death Duties.*Totalizator Taxes.Other Taxes.Total.
*Excluding tire-tax and petrol-tax for highway purposes.
 £££££££
19236,644,4201,541,5023,831,9321,829,852607,6571,260,01715,715,380
19247,870,3091,426,4633,781,5321,517,3156,18,4251,326,39416,540,438
19258,187,2731,335,2513,386,0521,520,749590,3851,529,89916,549,609
19268,974,2351,266,6593,368,5161,484,189659,6421,501,44717,254,688
19278,826,2871,229,0673,422,2161,690,374583,4211,686,46217,437,827
19288,501,2451,154,4793,273,7291,899,370567,8901,748,43217,145,145
19298,565,7361,140,3243,310,8771,944,513541,1792,329,40417,832,033
19309,517,3591,506,9113,533,7641,727,439542,8992,642,75919,471,131
19318,181,0761,145,6174,003,6061,809,735529,1433,209,10818,878,285
19326,545,428542,1284,447,8141,444,298410,8784,015,07617,405,622

Tire-tax and petrol-tax receipts (other than in respect of the 2d. additional petrol-tax imposed in 1931) are not included in Customs and excise duties, as, though collected through the Customs, they are set aside for roading purposes, for which these taxes were specially imposed. In the public accounts they are grouped with motor-vehicle license fees, &c., under the heading of “ Motor-vehicles—duties, licenses, &c.” Figures for this item are given elsewhere in this subsection.

The percentage of taxation receipts under each heading to the total amount collected for each of the last ten years is as under:—

Year ended 31st March,Customs and Excise Duties.*Land-tax.Income-tax.Death Duties.Totalizator Taxes.Other Taxes.
*Excluding tire-tax and petrol-tax for highway purpose.
 per centper centper centper centper centper cent
192342.289.8124.3811.643.878.02
192447.588.6222.869.183.748.02
192549.478.0720.469.193.579.24
192652.017.3419.528.603.828.71
192750.627.0519.629.693.359.67
192849.586.7319.1011.083.3110.20
192948.046.4018.5710.903.0313.06
193048.887.7418.158.872.7913.57
193143.346.0721.219.582.8017.00
193237.613.1125.558.302.3623.07

TAXATION PER HEAD.

The revenue from taxation per head of mean population, including Maoris, during the last ten years is shown in the next table:—

Year ended 31st MarchRate per Headyear ended 31st MarchRate per Head
 £ s. d. £ s. d.
192311 19 8192811 17 7
192412 8 0192912 4 3
192512 3 5193013 3 7
192612 7 11193112 12 1
192712 5 6193211 9 6

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.

The amount of revenue derived from Customs and excise duties during each of the last ten years is shown below. The figures are given both exclusive and inclusive of tire-tax and motor-spirits taxation, specially imposed to raise revenue for the maintenance of main highways, a subject dealt with under the next heading.

Year ended 31st March,Customs Duties.Excise Duties.Total Customs and Excise Duties.
Excluding Main Highways Items.Including Main Highways Items.Excluding Main Highways Items.Including Main Highways Items.
 £££££
19236,032,2926,153,384612,1286,644,4206,765,512
19247,238,2157,361,783632,0947,870,3097,993,877
19257,536,8897,689,192650,3848,187,2738,339,576
19268,344,6778,573,388629,5588,974,2359,202,946
19278,204,4748,395,049621,8138,826,2879,016,862
19287,891,6218,262,588609,6248,501,2458,872,212
19297,954,2528,953,231611,4848,565,7369,564,715
19308,897,04710,016,469620,3129,517,35910,636,781
19317,605,9769,052,769575,1008,181,0769,627,869
19325,904,3487,348,408641,0806,545,4288,989,488

For fuller information on the subject of Customs taxation the reader is referred to the section of this book dealing with “External Trade.”

MAIN HIGHWAYS TAXATION.

The Main Highways Act, 1922, laid down that the Revenue Account of the Main Highways Fund was to be credited, inter alia, with—

All moneys received as Customs duties imposed in respect of rubber tires, rubber tiring, and inner tubes of rubber for pneumatic tires, n.e.i. (as per the Customs tariff):

All moneys received by the Crown under any Act in respect of the licensing of motor-vehicles.

The tire-tax had been imposed by the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, prior to the passing of which tires had been admitted free. The licensing of motor-vehicles by the Crown became operative in the financial year 1924-25, consequent on the passing of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

A third class of taxation for main-highways purposes was introduced towards the end of 1927 by the Motor-spirits Taxation Act of that year, which imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon on all motor-spirits imported. The rate was increased to 6d. per gallon in 1930. The duty collected is paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first place, and after deduction of expenses of administration and of refunds (which are provided for in cases where the motor-spirit is used otherwise than for motor-vehicles) the residue is divided between (1) the Revenue Account of the Main ways Fund, and (2) boroughs with a population of 6,000 or over, in the proportions of 92 per cent. and 8 per cent respectively.* An additional 2d. per gallon was imposed from 7th October, 1931, but this ranks as ordinary Customs revenue, and the proceeds remain in the Consolidated Fund.

With the exception of a proportion of the tire-tax in respect of tires attached to or imported with motor-vehicles (which was first paid into the Consolidated Fund and an allocation later made for transfer), the whole of the proceeds of the tire-tax and license fees was formerly paid direct to the Revenue Account of the Main Highways Fund. In accordance with section 24 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1927, however, all taxation receipts for main-highways purposes since the 5th December, 1927, are paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first place, and then transferred as permanent appropriations.

Taxation receipts for main-highways purposes have been as follows up to 31st March, 1932:—

Year ended 31st March,Tire-tax.Motor-spirits Taxation.Fees, &c, under Motor-vehicles Act.Total.Proportion of Total Taxation.
 ££££Per Cent.
1923121,092....121,0920.77
1924123,568....123,5680.75
1925152,303..257,500409,8032.48
1926228,711..86,681315,3921.83
1927190,575..395,797586,3723.36
1928227,451143,516345,510716,4774.18
1929196,747802,232244,5981,243,5776.97
1930157,474961,948391,3681,510,7907.76
1931130,4081,316,385393,7971,840,5909.75
193285,4371,358,623370,1261,814,18610.42

The low figure shown for 1925-26 in respect of fees under the Motor-vehicles Act is due to the fact that a considerable proportion of revenue from this source, which in the ordinary course of events would have been collected during the last quarter of the year, was not paid into the account until early in 1926-27. A change in the registration year is responsible for the apparent fall in 1928-29.

LAND AND INCOME TAX.

Except in regard to minor details, the system of land and income taxation in force at the outbreak of the Great War had remained unaltered for many years. Probably the only noteworthy point was the gradual hardening-up of the graduated land-tax, designed to prevent aggregation of land and to compel the cutting-up of large estates rather than to secure additional revenue.

The war taxation of 1915, however, not only included increased rates of 33 1/3 per cent. in the case of income-tax, 1/4d. in the pound in the case of land-tax payable on mortgages, and 50 per cent. in the case of graduated land-tax, but also involved an important change of principle. Among the incomes previously exempt from income-tax were those derived directly from land, but in 1915 income-tax was made payable on such incomes.

*For the financial year 1932–33 the Minister of Finance is authorized to retain in the Consolidated Fund up to £500,000 of petrol-tax receipts otherwise payable to the main Highways Fund.

With the exception of the abolition of the land-tax on mortgages and the substitution of an income-tax in its place, the principles of land-tax assessment were not altered in 1916, nor were the rates increased, but an entirely new scheme known as the excess-profits tax was brought into operation in respect of income-tax, the 1915 system remaining also, with increased rates, for ordinary income-tax. The excess-profits tax being found inequitable and otherwise unsatisfactory, a system of progressive land and income tax, with a special war tax on incomes, was adopted in 1917.

In 1920 a complete revision of the rates of taxation was made. A feature of that year's legislation was the introduction of a deduction from the amount of tax payable of 10 per cent. in respect of tax assessed on “earned income.”

In 1923 further alterations were made, the principal being the restoration of the exemption from income-tax of income derived from the direct use or cultivation of land. Reductions in the rates of taxation were also made.

Further reductions in income-tax rates were made in 1924 and 1925, and other alterations in respect of exemptions, method of assessment, &c., were also made. Alterations made in 1927 in the progressive scale of increases in the rate of tax and also in the scale of reduction of exemptions had the effect of slightly increasing income-tax except on the very highest incomes and those below £450.

In 1929 the maximum mortgage exemption for which full allowance is made in the computation of land-tax was reduced from £10,000 to £7,500, and special land-tax (additional to ordinary tax) was imposed on farm-lands exceeding £14,000 in unimproved value. At the same time income-tax was provided for in the case of farm-lands in excess of £14,000. From the income-tax assessed in such cases land-tax (including special) was deductible.

In 1930 the special land-tax was discontinued, but income-tax was imposed on profits from farm-lands of an unimproved value of £7,500 or over. Income-tax rates were increased by 10 per cent., and in place of the income exemption of 5 per cent. of capital value of land used in the derivation of income, a 5 per cent. unimproved-value exemption, with allowance for depreciation of premises, was substituted. An increase in the land-tax rates was also made, through the deduction of 5 per cent. from the computed tax (which had been in force for some years) being discontinued.

In 1931 the graduated scale of land-tax was abolished, only the flat rate of 1d. in the pound of unimproved value being retained. To balance the reduction in land-tax and to provide additional revenue, the following alterations were made in respect of income-tax:—

Reduction of general exemption to £260, diminished by £1 for every £3 of income between £260 and £560, and by £1 for every £1 10s. between £560 and £800.

Increase of surtax to 30 per cent.

Imposition of a special flat-rate tax of 4d. in the pound on incomes of individuals, with a general exemption of £500.

Imposition of a special emergency tax on unearned income of individuals, equal to one-third of the income-tax payable on such unearned income.

Elimination of 10-per-cent. deduction on earned incomes up to £2,000.

Elimination of exemption of 5 per cent. of unimproved value of land used in production of income.

Extension (from 1st April, 1932) of income-tax provisions to farmers with £3,000 unimproved value or over.

Inclusion in assessments (but only for purpose of fixing rate and general exemption) of all tax-free income and income taxed at the source.

Removal of discrimination on income derived from local-body debentures issued before and after the 28th August, 1923.

LAND-TAX.

Land-tax is assessed at the rate of 1d. for every £1 of unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. An owner of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,500 is allowed an exemption of £500, and where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £2 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when £2,500 is reached.

Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale is provided—viz., £7,500 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £7,500, the exemption of £7,500 being diminished by £1 for every £1 above the margin of £7,500 of unimproved value, and the exemption disappearing altogether at £15,000. Where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is deducted instead.

No special exemption is allowed in the case of land not situated in a borough, which has been owned by a person for three years and not improved to the extent of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the unimproved value, when in the opinion of the Commissioner of Taxes it should have been so improved. In the case of such land, also, the rate of land-tax is 50 per cent. more than the ordinary rate.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, lessees and life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and also severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital or half (in nominal value) of the allotted shares of each company is held by or on behalf of shareholders in the other.

In case of default by a taxpayer in respect of land-tax the amount of tax may be demanded from his successor in title, from a tenant of the taxpayer or his successor, or from a mortgagee of the estate or interest concerned. Land-tax constitutes a charge on the land, and, notwithstanding any disposition of it, such land continues to be liable in the hands of a purchaser or other holder thereof for the payment of the tax so long as the charge remains in force. Registration of the charge is required, and no disposition of the land or of any interest in it may be registered while the charge remains in force. Relief in cases of hardship is provided for.

INCOME-TAX.

Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies and of absentees, and in other cases on incomes in excess of £200 per annum. Between £260 and £560 the exemption is reduced by £1 for every £3 above £260, and between £560 and £800 by £1 for every 1 10s. above £560, no exemption at all being allowed under this head for incomes above £800. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation, and a further £50 is deductible from assessable income for each child or grandchild under eighteen years of age who is dependent on the taxpayer, as are also amounts up to 50 contributed towards the support of the taxpayer's widowed mother. Exemption (maximum 15 per cent.) is allowed for life-insurance premiums and National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. Allowance is made for depreciation of premises and plant used in the production of income, the scale of depreciation adopted in the case of premises being 3 per cent. for wooden-frame buildings; 2 per cent. for brick, stone, or concrete walled buildings; and 1½ per cent. for buildings of reinforced stone or concrete throughout.

Income derived from farm-lands of an unimproved value of £3,000 or over is subject to income-tax, as also is income from (1) Crown land held as small grazing-runs or for pastoral purposes; (2) the extraction, removal, or sale of minerals, timber, or flax; or (3) the business of dealing in agricultural and pastoral products. Otherwise income derived by any person from his direct use or occupation of land is exempt from income-tax.

The present scale rate of tax is 7d. in the pound for incomes not exceeding £300, the rate being increased by 1/100d. for every £1 in excess of £300 up to a maximum of £1,500. For incomes between £1,500 and £3,900 the rate is 1s. 7d., increased by 3/100d. for every £1 in excess of £1,500; and for those between £3,900 and £5,900 it is 3s. 1d., increased by 1/200d. for every £1 in excess of £3,900. Above £5,900 the rate is 3s. 11d. in the pound, increased by 1/400d. for every £1 in excess of £5,900, but with a limit of 4s. 6d. in the pound. At present all scale rates are increased by 30 per cent. Except in the case of companies, an additional 33 1/3 per cent. is imposed in respect of unearned income, and a flat rate tax of 4d. in the pound on assessable income in excess of £500.

On income derived from company debentures issued prior to the 28th August, 1923, there is a uniform tax of 3s. in the pound. Income from company debentures issued after that date, or from local-body debentures, pays a rate of 4s. 6d. in the pound. Debenture-income paying 3s. in the pound is exempt from the 33 1/3 per cent. imposed in respect of unearned income; otherwise the additional rates mentioned in the preceding paragraph (30 per cent., 33 1/3 per cent., and 4d. in the pound) are payable where applicable.

A holder, if resident outside New Zealand, of stock or debentures issued by the Government of New Zealand, or any local or public authority, or by the Public Trustee as agent of a land-settlement association, the interest on which is payable out of New Zealand, is not liable in New Zealand for income-tax on such interest.

DEATH DUTIES.

The law dealing with these classes of duty is embodied in the Death Duties Act, 1921, as subsequently amended. The main heads of taxation are estate and succession duties, which are generally referred to by the collective title of “death duties.” In addition to these there are gift duties and Native succession duties.

Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Commissioner of Stamp Duties on assessment, an additional 5 per cent. penalty, together with interest (at 5 per cent. per annum up to twelve months after death, and 5 1/2 per cent. thereafter) being payable if duty is not paid within three months after death. Gift duties are payable at the time the gift is made, and Native succession duties before the registration of the succession order by the Native Land Court. Generally the decision of the Commissioner of Stamp Duties in regard to matters of fact incidental to the assessment of duty is final, but there is an appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court. An appeal on a question of law may be referred to the Court of Appeal.

The net revenue received from death duties, including gift and Native succession duties, during each of the last ten years was—

Year ended 31st March,Amount.
£
19231,829,852
19241,517,315
19251,520,749
19261,484,189
19271,690,374
19281,899,370
19291,944,513
19301,727,439
19311,809,735
19321,444,298

The total for the year ended 31st March, 1932, is made up as follows:—

 £
Estate duty1,092,741
Succession duty302,342
Gift duty49,215
Total£1,444,298

ESTATE DUTY.

When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person, estimated as at the date of his death, exceeds £1,000 an estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5,000 is exempt from estate duty. The value of any life-insurance policy or policies comprised in the estate is also deductible up to a maximum of £1,000, irrespective of the amount of the estate. The rate of duty on the whole estate must, however, be determined before any deduction is made under either head.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent. in cases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 15 per cent. for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increased the duty payable, the rates, which were embodied in the Act of 1921, ranging from 1 per cent. on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent. on estates of more than £100,000. Part II of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed a rate of 30 per cent. on the amount by which the final balance exceeds £100,000. The present scale of duties is as follows:—

Final Balance of Estate.Rate per Cent.
*20 per cent. on £100,000, plus 30 per cent. on excess over £100,000.
£ £ 
1,000 to 2,0001
2,000 to 3,0002
3,000 to 4,0003
4,000 to 6,0004
6,000 to 8,0005
8,000 to 10,0006
10,000 to 15,0007
15,000 to 20,0008
20,000 to 25,0009
25,000 to 30,00010
30,000 to 35,00011
35,000 to 40,00012
40,000 to 45,00013
45,000 to 50,00014
50,000 to 60,00015
60,000 to 70,00016
70,000 to 80,00017
80,000 to 90,00018
90,000 to 100,00019
Exceeding 100,000*

SUCCESSION DUTY.

In addition to the estate duty referred to above, a succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will-or by intestacy. An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of the late war is allowed a £5,000 exemption additional to the amounts otherwise provided.

The rates of duty vary according to the nearness of kin of the beneficiary to the deceased person. The rates shown below were introduced in amending legislation in 1920, and, as in the case of the estate duties, are embodied in the 1921 consolidating Act.

If Successor isValue of Estate.Rate per Cent.
 £ 
WifeUp to 10,000Nil.
Wife10,000 to 20,0002
WifeOver 20,0004
HusbandUp to 500Nil.
Husband500 to 1,5001
Husband1,500 to 2,5002
HusbandOver 2,5003
Brother or sisterUp to 500Nil.
Brother or sister500 to 20,0005
Brother or sisterOver 20,00010
Child or lineal descendantUp to 1000Nil.
Child or lineal descendant1,000 to 5,0001
Child or lineal descendant5,000 to 10,0002
Child or lineal descendant10,000 to 15,0003
Child or lineal descendant15,000 to 20,0003 1/2
Child or lineal descendantOver 20,0004
Other relative to 4th degreeUp to 500Nil.
Other relative to 4th degree500 to 10,0005
Other relative to 4th degreeOver 10,00010
Other personUp to 500Nil.
Other person500 to 20,00010
Other personOver 20,00020

In respect to moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand and where the beneficiary is not the husband or wife of the deceased or a relative of the deceased within the third degree of consanguinity, there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent. of the excess over £1,000.

NATIVE SUCCESSION DUTY.

Where any succession order is made by the Native Land Court on the death of a Native, no death duty in the ordinary way is payable on the property included in it, but a Native succession duty of 2 per cent. is payable on the value of the property, with a general exemption of £200.

GIFT DUTY.

A gift means any disposition of property which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £500, and exemption from gift duty is provided in cases of the voluntary discharge of a mortgage debt where the donor and beneficiary are not connected by ties of blood or marriage. Various other exemptions were made by the Death Duties Amendment Act, 1923.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made are required to be furnished for assessment of duty within one month of the date of the gift, and in default an additional duty of 50 per cent. is payable. Where duty is payable, the rate is based on the following scale:—

Value of Gift.Rate of Duty. per Cent.
£500 to £1,000
£1,00 to £5,0005
£5,000 to £10,000
Over £10,00010

Prior to 1920 there was a flat rate of 5 per cent. on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value. Gifts between £500 and £1,000 were made dutiable in 1930

STAMP DUTIES.

The term “stamp duties” covers a miscellany of items of taxation imposed by the Stamp Duties Act, 1923, as amended subsequently.

The receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads of stamp duties revenue used in the public accounts.

Year ended 31st March.
1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
 £££££
Adhesive stamps85,254124,406115,46391,483104,057
Duty on instruments428,805439,452457,148326,121228,975
Impressed stamps187,875197,834209,476198,512174,470
Licenses to companies70,88072,32776,06687,49085,351
Sharebrokers' licenses6747069121,4701,521
Bank composition195,301191,221193,017233,318260,206
Totalizator revenue567,890541,179542,899529,143410,878
Amusements-tax63,16560.58679,887105,93674,763
Lottery duty........9,661
Oversea-passenger duty........1,668
Mortgagees'indemnity fees......1,5411,567
Miscellaneous334062662Dr.7
Totals1,599,8771,628,1171,674,8941,575,0761,353,110

Totalizator revenue and amusements-tax are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

TOTALIZATOR-TAX

The Government tax on totalizator investments is 5 per cent. of the gross amount passed through the machines. This percentage was substituted in August, 1930 (by Part I of the Finance Act, 1930), for the former rate of 2 1/2 per cent., which had been in force since March, 1910, prior to which the percentage was 1 1/2. A refund of 1 1/4 per cent. (up to a limit of £250), and in special cases 2 1/2 per cent. (limit, £500) may be made to clubs, the Minister of Internal Affairs having the right to specify the purpose or purposes for which the amount refunded in any case is to be applied. For the financial year 1932-33 racing clubs are permitted to deduct and retain one-fifth of the totalizator duty collected.

From the 1st November, 1915, a tax of 1 per cent. was imposed on the total value of all stakes, and a tax of 2 1/2 per cent. on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments. From the 22nd December, 1921, the tax on stakes was increased to 10 per cent., and that on dividends to 5 per cent. From the 1st April, 1924, the tax on stakes was reduced to 5 per cent.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on the 31st July:—

Year ended 31st July
19281929193019311932
*Retained by the clubs.
Number of racing-days319319324320312
Number of races2,5232,5242,5612,5132,422
 £££££
Amount of stakes591,780587,717576,920511,021352,173
Totalizator investments7,634,0777,203,0337,461,1925,279,4043,680,008
Amount paid in dividends6,489,0476,123,0786,342,5004,366,0833,036,747
Government taxes —
On totalizator investments190,852180,076186,530257,638176,447
On dividends343,591324,196335,747231,227160,943
On stakes29,58929,38628,84625,55117,609
Totals564,032533,658551,123514,416354,999
Percentage of totalizator investments retained by clubs Unpaid fractions*572,556540,228559,589395,955283,554
 38,03135,45536,82628,50122,317

The totalizator revenue accruing to the State during the 1931-32 racing year is seen to have totalled £354,999. For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1932, the amount was £410,878.

Refunds to racing clubs totalled £18,491 in the financial year 1931-32, as against £23,603 during the preceding twelve months.

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.

A form of tax first introduced in 1917 is the amusements-tax, payable on payments for admission to entertainments. “Entertainment” is defined as “any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” The maximum admission charge above which tax is payable was originally fixed at 9d., but has been successively altered to Is., 2s., and (in 1930) ls. 6d. When the payment for admission exceeds Is. 6d., but is not more than 2s., the tax is 3d.; thereafter, up to 3s., it is 4d.; up to 3s. 6d., 5d.; and above 3s. 6d., 1d. for each Is. or part thereof plus 2d. “Payment for admission” includes reservation charges. Provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases—viz., shows promoted by agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, or poultry societies; meetings held for educational, scientific, patriotic, or philanthropic purposes; and swimming-sports.

The following net amounts have been collected during the last ten years:—

Year ended 31st MarchAmount Collected £year ended 31st marchAmount Collected £
1923137,546192863,165
1924115,039192960,586
192578,877193079,887
192664,1631931105,936
192763,555193274,763

FILM-HIRE TAX.

Part V of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed, as from 1st July, 1930, a new form of taxation, known as the film-hire tax. This tax is payable monthly by holders of renters' licenses under Part IV of the Cinematograph Films Act, 1928.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net monthly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British films the tax is 10 per cent. and on foreign films 25 per cent., of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of £41,756 in 1930-31 (nine months), and of £41,207 in 1931-32.

UNEMPLOYMENT TAXATION.

Towards the provision of funds for the relief of unemployment, an unemployment levy was instituted as from December, 1930. Originally at the rate of £1 10s. per annum, payable quarterly, the levy is imposed on all males of the ago of twenty years and over, with certain exemptions.

In 1931 the levy was reduced to £1 per annum, but an “emergency unemployment charge” was imposed at the rate of 1d. for every 6s. 8d. of wages (other than those of domestic servants in private homes and of relief workers employed by public authorities, but with their wages wholly borne by the Unemployment Fund) and of incomes received from other sources by all males not wholly exempt from the levy and by women with incomes of £250 or over (from any source). In 1932 the emergency unemployment charge was altered to 1d. for every 1s. 8d. of wages, &c., and in the case of income of women other than from salary or wages was made applicable to the portion of such income in excess of £20 per annum.

For the portion of 1930-31 during which the Unemployment Act was in force, levy receipts totalled £280,829. Unemployment taxation yielded £1,217,451 in 1931-32.

LOCAL TAXATION.

Local governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes as set out in another section of this book. The amount of revenue collected for local purposes during the ten years ended 31st March, 1931, is shown below, and the subject is dealt with in more detail in the section of this book relating to local government.

Year ended 31st March,RatesLicenses and other Taxes.Total.Per Head of Population
 ££££ s. d.
1922 …3,779,895276,9904,056,8853 3 1
1923 …4,277,781285,9694,563,7503 9 7
1924 …4,445,627313,0904,758,7173 11 4
1925 …4,668,884344,2485,013,1323 13 8
1926 …5,039,645435,7245,475,3693 18 8
1927 …5,311,260576,7615,888,0214 2 11
1928 …5,615,672507,7036,123,3754 4 10
1929 …5,844,495503,2656,347,7604 0 11
1930 …6,010,987535,8096,546,7964 8 7
1931 …5,637,254535,8476,173,1014 2 5

The expres are exclusive of wharfage dues, tolls, &c., received by Harbour Boards, such receipts being regarded as in respect of charges for services.

SUBSECTION C.—STATE INDEBTEDNESS.

INTRODUCTORY

THE Minister of Finance may raise loans, when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion, and may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment of loans, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured, as well as for the redemption and cancellation of securities before maturity.

During the war period provision was made for the issue to the public of “Post Office investment certificates” of a nominal value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation was enacted which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates. Receipts from this source are utilized for the purposes of any loan which may be authorized by Parliament. The term of the certificates, formerly a minimum of five years, was altered in 1927 to such term as the Minister of Finance may determine. The certificates are now issued for various periods from one year upwards

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of the Dominion. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS

The gross indebtedness of the General Government and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (inclusive of Maoris) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table:—

As at 31st March.Amount.Per Head of Population.As at 31st March,Amount.Per Head of Population.

⋆Including £4,076,600 raised in March, 1914, for redemptions early in 1914-15.

†Including £5,370,105 raised in January, 1929, for expenditure in 1929-30

 ££ s. d. ££ s. d.
1913 …90,060,76381 0 51923 …218,953,324165 4 2
1914 …99,730,427*87 10 21924 …221,616,361164 8 5
1915 …100,059,91086 19 71925 …227,814,647165 2 11
1916 …109,637,39795 6 41926 …238,855,478169 8 6
1917 …129,836,105112 16 21927 …245,850,889170 19 5
1918 …150,840,055130 12 111928 …251,396,252172 19 2
1919 …176,076,260149 8 51929 …264,191,983179 12 10
1920 …201,170,755162 12 91930 …267,383,343179 12 5
1921 …206,324,319162 15 71931 …276,033,358182 13 10
1922 …219,054,385168 6 101932 …281,942,800184 18 6

On only two occasions in the history of New Zealand has a reduction in the gross public debt been effected during the financial year. The first occasion was in 1891-92, when the debt was reduced by £117,282, and the second in 1922-23, when another slight reduction (£101,061) was recorded.

The history of the public debt in New Zealand may conveniently and with advantage be divided into four distinct periods—viz., (1) Up to the end of the financial year 1890-91; (2) from the 31st March, 1891, to the 31st March, 1914; (3) from the 31st March, 1914, to the 31st March, 1920; and (4) from the 31st March, 1920, to date.

Up to the 31st March, 1891, loan expenditure had been chiefly concerned with railways and roads, the taking-over of the loan liabilities of the Provincial Governments on their abolition, and the Maori War. The year 1891 marks the beginning of a period during which the functions of the State were widely extended, most notably as regards financial assistance to settlers, workers, and local bodies, the repurchase of alienated lands, the working of coal-mines, the development of hydro-electric power, and the establishment of State fire-and accident-insurance offices.

The advent of the European War created a second point of demarcation in the history of the loan expenditure of the General Government, necessitating as it did the postponement of all public works, &c., except those of pressing necessity. Expenditure of an unproductive nature occasioned by the war was necessarily continued for some time after the Armistice, but the end of the financial year 1919-20 may be fairly regarded as concluding this period. Although in the years immediately following 1919-20 considerable sums were provided by loan-money for purposes directly arising out of the war, yet the bulk of such money was expended in undertakings in the nature of investments, and so should not be regarded as partaking of the nature of unproductive war expenditure.

The gross indebtedness at the 31st March, 1891, 1914, 1920, and 1932, with the increase between these dates, is as follows: —

 £
*Excluding £4,976,600 raised in March,1914, for redemptions early in 1914-15
At 31st. March, 189138,830,350
Increase to 31st March, 191455,923,477*
At 31st March, 191494,753,827*
Increase to 31st March, 1920106,416,928
At 31st March, 1920201,170,755
Increase to 31st March, 193280,772,045
At 31st March, 1932£281,942,800

CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DEBT

In classifying the public debt according to nature or purpose the most usual distinction is that made on the basis of whether raised for ordinary purposes, war purposes, the settlement of discharged soldiers, or State advances. The following summary shows that the whole of the increase between 31st March, 1920, and 31st March, 1932, is in respect of the ordinary and State advances debt, the war and discharged soldiers sections showing substantial reductions: —

Class.Total.Per Head.
1920.1932.1920.1932.
 £££ s. d.£ s. d.
Ordinary…95,483,658170,749,00877 3 11111 19 11
War…80,089,02566,876,16564 15 043 17 3
Discharged soldiers …11,120,0007,668,8768 19 95 0 7
State advances …14,478,07236,648,71211 14 124 0 9
Total …201,170,755281,942,800162 12 9184 18 6

A. more detailed allocation of the debt as at 31st March, 1932, is given in the following statement, arranged in broadly defined classes. Much of the money borrowed is obtained for specific purposes, and can be accurately placed in one or other of the classes shown. On the other hand, however, general public-works loans are obtained to cover the cost of a number of undertakings, and such loans are allocated in the table over the various items according to the total expenditure on each. The result is accurate enough for practical purposes.

ALLOCATION OF GROSS PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS AT 31MARCH, 1932.

Class of Undertaking.Gross Indebtedness at 31st March, 1932.
Productive Works.£
Railways64,060,918
Telegraphs and telephones10,559,560
Hydro-electric power11,033,475
Lighthouses and harbour-works1,194,131
Westport Harbour661,150
State coal-mines141,683
Tourist resorts648,502
Swamp-drainage681,750
Rangitaiki land-drainage500,000
Total89,481,169
Land-settlement and Forests.
Cheviot Estate160,918
Land for settlements9,044,474
Discharged soldiers settlement7,668,876
Hauraki Plains settlement809,800
Purchase of Native lands1,916,936
Native-land settlement4,520,081
State forests1,753,172
Total25,874,257
Investments.
Advances to settlers20,794,871
Advances to workers13,075,189
Advances to local authorities2,778,691
Loans to local bodies3,550,718
Samoan loan124,000
Bank of New Zealand shares875,000
Mining advances44,990
Fruit-preserving industry advances56,850
Cold-storage advances73,720
General purposes relief advances70,000
Fishing industry promotion advances3,475
Kauri-gum industry57,000
Housing and loans for workers' dwellings396,795
Nauru and Ocean Islands479,200
Total42,380,499
Indirectly Productive Purposes.
Highways, roads, and bridges23,909,898
Old provincial liabilities (mostly roads and bridges)878,739
Irrigation, land and river improvement2,380,444
Development of mining809,068
Immigration3,056,442
Total31,034,591
Financially Unproductive Purposes.
Public buildings, including schools15,272,050
Defence and Maori Wars4,312,357
Naval defence1,389,656
Great European War66,876,165
Revenue deficiencies2,287,056
Loans-redemption expenses (unallocated)5,000
Revenue bills3,030,000
Total93,172,284
Grand total281,942,800

The proportion of the total debt represented by the five main divisions shown is as follows:—

 Per Cent
Productive works31.74
Land-settlement and forests9.18
Investments15.03
Indirectly productive purposes11.01
Financially unproductive purposes33.04
Total100.00

The directly interest-earning portion of the debt as at 31st March, 1932, amounts to 55.95 per cent. of the total debt, and is represented by assets which are of much greater value than the amount of borrowed money spent upon them, a considerable amount of surplus ordinary revenue, as well as other moneys of the nature of special receipts, having been expended from time to time on railways and other public, services.

While expenditure on public buildings is, properly speaking, unproductive, the debt on this account is represented by valuable assets. For a summary of State assets, reference should be made to the section of this book dealing with wealth.

At the 31st March, 1914, the financially unproductive and unclassified debt represented only about 20 per cent. of the total public debt; but during the six years ended 31st March, 1920, war indebtedness aggregating £80,089,025 was responsible for approximately 75 per cent. of the debt incurred during this period being of an unproductive nature. Additional indebtedness on account of war expenditure was incurred during the next two years, the total war loans raised aggregating £82,245,673; but the end of the financial year 1919-20 saw the cessation of expenditure on a huge scale on this account. The war debt has been reduced by over 15 millions, and now stands at £66,876,165.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1931-32.

New loan-money aggregating £4,797,300 was raised during 1931-32 for the following purposes:—

Public Works Fund—£
General Purposes Account3,028,750
Electric Supply Account1,000,000
Hauraki Plains Account800
Native Land Settlement Account175,000
Main Highways Account380,000
State Forests Account200,000
Swamp Land Drainage Account12,750

Loans paid off during the year aggregated £1,917,858, the net increase in the permanent debt being £2,879,442. Treasury revenue bills to a total of £3,030,000 outstanding at the 31st March, 1932, bring the increase to £5,909,442.

DOMICILE OF DEBT.

Between the 31st March 1914, and the corresponding date in 1932 the amount of New Zealand's public debt domiciled in London increased from 78½ to 159½ millions, while that domiciled in New Zealand increased from 17 to 118 millions. The amount raised in Australia is negligible. The table following shows, of the total amount outstanding in each of the last ten years, the amount domiciled in London, Australia, and New Zealand.

PUBLIC DEBT: WHERE DOMICILED

At 31st March,Amount.Percentage of Total.
London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££Per CentPer CentPer Cent
1923110,668,2682,159,490106,125,56650.540.9948.47
1924114,876,8932,106,600104,632,86851.840.9547.21
1925120,818,4872,952,200104,043,96053.031.3045.67
1926128,047,6593,643,100107,164,71953.611.5244.87
1927132,512,8054,042,450109,295,63453.901.6444.46
1928139,756,9734,168,850107,470,42955.591.6642.75
1929149,346,2444,168,350110,677,38956.531.5841.89
1930146,580,5024,276,750116,526,09154.821.6043.58
1931154,546,9414,175,350117,311,06755.991.5142.50
1932159,641,8553,914,550118,386,39556.621.3941.99

YEARS OF MATURITY OF LOANS.

A summary of the loans outstanding on the 31st March, 1932, showing the amounts falling due in each financial year, is given.

Due Date: Year ending 31st March,Amount
 £

*Unpresented.

†Repayable by annual Instalments—under original arrangements the whole amount should be paid off by 31st March, 1959.

1921115*
19265*
19282,000*
19312,500*
193223,790*
193312,832,703
193415,718,290
19358,439,650
19365,453,450
193710,666,140
19389,335,755
193921,992,098
194024,906,432
1941514,165
19425,292,050
19434,000,000
19447,362,000
19457,788,065
194634,784,816
194812,151,347
19493,331,430
195018,789,777
19519,150,747
195215,192,660
195819,227,988
196310,884,628
Funded debt24,100,199
Total£281,942,800

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCKS.

The highest and lowest London prices for the principal New Zealand stocks, taken over a range of five years, are quoted.

Rate per Cent.Maturing.Highest.Lowest.
1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
3194579803/8803/4821/4813/8755/8781/475771/4703/8
31/219408715/16891/4883/891893/485863/4847/88579
41933-4391 1/18923/4911/4935/8921/4877/8897/8853/88686
41943-638889 1/289 1/889 3/491 5/884 1/485 3/482 1/882 1/274
4 1/2194497 3/498 1/49898 7/897 1/294 3/495 1/891 1/29285 1/2
4 1/2194597 3/498 1/897 7/89997 9/1694 5/895 3/491 7/892 1/485 1/2
4 1/21947..98 7/897 6/898 1/497 7/18..9691 3/892 1/483 1/8
4 1/21948-58....95 1/898 1/297 3/16....90 1/89184 1/2
51935-45102 7/8103 7/8102 1/4103 1/2101 7/1699 3/810098 1/49989
51946103 3/4105 1/8104105102 15/1699 3/4101 3/898 3/499 5/889
51949......105102 13/16......10189
61936-51109 1/4109106 7/8106 1/2103 7/16106106 1/4101 5/810290

INTEREST

Of the total amount of public debt outstanding at the end of March, 1932, only £30,590,423, or 11 per cent. of the total (excluding redemption and revenue bills), bears interest at a lower rate than 4 per cent., as against 48 per cent. of the total at 31st March, 1914. A higher rate than 5 per cent. is payable on £47,775,535 (17 per cent. of the total). The following are the rates of interest payable on the whole public debt:—

Rate of InterestAmount £Rate of InterestAmount £
*including £24,100,199 at £4 19s. 5,88d. per cent.
6 per cent.5,899,003 1/2 per cent.19,995,132
5 1/2 per cent.26,156,6553 per cent.9,662,791
5 1/4 per cent.11,449,430unpresented28,410
5 1/8 per cent.4,270,450Redemption bills4,025,000
5 per cent.62,726,286*Revenue bills3,030,000
4 1/2 per cent.85,608,413Totals£281,942,800
4 per cent.48,158,733....
3 3/4 per cent.932,500....

The total annual amount of interest payable on the public debt as at 31st March, 1932, excluding the funded debt (in regard to which postponement of payments has been granted by the Imperial Government), is £11,712,464, which gives an average rate of £4 10s. 10d. per £100.

The actual net interest payments during the last twenty years out of the Consolidated Fund Ordinary Revenue Account are shown in the table following, together with the rate per head of mean population

Year ended 31st MarchAmountRate per HeadYear ended 31st MarchAmountRate per Head
  ££ s. d.  ££ s. d.
1913 2,514,2562 5 101923 7,904,2606 0 7
1914 2,665,6562 7 41924 7,877,5975 18 1
1915 2,823,8782 9 41925 7,865,2625 15 8
1916 2,933,7622 11 01926 8,129,7995 16 10
1917 3,705,9613 4 61927 8,450,7945 19 0
1918 3,936,0803 8 41928 8,397,0745 15 6
1919 5,409,2104 12 91929 8,675,2205 18 10
1920 6,352,3445 5 21930 9,136,3016 3 8
1921 6,807,2175 8 81931 9,266,6766 3 9
1922 7,390,8645 15 01932 9,035,0255 19 1

The above amounts are net payments out of the Consolidated Fund only, and do not comprise the whole of the interest payments in respect of moneys raised by way of loans. For loans raised for the purposes of State advances to settlers, workers, local authorities, &c., the interest, although made a charge upon the Consolidated Fund, is recovered from the receipts derived from interest paid by borrowers. Other loan-money coming within the same category is that raised for land-settlement, State coal-mines, the development of water-power, and a number of other purposes. Such interest does not become a burden upon the taxpayer, and consequently is not included in the figures upon which the rate per head of mean population is calculated.

The gross interest charges borne by the Consolidated Fund during the year ended 31st March, 1932, totalled £12,211,693, of which 23,176,668 was recovered from other accounts, &c. In addition there should be set off against the interest charges certain amounts shown in the public accounts not as recoveries but as revenue. These are interest on railway capital liability (£841,720), interest on post and telegraph capital liability (£550,000), and interest earned on the investment of public moneys (£776,628).

Of the gross interest payments from the Consolidated Fund during 1931-32, £6,485,586 was paid in London, £237,544 in Australia, and £5,488,293 in New Zealand.

AMORTIZATION OF DEBT

PUBLIC DEBT REPAYMENT

A brief historical account of the provisions for paying of! loan-moneys will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. With certain exceptions, the public debt is now subject to the provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925. This Act, which repealed the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, substituted for the long-term sinking-fund system a method whereby the Dominion's debt-reduction resources may be available to purchase and cancel Government securities as the market price is advantageous, or pay them off at maturity, and so ensure an actual reduction in the public debt annually. For this purpose there is issued annually out of the Consolidated Fund a sum equal to ½ per cent. of the debt affected as at the 31st March, plus ½ per cent. of the total amount previously repaid or redeemed under the provisions of the Act. To this is added a sum equal to interest at 3½ per cent. per annum on the debt paid off under the scheme. By this means the bulk of the savings in interest on debt paid off is applied to further repayments of debt, and the debt existing at the commencement of the scheme will be liquidated in about sixty years, while all future loans will be liquidated within a similar period from the date of their inception.

Under the Act of 1925 a capital fund termed “The Public Debt Redemption Fund” was created, consisting of (1) the accumulations of sinking funds, amounting to £11,225,645 (leaving aside the State Advances, Westport Harbour, and other special sinking funds); (2) the amount advanced out of surplus revenue for discharged soldiers settlement, originally £13,500,000, but since reduced to £10,500,000 through £350,000 having been transferred to the Consolidated Fund and £2,650,000 written off as a result of the revaluation of the properties of discharged soldiers. The earnings from this fund of £21,725,645 are credited to the Consolidated Fund and applied towards meeting the charge against that fund created by the Act.

The Act does not apply to the whole of the public debt, revenue bills, and certain classes of the debt for which there are special amortization provisions, being excluded. Of the total gross indebtedness of £227,814,647 at the 31st March, 1925, £174,128,135 was subject to the operations of the Act. The corresponding figure at the 31st March, 1932, was £205,724,341.

To the 31st March, 1932, securities of a nominal value of £7,510,293 had been redeemed under the operation of the Repayment of the public, Debt Act. These transactions have effected an annual saving of interest to the Consolidated Fund amounting to £90,816, the difference between the rate formerly payable on the securities redeemed and the rate of 3 1/2 per cent. now payable to the Public Debt Repayment Account in respect of these securities.

The next table shows the operations of the Public Debt Repayment Account during each of the seven years of its existence, together with the interest earnings of the Redemption Fund. In addition to transfers from the Consolidated Fund, the Public Debt Repayment Account is credited with interest earnings (£2,565 to 31st March, 1932) on its investments. On the expenditure side there have been £202 for cost of exchange and a transfer of £21,212 to the Consolidated Fund in respect of premium on exchange.

Year ended 31st March,Interest on redemption fund (paid to Consolidated Fund).Transfers from Consolidated Funds.Utilized to redeem and cancel Securities.Normal value of Securities redeemed and cancelled.
1/2 per Cent. of Debt at Beginning of Year of redeemed under Act.3 1/2 per Cent. of Debt redeemedTotal.
Prior to Beginning of YearDuring Year*
*computed from dates of redemption.
 £££££££
1926897,756870,641 2,093872,734870,637889,733
1927863,942896,65131,14113,737941,529939,231942,020
1928878,408919,72764,1119,926993,764998,188999,811
1929995,202944,45499,1053,3691,046,9281,041,8711,046,000
1930996,695993,567135,71524,9631,154,2451,158,4721,158,472
1931858,8931,006,800176,26123,9981,207,0591,209,9281,209,928
1932699,7901,047,687218,60912,9041,279,2001,243,1181,264,330

The funds in the Public Debt Repayment Account are not the only source from which debt-redemptions are made. Other accounts provided £642,280 for redemption purposes in 1931-32.

AMORTIZATION OF FUNDED DEBT.

At the 31st March, 1922, £27,532,164 of New Zealand's public debt was owing to the British Government, all but £1,191,919 of this being on account of war expenditure. Arrangements were made with the Imperial Government in 1922 for the funding of this debt.

The funding was carried out on an annuity basis of 6 per cent., the total payment each year (payable half-yearly at 1st June and 1st December) being £1,651,930. Interest is at the rate of £4 19s. 5.88d. per cent., the balance of the 6 per cent. going to reduction of the debt. Payments to the end of 1931-32 have been:—

Year ended 31st March,Interest.PrincipalBalance of Debt outstanding

* Half-year only.

†Including £20,000 additional, paid off Naval Defence Loan

 £££
1923*684,794141,17127,390,993
19241,358,966292,96427,098,029
19251,344,212507,71826,590,311
19261,318,641333,28926,257,022
19271,301,856350,07425,906,948
19281,284,224367,70625,539,242
19291,265,706386,22425,153,018
19301,246,254405,67624,747,342
19311,225,822426,10824,321,234
1932*604,930221,03524,100,199

Under the agreement the original amount of £27,532,164 would have been automatically discharged from the public debt by the end of the financial year 1958-59. The British Government has, however, generously postponed New Zealand's obligations in respect of the funded debt payments, due in December, 1931, June and December, 1932, and June 1933. On the other hand, a provision that any part of the funded debt may be redeemed at any time was taken advantage of in 1924, when £200,000 was paid off the Naval Defence loan.

The provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, do not apply to the funded debt.

ACCRUED SINKING FUNDS.

The passing of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, has robbed the comparative figures of accrued sinking funds of much of their significance. The table following is nevertheless of interest, as showing the growth of the sinking funds up to the date of the alteration of the system.

Year ended 31st March,Accrued Sinking Funds.Year ended 31st March,Accrued Sinking Funds.
Amount.Proportion of Gross Debt.Amount.Proportion of Gross Debt.
 £Per Cent. £Per Cent.
19132,603,6422.89192311,879,2565.43
19143,063,9923.07192412,974,0285.85
19153,178,0553.18192513,462,8395.91
19163,679,9643.3619262,274,2620.95
19174,263,5903.2819272,443,5400.99
19184,971,6053.3019282,635,7661.05
19195,951,0563.3819292,156,5010.82
19207,257,5643.6119302,331,4230.87
19218,763,0724.2519312,313,6730.84
192210,655,3944.8619322,435,1170.86

Payments to sinking funds during the year ended 31st March, 1932, totalled £49,529, while the funds earned £112,940 by way of interest. Sinking-fund holdings to the amount of £41,000 were utilized for the redemption of debentures during the year, and an administration fee of £25 was paid in the case of Westport Harbour.

Details of the accrued sinking funds as at 31st March, 1932, were as follows: —

 £
State advances to settlers1,822,688
State advances to workers82,355
State advances to local authorities175,740
State coal-mines7,990
Nauru and Ocean Islands65
Samoan loan22,392
Westport Harbour loans261,828
Electric supply62,059
Total£2,435,117

NET INDEBTEDNESS.

While the sinking funds were annually increasing it was customary to regard the net-indebtedness figures as giving the best comparison between one year and another. The initiation of the present system of amortization has, however, destroyed the comparison on this basis, and the gross figures now afford a better and more comparable index. The figures of net indebtedness for the last twenty years are as follows:—

As at 31st MarchAmountPer Head of PopulationAs at 31st MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 ££sd ££sd.
191387,457,121781371923207,024,04815642
191491,689,83580911924208,595,743154153
191596,644,45584031925214,287,12815569
1916105,957,43392241926236,581,216167163
1917125,572,515109211927243,407,34916955
1918145,868,4501266101928248,740,73617127
1919170,125,204144751929256,652,371174104
1920193,913,1911561551930265,051,92017811
1921197,561,2221551741931273,715,71018131
1922208,241,121160081932279,507,68318367

In general the net indebtedness shown in the foregoing table is merely the balance left after deducting the accrued sinking funds from the amount of debentures and stock in circulation. In some years, however, a further deduction has been made on account of loan-money, included in the gross indebtedness, having been raised towards the end of the financial year for the redemption of debentures falling due early in the succeeding financial year, or (in 1928-29) for expenditure in the next year. The years concerned and the amounts so deducted on this account are—

Year ended 31st March,Amount.
 £
19144,976,600
1915237,400
192125
1922157,870
192350,020
192446,590
192564,680
192819,750
19295,383,051
19313,975

In computing the net indebtedness no allowance is made for the fact that portion of the debt is actually held by the Government itself, securities to the value of £2,085,828 being held by Treasury accounts as at 31st March, 1932. In the course of the year's financial transactions securities are bought and sold by Treasury accounts, and the investments held as at 31st March in each year, while forming part of the debt, do not represent amounts due directly or indirectly to the public.

PUBLIC DEBT OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The following figures show the gross and net public debt of each State of the Australian Commonwealth, and of the Commonwealth itself, on the 30th June, 1931, and of New Zealand on the 31st March, 1932: —

State.Gross Indebtedness.Accrued Sinking Funds.Net Indebtedness.Indebtedness per Head
Gross.Net
* Excluding amounts advanced to States—already included in figures for States.
 ££££s.d.£s.d.
New South Wales287,831,556174,703287,656,853114162114149
Victoria165,958,684Dr.3,922165,962,60692679268
Queensland112,706,189777,443111,928,746117911161211
South Australia100,094,44728,804100,065,64317110417194
Western Australia77,360,8851,265,70376,095,182183185180183
Tasmania23,365,81219,98523,345,827106127106109
Total, Australian States767,317,5732,262,716765,054,8571180101171310
Commonwealth*388,718,545..388,718,545591511591511
Total for Australia1,156,036,1182,262,7161,153,773,40217716917799
New Zealand281,942,8002,435,117279,507,68318418618367

The debt per head is seen to be somewhat lower in Australia than in New Zealand. If the Commonwealth figure be added to that of each individual State it is found that of the six Australian States only South Australia and Western Australia have higher per-head rates of indebtedness than this Dominion.

In making comparisons between New Zealand and Australia, however, it should be remembered that the Dominion's debt includes 36½ millions raised for the purpose of State advances, which has no counterpart in the total for Australia, where savings-bank funds and other resources are utilized for advances. In addition to sinking funds, moreover, New Zealand has in the Public Debt Redemption Fund a capital set-off of 21¾ millions against the gross debt.

GENERAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT DEBT.

The statistics given throughout this subsection refer to the indebtedness of the General Government only, and do not include the debt of local governing authorities, which is dealt with in the section of this volume relating to local government.

Local governing authorities had at the 31st March, 1931, a gross indebtedness of £74,141,188, and if this amount be added to the gross debt of the General Government at the same date (£276,033,358) the aggregate becomes £350,174,546, From this total should be deducted £5,035,993 in respect of outstanding loans to local authorities from the State Advances Office and the Main Highways Board, and £1,969,027 on account of inscribed debt under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, leaving £343,169,526 as the sum total of the public and semi-public debt as at the 31st March, 1931. This figure represents a rate of £227 per head of population.

The figures relating to local authorities' indebtedness in the foregoing paragraph are inclusive of Hospital Boards, and to this extent differ from those given in the section on local government. Hospital Hoard indebtedness at 31st March, 1931, totalled £1,455,152, including £11,590 from the State Advances Office.

SUBSECTION D. —STATE ADVANCES.

INTRODUCTORY.

As has been shown in Subsection C of this section, an appreciable proportion of the public debt of New Zealand is represented by money borrowed by the State not for its own requirements, but for the purpose of lending out at easy rates of interest for various defined purposes.

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c., for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes vary considerably in detail, but all lie in one of two main classes—those in which the money is advanced on security, and those in which the expenditure is incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, and discharged soldiers are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlements (including the settlement of discharged soldiers) is the principal of the latter.

Of the advances proper, several classes are administered by a separate Department known as the State Advances Department, and the accounts relating to these are not included in the public accounts, nor are they dealt with in Subsection A of this section. The various systems of advances administered by the State Advances Department are dealt with in the present subsection, as is also the rural intermediate credits scheme. The system of advances to discharged soldiers for settlement purposes is dealt with in the section of this book dealing with land tenure and settlement, while particulars of advances for mining purposes are given in the section relating to mining.

Statements appearing later in this subsection are to be read subject to certain temporary modifications imposed by legislation passed in the first session of 1932.

The National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, effected a reduction in the rate of interest of existing mortgages as from 1st April, 1932, until the expiry of its provisions three years later. The standard reduction is 20 per cent. in the case of mortgages entered into on 1st January, 1930, or within five years immediately preceding, and in the case of earlier mortgages 20 per cent. of the rate of interest, that would have been fixed by the mortgage had it been entered into on 1st January, 1930. No such reduction shall, however, have the effect of bringing the net interest rate on chattel mortgages below 6 1/2 per cent. or on other mortgages below 5 per cent.

Part III of the Finance Act,1932, made temporary provision (also for three years) for the capitalization of arrears of interest in respect of advances, and for the extension of provision relating to rebate of interest on instalments. It made also certain permanent amendments to the State Advances Act,1913

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS

The Advances to Settlers Office was established by an Act passed in 1894. An administrative officer called the Superintendent was appointed early in the following year, and a Board was set up to advise and co-operate with the Superintendent. Advances can be granted only with the consent of the Board.

The legislation has been amended at different times, and is now embodied in the State Advances Act, 1913, and its amendments

Money is advanced to settlers on first mortgage of lands and improvements held under numerous specified classes of tenure, free from all encumbrances, liens, and interests other than leasehold interests

Loans are granted only on the instalment system and for periods not exceeding thirty-six and a half years—

  1. On freeholds, up to three-fourths of the value of the security:

  2. On leaseholds, up to three-fourths of the value of the lessee's interest in the lease.

No loan of less than £25 or more than £3,500 can be granted. Applications for loans not exceeding £500 have priority over applications for larger sums. If the applicant has already obtained any advance under the Act and is desirous of obtaining a further advance, the amount of the application, added to the amount of the advances already obtained, must not exceed £3,500. The property which the applicant offers as security for the loan must consist of one or more holdings of the several classes of tenure referred to previously, and must, of course, be of the necessary value; and, if the property is leasehold, all the covenants and conditions of the lease, including the payment of rent, must have been regularly complied with.

Mortgages are repayable by half-yearly payments of principal and interest combined. They may also be wholly repaid at any time. Very low rates of interest were adopted at the inception of the scheme, the general rate up to the end of 1925 being 5 per cent., reducible to 4 1/2 per cent. for prompt payment.

Interest on loans advanced since 1925 is charged at the rate of 6 1/4 per cent., reducible to 5 3/4 per cent., save on advances authorized for the purpose of repaying mortgages, in which ease the rate is 6 1/2 per cent., reducible to 6 per cent., provided that in each case payment is made not later than fourteen days after due date and no arrears in respect of instalments or other payments under the mortgage remain outstanding. The mortgagor has the privilege of repaying the whole balance of principal at any time; of paying an additional £5 or multiple of £5 towards reduction; and, in certain cases, of readjusting the loan.

A more detailed account of the system will be found in the 1930 number of the Year-Book

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS ON STOCK AND FARM IMPLEMENTS.

Advances may also be made on the security of stock and of farm implements. Every advance must be secured by a mortgage of land or chattels either with or without any collateral security to be approved by the Board of the Office. Not more than £500 may be advanced to any one borrower, the term of the loan not to exceed five years

Interest on the amount of the loan for the time being outstanding is payable at the rate of 7 per cent. per annum, reducible to 6 1/2 per cent. per annum provided that the half-yearly instalments of principal and interest are paid within fourteen days of due date.

STATISTICAL.

From the inception of the scheme of advances to settlers in 1894, loans aggregating £51,474,212 have been authorized to 83,292 applicants, the total actual payments to 31st March, 1932, being £47,020,820, of which £22,514,333 has been repaid in respect of principal, leaving £24,506,487 still outstanding to 31,983 settlers. A table is given showing the business to date and for each of the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March.Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount.
  £££
1923. . . .2,1401,209,035945,900611,480
1924 . . . .6,2045,416,9873,904,1501,009,499
1925 . . . .3,3214,289,8753,516,130846,771
1926 . . . .4,7475,409,3103,905,9001,010,355
1927 . . . .1,8531,980,7953,566,2201,025,621
1928 . . . .1,1321,680,4651,402,640874,234
1929 . . . .2,3492,957,4502,059,1351,083,621
1930 . . . .3,4704,158,0903,593,8651,301,489
1931 . . . .2,3952,594,8702,739,0801,173,440
1932 . . . .929788,505757,130870,129
totals to 31st march,193283,29251,474,21247,020,82022,514,333

Not all of the advances to settlers are made from the funds of the Advances to Settlers Branch of the State Advances Office. Part of the business shown in the foregoing table relates to the Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch and the Advances Office Sinking Fund Branch, the funds of which are utilized for advances purposes. For 1927-28 and subsequent years, also, the figures include the transactions under the scheme of rural advances, which are dealt with under the next heading. The advances to settlers outstanding at 31st March, 1932, are classified according to source, as follows:—

Branch.Number.Amount.
  £
Advances to Settlers … … …26,75217,875,669
Public Debt Sinking Funds … … …1,3801,137,884
Advances Office Sinking Fund … … …1,458910,317
Rural Advances … … …2,3934,582,617
Totals … … …31,983£24,506,487

Of the £788,505 authorized to be advanced to settlers during the year ended the 31st March, 1932, only £23,485 was for the actual erection of dwellings. The number of loans for the erection of dwellings was 41, the average advance authorized for this purpose being £573, compared with £799 in the previous year.

Dealing now only with the operations of the Advances to Settlers Branch (full information not being available in respect of advances from the Public Debt Sinking Funds and the Advances Office Sinking Fund, and rural advances being dealt with under the next heading), the advances authorized during the year 1931-32 numbered 783, representing a total amount of £571,790. The number of borrowers and the sums actually advanced during the year, classified according to amount, were—

Category.Number of Advances.Amount Advanced.
  £
Not exceeding £50027478,905
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £1,000238181,915
Exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £2,00093130,185
Exceeding £2,000 but not exceeding £3,5003283,240
Totals637£474,245

The number and amount of advances from the Advances to Settlers Branch which were outstanding at the 31st March, 1932, were classified according to amount as follows:—

Category.Number of Advances.Amount outstanding.
  £
Not exceeding £50014,0413,083,872
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £1,0007,1835,147,754
Exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £2,0004,0975,296,119
Exceeding £2,000 but not exceeding £3,5001,4314,347,924
Totals26,752£17,875,669

The number and amounts of current advances on rural and on urban and suburban land are—

 Number.Amount.
  £
On rural land16,00511,294,022
On urban and suburban land10,7476,581,647

Interest payments during the year 1931-32 by borrowers were £789,765 (including arrears), and £456,317 was overdue in respect of interest at the end of the fiscal year, as compared with £238,084 twelve months earlier. The gross profits of the Branch were £167,393, and the cost of management and expenses of the branch £29,245, being 0-122 per cent., or 2s. 5d. per £100, of the capital employed. Loss on the realization of securities, and the writing-down of doubtful securities and of office equipment, accounted for £114,763; the writing-down of loan-flotation charges accounted for £13,167; and £7,940 was paid in income-tax. The net profits, £2,278, were invested in the Advances Office Sinking Fund Account.

Advances to settlers (excluding rural advances) have aggregated £42,192,505 from the inception of the scheme in 1894 to the 31st March, 1932. During that period losses have totalled £415,027, or 19s. 8d. in every £100 of the amount advanced. The sinking fund established under the State Advances Act, 1913, after redemption of loans totalling £485,365, amounts to £1,822,688.

RURAL ADVANCES.

The Rural Advances Act, 1926, established, as from the 1st April, 1927, a separate branch of the State Advances Office, known as the Rural Advances Branch, and controlled by the State Advances Board.

The business of the Rural Advances Branch is to make advances, under the special provisions of the Act, on the security of first mortgages of the various classes of land covered by the Advances to Settlers scheme, but exclusive of urban and suburban lands. Advances may be made not exceeding £5,500, inclusive of any amounts granted under the Advances to Settlers or Advances to Workers schemes. Advances must not exceed two-thirds of the value of the security in the case of freehold land, or two-thirds of the value of the lessee's interest in the case of leasehold land.

To provide funds wherewith to make rural advances, the Superintendent of the State Advances Office may issue bonds or stock or other securities, which constitute a floating charge on all the assets of the Rural Advances Branch, including all mortgages for the time being securing loans granted under the Act. Such bonds, &c., are not secured on the public revenues, and do not form part of the public debt. Bonds to an aggregate value of £4,001,650 have been issued to the 31st March, 1932.

During the five years' operations 3,208 loans amounting to £5,921,145 have been authorized, and 2,543 advances totalling £4,828,315 have been paid over. Repayments of principal total £245,698, advances current at the 31st March, 1932, being £4,582,617. Figures for each of the five years (which are included in the totals previously given for advances to settlers) are as follows:—

year ended 31st March,Bonds issued.Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.Advances Current at End of Year.
Number.Amount.
 £ ££££
1928543,3005191,146,770751,900953750,947
19291,048,5508581,515,5101,144,23519,8961,875,286
19301,179,3509991,841,0551,406,86051,9973,230,149
19311,207,7507031,234,9951,271,07096,8824,404,337
193222,700129182,815254,25075,9704,582,617

The advances current at 31st March,1932, were classified as to amount as follows:—

CategoryNumber of Advances.Amount outstanding.
Not exceeding £50019483,925
Exceeding £500, but not exceeding £1,000483387,322
Exceeding £1,000, but not exceeding £2,0007211,131,809
Exceeding £2,000, but not exceeding £3,0006431,659,602
Exceeding £3,500, but not exceeding £5,5003521,319,959
Totals2,393£4,582,617

The nature of the security was as follows:—

Security.Number of Advances.Amount outstanding.
  £
Freehold2,0254,023,886
Leasehold322482,938
Freehold and leasehold combined4675,793

Interest payments during 1931-32 by borrowers were £179,731 (including arrears), and £152,530 was overdue in respect of interest at the end of the year, as compared with £52,970 twelve months earlier. The gross profits for the year were £42,677, of which £5,414 was paid out by way of management expenses (being 0.109 per cent. of the capital employed), £8,518 paid in income-tax, £12,664 utilized for the writing-down of loan-flotation charges, and £9,904 as loss on realization and writing-down of securities, a balance of £6,177 net profits being carried forward.

RURAL INTERMEDIATE CREDIT

The Rural Intermediate Credit Act, which was passed during the 1927 session of Parliament and came into force on the 1st January, 1928, provided for the setting-up of a special Rural Intermediate Credit Board, and the making of advances as follows:—

  1. To members of co-operative rural intermediate credit associations, whose formation (with not less than twenty members and with certain defined objects) is provided for. The application for the loan is received and considered by the association concerned, which, on approving it, applies to the Board to advance the amount required to cover the loan. The term of the loan is not more than five years. An association may arrange with a bank or other approved financial institution for a loan in cases where the term is less than six months.

  2. To persons engaged in farming operations on their own account, the loan (for certain specified purposes and for a term of not more than five years) being advanced direct. Applications under this head are dealt with by District Rural Intermediate Credit Boards.

  3. To co-operative societies (with not less than thirty members and with a subscribed capital of at least £2,500) having for their principal objects the production or sale of staple agricultural or pastoral products. In this case the term of the loan is not less than six months nor more than three years.

The Board may also carry on the business of discounting farmers' promissory notes and bills of exchange.

The total amount of advances in force at any time to a person in classes (a) or (b) above was originally set down as not to exceed £1,000. This limit was extended to £2,000 by the Rural Intermediate Credit Amendment Act, 1929. In the case of cooperative societies the amount advanced may be not more than 80 per cent. of the fair market value of the live-stock or produce upon which the loan is secured.

The Rural Intermediate Credit Board consists of eight members, including the Public Trustee, who is the principal executive member, and in his capacity as such is styled the Commissioner of Rural Intermediate Credit. The funds of the Board are obtained partly by way of advance from the Consolidated Fund and partly by the issue of debentures

The accounting year under the scheme ends on the 30th June. The following figures show the position at 30th June, 1932:—

 £
Investments (including loans made and face values of bills and notes discounted)434,872
Loans granted but not completed13,831
Applications entertained and in course of consideration9,560
Total£458,263
The investments referred to above were made up as follows:-£
Advances to associations for preliminary expenses801
Advances to associations under part II of the Act294,683
Advances to farmers under part III of the Act123,655
Bills and notes discounted (face value)15,733
Total £434,872

Between the inception of the scheme on 1st January, 1928, and the 30th June, 1932, loans paid and bills discounted totalled £914,608.

The interest fixed for advances other than to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations is 6 1/2 per cent. per annum, this being also the discount rate. In the case of loans to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations the rate charged is 6 per cent., so that associations may be in a position to make advances to their members at 6 1/2 per cent. The Board has imposed conditions as to the manner in which this margin of 1/2 per cent. is to be employed by the associations.

Advances totalling £400,000 have been received from the Consolidated Fund, and £256,900 had been raised to the 30th June, 1932, by the issue of bonds and debentures. Income from investments during the year ended 30th June, 1932, totalled £31,890, and expenditure for the year was £24,716, leaving an excess of income amounting to £7,174. The income referred to does not include £7,908 earned by the investments of the Rural Intermediate Credit Redemption Fund, to which one-third of all advances received from the Consolidated Fund must be allocated, being invested in Government securities. The interest earned by this Fund, plus one-half of the net profits on the year's working, are credited to the Redemption Fund, the total investments of which amounted at the end of the year to £165,270.

ADVANCES TO WORKERS.

The system of advances to workers, instituted in 1906, is on much the same general lines as that of the advances to settlers. Advances are made on first mortgage of lands and improvements held under the same classes of tenure as in the advances to settlers scheme. The scales of charges and of payments of principal and interest, and the provisions for paying off the whole or part of the principal outstanding, apply to the workers' scheme as well as to the settlers'.

A worker is defined as a person of either sex engaged (whether as an employee or on his or her own account) in manual or clerical work who is not in receipt of an annual income exceeding £300, increased by £25 in respect of each child or other person dependent on him, and is not the owner of any land other than that offered as security.

Not more than £1,250 may be 'granted to any one borrower; and an advance must not exceed 95 per cent. of the total value of the security in the case of freehold land, or 95 per cent. of the value of the lessee's interest in the case of leasehold land, or, where the loan is to provide for the erection of a dwellinghouse, 95 per cent. of the cost of the dwellinghouse inclusive of the cost of the land and improvements. No advance can be made to any applicants who do not take up their permanent residence on the property. Married applicants must make the declaration on the application form jointly with wife or husband, as the case may require.

The total of the actual money advanced to workers up to the 31st March, 1932, was £21,363,757, of which £6,160,849 has been repaid. The actual number of advances and the aggregate amount outstanding at the same date were 24,781 and £15,202,908 respectively.

Year ended 31st March,Loans authorized.Amount. advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount
  £££
19231,748871,805724,830234,092
19243,2432,198,3101,803,630458,264
19251,8731,362,3701,351,785334,830
19263,2992,759,4002,241,860516,156
19271,9111,638,4902,536,355423,615
19281,3731,215,5901,358,095353,540
19292,2241,903,1851,416,732426,142
19304,2393,555,2203,301,285524,460
19311,6951,268,7151,751,335594,966
1932316200,145289,785445,612
Totals from inception to 31/3/193239,19822,554,16521,363,7576,160,849

The whole of the £200,145 authorized for advances to workers during 1931-32 was for the actual erection of dwellings.

Of the advances outstanding at 31st March, 1932, 24,514 to the amount of £15,088,588 had been advanced from the Advances to Workers Account, 133 (£62,066) from the Public Debt Sinking Funds, and 134 (£52,255) from the Advances Office Sinking Fund. Dealing only with the operations of the Advances to Workers Branch, the advances actually paid during the year numbered 421 for an aggregate of £285,348; the net amount outstanding at the end of the financial year was £15,088,588, secured upon the following tenures:—

Tenure.Number of loans outstanding.Aggregate Amount outstanding. £
Freehold23,04614,262,886
Leasehold1,468825,702

Interest payments during 1931-32 by borrowers were £673,241 (including arrears), and £316,051 was overdue in respect of interest at the end of the year, as compared with £158,312 twelve months earlier. The gross profits were £77,188. The cost, of management expenses of the branch was £11,497, being 0.073 per cent., or Is. 6d. per £100, of capital employed. Income-tax absorbed £12,181, £16,109 was utilized for the writing-down of loan-flotation charges, and £25,658 loss was incurred on the realization of securities, leaving a net profit of £11,743. The Sinking Fund, after redemption of loans totalling £208,091, amounts to £82,355.

Total advances made to workers to 31st March, 1932, have been £21,363,757, and losses to that date have been only £55,034, equal to 5s. 2d. per £100.

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The system of State advances to local authorities was initiated in 1910 Figures for each of the last ten years and to date are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount.
  £££
1923213478,035711,37578,694
1924194444,805438,20590,075
1925127227,330338,80593,432
1926112157,520198,630103,660
19275545,89070,200113,143
19282820,61532,295116,025
192937205,740118,044
193085,5805,580123,217
193144,0002,120123,209
193221,9002,600129,171
Totals from inception to 31/3/322,5376,773,4196,442,5301,583,250

The figures for 1931-32 and the totals to date are exclusive of loans (£123,900) authorized, advanced, and outstanding under the Hawke's Bay earthquake rehabilitation scheme.

Interest receipts of the Advances to Local Authorities Branch of the Office during 1931-32 aggregated £109,122, against which interest charges on capital totalled £103,325, a gross profit of £5,797 accruing. Management expenses amounted to £1,518 (being 0.050 per cent. of the capital employed), and income-tax charges to £1,187, while the writing-down of loan-flotation charges absorbed £1,093, leaving a net profit of £1,999. The Sinking Fund, after redemption of loans totalling £239,813, amounts to £175,740.

REPATRIATION ADVANCES

No loans under the Repatriation Act, 1918, have been authorized subsequent to the end of 1922, the sole operations of the branch being now confined to the collection of repayments. During the year 1931-32 the sum of £15,302 in respect of principal moneys was repaid. In regard to business loans, 971 borrowers are now indebted to the extent of £129,270, while furniture loans still unpaid at the end of the year amounted to £82,882 in respect of 3,992 borrowers. The total amount, therefore, outstanding at the 31st March, 1932, in relation to principal moneys was £212,152.

Repatriation advances should not be confused with the system of advances to discharged soldiers to enable them to acquire farms and homes. Discharged soldiers' settlement advances are dealt with in£B of this book.

HOUSING

The administration of the Housings Act, 1919, was transferred to the State Advances Department by the State Advances Amendment Act, 1922, the Housing Account being incorporated in the State Advances Account.

The activities of this branch have now been almost entirely transferred to the Workers Branch. During the year ended 31st March, 1932, £1,051 was expended in preparing land for the erection of dwellings. Mortgages and instalments of principal repaid during the year amounted to £64,858 and interest on lands and dwellings to £13,853. Total interest receipts were £28,417, and £44 was realized from the sale, of land and dwellings. Interest payments on loan-money accounted for £28,562, expenses of management £2,050, maintenance of dwellings £632, and losses on realization or writing-down of securities £5,357, a net loss of £8,140 resulting.

Up to the 31st March, 1932 loans to the value of £3,975 had been borrowed for advances to employers for workers' dwellings. The amount of principal still owing by borrowers was £2,146. A net profit of £14 resulted for the year 1931-32.

FRUIT-PRESERVING INDUSTRY ADVANCES.

The Fruit-preserving Industry Act of 1913 and its amendments authorize the raising of a sum not exceeding £40,000 in any one year for the purpose of granting advances for the promotion of the fruit, industry. The total principal owing to the State in respect of advances made under the Act was £29,895 at the end of the financial year 1931-32. A net profit of £260 was recorded for the year 1931-32.

FISHING INDUSTRY PROMOTION ADVANCES.

In order to afford sonic relief in the way of providing financial assistance to the fishing industry, the Fishing Industry Promotion Act was passed in 1919. Very few applications for loans under this heading have been received, the amount outstanding on account of principal owing on bills of sale being £533 at 31st March, 1932, at which date the amount borrowed by the Government and not paid off was only £3,475. The year's operations resulted in a net profit of £26.

COLD-STORAGE ADVANCES.

The amount actually owing by mortgagors at 31st March, 1932, in respect of principal advanced for this purpose was £19,285.

This account showed a net profit of £131 for the year ended 31st March 1932, interest receipts amounting to £3,127, interest payments on loan-money to £2,827, income-tax to £54, and management expenses to £115.

Chapter 24. SECTION XXIV —PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

SUMMARY OF PENSIONS

A SUMMARY showing the total amount of pensions administered by the Pensions Department during the last two fiscal years is as follows:—

Class of Pension.Annual Value.Gross Payments.
1930-31.1931-32.1930-31.1931-32.
 ££££
War1,236,1881,242,4801,245,4991,261,778
Old-age1,212,6731,353,3601,158,7881,277,107
Widows'336,039345,471325,998340,162
Maori War8,3307,0079,1027,582
Miners'62,57574,03558,44169,785
Epidemic6,2294,9986,3225,580
Blind10,07217,17915,79616,710
Boer War2,5522,2792,6202,483
Civil Service Act8,3896,8579,2517,861
Sundry pensions and annuities9,3019,38310,6249,388
Family allowances69,930101,60863,60890,100
Totals2,968,2783,164,6572,906,0493,088,536

Total payments in 1931-32 represented £2 2s. 8d. per head of mean population other than Maori. With this year may be contrasted 1921-22 (£2,791,119, or £2 5s. 3d. per caput) and 1911-12 (£408,219, or 8s. per caput).

The rates of pension quoted in this section are as reduced by Part II of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

The history of old-age pensions in New Zealand dates back to 1898, in which year was passed the original Old-age Pensions Act. The law relating to old-age pensions is now contained in the Pensions Act, 1926, which is a consolidation of previous enactments on the subject.

The qualifications for the old-age pension are briefly as follows: —

  1. The applicant, if a male, must have reached the age of sixty-five, or, if a female, must have reached the age of sixty, except in cases where the applicant is the parent of two or more children under fifteen years of age who are dependent on him (or her). The pension-age in such cases is sixty for men and fifty-five for women, and the pension payable may be any sum up to £13 per annum, in addition to the ordinary pension payable.

  2. The applicant must be resident in New Zealand, and must have resided continuously in the Dominion for the past twenty-five years.

  3. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have been imprisoned for four months or on four occasions for an offence punishable by twelve months' imprisonment and dishonouring him in the public estimation.

  4. The applicant must not during the past twenty-five years have been imprisoned for five years for any offence dishonouring him in the public estimation.

  5. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have deserted his wife (or husband, as the case may be) or his children under the age of fifteen years.

  6. The applicant must have lived a sober and reputable life during the past year.

  7. The yearly income (including pension) of the applicant, if single, must not reach £79 19s., and, if married, £121 (joint income of husband and wife, plus pension).

  8. The net value of accumulated property (see below) must be under £410.

  9. The applicant must not have deprived himself or herself of property or income to qualify for a pension.

All residents of New Zealand who fulfil the necessary conditions are eligible for the old-age pension, with the exception of—

  1. Maoris who receive votes other than pensions out of the grant appropriated by the Civil List Act, 1908

  2. Aliens

  3. Naturalized subjects who have not been naturalized one year.

  4. Chinese or other Asiatics, whether naturalized or not, and whether British subjects by birth or not.

The term “alien” is deemed not to include a woman who ceased to be a British subject by reason of marriage with an alien who is since deceased, or from whom she is legally separated.

The original Act of 1898 provided for a pension of £18 per annum. This amount was increased to £26 in 1905; to £39 in 1917; to £45 10s. (in certain cases in 1924; all cases, 1925); and in 1932 was reduced to £40 19s. The full pension, £40 19s., is reducible by—

  1. £1 for every complete £1 of income over £39.

  2. £1 for every complete £10 of net capital value of accumulated property.

A further deduction of £1 for every year or part of a year by which the age of a woman pensioner is less than 65 is also made, except in cases where the pensioner is the mother of two or more children under 15 years of age who are dependent on her.

The income of a married applicant for pension purposes is considered to be half of the joint incomes of husband and wife. The joint incomes of a married couple must not exceed, with pension added, the sum of £121.

Net accumulated property is the capital value (reduced by £50) of all real and personal property owned by an applicant, other than any property on which lie permanently resides, or life-assurance policies and annuities, or other life interests in the capital sum of which the applicant has no interest beyond the income derived therefrom. The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for pension purposes is half of the total net accumulated properties of both.

The exemption of the total value of the home in the computation of net accumulated property was not provided for prior to 1925, but a substantial allowance was made.

From the inception of the scheme to 31st March, 1932, 94,357 old-age pensions have been granted. Of these, 50,385 have been discontinued on account of the death of the pensioner, and 11,655 for other causes. The number of pensions in force on the 31st March, 1932, was 32,317, an increase of 3,322 on the figure for the previous year. The annual liability was £1,353,360, being an average of £41 18s. per pension. A decennial summary is—

At 31st March,Pensioners.Amount Paid during Year.
  £
192321,181755,324
192421,468767,805
192522,062806,953
192622,905903,577
192723,751982,356
192824,8751,010,575
192926,1101,060,760
193026,9091,107,993
193128,9951,158,788
193232,3171,277,107

The total payments in respect of old-age pensions have aggregated £19,234,989 to the 31st March, 1932. Thirty per cent. of the net revenue from national endowments is apportioned to old-age-pensions expenditure, the total amount so credited to 31st March, 1932, being £695,878.

WIDOWS' PENSIONS.

The Widows' Pensions Act, 1911, came into operation on the 1st January, 1912. The scope of this Act, which is embodied in its amended form in the Pensions Act, 1926, has been widened from time to time by various amendments.

Applicants for widows' pensions must be British subjects of good character, with at least one child under fifteen, and applications require to be lodged with the local Registrar of Pensions, and to be investigated by a Magistrate, who alone has power to grant pensions. The term “widow includes a woman whose husband is detained in a mental hospital.”

The pension payable is £46 16s. per annum to a widow with one child under fifteen years of age, with £23 8s. per annum added for each additional child under fifteen, the maximum pension payable being £187 4s. per annum. The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child legally adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant.

The number of widows' pensions in force on the 31st March, 1932, was 4,709, covering in addition 9,695 children. The figures for the last five years are as follows: —

year ended 31st March.number at End of Year.Annual value.Annual Payment.
19284,098307,865304,066
19294,332322,861313,964
19304,373323,250323,419
19314,566336,039325,998
19324,709345,471340,162

The average pension as at 31st March, 1932, was £73 7s. The total widows' pension payments since the inauguration of the scheme in 1912 have been £3,629,620. '

MAORI WAR PENSIONS.

The Military Pensions Act, 1912, was enacted to provide for the payment of an annual pension of £36 (now £49) to veterans of the Maori War who were awarded the New Zealand War Medal for active service in that war. This Act is now embodied in the Pensions Act of 1926.

Since the passing of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, a person in receipt of a military pension in respect of Maori War service is debarred from receiving an old-age pension in addition to his military pension.

The figures for five years are—

Year ended 31st MarchNumber at End of YearAnnual Value. £Annual Payment. £
192830815,09216,390
192925912,69113,653
193020910,24111,498
19311708,3309,102
19321437,0077,582

The grand total paid in pensions of this class since the institution of this scheme in 1912-13 has been £590,900.

MINERS' PENSIONS.

Miners' pensions are provided for by Part IV of the Pensions Act, 1926 (which incorporates the Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, and amendments), and by a section of the Finance Act, 1929, which extends the grounds on which a claim for pension may be based and increases the amount of pension where there are dependent children.

The pension is payable to any miner, qualified by residence, c., who is totally incapacitated or seriously and permanently incapacitated for work owing to miner's phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand. The term “miner's phthisis” is extended to include tuberculosis of the lungs and any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with or a sequel to pneumoconiosis. The weekly pension payable during incapacity is as follows:—

To an unmarried man, £1 2s. 6d.

To a married man with wife or children under fifteen years of age dependent on him, £1 2s. 6d., plus 9s. in respect of his wife and 9s. in respect of each child.

To a widower with children under fifteen years of age dependent on him, £1 2s. 6cl., plus 9s. for each child.

The maximum weekly pension is £3 16s. 6d. The annual amount payable in respect of any child or children is reducible by £1 for every £1 of income from other sources in excess of £104.

The qualifications for this class of pension are —

  1. The applicant must have been a British subject for one year.

  2. He must have resided in New Zealand for five years immediately prior to his application.

  3. He must have been employed as a miner in New Zealand for two years and a half.

  4. He must not have deserted or failed to provide for his wife or children, nor have been convicted for any offence punishable by imprisonment for two years.

  5. He must be of sober habits and good moral character.

The widow of any miner who is entitled to a pension under the Act and who dies of miner's phthisis is entitled to claim a pension of 15s. 9d. a week for two years following her husband's death. A Government Pensions Amendment Bill at present (October, 1932) before the Legislature provides, inter alia, that every widow in receipt of a pension as a miner's widow at the passing of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, shall on the termination of that pension be entitled to a maximum pension of £35 19s. during widowhood or until entitled to an old-age pension. The actual reasonable expenses (not exceeding £20) of the funeral of a miner dying of miner's phthisis are also payable.

The average pension in force at 31st March, 1932, was £74 14s. Pension payments from the commencement of the scheme aggregate £574,258. Against this the amount of £51,023 has been credited in respect of gold duty. Funeral expenses paid to 31st March, 1932, have totalled £6,682.

Year ended 31st March.Number.Annual Liability.Annual Payment.
192872145,77345,096
192976048,36748,074
193077953,35451,684
193187662,57558,441
193299174,03569,785

Of the 991 pensions in force at the 31st March, 1932, 583 were being paid to miners and 408 to widows of miners.

The total pensions granted since 1916 have been 1,955. Of these 751 have been discontinued on account of death, and 213 for other causes.

WAR PENSIONS.

The War Pensions Act, 1915, as amended, provides for the payment of pensions on certain conditions to disabled members of the New Zealand Forces (as defined by the Act) and to dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of the Forces.

No person in receipt of a pension under the Pensions Act, 1926 (other than an old-age pension) can now receive a pension under the War Pensions Act, 1915. War pensions (except economic pensions) payable to dependants of a deceased soldier (other than a widow, child, or widowed mother) were diminished by 17 1/2 per cent. as from 1st April, 1932.

SUMMARY OF ANNUAL LIABILITY AT 31ST MARCH, 1932.
Class of Pension.Number of Pensioners.Number of Children.Annual Value.Average Pension.
   ££
Soldiers (permanent)9,50414498,38752
Soldiers (temporary)3,47236258,80275
Dependants of disabled soldiers1,5033,184140,52393
Widows (without children)898..82,35392
Widows (with children)49679476,440154
Other dependants of deceased soldiers-Parents4,577..164,05736
Other adult dependants109113,70534
Guardians of children48267618,21338
Totals21,0414,7151,242,48059

Figures showing the number of pensions, according to class, in each of the last five years are given below:—

At 31st March.Soldiers (permanent).Soldiers (Temporary).Wives and parents (on account of Disablement).on account of DeathTotal.
Windows (including children's pensions.Parents and other Dependants.
19288,9413,4399021,3695,90920,560
19299,1383,4001,0091,3715,76820,686
19309,2853,3681,1021,3975,58720,739
19319,4053,4861,3131,3945,42721,025
19329,5043,4721,5031,3945,16821,041

Sixty-two per cent. of the total pensions in force at the 31st March, 1932, were payable to soldiers, 73 per cent. of these being granted permanently and 27 per cent. temporarily. Only 7 per cent. of all pensions were granted to wives and parents on account of disablement, while 31 per cent. were granted on account of death.

The total payments on war pensions to the 31st March, 1932, were £19,749,635, the figures for the last ten years being—

Year ended 31st March.pension payments.
19231,489,392
19241,315,560
19251,244,483
19261,185,161
19271,128,988
19281,151,979
19291,184,003
19301,207,748
19311,245,499
19321,261,778

ECONOMIC PENSIONS.

By an amendment of the War Pensions Act, 1915, provision was made for the payment of economic pensions to soldiers or their dependants. An “economic pension” is defined under the Act as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds, and being in addition to any pension payable as a right in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the Forces.

Economic pensions consist of three classes. Rates, as reduced in 1932, are: —

  1. A maximum pension of £1 Is. weekly to disabled soldiers.

  2. A maximum pension of 8s. weekly to widows of soldiers with one child, with an additional 2s. weekly for each child in excess of one.

  3. A maximum pension of 16s. weekly to widowed mothers of deceased soldiers.

In each case the income of the pensioner affects the grant. Soldiers pensioned for minor disabilities do not receive economic pensions.

The total number of economic pensions in force at the 31st March, 1932, was 2,490, of an annual value of £151,669. Payments in respect of economic pensions are included in the general total of war pensions.

SOUTH AFRICAN VETERANS' WAR PENSIONS.

The total number of pensions in force under this heading at the 31sfc March, 1932, was 56, corresponding to an annual liability of £2,279. The amount actually paid out on claim, during the year was £2,483.

In addition to the war pensions granted to South African veterans, old-age pensioners who served in the South African War may receive additional old-age pension of 5s. per week in cases where the total income, including pension, does not exceed £79 19s. per annum.

DEFENCE PENSIONS.

Section 34 of the Finance Act, 1926, provides for pensions to be paid in the event of the death or disablement of members of the New Zealand Defence or Naval Forces by reason of misadventure suffered in the performance of their duties. The pensions rates under this section are not to exceed the corresponding pension rates under the War Pensions Act, and all applications for pensions of this class are dealt with by the War Pensions Board.

EPIDEMIC PENSIONS.

To relieve distress arising out of the influenza epidemic of 1918 a system of pensions was instituted. The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1932, was 111, representing an annual liability of £4,998, the average pension being £45. The amount paid during the financial year 1931-32 in respect of epidemic pensions was £5,580, and the total amount paid since the commencement of the scheme £463,457.

The number of pensions is rapidly decreasing, having fallen during the past year by 27, or since the 31st March, 1920, by 828.

PENSIONS FOR THE BLIND.

Part III of the Pensions Act, 1926, which incorporates legislation passed in 1924 and amended in 1925, provides for the payment of a pension of £45 10s. per annum to blind people over the age of twenty. To be eligible for a pension an applicant must (1) have been born blind in New Zealand, or (2) have become blind while permanently resident in New Zealand, or (3) have been permanently resident in New Zealand for at least ten years before the 29th October, 1924, or twenty-five years before the date of applying for the pension. 'Ten years' continuous residence in the Dominion is required in every case.

Similar provisions apply in regard to property and unearned income as in the case of old-age pensions. In regard to earned income, however, an additional pension equal to 25 per cent. of earnings is granted, with a proviso that total income and pension must not exceed £3 12s. 6d. per week.

The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1932, was 360, representing an annual liability of £17,179, or an average of £47 14s. per annum. The amount of pension-money paid under this head to the 31st March, 1932, was £92,268.

FAMILY ALLOWANCES.

The Family Allowances Act was passed in the session of 1626, to provide for the granting of allowances towards the maintenance of children by parents of limited income. The Act came into force on the 1st April, 1927.

The allowance is at the rate of 2s. per week for each child in excess of two, the average weekly income of the applicant and his wife and children, including allowance, not to exceed £4 (reduced to £3 5s. by section 26 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932) plus 2s. for each child in excess of two. For the purposes of the Act the term “child” in general means a child under the age of fifteen.

The application for the allowance is made by the father, but in general the allowance is paid to the mother.

The number of claims dealt with during the year ended 31st March, 1932, totalled 3,722, of which 3,040 were granted and 350 rejected, the remaining 332 being held over. Of the rejected claims, 146 represent eases where the income of the family was in excess of the limit. The total number of family allowances in force at the 31st March, 1932, was 7,332, with an annual liability of £101,608. This averages £13 17s. 2d. per annum each or approximately 5s. 6d. weekly. The total amount paid out during the year was £90,100, the aggregate for the four years during which the Act has been in force being £307,159. Altogether, 10,034 family allowances have been granted to 31st March, 1932, and of these 2,702 have been discontinued.

The total number of children of the 7,332 families receiving allowances at 31st March, 1932, was 34,546, and the number in excess of two was 19,882, the average per family being 4-71 and 2-71 respectively. The number of families granted allowances during the year 1931-32 according to the number of children in excess of two is set out in the following table:—

Number of Children in Express of Two.Number of Families.
One1,106
Two959
Three520
Four266
Five108
Six65
Seven8
Eight5
Nine3

Of the 3,040 families granted allowances during the year/ 95 had incomes of £1 or under; 727 over £1 and up to £2; 971 over £2 and up to £3; 1,206 over £3 and up to £3 12s.; and 41 over £3 12s. The weekly rates at which allowances were granted were—

Rate.Number.
1s.6
2s.1,127
3s.10
4s.946
5s.9
6s.508
8s.264
10s.105
12s.52
14s.7
16s.4
18s.2

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS.

In addition to the various classes of pensions enumerated in the foregoing part of this section, the Pensions Department is charged with the payment of pensions under the Civil Service Act, 1908, and other miscellaneous pensions and annuities.

The total number and the gross annual value of pensions in force under the Civil Service Act at the 31st March, 1932, were 23 and £6,857 respectively. The total payments during the year amounted to £7,861. There were at the same date 115 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities,” of a total annual value of £9,383, the amount actually paid out during the year being £9,388.

SUPERANNUATION FUNDS.

Schemes in force for the provision of superannuation pensions for public servants on their retirement embrace the State Railways, Public Service (including Police), Teachers, and Stipendiary Magistrates. Local bodies are empowered to establish schemes under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908.

The law relating to the various superannuation schemes, other than those for the Railways Department and local authorities, is contained in the Public Service Superannuation Act, 1927, a consolidation of former legislation on the subject.

PUBLIC SERVICE SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Public Service superannuation scheme, which includes all branches of the Public Service except the Railways Department and that part of the Education service which comes under the operations of the teachers' superannuation scheme, came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The scheme, although optional on the part of public servants permanently employed at that date, is compulsory on all persons appointed thereafter..

The Police Provident Fund, which was established on the 1st December, 1899, under the Police Provident Act, 1899, was merged in the Public Service Superannuation Fund on the 1st April, 1910.

The fund is administered by a Board, and consists of contributions from contributors, interest on investments, Government subsidy, fines imposed on public servants, and proceeds of sales of unclaimed property.

The contributions vary with the age on joining the fund: For ages under thirty they are 5 per cent. of the salary; ages thirty and under thirty-five, 6 per cent.; thirty-five and under forty, 7 per cent., forty and under forty-five, 8 per cent.; forty-five and under fifty, 9 per cent.; fifty and over, 10 per cent.

The principal benefits are—

  1. A pension for every year of service equal to one-sixtieth of the average annual salary for the last three years, payable (a) after forty years' service, or (b) at age sixty-five, or (c) on retirement owing to ill health. The maximum pension is not to exceed two-thirds of the salary, nor, in the case of entrants after the 24th December, 1909, £300 per annum.

  2. A pension of £31 per annum to the widow of a contributor or pensioner during widowhood, and £26 per annum for each child under the age of fourteen. Prior to the 1st April, 1925, widows' and children's pensions were £18 and £13 per annum respectively.

Special pensions may be given in the case of members of the Police Force for injuries received on duty.

Females may retire after thirty years' service or at the age of fifty-five. In certain cases, and subject to certain terms and conditions, the Minister in charge of a contributor's Department may reduce the retiring age to sixty years for males (with not less than thirty years' service) and fifty years for females; or may reduce the requisite service to thirty-five years.

Section 14 of the Finance Act, 1931, as amended by a section of the Finance Act (No. 4), 1931, modified the retiring qualifications to permit of a further reduction of five years in age or service in the case of contributors compulsorily retired through no fault of their own. A specially computed reduced superannuation was provided. The provisions covered the three major funds.

At the 31st March, 1932, there were 17,516 contributors, paying £241,966 per annum into the fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 3,379, and were entitled to £458,434 per annum, made up as follows:—

 Number.Pensions.
Retired for age or length of service1,912398,872
Retired for ill health24121,878
police injured on duty121,760
widows87227,032
children3428,892
Totals3,379£458,434

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the fund at the 31st March, 1932, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution:—

Rate per cent. of contribution as provided by the ActNumber.Annual Salary.Annual Contribution.
Male.Female.Total.
    ££
512,3191,99414,3133.502,345175,117
61,3891511,540470,46028,228
7887101988302,60521,182
844451495154,05212,324
91371715448,4094,357
10233267,580758
Totals15,1992,31717,5164,485,451241,966

Accumulated funds at the 31st March, 1932, amounted to £2,888,034, total assets to £3,018,825, and investments to £2,931,132, £1,549,526 being invested in mortgage securities, £1,116,451 in debentures and Government securities, and £265,155 in rural advances and rural intermediate credit bonds. The investment figures include £23,372 invested on Stipendiary Magistrates' account.

Officers who have retired since the initiation of the scheme, and who possessed compensation rights under the Civil Service Act, 1866, would have been entitled to receive the sum of £559,771, the amount of compensation accrued to the date when they joined the Superannuation Fund, had they not become participants in the benefits of the fund. To this amount must be added accretions to the date of retirement, approximately £138,000, for which the Consolidated Fund would otherwise have been liable, and the whole may be fairly set against the total subsidies paid to the fund, amounting to £1,820,500.

The Government subsidy to the fund was originally £20,000 per annum, rising in 1910 to £22,500, and in the next two years to £23,000. In 1913 it was increased to £48,000, and in 1919 to £86,000. In consequence of the position disclosed by the Actuary as at 31st December, 1919, an additional amount of £100,000 was contributed to the fund by the Government, divided between the years 1923-24 and 1924-25. An additional amount, of £100,000 was also paid in 1929-3. following the actuarial investigation as at 31st March, 1927. The additional charge on account of the increase granted in 1925 in the amount of pensions payable to widows and children is met by the Consolidated Fund.

The actuarial report for the triennium ended 31st March, 1930, shows that on the basis of valuation adopted the subsidies paid for 1911 and 1912 were too low by £25,000 per annum; for the three years 1914-16, too low by £18,000 per annum; for 1917 and 1918, too low by £3S,000 per annum; for the three years 1920-22, too low by £39,000 per annum; for 1923, too low by £86,000; for the first three months of 1924, too low by £9,000; for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1925, too low by £104,000; and for each of the next two years, too low by £154,000 per annum; for the next two years, too low by £199,000 per annum; and for 1929-30. too low by £99,000; making a total shortage to 31st March. 1930, of £1,301,000, or, with accumulations at 4 1/2 per cent. to 1931, £1,776,357. The valuation of the fund as at the 31st March, 1930, gave the following results:—

  ££
Present value of existing pensions and allowances....3,375,540
Present value of prospective benefits..11,157,495 
Less present value of members' contributions3,208,114  
Less present value of State subsidy under section 114 of Act570,978  
  3,779,092 
   7,378,403
Total net liabilities....10,753,943
Funds in hand....2,882,504
Present value of total liability of State....7,871,439
Less present value of existing subsidy of £86,000 if treated as a perpetuity....1,911,111
Value of future subsidies to be provided for by the State over and above present subsidy of £86,000....£5,960,328

The actuarial report estimated that, apart from making provision for the shortages of past years, the subsidy for each of the three years ending 31st March, 1931 to 1933, should be increased to £248,000. It was stated that at least £80,000 per annum should be added to the subsidy to meet the deficiency in past subsidy payments; and administration expenses, which have hitherto been borne by the fund, were estimated to require a further £4 100 subsidy per annum.

All valuations of the fund prior to 1924 were made on the basis of interest at 4 per cent., a 41/2-per-cent. rate being adopted for the last two periods. This rate is, however, much lower than that at present being received, the average rate of interest earned on the mean funds being:—

year endedaverage rate percent
 s. d.
31st December19215 6 0
31st March,19245 16 3
31st March,19255 18 7
31st March,19266 1 5
31st March,19276 1 0
31st March,19286 1 8
31st March,19295 17 6
31st March,19305 16 11
31st March,19315 16 11
31st March,19325 19 6

The total revenue of the fund for year ended 31st March, 1932, was £462,280, including members' contributions £190,585 (after allowing rebates of £52,079, section 8 (2), Finance Act, 1931), interest on investments and on contributions £168,453, and Government subsidy £102,082, the last-mentioned including a special payment of £16,082 on account of increased benefits to widows and children. The total amount expended during the year was £491,401, including retiring and other allowances £431,922, refunds of contributions £48,552, transfers to other funds £385, loss on realization of securities £1,501, and cost of administration £8,729.

A table is now given showing the progress of the fund for the last five years: —

Year ended 31st march.Number of Contributors.Annual contribution.Interest received from investments.Contribution from government.Annual value of allowance.Accumulated fund.
  £££££
192817,002249,022146,79099,810342,8812,528,454
192917,177254,332147,040100,007359,0842,625,943
193017,976263,384154,758200,844372,1382,818,004
193118,197270,316162,888101,361383,9232,917,154
193217,516241,966168,453102,082458,4342,888,034

THE SUPERANNUATION FUND

The scheme of superannuation for teachers came into operation from 1st January, 1906. The benefits were brought into line with those of the Public Service Superannuation Fund in 1908, existing contributors having, however, the right of electing to remain subject to the provisions formerly in force.

There are a few slight differences between the Public Service and the Teachers' Funds, the chief being that where back service is recognized it need not be continuous, and that a contributor is not doomed to have retired from the Education service by reason of unemployment unless the unemployment extends for twelve months or unless the contributor deliberately retires from the service as distinct from a particular position in the service. In certain circumstances the period of twelve months can be extended by the Board.

The revenue for the year was £235,560. The total amount of Government subsidy paid into the fund to the 31st January, 1932, is £997,607. The expenditure of the fund for the year ended 31st January, 1932, was £289,542, of which retiring and other allowances represented £254,927, and refunds of contributions £30,628.

On the 31st January, 1932, there were 9,964 contributors, representing annual contributions amounting to £128,640.

The retiring and other allowance were 1,677, representing a charge of £270,840 per annum, made up of—.

 NumberPensions
Retired for age or length of service1,196240,320
Retired for ill health16621,197
widows2427,515
children731,898
 1,677£270,840

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Year ended 31st January,Number of Contributors.Amount of Contributions received.Interest received.Government Subsidy.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
*After deducting £20,970 rebate allowed under finance Act,1931, in connection with reduction in salaries
  £££££
19288,680131,87268,05371,228188,5531,134,015
19299,281136,06167,82872,000207,7061,171,990
19309,616141,09470,14471,831222,4231,198,711
19319,909143,39273,105126,106235,9021,272,148
19329,964115,961*72,68246,917254,9271,218,166

The actuarial report on the Teachers' Superannuation Fund for the triennium ending 31st January, 1930, gives the present value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund in January, 1930, as £5,559,202.

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Government Railways Superannuation Fund was established on the 1st January, 1903, by the Government Railways Superannuation Fund Act, 1902, now embodied in the Government Railways Act, 1926.

The pension is here also one-sixtieth of the annual rate of pay for every year of service, but the retiring-age is sixty for both males and females, instead of ages sixty-five and fifty-five respectively as in the Public Service. The only other difference of importance is that the annual allowances to widows and children are paid only on the death of contributors before retiring on a pension.

From 1st April, 1924, the moneys belonging to the fund have been separately invested by the Public Trustee. The average rate of interest earned during the year 1931-32 was 5.73 per cent.

The revenue for the year totalled £409,024, including members' contributions £142,239, interest £84,483, subsidy from Railways Department £182,200 (including £12,200 on account of increased allowances to widows and children). The expenditure during the year amounted to £403,367, of which retiring-allowances represented £346,527, allowances to widows and children £27,148, and refunds of contributions. &c., £29,692.

At the 31st March, 1932, there were 3,248 persons on the fund, receiving allowances involving an annual liability of £431,130.

The progress of the fund during the last live years is shown below: —

Year ended 31st March,Number of Contributors.Amount received from Contributors.Interest earned by Fund.Amount received from Government.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
192813,626158,60058,293182,380255,0141,111,200
192913,822166,43965,537182,337267,7341,238,674
193014,148175,87273,123182,112275,9361,371,919
193113,872170,68680,049181,959296,0451,488,566
193212,828142,23984,483182,200373, (5751,454,173

The actuarial report on the Railways Superannuation Fund as at 31st March, 1927, gives the present value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund at that date as £6,810,204.

SUPERANNUATION OF MAGISTRATES.

The scheme for Magistrates provides for the same rates of contribution as under the Public Service scheme, but gives an annual retiring-allowance for each year of service (whether continuous or not) equal to one-fortieth of the annual salary receivable at the date of retirement, with, however, a limit of twenty-five fortieths. The retiring-age is also increased to sixty-eight, instead of sixty-five.

Members' contributions during the year ended the 31st March, 1932, totalled £1,872, and interest on investments brought in £1,347. Administration expenses during the year were £88, and retiring-allowances were £2,776. The accumulated fund at the 31st March, 1932, amounted to £23,378.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES SUPERANNUATION.

The Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, which came into force on the 10th October, 1908, applies to Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, Road Hoards, Harbour Boards, Fire Boards, tramway companies, or any body possessing rating-powers over any district.

Statistical information as to the various funds which have been initiated under the authority of this statute is not available. The provisions of the Act, however, have not largely been availed of, special provisions concerning employees of local authorities having been subsequently made under the National Provident Fund scheme, referred to under the next heading.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.

The National Provident Fund was established by Act in 1910, and came into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The fund is administered by a Board composed of the Minister of Finance as Chairman and four members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is the Superintendent of the fund.

The system is open to any person between the ages of sixteen and fifty years residing in New Zealand whose average income during the three years prior to joining has not exceeded £300 per annum. There is no medical examination on entry, and the method of joining is extremely simple, the applicant having merely to fill in a form at a postal money-order office or local office of the fund, and pay ' a first weekly contribution.

The following benefits are payable:—

  1. After contributing for twelve months, a payment not exceeding £4 (prior to April, 1931. £6) for medical attendance and nursing on the birth of a contributor's child or children.

  2. After contributing for five years, an allowance, after three months' incapacity to work, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child of a contributor under fourteen years of age; payable independent of any allowances due from friendly societies. No contributions payable while in receipt of incapacity allowance.

  3. After contributing for five years, an allowance, on the death of a contributor, of 7s. Gd. per week for each child under fourteen years of age, and 7s. 6d. for the widow so long as any child is under fourteen years of age.

  4. On reaching ago sixty, a pension of 10s., 20s., 30s., or 40s. per week, according to the scale of contributions. The receipt of a pension under the National Provident Fund Act originally did not affect a person's claim to the old-age pension under the Pensions Act, but this provision was repealed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act. 1932.

The maternity allowance is payable only if the combined income of a contributor and wife or husband does not exceed £270 (prior to April, 1931, £300) per annum at the time of claim, but this limitation does not debar from the other benefits. The incapacity allowance is not to exceed the pecuniary loss which, in the opinion of the Board, the contributor has probably suffered during incapacity, and the income of a contributor during incapacity, independent of the fund, is not to exceed the rate of £4 per week.

The contributions for each 10s. of weekly pension range from 9d. per week in the case of persons joining at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age fifty.

In the event of a contributor leaving the fund or dying, all contributions (less any benefits received) are returnable. If a contributor dies before the first five years are completed his representatives receive the contributions he has paid, less anything he received during lifetime. Should he die after age sixty, before receiving in benefits a sum equal to the contributions paid in during his lifetime, the difference is returnable to his representatives; and, further, if the allowances paid for widow and children do not exhaust the contributions his representatives are entitled to the residue. If a contributor dies before age sixty, leaving a widow and no children, all the contributions are returnable, less benefits paid out.

The benefits under the Act are guaranteed by the State, which subsidizes the contributions to the extent of one-fifth (prior to 1st April, 1931, one-fourth) of the amount paid into the fund.

An important extension of the fund was made in 1914, when it was provided that the employees of local authorities, &c., could be enrolled in the fund for superannuation purposes. The Amendment Act of 1931 provided certain modifications consequent upon the general reduction in wages and salaries in 1931. A further extension of the fund was made in 1916, whereby members of approved friendly societies were granted maternity allowances and offered annuities on reduced terms and under special tables.

In 1925 provision was made for the payment out of the National Provident Fund of retiring-allowances to nurses and other members of the permanent staffs of Hospital Hoards. The National Provident Fund Act, 1926, which is a consolidation of previous legislation on the subject, imposes on Hospital Boards the obligation to contribute to the Fund on behalf of their permanent officers, and thus places Hospital Boards in a different category from other local bodies, which are empowered, but not obliged, to become contributors.

Schemes of contribution by employers on behalf of employees are provided for by sections of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1927, and the Finance Act, 1929.

Since the inauguration of, the fund in 1911, 80,764 persons (68,291 males and 12,473 females) have entered, and of these 51,405 (males 42,929, females 8,476) have discontinued for one reason or another, leaving 29,359 (males 25,362, females 3,997) on the books at the 31st December, 1931. Of 4,594 discontinuances in 1931 only 103 were on account of death and 79 on account of having attained the pension-age.

The numbers of contributors for the various pension rates as at 31st December, 1931, were as follows, male and female contributors being shown separately: —

Pension Rate.Males.Females.Total.
10s.18,36574119,106
20s.2,2983462,644
30s.27569344
40s.540133673
Other3,8842,7086,592
Totals25,3623,99729,359

Contributions received during the year 1931 amounted to £248,883 and interest to £170,494. Government contributions under the Act totalled £49,956, not including maternity claims, which are a charge on the Government. The largest item on the expenditure side was £84,139 by way of refund of contributions on lapse or withdrawal.

The growth of the National Provident Fund scheme during the last five years is indicated in the following table:—

Year.Number of Contributors.Annual Rate of Contribution payable.Total Amount of Fund.Claims paid during Year.
Maternity.Incapacity.Retiring.Windows and Children.
  ££££££
192730,618238,7341,957,22743,5262,94117,6918,610
192830,870245,0372,275,68243,4223,56019,9419,429
192930,909256,1962,598,98141,9743,30223,52310,158
193031,293262,7152,936,20342,9844,11025,99410,783
193129,359253,5253,263,00543,5825,78529,44511,559

The latest actuarial investigation of the National Provident Fund (as at 31st December, 1925) showed the assets to exceed the liabilities by £54,200. The amounts required to provide maternity allowances are voted by Parliament annually, and these allowances are accordingly regarded as being outside the actuarial aspects of the scheme.

Chapter 25. SECTION XXV.—LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

INTRODUCTORY

LOCAL government throughout New Zealand is exercised by a number of local authorities constituted under various Acts of Parliament. These Acts provide for the creation of districts over which the local authorities exercise jurisdiction. Different types of district are distinguishable, each type being identified with a specific function or group of functions. Geographically, the Dominion is divided into 129 counties, which comprise its total area, except for certain small islands which are not included within the boundaries of the adjacent counties. Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are countries, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerate superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties—e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are comprised of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose —e.g., electric-power districts. The number of local authorities actively functioning at the 1st April, 1932, was 677, made up as follows: County Councils, 125; Borough Councils, 122; Town Boards (independent), 40; Town Boards (dependent), 27; Road Boards, 18; River Boards, 43; Land-drainage Boards, 58; Urban Drainage Boards, 3; Water-supply Boards, 3; Fire Boards, 55; Local Railway Board, 1; Harbour Boards, 46; Electric-power Boards, 39; Hospital Boards, 45; Tramway Board, 1; Transport Board, 1; Gas-lighting Board, 1; and Rabbit Boards, 49. In addition to the foregoing there are 18 District Councils of the Main Highways Board constituted under the Main Highways Act, 1922. These, although not local authorities in the strict sense of the word, are nevertheless intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, and have power to make recommendations of great importance.

Full details of the constitution, functions, powers, &c., of local authorities, and also an account of the origin and development of local government in the Dominion, are contained in the Local Authorities Handbook, published annually by the Census and Statistics Office. Detailed statistics relating to each local governing body are also contained within the covers of that publication. Some of the principal powers of local authorities are briefly referred to in the following paragraphs.

GENERAL POWERS

Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act, 1925, and the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. In the case of Harbour Boards, there is in addition to a general Harbours Act a special Act for each Board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—Urban Drainage Boards, Local Railway Boards, the Tramway and Transport Boards, and the Gas-lighting Board—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

BORROWING.

Under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. The Board consists of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department, and five other members appointed by the Governor-General. In cases where a poll of ratepayers is necessary preparatory to raising a loan, the Board's consent must be obtained before the poll is held. In no case may the Board sanction any application unless provision is made to its satisfaction for repayment of the loan within such period as it deems reasonable, having regard to the probable duration and continuing utility of the works on which the loan-moneys are to be expended.

The principal legislation dealing with the borrowing-powers of local authorities is contained in the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, which is mainly a consolidation of previous measures on the subject. A local authority is thereby empowered to raise a special loan for the construction of any public work, for the purchase of land or buildings, or for the purpose of engaging in any undertaking which the local authority may lawfully enter into. As explained previously, a loan proposal first requires the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. It must then be sanctioned by the ratepayers at a special poll held for the purpose (except in those eases where a poll is not required to be taken), and the proposal is not deemed to have been carried unless at least three-fifths of the valid votes recorded are in favour of it, save in the case of boroughs and town districts, where a bare majority only is necessary. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the some purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospital and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, a Hospital Board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. In the case of Fire Boards the precedent consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs is required, and Rabbit Boards must first seek the approval of the Minister of Agriculture. In both of these cases the amount that may be borrowed is limited by statute. Harbour Boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour-works from special empowering legislation. Similar authority is given for the capital works of Urban Drainage Boards, the Christchurch Tramway Board, the Auckland Transport Board, and the Petone and Lower Hutt Gas-lighting Board.

RATING.

Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are ultimately liquidated by such revenues—known then as special rates. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished: —

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Separate rates are levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

  3. A special rate is imposed to secure the repayment of loan-money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be. Special rates can be levied only by resolution gazetted, and, unlike general and separate rates, are not subject to any statutory limit.

There are three main systems of rating: (1) Capital (land and improvements), (2) annual, and (3) unimproved. In a few cases rating is on an acreage basis; and in the ease of certain Rabbit Boards the rate is according to the number of sheep or cattle owned.

The Rating Act, 1925, provides that the local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or on the capital value shall be in force in the district. The system of rating is upon the basis that Is. in the £1 on the annual value is deemed to be equivalent to 3/4d.. in the £1 on the capital value of rateable property; or where in a district not rating on the annual value it is necessary for any purpose to ascertain the annual value of any rateable property, then the annual value thereof is equal to 6 per cent. on the capital value of such property. The annual value is deemed to be the letting-value, less 20 per cent. in case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per cent. of land, but in no case is the rateable value to be less than 5 per cent. of the value of the fee-simple.

RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE OF LAND.

The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, was passed by the Genera! Assembly to afford local authorities the opportunity of adopting the principle of rating which is expressed in the title of the measure. The Act is now incorporated in the Rating Act, 1925. It is entirely at the option of the ratepayers of local districts to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. The poll is to be taken in the same manner as in the case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. Under the original Act it was necessary for a minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers to vote, and a majority of their votes carried the proposal. Now the question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a bare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding, proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

The valuation roll is supplied to the local authority by the Valuer-General under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1925, and the definitions of “capital value,” “improvements,” “unimproved value,” and “value of improvements” found in that Act, as amended in 1926 and 1927, apply also to rating on unimproved value. Provision is made for adjustment of rating-powers given under other Acts by fixing equivalents. Thus a rate of Is. in the pound on the annual value is to be considered equal to 3/4d.. in the pound on the capital value

It should be noted that some local authorities automatically adopt rating on unimproved value. For example, a town district, borough, or another county formed from part of a county which itself rates on unimproved values, automatically rates on the system in force in the county at the time of the constitution of the new district; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their Councils agree to the contrary.

A comparative table of systems in force during 1930-31 is:—

System Of Rating.Total.
Unimproved Value.Capital Value.Annual Value.Acreage Basis.Oil Stork.
Counties5768......125
Boroughs781627....121
Town districts35295....69
Road districts315......18
River districts1520..4..39
Land-drainage districts3428......62
Electric-power districts1326......39
Water-supply districts..2......2
Urban drainage districts..21....3
Local railway district..1......1
Rabbit districts18..33547
Totals23621533375526

Although the figures referred to indicate that the number of local authorities rating on the unimproved value during 1930-31 was 45 per cent. of the total, yet on a population basis the figures reveal that in reality 57 per cent. of the people of the Dominion are in districts so rating. The position in regard to the four major classes of local authorities at 1st April, 1931 (i.e., the beginning of the 1931-32 financial year), was as follows: —

District.Rating on Unimproved Value.Total for Dominion.*Ratio of Unimproved Value to Total.
No.Population.No.Population.No.Population.
*Exclusive of migratory, &c., population of 6,295 and of Maoris.
     Per Cent.Per Cent.
Counties (excluding all town districts)57255,035129577,25544.1944.18
Boroughs79575,430122880,85064.7665.33
Town districts (independent)1819,4054036,80545.0052.72
Town districts (dependent)155,355279,73555.5555.01

FINANCIAL STATISTICS OF LOCAL GOVERNING AUTHORITIES.

A study of the finance of local governing authorities from their incipient stages to the present time reveals a process of evolution from a state of semi-dependence on the General Government to a stage where, with the exception of subsidies on rates, contributions from the Main Highways Board (or, for boroughs of 6,000 population or over, receipts under the Motor-spirits Taxation Act), together with occasional grants for special works, all expense is borne locally.

The sources from which the various classes of local authorities secure the moneys necessary to exercise their functions vary greatly according to the nature of the statutory duties of the local authority concerned. Generally, however, receipts fall under one of three main classes—viz., rates, licenses and fees, and receipts which cannot properly be regarded as revenue. These three classes are dealt with in detail below, where the nature and relative importance of each are more particularly referred to.

The tables given in this section cover the operations of all local authorities which furnish statistical returns to the Census and Statistics Office. Hospital Boards supply their returns to the Inspector-General of Hospitals, and their financial statistics are given in section VIB of this volume.

The local body year now uniformly ends on 31st March, except in the case of most Harbour Boards. In certain cases where the harbour is administered by a County or Borough Council or a Government Department, the year ends on 31st March, but in all other cases on 30th September

RECEIPTS.

Local governing authorities received by way of rates in the financial year 1930-31 a total amount of £5,637,254, of which £2,782,801 consisted of general rates and £2,854,453 of special and separate rates. The sum of £407,031 was raised by licenses, and £128,816 by other taxes, making £6,173,101 altogether from taxation, which sum is equivalent to £4 2s. 5d. per head of the mean population, as compared with £4 8s. 7d. for 1929-30, and £4 6s. lid. for 1928-29

Revenue derived from rates increased from £3,549,590 in 1920-21 to £5,637,254 in 1930-31. Revenue from the Government increased in the same period from £287,583 to £426,315, and other revenue receipts from £5,048,791 to £10,201,076. Receipts other than revenue were 3,429,662 in 1920-21, and 4,432,956 in 1930-31, but these figures vary from year to year according to circumstances, such as large operations by way of construction of works, for which money has to be specially raised.

The receipts of local governing authorities, divided into the various groups shown above, are given for each of the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March,Revenue fromTotal Revenue.Receipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Fees, Rents, and other Sources.Government.
 ££££££
19223,779,8955,757,252317,5309,854,6775,486,91215,341,589
19234,277,7815,942,927301,02410.521,7327,399,67417,921,406
19244,445,6276,403,378300,76611,149,7715,685,10716,834,878
19254,668,8847,213,306298,7742,180,9647,613,39919,794,363
19265,039,6458,014,583319,33813,373,5667,505,70220,879,268
19275,311,2608,621,964332,72114,265,9456,680,17620,946,121
19285,615,6729,454,315331,95615,401,9435,667,65121,069,594
19295,844,4959,190,655392,92115,428,0716,042,00721,470,078
19306,010,98710,309,785436,94616,757,7185,495,42722,253,145
19315,637,25410,201,076426,31516,264,6454,432,95620,697,601

The total revenue of local authorities for the financial year was £16,264,645, and they further received a sum of £4,432,956 which could not properly be termed “revenue,” making altogether a grand total of receipts amounting to £20,697,601. The rates formed 34.7 per cent. of the revenue proper; licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 62.7 per cent.; and 2.6 per cent. came from the General Government

Of the revenue proper of counties, which amounted to £2,476,551, no less a sum than £1,665,200, or 67 per cent., was raised by way of rates. Town districts, road districts, river districts, land —drainage districts, and urban drainage districts also rely on taxing for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, electric-power districts, and Harbour Boards, on the other hand, rates supply a considerably lesser proportion of the total revenue. During 1930 —31 this source of income accounted for only 41 per cent. of the total revenue of boroughs,' the corresponding proportion for Harbour Boards and electric —power districts being as low as 9 per cent. and 3 per cent. respectively.

LOCAL, GOVERNING AUTHORITIES.—RECEIPTS, 1930–31.
Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Rents&c.Government.
 £££££
Counties1,665,200575,641235,7101,484,7053,961,256
Boroughs3,213,1174,475,901130,0191,643,1709,462,207
Town districts111,77062,5346,07777,387257,768
Road districts48,90611,6043,25298,030161,792
River districts58,39319,85511,81466,059156,121
Land-drainage districts53,4562,436..23,68179,573
Electric-power districts72,6872,223,879..438,7202,735,286
Water-supply districts2,887119..303,036
Urban drainage districts223,2173,977..215,410442,604
Urban transport districts..931,165..173,8601,105,025
Railway district..28,939....28,939
Gas-lighting district..56,474..5,10461,578
Rabbit districts14,0461,07413,0581,46729,645
Fire districts..152,1293,88039,738195,747
Harbour Boards173,5751,655,34922,505165,5952,017,024
Totals5,637,25410,201,076426,3154,432,95620,697,601

RATES.

As stated previously, rates contributed in 1930-31 the sum of £5,637,254 to the revenue of local governing/Authorities. General rates levied brought in £2,782,801, and special and separate rate,£2,854,453. Of the latter, £1,992,447 was received by boroughs and £585,590 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by Harbour Boards (£173,575) were general rates. A five-year summary of rates collected by local authorities is:—

Year ended 31st March,General.Special and Separate.Total.
 £££
19272,956,9752,354,2855,311,260
19283,017,5462.598,1265,615,672
19293,031,2802,813,2155,844,495
19303,135,8052,875,1826,010,987
19312,782,8012,854,4535,637,254

It is of interest to note that for the year 1930-31 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £5.05 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). In boroughs it was £11.45; in independent town districts, £11 92; and in town districts forming parts of counties, £6.56 (excluding rates levied by County Councils).

LICENSES, TOLLS, RENTS, ETC.

Rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publican's licenses, auctioneers' and hawkers' licenses, abattoir fees, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, tolls, &c. Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are —Rents; fines and penalties; market dues; sales of material; sales of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works; tramway receipts; interest on deposits; wharf dues, &c.

Of a total revenue of £4,475,901 accruing to boroughs under this head in 1930-31. £791,196 represented tramway and omnibus receipts, £1,375,628 sales of electric light and power, and £446,898 sales of gas.

RECEIPTS FROM GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

A statement of revenue receipts by controlling bodies of local districts from the Government during the last five financial years is given in the next table: —

Year ended 31st March
1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
 £££££
Rates on Crown and Native lands2,1651,39911,7301,1044,799
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment or held on perpetual lease21,52714,84314,10510,29710,379
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs3,4853,3242,6993,5182,153
Timber and flax royalties18,9538,9359,89515,24913,232
Goldfields revenue and gold duty22,47725,65928,31828,84828,503
Subsidies on rates229,065228,491226,798241,441231,815
Petrol-tax....54,95374,56583,227
Fees and fines6,6765,8516,3216,2967,075
Other receipts28,37343,45438,10255,62845,132
Total Revenue Account332,721331,956392,921436,946426,315

In addition to the foregoing revenue receipts, there are special grants from the General Government (£1,563,799 in 1930-31) for various local works of a public or semi —public character, including in 1930-31 subsidies from the Unemployment Board. A further class of receipts from the Government is provided by loans from the State Advances Office and advances from the Main Highways Board. These totalled £26,568 in 1930-31, bringing the total receipts from Government during 1930-31 to £2,016,682. Of this total, counties received £1,446,690 and boroughs £431,793.

EXPENDITURE

The expenditure of local governing authorities during each of the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Public Works (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Other.*Total Expenditure.
*Including amounts paid to sinking funds and for repayment of loan-money, the amount for 1930-31 being £1,047,339.
 ££££££
192210,867,810526,201766,2511,758,8151,172,79815,091,875
192311,261,774491,032764,9042,025,2921,152,50515,695,507
192412,031,580500,082833,1152,290,773865,40016,520,950
192514,256,887502,245843,4462,523,3031,296,95219,422,833
192615,454,839549,938908,6062,726,2771,275,98520,915,645
192715,831,600565,733941,7943,079,3781,329,05221,747,557
192815,200,280629,379965,3763,452,2932,175,83922,423,167
192913,298,839677,085964,0983,641,5492,718,45321,300,024
193014,486,488685,1341,053,6133,895,6321,940,22122,061,088
193114,402,327699,5841,029,0174,021,2332,022,36322,174,524

Since 1920-21 the total annual expenditure has increased by £9,412,834, public works expenditure on maintenance and the construction of new works being responsible for £5,182,943, and interest on loans and overdraft for £2,569,003. Reducing the increases in the various headings to a percentage basis, it is found that public works increased by 56 per cent., interest by 177 per cent., Hospital Board levies by 53 per cent., and administration by 42 per cent. The increase in other expenditure was as high as 122 per cent., and is mainly accounted for by increased payments to sinking fund and for repayment of loan-moneys. The increase of £5,182,943 in public works is mainly attributable to-Counties £1,042,545, boroughs £1,416,202, electric-power districts £1,656,543, and Harbour Boards £87,894.

The expenditure of the various classes of local governing authorities during 1930-31 is shown below:—

Public Works (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Amortization of Debt.Total Expenditure. *

*Including other Items.

†Included in “Construction and Maintenance.”

 ££££££
Counties3,003,778342,693298,624418,868131,5684,298,027
Boroughs6,592,950341,514405,4831,881,527499,31910,202,857
Town districts165,35611,24626,17946,68314,320268,199
Road districts121,9264,1319,12912,6162,184151,464
River districts118,170-16,37622,2246,475164,321
Land-drainage districts56,994-8,25725,4987,92999,315
Electric-power districts1,874,104-718,844186,6352,978,115
Water-supply districts2,141-666706-3,517
Urban drainage districts187,459-21,302145,88623,355388,000
Urban transport districts893,504-28,936165,19350,5681,152,645
Railway district14,597-2,2413,6901,90022,696
Gas-lighting district44,270-2,1208,7622,00163,924
Rabbit districts24,805-5,45141532432,216
Fire districts137,167-23,33414,6736,583189,155
Harbour Boards1,165,106-180,919555,648114,1782,160,073
Totals14,402,327699,5841,029,0174,021,2331,047,33922,174,524

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure on new works out of loan-money during the last ten years, classified under various heads: —

Year ended 31st. March,Streets and Footways.Drainage and Sanitation.Water-worksTramways Services.Abattoirs, Slaughter-houses, and PoundsLighting and Power Services.Other Public WorksTotals.
 ££££££££
1922229,495217,503174,514116,79952605,019107,1421,450,524
1923455,105295,920194,47299,7501,616814,177276,8102,137,850
1924389,840306,089163,942192,65522,273514,312292,1451,881,256
1925706,380317,868309,033217,55712,177540,540310,3322,413,887
19261,039,948348,685456,359214,23725,089268,306266,7292,619,353
1927875,704311,820362,177223,44515,883235,018214,6482,238,695
1928939,786268,083394,026163,97526,390176,972149,9872,119,219
1929649,081236,068202,7441,4996,612259,796134,8061,490,606
1930715,818289,430154,4341,25411,042304,860119,5431,596,381
1931475,644271,906145,55539514,331308,589120,6731,337,093

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The assets and liabilities of local governing authorities at the end of the financial year 1930-31 are as shown in the table following. The figures shown in the column “Other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete.

Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets (as estimated in published Balance-sheets).Loans—Net Indebtedness (excluding Loans from GovernmentLoans from State Advances Office and Main High ways Board (Amount owing on 31st March, 1931.)Inscribed Stocks, i.e., Loans from Treasury under Loans to Local Bodies Acts. (Estimated Present Indebtedness.)Liabilities other than the Loans included in preceding Columns (Bank Overdrafts, Temporary Loans, Outstanding Accounts, &c.).
 ££££££
Counties1,429,3131,958,8193,854,6782,267,271391,938369,863
Boroughs5,902,70429,346,54325,311,7092,173,262328,603947,973
Town districts91,538584,206533,835228,4412,21126,658
Road districts35,742178,812238,88616,2882,14711,097
River districts54,486277,754292,89038,98817,43319,236
Land-drainage districts74,09066,794228,260168,00028,34620,530
Electric-power districts2,544,37812,899,57411,716,463....552,579
Water-supply districts1,0342,4308,7651,331322..
Urban drainage districts216,2661,055,6372,621,593124..67,376
Urban transport districts278,0583,699,8352,501,369....134,896
Railway district1,052197,70029,103....25,793
Gas-lighting district12,155166,698119,206....30,253
Rabbit districts28,76717,3895,605....2,777
Fire districts32,011571,878213,501....85,384
Harbour Boards1,492,82315,480,7328,693,282130,0981,651307,318
Totals12,194,41766,504,80156,309,1455,024,403772,6512,661,733

It should be noted that the figure for “Other assets” is on the conservative side, inasmuch as no valuations are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads, which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, do not figure at all in the assets. In this connection it may be mentioned that the greater part of the expenditure of counties and road districts goes in this direction, while in the case of boroughs no less than 42 per cent. of the loan-money expended during the last five years went on streets and footways. Assets of all local authorities as returned for the last ten years are as under:—

As at 31st March,Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).As at 1 31st March,Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).
 ££ ££
19225,485,35736,035,77919279,930,58156,999,264
19237,690,07639,494,35219289,648,08760,328,936
19248,219,11943,451,174192910,443,79462,550,235
19258,876,52248,299,927193012,859,67664,509,880
19269,743,96953,606,527193112,194,41766,504,801

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to £9,323,461 at 31st March, 1931, do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are comprised mainly of fixed assets and stocks of stores and materials.

Boroughs ate responsible for 44 per cent. of the total assets, Harbour Boards for 23 per cent., and electric-power districts for 19 per cent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 3, but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure goes on roads, for which no valuation is available.

INDEBTEDNESS.

The total indebtedness at the end of 1930-31, excluding loans from the Government, was £65,692,606. Against this were sinking funds amounting to £9,323,461, leaving the net indebtedness, other than to the State, £56,369,145. The annual charge for interest was £3,536,510, and for sinking fund £866,646. The indebtedness to the State Advances Office and the Main Highways Board was £5,024,403, representing loans originally amounting to £6,391,548. The instalments of principal and interest on this amounted to an annual charge of £354,325.

The estimated net indebtedness under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts, including inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, was £772,651 at the end of the year. This debt is decreasing yearly, and will be extinguished in course of time. The amount outstanding is repayable by annual instalments of £71,312.

The outstanding loans of local authorities at the end of each of the last ten years are shown in the following table: —

As at 31st March.Debentures and in Circulation.Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board.Inscribed Debt.Total Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt.Amount borrowed.Amount owing.Gross Debt.Present IndebtednessGross Debt.Net Debt.
 ££££££££
192230,266,20427,018,3704,557,5454,007,0952,381,7901,328,17436,745,08932,443,639
192330,079,38232,164,6745,282,4004,770,1352,341,6671,244,96943,191,18438,179,778
192439,110,00034,025,4145,701,8355,113,5292,314,3041,190,87046,537,83340,929,813
192545,720,79440,770,5276,029,9655,360,0742,272,5981,128,55253,353,46647,259,153
192651,725,89746,029,5496,228,3975,453,2402,239,6171,067,00959,419,75452,549,798
192756,412,75950,107,4646,293,8355,409,8612,189,6271,066,25464,012,24756,523,579
192858,949,02851,812,9716,325,7005,325,4012,129,743944,31566,404,17258,082,687
192962,003,78553,972,6926,328,0305,212,7452,078,088886,68669,294,61960,072,123
193064,052,02155,638,9666,370,4965,128,0482,027,470828,72671,207,53961,595,740
193165,692,60656,369,1456,391,5485,024,4031,969,027772,65172,686,03662,166,199

Of recent years loans advanced to local authorities by the State Advances Department have been less than the repayments, with the result that the amount outstanding under this head has decreased. In addition to the scheme of State advances, there exists a system whereby the State guarantee to the payment of interest and principal in the event of default by the local authority may be obtained by the borrowing authority. Local body loans guaranteed by the State aggregated £2,978,075 at the 31st March, 1931, sinking funds in respect of these loans totalling £647,518.

Of the total net indebtedness of £62,166,199 at the 31st March, 1931, boroughs were responsible for no less than £27,813,574, which represents 9-91 per cent. of their rateable capital value. In the case of counties, which have a much less per caput expenditure on public works, the percentage is only 1-98.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross debt of local governing authorities and the annual charge thereon for the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March,Population.Gross Debt.Annual Loan Charge
Amount.Rate per Head.Amount.Rate per Head.
  ££ s. d.££ s. d.
19221,301,25136,745,08928 4 92,133,7641 12 9
19231,325,30143,191,18432 11 102,579,5711 18 11
19241,347,85346,537,83334 10 82,798,6452 1 6
19251,379,48753,353,46638 13 73,331,1632 8 3
19261,409,81259,419,75442 2 113,740,6472 13 1
19271,437,98064,012,24744 10 44,050,8952 16 4
19281,453,51766,404,17245 13 84,255,4692 18 6
19291,470,65469,294,61947 2 44,479,1803 0 11
19301,488,59571,207,53947 16 84,682,1813 2 11
19311,510,94072,686,03648 2 24,828,7933 3 11

Over the period there has been an uninterrupted increase, not only in the total debt, but also in the rate per head. The annual charge for loans shows a similar growth

INCIDENCE OF DEBT.

The table below is of interest as showing the increase of loan indebtedness in each of the principal types of local authority. The figures represent the gross liability on all loans other than Government loans.

As at 31st. March,Counties.Boroughs.Town districts.Road districts.Electric power Districts.Harbour Boards.Other Districts.Total.
 ££££££££
19221,328,29716,282,960351,06579,8911,480,0008,110,9112,633,08030,266,204
19231,802,63319,501,988377,306152,4613,052,3008,437,9872,754,70736,079,382
19241,870,07819,819,497408,580207,6714,740,8659,020,1883,043,12139,110,000
19252,332,46123,483,057411,859273,4506,514,7579,600,2033,105,00745,720,794
19263,054,13125,607,439435,753405,3008,745,7559,845,7663,632,75351,726,897
19273,658,23827,662,027538,869528,87510,113,40010,113,4413,797,90956,412,759
19283,882,47129,277,772570,307593,61510,175,36410,335,6994,113,80058,949,028
19294,044,66629,973,857651,134287,55011,986,70710,636,3684,423,50462,003,786
19304,242,99229,307,006562,435289,05012,636,35110,326,3466,687,84164,052,021
19314,373,78629,966,127601,857250,20013,011,52910,378,5097,110,59865,692,606

During the twelve months ended the 31st March, 1931, the gross indebtedness (excluding loans from Government) of all local authorities is shown to have increased by £1,640,585, of which boroughs were responsible for £659,121. During the last decade the debt has more than doubled, boroughs being responsible for £15,390,302 of the £39,505,646 increase. Electric-power districts did not appear until 1921, since when the debt has grown steadily to £13,011,529 in 1931.

ANALYSIS OF DEBT.

An analysis of the local-authority debt, according to purpose raised, at the end of the financial year 1930-31 is as under:—

Purpose of Loans.Loans other than from Government.Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board.Inscribed Debt.Totals.
 ££££
Electric supply and lighting17,228,290226..17,228,516
Roads, streets, footways, and bridges12,667,1092,646,2261,048,21916,361,554
Drainage, sewerage, and water-supply12,663,4571,489,695624,01214,777,164
Harbour-works10,378,509131,86115,29610,525,666
Tramways, omnibuses, and other passenger and carrying services 5,252,9775,252,977....5,252,977
Gas supply and lighting1,077,35928,383..1,105,742
Municipal buildings957,923..4,068961,991
Workers' dwellings238,953445,722..684,675
Land-drainage248,060168,00085,702501,762
River-works316,78738,98881,841437,616
Parks, reserves, and gardens379,099....379,099
Eire-prevention370,109....370,109
Abattoirs240,1994,043100,859345,101
Miscellaneous3,390,36228,0633,8923,422,317
Unclassified283,41343,1965,138331,747
Totals65,692,6065,024,4031,969,02772,686,036

Electric supply and lighting loans account for 24 per cent. of the total; roads, streets, footways, and bridges, 22 per cent.; drainage, sewerage, and water-supply, 20 per cent.; harbour-works, 14 per cent.; and tramways, &c., 7 per cent. This leaves 13 per cent. for other objects. Hydro-electric works on a large scale are of comparatively recent date, and this fact accounts in a large measure for the rapid growth of the debt within the last few years. That there has been considerable activity in other directions also is evidenced by the fact that of loan-money amounting to £8,781,994 expended on new works by boroughs during the last five years (1926-27 to 1930-31) no less a sum than £3,656,033 (42 per cent.) went on roads, streets, and footways; £2,621,832 (29 per cent.) on drainage, sewerage, and water-supply; and £390,568 (4 per cent.) on tramways and other passenger services. The amount expended by boroughs on electric supply and lighting during the five years was £1,179,089, representing 13 per cent. of the total. The foregoing considerations, taken in conjunction with the fact that except in the case of Harbour Boards capital works are very rarely undertaken other than by means of borrowed money, are the explanation of the present size of the Dominion's local-body debt. Of the sum of £18,167,098 expended on harbour-works up to 30th September, 1930, no less than £5,834,310 (32 per cent.) was provided out of revenue.

It is of interest to note that Government loans have been made for the more primary needs of local districts. In the case of State Advances loans and Main Highways Board advances 53 per cent. of the existing debt is for roads, streets, and footways; 29 per cent. for drainage, sewerage, and water-supply; and 9 per cent. for workers dwellings. Of the inscribed debt total 53 per cent. is for roads, &c. and 32 per cent. for drainage, sewerage, and water-supply.

DOMICILE OF DEBT.

The loans outstanding, other than Government loans, at the end of the financial year 1930-31 are shown below, classified according to various rates of interest and as to whether domiciled in New Zealand or abroad:—

Rate of Interest.Domiciled in New Zealand.Domiciled in United Kingdom.Domiciled in Australia.Total.
Per Cent.££££
4 and under986,8311,645,400663,5503,295,781
41/4507,200168,800800,0001,476,000
43/837,000....37,000
41/21,857,9251,592,825427,9003,878,650
43/4103,850..319,790423,640
52,518,3497,344,300334,08710,196,736
51/8135,100....135,100
51/46,167,9542,146,100497,3748,811,428
5 3/8 and 5 2/530,000....30,000
51/29,341,2732,262,8001,569,19713,173,270
5 6/8189,987..150,000339,987
52/3 and 57/1052,000..130,000182,000
53/46,347,83550,2002,812,2699,210,304
57/813,672....13,672
610,488,6181,500,000581,11212,569,730
61/48,400....8,400
61/2756,048823,00052,2501,631,298
742,610..237,000279,610
Totals39,584,65217,533,4258,574,52965,692,606
Annual interest charge2,184,490895,503456,5173,536,510

The interest rates quoted above are those applicable to the amount of debt outstanding. They have not been adjusted to the prices at which the respective loans wore raised e.g., where a loan was issued below par the rate of interest on the sum actually received (omitting the question of flotation expenses) would be higher than the rate shown above.

The amount domiciled in New Zealand increased by £1,447,319 during 1930-31, and that domiciled in Australia by £374,930, while that in the United Kingdom decreased by £181,664. The great bulk of local authority borrowing in recent years has been done within New Zealand, whose proportion of the total has increased continuously for several years past. The amount domiciled in New Zealand at 31st March, 1931, represented 60 per cent. of the total, the United Kingdom's share being 27 per cont., and Australia's 13 per cent.

DEBT CHARGES.

Debentures and stock in circulation at 31st March, 1931, involved an annual charge of £3,536,510 for interest and £866,646 for sinking fund. Interest payments and principal repayments on the State Advances and Main Highways debt aggregated £354,325 annually, and annual instalments on the inscribed debt totalled £71,312, bringing the gross annual debt charge to £4,828,793. The figures as at the end of each of the last ten years are:—

Year ended 31st March,On Debentures and Stock.On State Advances and Main Highways Debt.On Inscribed Debt.Total.Average Kate of
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.Interest on Debentures and Stock.Total Debt Charge (including Government Loans).
 ££££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19221,462,039295,505l,757,544287,02989,1912,133,7644.835.81
19231,827,992380,8482,208,840283,45787,2742,579,5715.065.97
19241,992,220413,3692,405,589307,09985,9572,798,6455.096.01
19252,396,824523,8762,920,700326,26084,2033,331,1635.246.24
19262,740,445580,2003,320,645337,25982,7433,740,6475.306.30
19273,000,223628,7503,628,973341,41480,5084,050,8955.326.33
19283,158,359675,5103,833,869343,43778,1634,255,4695.366.41
19293,334,009725,5474,059,556343,69575,9294,479,1805.386.46
19303,467,994789,8214,257,815350,62273,7444,682,1815.406.57
19313,536,510866,6462,403,156354,32571,3124,828,7935.386.64

The annual debt charge is seen to have increased at a greater rate than the debt itself, the proportion columns showing a continuous upward movement over the period. The table on page 482 shows the same continuous increase proportionately to population.

Of the annual interest payable on the debt other than to Government as at 31st March, 1931, £2,184,490 was payable in New Zealand, £895,503 in the United Kingdom, and £456,517 in Australia. The average rate of interest for each of the foregoing countries works out as follows: New Zealand, 5.52 per cent.; Australia. 5.32 per cent.; United Kingdom, 5.11 per cent. Only 15 per cent of the debt domiciled in New Zealand bore interest at 5 per cent or under, as compared with a corresponding percentage of 61 in the case of the United Kingdom, the Australian figure being 30 per cent.

Chapter 26. SECTION XXVI.—VALUATION OF LAND.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE.

THE existing law relating to the valuation of land in New Zealand is contained in the Valuation of Land Act, 1925 (a consolidation of previous legislation), and its amendments of 1926 and 1927. A brief historical account appears in the 1932 and earlier Year-Books.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General. The actual work of valuation is done by District Valuers and assistant valuers. The former are permanent officers, while the latter are temporarily employed to make valuations at such times and on such terms and conditions as are found necessary. A valuation made by an assistant valuer or local valuer is subject to endorsement by the District Valuer before it is accepted by the Valuer-General.

The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the “capital value” of the property. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides that in boroughs rating on the unimproved value the unimproved value only or the value of improvements only may be ascertained, the capital value being adjusted accordingly.

Under the New Zealand, law the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local body expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value.” Any increased value, however, which is represented by the improvements effected by the individual possessor, either past or present, does not form part of the “unimproved value.”

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land under exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling-value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used. Land containing or supposed to contain oil, coal, or other mineral deposits is valued as for the surface use only.

THE VALUATION ROLL.

The Valuation of Land Act directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:—

  1. The name of the owner of the land and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:

  2. The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act:

  3. The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. The nature and value of the improvements on the land:

  5. The unimproved value of the land:

  6. The capital value of the land:

  7. Such other particulars as are prescribed.

The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

After the values in a district have been revised a new valuation roll is prepared, and the Valuer-General addresses to each person whose name appears thereon a notice setting forth the values at which his property is entered, and naming a date on or before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged.

THE ASSESSMENT COURT.

The Valuer-General refers objections to values to the District Valuer to enable him to review valuations before the sitting of the Assessment Court. If after careful reconsideration by the District Valuer it is decided that an objection will be allowed or a reasonable compromise effected, the valuation is altered accordingly. On the other hand, if the Valuer-General considers that the valuer's estimates are fair, the objection is heard and determined by the Assessment Court.

The Assessment Court consists of three members, of whom one—the President—is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Of the other two members of the Court, one is appointed by the Governor-General in Council, and the other by the local authority of the district whose roll has been revised, or by two or more local authorities acting in unison, provided the appointee is not a member or a paid officer of any local authority. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides for assessors representing local bodies to be elected (after nomination by two or more ratepayers) by a meeting of ratepayers convened for the purpose.

If the objection to the valuation is allowed, the reduction is immediately entered on the valuation roll. If the objection is disallowed, the owner may, within fourteen days after the hearing by the Assessment Court, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the objector) considers to be the fair selling-value as specified in his notice, or the land to be acquired on behalf of His Majesty at that value.

If the Valuer-General is of opinion that the Assessment Court has made an unfair reduction in a valuation he may, within fourteen days of the hearing, require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair selling capital value, and, failing such consent being given within thirty days after notice is delivered at his address, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of His Majesty.

The decision of the Assessment Court on any objection is subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on a question of law. On all other questions the decision of the Assessment Court is final. The decision cf a majority of the three members constitutes the decision of the Court, but if no two members agree the President's decision is taken.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND.

General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897-98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole Dominion have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures have been revised to include the latest valuations of small divisions.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES.
Year.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Year.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££ ££
187899,566,67962,573,8681918421,383,373260,921,812
1882101,000,000..1919445,533,445275,988,409
1885113,270,649..1920470,093,697290,880,264
1888111,137,71475,497,3791921518,584,318317,631,245
1891122,225,02975,832,4651922544,503,376329,174,337
1897138,591,34784,401,2441923553,403,794330,790,991
1902154,816,13294,847,7271924568,500,653333,869,581
1905197,684,475122,937,1261925587,349,575339,310,260
1907236,644,536149,682,6891926603,250,306341,047,952
1909271,516,022172,759,9481927618,264,093341,519,107
1911293,117,065184,062,7981928631,454,676335,217,075
1913340,559,728212,963,4681929655,906,887344,757,796
1915371,076,683230,705,1471930664,571,181338,887,411
1916389,164,729241,322,2551931667,802,616331,601,773
1917405,466,071251,087,708   

Recent revaluations have resulted in somewhat lower unimproved values being placed on country lands, a progressive decline having set in since 1925, the decrease to 1931 being £27,500,000. This decline has been only partly counterbalanced by increases in urban districts, for the total unimproved value of the Dominion in 1931 was £13,000,000 less than in 1929. The total capital value of the Dominion has continued to increase.

Information covering the last ten years as to the gross capital and unimproved values in the North and South Islands and in the whole Dominion is given in the following table, which also shows the separate totals for counties, boroughs, and town districts (independent of county jurisdiction).

The values shown in the table above and in that following are, as stated, the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

GROSS VALUES.
Year.Number.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
Counties.
  ££££££
1922129210,502,471135,866,105127,069,78294,059,679337,572,253229,925,784
1923129212,365,004136,619,976125,801,99493,108,293338,166,998229,728,269
1924129214,571,989137,323,119126,047,70393,131,206340,619,692230,454,325
1925129217,347,187138,452,089126,696,66693,162,705344,043,853231,614,794
1926129218,934,039137,478,551127,019,17693,135,848345,953,215230,614,399
1927129220,899,534136,669,081128,528,96493,546,458349,428,498230,215,539
1928129222,034,723128,466,999128,979,60093,112,481351,014,323221,579,480
1929129218,994,624125,113,171128,578,47792,329,116347,573,101217,452,287
1930129217,047,143120,939,949128,369,80590,038,141345,416,948210,978,090
1931129216,904,602119,125,252126,112,66784,989,699343,017,269204,114,951
Boroughs.
1922118137,157,30970,173,03562,096,94925,594,465199,254,25895,767,500
1923118142,049,54871,059,18464,572,62226,200,198206,622,17097,259,382
1924118153,284,67473,591,42767,069,28726,435,569220,353,961100,026,996
1925118165,944,93477,762,00569,402,51226,505,881235,347,446104,267,886
1926119176,482,48479,937,20372,316,31526,911,670248,808,799106,848,873
1927119184,483,84980,253,29875,083,75727,279,451259,567,606107,532,749
1928119193,357,81682,113,91077,546,51527,760,690270,904,331109,874,600
1929119215,559,20792,633,63683,723,05731,178,700299,282,264123,812,336
1930121224,252,97693,192,26785,669,38731,108,515309,922,363124,300,782
1931122228,393,99992,983,63787,312,58331,204,231315,706,582124,187,868
Independent Town Districts.
1922366,944,4013,175,747732,464305,3067,676,8653,481,053
1923417,747,9123,457,862866,714345,4788,614,6263,803,340
1924396,644,5563,042,977882,444345,2837,527,0003,388,260
1925407,043,1273,081,319915,149346,2617,958,2763,427,580
1926397,450,9253,202,3241,037,367382,3568,488,2923,584,680
1927408,221,3723,387,7361,046,617383,0839,267,9893,770,819
1928428,463,6863,397,3421,067,336365,6539,536,0223,762,995
1929427,977,8323,136,3771,073,690350,7969,051,5223,493,173
1930418,145,6443,277,4341,086,226331,1059,231,8703,298,539
1931407,936,5502,967,9641,142,215330,9909,078,7653,298,954
Grand Totals.
1922..354,604,181209,214,887189,899,195119,959,450544,503,376329,174,337
1923..362,162,464211,137,022191,241,330119,653,969553,403,794330,790,991
1924..374,501,219213,957,523193,999,434119,912,058568,500,653333,869,581
1925..390,335,248219,295,413197,014,327120,014,847587,349,575339,310,260
1926..402,877,448220,618,078200,372,858120,429,874603,250,306341,047,952
1927..413,604,755220,310,115204,659,338121,208,992818,264,093341,519,107
1928..423,861,225213,978,251207,593,451121,238,824631,454,676335,217,075
1929..442,531,663220,883,184213,375,224123,874,612655,906,887344,757,796
1930..449,445,763217,409,650215,125,418121,477,761664,571,181338,887,411
1931..453,235,151215,076,853214,567,465116,524,920667,802,616331,601,773

A summary of rateable values for the year 1931 is next given:—

 North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££££££
Countries206,616,079113,567,449121,099,79382,229,251327,715,872195,796,700
Boroughs206,409,77982,290,40479,420,05028,611,080285,829,829110,901,484
Town districts (independent)7,348,4932,764,2911,043,744304,1868,392,2373,068,477
Totals420,374,351198,622,144201,563,587111,144,517621,937,938309,766,661

Of the gross capital value, counties represent 51.4 per cent., and boroughs and independent town districts 48.0 per cent. For unimproved value the proportions are 61.6 per cent and 38.4 per cent respectively.

On the basis of rateable values, counties possess 52.7 per cent of capital and 63.2 per cent of unimproved values, as against 47.3 and 36.8 per cent for boroughs and independent town districts.

As has been pointed out previously, the figures shown for 1931 and other years subsequent to 1898 do not represent general revaluations of the whole Dominion in the years shown. Revaluations are made, district by district, as circumstances permit, or as the progress of the district renders advisable. An analysis of the gross capital value shown for the year 1931 gives the following results:—

GROSS CAPITAL VALUES.—YEAR VALUATION.
Last revised as at April inCounties.Boroughs.Town Districts (Independent).Total.
 ££££
1912 or earlier179,613968,907..1,148,520
19131,121,439190,50231,4861,343,427
19142,900,187906,214164,0863,970,487
1915286,364....286,364
19164,484,4213,932,774..8,417,195
19174,841,2804,944,56871,2969,857,144
191811,601,599541,687628,59612,771,882
191927,474,493131,195..27,605,688
192015,323,94311,649,914147,96927,121,826
192112,848,41722,832,057341,05836,021,532
192220,923,52856,077,792315,73577,317,055
19234,227,3187,831,119176,15112,234,588
19242,767,8528,689,2261,319,07612,776,154
19252,212,18121,969,195..24,181,376
192626,320,17222,389,9332,080,91150,791,016
192716,355,1137,890,800638,74324,884,656
192856,794,04818,285,180711,76275,790,990
192942,898,071104,108,3431,176,888148,183,302
193049,759,24513,026,659940,63563,726,539
193139,697,9859,340,517334,37349,372,875
Totals343,017,269315,706,5829,078,765667,802,616

It should be explained that in those few cases where a borough, town district, or local division of a county has been valued partly in one year and partly in another, and information is not available as to the amounts represented by the valuations in the respective years, the whole district has been included in the latest of the years shown. Napier Borough, for instance, was revised partly in 1914 and partly in 1917, but is wholly included in the 1917 figures shown above.

The gross capital and unimproved values for each county, borough, and independent town district as in 1931 are next given.

COUNTIES.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1931.

County.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column.)
 ££
Mongonui1,512,764598,698
Whangaroa434,324126,830
Bay of Islands2,267,563886,361
Hokianga1,597,124572,564
Whangarei4,880,9851,718,204
Hobson2,475,9491,050,027
Otamatea2,117,557881,738
Rodney1,746,768877,014
Waitemata4,665,1252,493,744
Eden3,585,8571,570,289
Manukau5,189,6643,049,143
Franklin6,027,8483,243,316
Great Barrier Island155,07098,205
Islands—  
Little Barrier, Waiheke, &c.554,091362,619
Waikato5,634,7333,148,001
Raglan4,108,5971,866,027
Waipa6,265,7343,440,711
Coromandel674,776378,656
Thames733,727372,116
Hauraki Plains2,170,6961,049,655
Ohinemuri782,068396,453
Tauranga2,273,1711,013,549
Piako4,446,5002,388,675
Matamata3,778,2591,794,319
Rotorua1,790,4421,340,544
Whakatane2,452,7131,403,270
Taupo855,765559,737
Taumarunui1,175,487496,690
Ohura1,113,931373,052
Kawhia705,131271,964
Waitomo2,844,2841,201,335
Otorohanga2,157,989988,084
Island—Motiti33,12019,150
Opotiki1,695,804621,294
Matakaoa899,950368,781
Waiapu3,169,3081,189,108
Uawa1,623,280792,522
Waikohu4,067,0571,801,148
Cook5,379,7012,430,268
Wairoa3,849,6811,533,251
Hawke's Bay10,930,4558,081,000
Waipawa3,020,4242,135,812
Waipukurau906,945668,542
Dannevirke3,804,3762,037,707
Woodville1,769,4421,059,980
Patangata4,647,5623,587,963
Weber731,537472,749
Clifton1,391,939794,522
Taranaki2,799,5241,529,738
Inglewood1,427,794669,648
Egmont2,069,2641,095,267
Stratford3,159,3311,723,693
Whangamomona558,940172,589
Waimate West2,102,8061,350,579
Eltham2,688,6511,463,508
Hawera3,469,5692,142,793
Patea3,516,1072,053,268
Waitotara2,716,6461,552,777
Waimarino1,752,820501,800
Wanganui3,192,1441,861,738
Rangitikei10,088,1386,212,266
Kiwitea3,321,4872,086,775
Pohangina1,707,4451,068,165
Kaitioke1,022,808471,963
Manawatu3,574,6412,509,322
Oroua3,093,6592,112,462
Kairanga4,854,1143,349,974
Horowhenua5,306,0673,334,657
Islands—  
Kapiti, Mana, and Somes17,98413,378
Chatham Islands286,364195,893
Pahiatua2,529,5451,424,525
Akitio1,494,095727,963
Castlepoint1,121,439638,859
Eketahuna1,847,0541,002,530
Mauriceville620,374338,145
Masterton4,340,5892,737,334
Wairarapa South3,023,9391,763,026
Featherston4,767,8983,037,282
Hutt3,990,1381,845,512
Makara1,634,319728,329
Collingwood451,750271,674
Takaka711,504391,520
Waimea3,169,6781,737,800
Sounds830,923501,204
Marlborough4,872,2783,408,321
Awatere2,163,2511,660,186
Buller1,463,997769,126
Murchison537,046220,685
Inangahua760,591393,282
Grey992,293633,891
Westland991,042565,151
Kaikoura1,660,8651,135,750
Cheviot1,712,5031,375,257
Amuri2,398,8561,673,206
Waipara3,828,4453,078,885
Ashley985,240764,675
Kowai1,402,4741,067,779
Oxford1,151,808934,472
Rangiora1,789,8211,432,798
Eyre1,674,3501,337,810
Waimairi5,557,8392,687,753
Paparua2,790,6721,765,923
Malvern2,486,9291,871,473
Tawera572,352473,257
Heathcote2,245,435940,705
Halswell1,164,670802,765
Selwyn1,567,2641,078,694
Springs1,230,905914,440
Ellesmere2,767,8522,279,832
Mount Herbert619,855436,315
Wairewa1,322,4501,015,640
Akaroa2,231,0951,698,695
Ashburton11,234,0008,724,045
Geraldine3,500,5852,405,665
Levels3,583,1432,712,303
Mackenzie2,947,6712,233,419
Waimate6,089,1534,135,658
Waitaki5,340,5484,084,937
Maniototo1,534,2551,035,961
Waihemo823,396598,567
Waikouaiti1,310,036805,256
Peninsula716,907347,930
Taieri2,443,6741,647,088
Tuapeka2,538,3251,588,529
Bruce1,814,8001,142,951
Clutha3,088,5911,728,978
Islands—  
Quarantine and Goat3,454900
Vincent1,676,7761,050,265
Lake839,528579,349
Fiord144,295137,513
Wallace4,331,0752,377,401
Southland13,647,8388,074,387
Stewart Island103,33549,860
Antipodes, &c.13,88013,880

BOROUGHS.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1931.
Borough.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column.)
 ££
Whangarei2,584,351972,313
Dargaville537,682143,203
Birkenhead931,013361,719
Devonport3,452,5581,405,325
AUCKLAND CITY
City Portion32,797,44416,484,389
Parnell Portion2,436,7831,071,065
Grey Lynn Portion2,802,537886,567
Arch Hill Portion537,449194,070
Eden Terrace Portion612,495222,060
Point Chevalier Portion1,163,049499,710
Avondale Portion1,314,274498,976
Epsom Portion3,083,1021,185,837
Remuera Portion5,928,9492,330,186
Orakei Portion309,465273,590
Tamaki Portion2,129,5871,259,178
Total of City53,115,13424,905,628
Newmarket1,697,055867,245
Onehunga3,137,0721,115,025
Takapuna2,642,8531,146,607
Northcote651,159277,243
New Lynn701,960212,135
Mount Albert5,683,4351,926,024
Mount Eden5,923,4192,151,683
One Tree Hill3,478,0171,418,277
Otahuhu1,413,667459,729
Pukekohe864,828390,053
Hamilton5,926,8552,530,353
Cambridge816,846300,791
Huntly360,57296,362
Ngaruawahia260,09064,420
Te Awamutu703,617267,193
Thames640,654158,370
Tauranga897,526401,763
Paeroa515,143173,933
Waihi350,91152,792
Morrinsville628,483230,425
Te Aroha764,833287,715
Rotorua2,001,3711,020,012
Whakatane376,960102,549
Taumarunui704,367277,740
Te Kuiti689,054254,279
Opotiki368,327141,272
Gisborne5,222,5051,872,242
Wairoa756,981323,120
Napier4,671,8151,725,924
Hastings3,608,8091,529,529
Dannevirke1,537,785501,700
Woodville190,50255,309
Waipawa287,695114,709
Waipukurau470,518161,386
New Plymouth5,240,8661,756,067
Hawera1,849,813767,745
Patea159,63357,643
Waitara335,979102,314
Inglewood291,07969,551
Stratford1,134,877450,030
Eltham580,014197,685
Wanganui City9,617,7433,591,630
Marton867,569215,733
Raetihi237,69453,639
Ohakune131,19539,935
Taihape659,300320,775
Feilding1,576,298543,728
Palmerston North City7,829,5222,503,417
Foxton298,36071,080
WELLINGTON CITY
City Portion40,398,70520,726,630
Wadestown Portion1,388,300414,605
Northland Portion1,013,600296,910
Melrose—
Kilbirnie Portion5,840,8201,692,715
Island Bay Portion2,080,280568,105
Ohiro Portion3,201,235906,855
Onslow Portion1,702,227479,105
Karori Portion2,286,195646,010
Miramar Portion4,070,1201,029,160
Total of City61,981,48226,760,095
Shannon176,46558,720
Levin778,165217,398
Otaki343,440147,974
Pahiatua359,22396,144
Masterton2,759,533848,871
Carterton523,040103,395
Greytown225,67754,706
Upper Hutt858,371235,157
Lower Hutt5,468,0241,997,612
Petone3,140,156896,191
Eketahuna168,50844,954
Martinborough254,54547,940
Featherston203,30644,376
Eastbourne777,700293,035
Richmond272,753120,090
Nelson City3,144,6911,271,189
Picton396,433151,145
Blenheim1,706,041582,569
Motueka426,834189,439
Westport761,168340,301
Greymouth1,302,240350,425
Brunner173,12772,517
Kumara32,8887,124
Hokitika431,87488,858
Ross24,7627,358
Runanga70,63720,268
Rangiora624,120165,220
Kaiapoi338,25889,618
CHRISTCHURCH CITY
St. Albans Portion5,186,4001,768,495
North Richmond Portion610,310162,430
Papanui Portion1,186,505399,020
Richmond Portion386,070121,870
North-east Portion1,210,585505,440
North-west Portion3,878,3702,059,290
South-east Portion2,825,5251,373,400
South-west Portion6,402,3203,796,560
Sydenham Portion3,071,8351,041,850
Opawa Portion320,265122,265
St. Martin's Portion277,97086,605
Beckenham-Fisherton Portion438,280112,660
Lin wood Portion1,929,005605,595
Lin wood North Portion548,750141,240
Avonside Portion432,710128,335
Linwood East Portion157,04544,185
Spreydon West Portion1,001,325304,440
Spreydon East Portion968,775262,375
Woolston Portion1,105,095341,110
Total of City31,937,14013,377,165
New Brighton1,157,165423,225
Sumner870,410322,877
Lyttelton777,225270,350
Akaroa167,14873,436
Riccarton1,533,733414,148
Ashburton755,441274,444
Timaru5,602,1821,957,387
Geraldine210,32951,285
Temuka429,145120,515
Waimate541,687128,355
Oamaru1,663,420557,197
Hampden32,9679,667
Naseby19,9782,583
Palmerston126,76329,738
Waikouaiti127,43039,908
Port Chalmers384,241120,778
West Harbour423,35082,240
DUNEDIN CITY
Valley Portion1,128,189295,819
Maori Hill Portion932,824244,525
Roslyn Portion1,755,597480,650
Mornington Portion1,212,474264,760
Leith Portion4,755,9401,828,981
Central Portion5,243,5812,199,670
Caversham Portion1,670,540406,205
South Dunedin Portion1,121,321275, 975
Bay Portion1,159,481229,357
Total of City18,979,9476,225,942
St. Kilda1,810,671395,533
Green Island405,22585,550
Mosgiel323,96595,500
Roxburgh86,44021,520
Lawrence70,4208,712
Tapanui42,7009,125
Milton247,96355,996
Balclutha332,580107,247
Kaitangata112,77131,538
Cromwell84,81616,229
Alexandra97,69315,085
Arrowtown20,6852,765
Queenstown180,93034,405
Gore1,148,359321,511
Mataura317,26086,080
Winton186,74056,845
Invercargill City5,670,7491,689,306
South Invercargill167,80779,301
Riverton182,66749,037
Bluff376,615105,585

INDEPENDENT TOWN DISTRICTS.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1931.

Town District.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
Kaitaia176,15168,799
Kaikohe161,71555,715
Hikurangi177,21144,051
Kamo131,26543,500
Warkworth93,47523,270
Helensville238,27078,840
Henderson300,892133,265
Glen Eden290,980106,705
Ellerslie795,329261,132
Waiuku279,87598,175
Howick241,475110,950
Papatoetoe834,322360,302
Manurewa465,560178,745
Papakura523,747229,928
Tuakau189,97879,553
Leamington147,52568,060
Te Puke330,303120,678
Matamata395,615144,175
Putaruru179,86569,170
Otorohanga181,50361,412
Taradale283,974135,780
Havelock North344,622135,916
Opunake212,31069,897
Manaia119,40826,605
Waverley115,75626,442
Rangataua31,4869,443
Mangaweka57,66321,844
Hunterville106,42336,753
Bulls120,70538,075
Manunui71,29625,954
Johnsonville337,851105,239
Tahunanui169,56853,309
Cobden152,87034,047
Leeston171,49039,385
Tinwald133,33550,910
Pleasant Point118,70539,600
Nightcaps77,46515,180
Otautau141,25343,918
Lumsden54,49415,251
Wyndham123,03539,390

Chapter 27. SECTION XXVII.—BANKING.

BANKS OF ISSUE.

THE Banking Act, 1908, which consolidated the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in the Dominion, provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed by the Act, and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. Every bank trading in the Dominion is required to furnish quarterly statements of its business, for publication in the Gazette. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court, unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for bank holidays, and for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of ten years from the date or due date of such documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1908, consolidates the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The Companies Act, 1908, with the exception of Part IX (re companies incorporated outside New Zealand), and also of the provisions relating to branch registers, does not apply to banking companies formed within and operating only within the Dominion.

There are six banks of issue trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand, being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of the Dominion. The Bank of New Zealand has branches in London, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa, while its branches and agencies within the Dominion number 230. The other five banks have between them 303 establishments within the Dominion, making a total of 533, or an average of one bank to every 2,855 inhabitants.

CAPITAL AND RESERVE FUNDS

The total paid—up capital of the above banks, their reserve funds, and the rate of their last dividend as on. the 31st December, 1931, wore as follows:—

Bank.Paid-up Capital.Rate per Cent. Per Annum of Last Dividend and Bonus.Amount of Reserved Profits at Time of declaring Dividend.
Bank of New Zealand-£per Cent.£
4-per-cent. Stock guaranteed by New Zealand Government529,988..4,201,001
“A” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)500,000104,201,001
“B” preference shares issued to Crown (Act of 1920)1,375,000134,201,001
“C” long-term mortgage shares issued to the Crown234,37564,201,001
“D” long-term mortgage shares468,75071/24,201,001
Ordinary shares3,750,000141/24,201,001
Union Bank of Australia, Ltd4,000,00044,850,000
Bank of New South Wales8,780,00086,150,000
Bank of Australasia4,500,000104,667,027
National Bank of New Zealand, Ltd.2,000,00082,248,457
Commercial Bank of Australia, Ltd.—
Ordinary2,000,000102,315,336
Preference2,117,35042,315,336

The movement of paid-up capital and reserved profits, as at 31st December, during the last ten years is given below:

YearPaid—up CapitalReserved Profits.
 ££
192220,488,22514,210,228
192321,727,52615,131,489
192422,327,53719,461,399
192524,581,06417,627,901
192624,772,28420,000,461
192727,041,13021,542,680
192828,439,26523,497,555
192928,754,16324,339,031
193028,898,86224,359,819
193130,255,46324,431,821

LIABILITIES.

The liabilities of the banks of issue for the last ten years are shown in the table following, the figures given referring to New Zealand business only. The liabilities shown represent the average of the four quarters of the year.

Year.Notes In Circulation.Dills In Circulation.balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Total Liabilities.*
* Including from 1927 transfers from Long-term Mortgage Department in ease of Bank of New Zealand.
 £££££
19227,019,220266,963669,25745,913,39453,868,834
19236,593,068307,419264,32349,039,48256,204,292
19246,587,546315,601725,58949,502,49957,131,235
19256,775,470312,983924,04252,207,20260,210,697
19266,730,421292,370850,25650,135,11458,008,161
19276,510,018292,369948,92648,294,09656,321,397
19286,374,043307,0071,146,54353,799,22161,850,595
19296,433,911327,667850,44157,609,74665,232,866
19306,255,717269,2941,024,96356,425,01463,934,419
19315,782,354191,4171,790,37513,645,0186l,403,034

The next table shows the total liabilities for each quarter during the same period

Quarterly Liabilities

Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarters.
 £££££
192254,350,33655,365,32453,845,54351,914,13253,868,834
192355,888,10159,459,26755,968,70553,501,09556,204,292
192458,860,05758,673,34355,347,45855,644,08057,131,235
192561,309,07562,215,23859,194,08458,160,39160,219,097
192659,484,11060,765,98957,219,99554,562,55158,008,161
192756,804,37158,092,95754,575,76355,812,49756,321,397
192860,554,20663,658,26961,789,57461,400,32961,850,595
192966,055,87567,481,60864,773,54362,620,43765,232,866
193064,982,78766,208,80933,547,53761,198,54363,984,419
193161,215,97762,672,52961,246,88460,716,74761,463,034
193261,517,25361,562,03559,815,244....

Details of liabilities from September quarter of 1930 to the corresponding quarter of 1932 are now given.

Liabilities.

Quarter.Notes in Circulation.Bills In Circulation.Balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Transfers from Long-term Mortgage Department.*Total Liabilities.
* Bank of New Zealand only.
 ££££££
September, 19306,039,175246,9641,110,85956,150,539 63,547,537
December, 19306,133,388238,2981,556,32953,232,80337,72561,198,543
March, 19315,802,261215,7211,005,74054,141,06551,18461,215,977
June, 19315,815,713177,5121,644,59554,996,12538,58462,672,529
September, 19315,584,542186,7061,996,06053,466,00343,57361,246,884
December, 19315,926,902185,7292,577,10051,976,87950,13760,716,747
March, 19325,875,026183,5612,060,85353,336,88560,92861,517,253
June, 19326,021,366149,6701,253,33454,013,300124,36561,562,035
September, 10325,919,824144,9291,483,01952,138,358129,11459,815,244

ASSETS.

Assets are now presented in a manner similar to that in which liabilities are shown. The figures represent the average of the four quarters of the year.

Year.Coin and BullionNotes and Hills discountedDebts due, exclusive of Bad DebtsBalances due from other BanksAll other Assets.Total Assets
 ££££££
19227,822,5021,043,73043,124,4481,143,9578,044,87361,779,570
19237,900,5941,609,30241,712,940717,5757,700,82459,641,235
19247,816,1451,589,76342,969,898725,5898,224,47061,325,865
19257,722,9171,639,16843,659,7871,214,3217,892,61562,128,808
19267,797,3191,787,50447,361,756881,8457,936,87365,765,297
19277,874,9711,610,36848,421,835978,2647,741,23866,626,676
19287,511,8331,286,18544,893,2781,301,9077,826,28262,819,485
19297,051,3911,103,14948,175,045955,8038,190,14165,475,529
19306,798,5561,173,36752,484,0301,075,3348,216,78469,748,071
19316,917,897843,04151,576,4861,832,7817,386,91568,557,120

The next table shows the total assets for each quarter during the same period:

Quarterly Assets

Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarters.
 £££££
192264,666,80963,352,32259,343,19659,755,95161,779,570
192359,335,21758,313,69258,797,00762,119,02359,641,235
192461,523,98560,243,83460,258,64163,276,99961,325,865
192561,199,18660,452,02961,340,14665,523,87062,128,808
192665,171,19465,674,70464,367,51067,897,77965,765,297
192767,646,15667,529,75764,668,32766,662,46366,626,676
192863,164,33962,736,74661,324,36764,052,48862,819,485
192962,650,70363,478,79265,979,61169,793,01165,475,529
193069,855,43670,211,06968,546,94370,378,83669,748,071
193169,413,04668,877,97567,210,65768,726,80168,557,120
193267,707,59069,359,67569,602,763....

In the next table details of assets are given for September quarter, 1930, to September quarter, 1932.

Assets, 1930-32.

Quarter.Coin and Bullion.Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due, exclusive of Bad Debts.Balances due from other BanksAll other Assets.Total Assets.
1930.££££££
September6,838,8771,107,06251,399,8401,144,5378,056,62768,546,943
December6,862,9381,168,07453,214,6741,606,4347,526,71670,378,836
1931.      
March6,942,0481,067,84553,264,3901,049,3337,089,43069,413,046
June6,926,030895,67452,499,8601,690,1716,866,24068,877,975
September6,930,870709,55350,224,0041,993,5587,352,67267,210,657
December6,872,638699,09350,317,6882,598,0638,239,31968,726,801
1932.      
March6,598,701712,70649,519,6312,095,8298,780,72367,707,590
June6,207,588666,36149,915,0341,281,26511,289,42769,359,675
September5,605,427583,74149,391,4741,502,70312,519,41869,602,763

DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES.

The total amount of deposits, the amount per head of moan population, the total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits, taking the average of the four quarters for oh of the last ten years, are as follows:

Year.Deposits.Advances.
Total Amount.Per Head of Population.Total Amount.Ratio to Deposits.
 ££ s. d.£Per Cent.
192245,913,39435 3 744,768,17897.51
192349,039,48236 18 543,322,24288.34
192449,502,49936 11 1144,559,6619,001
192552,207,20237 14 245,298,95586.77
192650,135,11435 9 349,149,26098.03
192748,294,09633 11 450.032,203103-60
192853,799,22136 19 146,179,46385.84
192957,609,74639 2 349,278,19485.54
193056,425,01437 16 253,657,3979,510
193153,645,01835 8 1152,419,52797.72

A fifty-years table of deposits and advances will be found in the Statistical Summary at the latter end of this volume.

Deposits for each quarter of the year are now given

Quarterly Deposits

Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarters.
192244,866,83947,399,60046.957,70344,429,43445,913,394
192348,659,63752,091,99448.983,79846,422,49749,039,482
i92451,693,55151,606,63247,853,80048,856,01349,502,499
192553,090,84254,551,31651,459,75149,726,89752,207,202
192651,314 67<52,595,02750,010,35646,619,79850,135,114
192748,624,08049,773,41047,302,89847,475,99148,294,096
192852,336,87254,099,20854,224,70453,732,09653,799,221
192958,209,93459,846,14957,367,76655,015,13457,609,746
193057,469,32658,847,38756,150,53953,232,80356,425,014
193154,141,06554,996,12553,466,00351,976,87953,645,018
193253,336,88554,013,30052,138,358....

The following table shows the three different classes of deposits for each quarter from 1927 onwards:—

Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.
Government.
 ££££
19273,095,2713,283,0432,089,1471,774,934
19282,378,5771,956,0751,628,6872,070,690
19292,864,4392,794,2552,799,1401,658,402
19303,466,0865,099,3493,600,1001,859,407
19312,889,1263,826,7382,694,7861,195,845
19321,871,7741,796,5181,429,192..
Not Bearing Interest.
192724,440,77824,741,26321,815,50521,438,335
192824,482,15125,357,14523,344,95322,179,749
192925,736,74326.810,88123,968,29522,728,494
193023,905,82223,225,86420,803,17118,597,839
193118,329,85318,124,16216,590,66116,145,439
193216,998,82216,815,88215,370,152..
Bearing Interest.
192721,088,03521,749,10423,398,24624,262,722
192825,476,14427,589,98829,251,06429,481,658
192929,608,75230,241,01330,600,33130,628,238
193030,097,41830,522,17431,747,26832,775,557
193132,922,08633,045,22534,180,55634,635,595
193234,466,28935,400,90035,339,014..

In the non-interest-bearing class, which is made up of current accounts, the lowest level is generally associated with the final quarter of the year, and the highest with the second quarter, a state of affairs probably due largely to the seasonal influence of sheep—farming among the Dominion's productive activities. Interest—bearing deposits, and the proportion of these to the total, show a marked increase during recent years. Government deposits also are usually at their lowest level in the December quarter, certain classes of taxation receipts mainly coming to hand in the earlier portion of the calendar year.

The table following shows the amount of advances quarterly during the last ten years, together with the ratio to deposits

Quarterly Advances and Ratio to Deposits

Year.Total Advances.Percentage of Advances to Deposits.
March.June.September.December.March.June.September.December.
 ££££    
192246,491,31646,155,93342,994,44843,431,017103.6297.3791.5697.65
192342,521,57141,711,27342,826,72846,229,39587.3880.0787.4399.58
192444,403,52443,975,58743,923,08145,936,45385.9085.0491.7998.36
192543,730,26243,935,77144,975,36048,554,42682.3780.5487.4097.64
192648,285,14048,714,74248,323,94651,273,21194.0992.6296.63109.12
192750,800,80950,753,10748,815,23149,759,644103.88101.44102.52104.26
192846,070,37145,426,95645,119,42448,101,10488.0382.7483.2189.52
192946,359,74447,407,21149,537,99253,807,83279.6479.2286.3597.81
193053,676,77854,063,16252,506,90254,382,74893.4091.8793.51102.16
193154,332,23553,395,53550,933,55751,016,781100.3597.0995.2698.15
193250,232,33750,581,39549,975,215..94.1893.6595.85..

The amount of advances generally attains a maximum in the final quarter of each year.

Comparison with Australia.

Deposits per head of population in banks of issue in each of the Australian States during the second (June) quarter of each of the last five years are shown. Figures for New Zealand are given by way of comparison.

State.1927.1028.1020.1030.1031.
  ££££
New South Wales49—153—054—752—548—5
Victoria53—254—858—852—253—9
Queensland47—348—750—647—245—8
South Australian42—641—539—738—738—5
Western Australia32—134—333—729—230—4
Tasmania31—634—535—734—332—7
Northern Territory50—651—947—437—635—6
Total, Commonwealth New Zealand48—650—051—948—347—0
New Zealand34—638—040—739—538—1

The above figures relating to Australia include deposits (other than those of the Savings Bank Department) of the Commonwealth Bank.

SUMMARY OF ALL DEPOSITS.

The average deposits standing to the credit of depositors in the banks of issue for the week nearest 31st March, 1932, were £53,364,073, and if to this figure be added the deposits in the Post Office and trustee savings-banks at the same date the grand total of bank deposits amounts to £106,751,805, representing an average of £70 0s. 4d. per head of population. In addition to deposits with banks there were at 30th June, 1932, deposits of £3,384,932 with building and investment societies, and of £6,770,333 with trading companies (including persons and firms accepting deposits). These two classes have not been available hitherto.

MONTHLY BANKING STATISTICS

The statistics which follow have been compiled from weekly returns furnished by the six banks of issue. The collection of these returns was initiated in April, 1928, the first return being that for the week ended 9th April. These statistics provide a valuable addition to the financial statistics of the Dominion, furnishing, as they do, more adequate data for the interpretation of changes in the financial, commercial, and industrial structure of the country. The majority of the items, it is true, are already provided for in the quarterly bank statements, although the value of such quarterly data is largely discounted by its infrequency. Bank debits and bank clearings are now items, designed to give some indication of changes in the volume of business. Debits represent the total amounts debited to customers' accounts at all branches, and clearings show the total outward exchanges delivered at all branches.

The tables following show by months a summary of the weekly returns from January, 1931, to the latest month available. The figures represent the average of four or five weekly returns, the period in each case terminating with the week ending on the last Monday of the month. In the weekly returns debits and clearings represent transactions during the week; all other items show the position at the end of the week.

Advances and Deposits

Weekly Average of Four or Five Weeks endedAdvances.Deposits.Ratio of Advances to Deposits.
Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due.Government.Not Bearing Interest.Bearing Interest.
1931.£££££Per Cent.
January 261,072,30353,059,9512,186,17918,198,91032,940,040101.51
February 231,072,69853,306,9442,332,36018,613,86133,017,923100.77
March 301,060,33453,393,8903,896,89718,207,39032,831,05499.12
April 271,011,46753,598,9394,113,60718,376,11532,770,09998.82
May 25915,71052,764,9213,841,20918,098,28733,063,54797.60
June 29787,01351,408,5203,585,66817,943,29433,250,66695.28
July 27726,00850,612,1333,541,96317,400,82333,658,60394.02
August 31707,31149,732,7612,813,12916,477,81234,329,62994 07
September 28695,89450,449,9231,699,68315,921,56434,516,16598.10
October 26699,99951,351,1981,226,68915,725,48534,657,379100.88
November 30707,74450,251,8591,149,50616,119,15434,600,78198.23
December 28687,37749,366,4681,222,92616,598,26034,657,32095.38
1932.      
January 25664,79448,918,0531,567,67416,797,35234,599,19793.62
February 29708,44149,399,5891,790,91417,413,42334,302,31993.55
March 28765,95150,271,2502,276,94816,682,03634,463,34595.54
April 25713,79850,655,7551,857,16317,063,55135,062,25895.16
May 30669,19649,612,8211,799,73616,900,63735,462,76192.83
June 27615,38549,554,5891,731,85016,462,28735,664,70693.15
July 25583,48450,003,0501,267,06315,629,92735,401,11996.73
August 20585,41349,205,9141,561,74715,312,87335,266,30995.50
September 20581,62949,012,9891,425,62915,183,13235,367,77695.42

Debits, Clearings, Reserves, and Notes.

Weekly Average of Four or Five Weeks endedBank Debits.Bank Clearings.Metal Reserves.Legal-tender Notes.
Government.Other.Coin.Bullion.Gross Circulation.Net Circulation.
1931.£££££££
January 263,165,41610,701,4976,871,1446,940,75614,6575,795,0155,728,447
February 235,057,48013,033,0756,855,4896,962,51316,0735,738,2605,678,425
March 306,661,98913,941,0658,164,2066,926,68410,1905,859,2565,801,931
April 273,132,51612,446,2347,008,9106,909,5527,8195,962,6685,911,263
May 254,008,48412,355,9137,235,7226,921,5679,0965,794,0785,745,576
June 203,381,87110,946,9756,483,9116,920,5348,7245,715,4515,671,061
July 273,807,08811,421,3636,400,7836,936,33911,1075,540,2515,496,417
August 314,999,96410,406,3495,960,8846,929,27911,7405,631,4635,587,111
September 283,897,8459,711,6875,364,9206,927,39311,4715,614,5115,570,180
October 263,893,34410,341,9375,778,7356,941,80912,8565,714,3815,672,491
November 303,640,81610,170,4455,871,2156,873,09316,7185,803,2255,759,393
December 285,148,32011,705,6697,043,9056,754,95414,1976,294,0186,253,893
1932.       
January 252,931,33910,237,4345,845,5916,686,75112,8545,793,4845,741,125
February 295,097,12012,224,8157,120,3026,571,93012,9585,874,01415,831,154
March 286,425,32311,459,0516,704,9336,505,9479,1195,957,8275,916,580
April 253,584,13511,045,9955,920,8176,241,56411,3096,022,8575,980,354
May 303,702,31910,854,8526,134,6346,222,94713,2476,088,4696,047,172
June 273,434,59710,175,2075,560,9986,111,97214,5725,936,0135,895,326
July 253,779,46610,099,0955,646,9805,742,35112,4005,927,3365,888,958
August 203,594,4408,793,4395,207,3865,572,09713,4365,953,8635,916,433
September 203,651,7188,780,2575,115,7705,467,41513,5595,869,7655,831,257

TRADE BALANCE AND BANK RESOURCES

The prosperity of New Zealand is so intimately bound up with conditions of external trade that business conditions generally, and consequently banking resources, are susceptible in a marked degree to any appreciable change in the balance of trade. A favourable export season, in which there is a substantial excess of exports over imports, spells a period of prosperity characterized by increased bank deposits and a diminution in advances, the resultant increase in the excess of deposits over advances being roughly on the some scale as the improvement in the trade balance. Conversely, a movement in the trade balance unfavourable to the Dominion tends to produce slump conditions marked by diminished bank deposits and an increase in advances. In these circumstances, the excess of deposits ever advances is reduced, and may (de—pending on the severity of the slump) disappear altogether, to give way to an excess of advances. Here again the movement corresponds roughly to the recession in the trade balance.

This close relationship between trade and banking movements is well brought out in the diagram, which shows progress over the last thirty three years. The trade balance is for each calendar year, and the banking resources represent the average for each December quarter. Notwithstanding an occasional lag in the banking movement, the correlation established is striking.

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES

The overdraft rates and the rates of discount current in the Dominion were £ per cent. higher in 1920 than the corresponding rates ruling prior to the European War. A further increase of J per cent., following a period when importations had been made on a larger scale than at any previous time in the Dominion's history, was made in January, 1921, the demand on banks for money being very considerable. Another aspect of the position was the rapid diminution—from twenty millions to two millions—in the excess of deposits (other than Government) over advances during the closing six months of 1920. It is not surprising accordingly to find a further increase in the overdraft (and the discount) rates as from March, 1921. There was no further alteration in the rate until January, 1923, when the overdraft rate was reduced to 5A per cent., a rate which ruled until April, 1927. As a result of financial stringency, occasioned by adverse trade conditions during 1926—27, both the overdraft and dis—count rates were increased to 7 per cent. in May, 1927. Vastly improved conditions, brought about by the successful export season of 1927—28 and a diminution in imports, were responsible for the reduction of both rates to 6i per cent. in July, 1928; but by February, 1930, conditions had so changed that a return was made to the 7 per cent. rates. This rate remained in force until November, 1931, when a reduction to 61 per cent. was made, followed by a further reduction to 6 per-cent. as from September, 1932.

ISSUE OF NOTES.

The Banking Act, 1908, deals with the issue of notes generally. The Governor—General may empower any bank to issue and circulate notes, subject to the provisions and restrictions contained in the charter or letters patent under which such bank is incorporated; all such notes to be payable in gold only at the office of the bank at the place of issue, and to be a first charge on all assets of the bank.

On the 5th August, 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the late war, an amendment to the Banking Act was passed empowering the Governor-General in Council, from time to time, to mako a Proclamation declaring “that the notes payable on demand by any bank therein named, and then issued or thereafter to be issued or reissued within New Zealand under any lawful authority in that behalf, shall during the period limited by the Proclamation be everywhere within New Zealand a good and legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable.” Conditions governing the issue of such Proclamation are laid down, and the bank may be required to give adequate security that it will redeem the notes in gold on the expiration of the period covered by the Proclamation. Provision is also made for payment by the State Treasury in case of default by the bank. During the period any such Proclamation is in force coined gold must not be exported except with the consent of the Minister of Finance. During the period between 5th August, 1914, and 5th November, 1919, this prohibition also applied to uncoined gold.

Immediately on the passing of the amendment referred to, a Proclamation was gazetted declaring notes of all six banks of issue doing business in New Zealand to be legal tender from the 6th August to the 6th September, 1914. Further extensions were made from time to time, and the present authority expires on 10th January, 1935*.

The private Act of the Bank of New Zealand contains the following clause: “That the total amount of promissory notes payable on demand, issued and in circulation within the Dominion, shall not at any time exceed the amount of coin, bullion, and public securities which shall for the time being be hold by the said corporation within the Dominion of New Zealand or within the United Kingdom, nor three times the amount of the coin for the time being held by the said corporation within the said Dominion.” Similar provision exists relating to the National Bank of New Zealand, Limited

*Subject, however, to earlier termination in the event of a Central Reserve Bank being established.

Securities held in the United Kingdom were included in the amount of reserves against notes by the Bank of New Zealand Act, 1920, which amended the New Zealand Bank Act, 1861. A Proclamation gazetted in August, 1916, under the provisions of section 44 of the Finance Act of that year, had authorized the Minister of Finance to permit any bank to include 6uch securities. By this Proclamation, which is still in force (section 44 of the Finance Act, 1916, being by section 66 of the Finance Act, 1917, declared to continue in force until a date to be fixed by the Governor—General in Council), the limit of note—issue of any bank was laid down as “the total amount of all coin, bullion, and public securities held by that Bank in New Zealand,” the stipulation that the note—issue must not exceed three times the amount of coin hold in the Dominion being in abeyance.

It should be noted that the figures of notes in circulation given in this section relate to liabilities only, and exclude notes held by the issuing bank. Statistics as to the number of notes created and remaining uncancelled are not available.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

In connection with the Post Office in New Zealand a savings-bank has been conducted since the 1st February, 1867. The minimum deposit receivable, except in certain specified cases, is Is., and no interest is given on any sum less than £1 or in excess of £2,000. Interest on sums up to £500 is paid at the rate of 3J per cont. (reduced from 4 per cent. as from 1st August, 1931) per annum, and on sums between £500 and £2,000 at the rate of 30 per cent. for the amount over £500. For some years prior to 1st April, 1928, interest was payable on amounts up to £5,000, and such amounts on deposit at that date continue to bear interest at 3J per cent.

The Postmaster—General may pay deposits to a maximum of £200 to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. This provision, together with another provision whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit after the depositor's death, enables a widow or orphan to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without either delay or cost.

The number of post—offices open for the transaction of savings—bank business at the 31st March, 1932, was 882.

There were 78,674 now accounts opened during the year ended the 31st March, 1932, and 79,627 accounts were closed during the period. The total number of open accounts at the 31st March, 1932, was 877,090, or 58 to every 100 of the population, including Maoris

Year ended 31st March,Number of Depositors at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearExcess of Deposits over WithdrawalsInterest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
  £££££
1923690,79026,682,42727,769,263-1,086,8361,605,52544,360,393
1924710,15729,598,37229,510,32188,0511,649,97646,098,421
1925735,15729,582,89730,413,609830,7121,680,92046,948,628
1926758,15531,833,62232,602,506-768,8841,731,57847,911,322
1927783,82729,456,38330,149,629-693,2461,767,42648,985,502
1928804,72527,611,06630,584,997-2,973,9311,747,15647,758,726
1929828,29627,252,38128,111,940-859,5591,745,05048,644,217
1930852,75728,561,85429,575,994-1,014,1401,806,41449,436,491
1931878,04324,531,56928,063,338-3,531,7691,763,82547,668,547
1932877,09019,463,98525,488,081-6,024,0961,611,04843,255,499
The minus sign (-) represent excess of withdrawals over deposits.

There was a steady increase in the average amount standing to the credit of each depositor up to the 31st March, 10. 1, but a practically continuous fall has been recorded since then. The average open account at 31st March, 1932, was £49 6s. 4d., as against £54 5s. 9d. in 1931.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster—General on account of the Post Office Savings—bank Fund on the 31st March, 1932, represented a nominal value of £43,890,075. Most of this fund is invested in New Zealand Government securities. A summary of the investments is as follows:

 £
In New Zealand Government securities42,079,781
In local bodies' securities938,950
In Government stock of other British countries871,344
 43,890,075

TRUSTEE SAVINGS—BANKS

There are five savings-banks not connected with the Post Office, viz.—Auckland, established in 1847; New Plymouth, 1850; Dunedin, 1864; Invercargill, 1864; and Hokitika, 1866. The total amount to the credit of depositors at the 31st March. 1932, was £10,132,233, representing an average account of £47 4s. 8d. Figures for tea years are as follows:

Year ended 31st March,Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.InterestTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
  £££££
1923110,0774,076,8763,511,038565,838180,4354,663,701
1924117,4424,492,8814,145,848347,033205,8455,216,579
1925124,7314,823,8394,526,652297,187226,3665,740,132
1926135.0745,392,7295,022,121370,608253,6436,364,383
1927151,4075.500,2815.137 088363.193280,5347.008,110
1928166,6945.787,8355.453,091334.744314,5537.657,407
1929180,0156,307,5095,839,660467,849352,8638,478,119
1930193.0846.703 6226 324 762378 860376,5269,233 505
1931204,4676,555,2866,512,46942,817410,2649,686,586
1932214,5176,168,0326,138,77029,262416,38510,132,233

The following table shows the results of the transactions of each of the trustee savings—banks during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1932.

BankNumber of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
*Excess of withdrawals over deposits.
  £££££
Auckland158,5994,015,7503,957,20758,543281,2076,758,038
New Plymouth10,216343,453350,2416,788*20,111503,874
Hokitika1,86339,74941,7702,021*5,364136,125
Dunedin29,594981,907975,4526,45584,6452,057,487
Invercargill14,245787,173814,10026,927*25,058676,709
Totals214,5176,168,0326,138,77029,2621416,38510,132,233

Chapter 28. SECTION XXVIII.—INSURANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—LIFE INSURANCE

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statutory provisions affecting life insurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908, and the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1921-22. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Every life company must deposit with the Public Trustee money or securities of the statutory character to the value of from £5,000 to £50,000. Deposits aggregating £663,525, representing statutory deposits by life-insurance companies, were held by the Public Trustee as at 31st March, 1932.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policy holder by making such funds available only for liabilities arising from life business.

Thelaw bearing on industrial assurance has received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of insurance the premiums must be payable at shorter intervals than three months, and provision is made for its control by regulation. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements

Annual returns of life assurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance. It is form these that the statistical matter following has been compiled.

Of twelve life assurance offices operating in New Zealand at the end of 1930, three only are purely New Zealand institutions-namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, the Provident Life Assurance Co, and the Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand, Ltd.

The Statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in the Dominion.

LIFE INSURANCE.—ORDINARY AND INDUSTRIAL.

During1930 the amount of new business under written increased by £342,094, compared with the previous year's increase of £1,009,208. Although the year's increase is considerably less than that of 1929, it is significant that there was an actual decrease in the whole world business of the companies concerned of £5,246,427. Insurances written off during 1930 were £744,140 in excess of the 1929 figure, as against that year's decrease of £224,084 when compared with 1928. The net result of operations for 1930 was to add £6,795,199 to the amount in force, while the amount for annual premiums payable (£4,034,675) is £249,834 in excess of the 1929 total. During the ten years from 1920 to 1930, the amount in force has increased by £53,562,649, or 92 per cent. The increase in the Dominion's population during the same period was 19 per cent. Ten years' figures are given in the table following.

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
 £££
19218,238,0204,051,60062,690,389
19227,901,1555,372,23565,219,309
192310,067,9804,901,46270,385,827
192411,008,9265,458,93575,935,818
192511,556,0226,091,48081,400,360
192611,769,2906,415,55686,754,094
192712,544,7227,188,59592,110,221
192813,576,8317,612,87898,074,174
192914,586,0397,388,794105,271,419
193014,928,1338,132,934112,066,618

Policies existing at the end of the year represent a rate of 280 per 1,000 of population (other than Maoris) for 1920 and 384 per 1,000 for 1930. The sum assured rose from £48.4 per head of population in 1920 to £77.9 per head in 1930.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.

With the exception of 1926 there has been since 1922 an annual increase in the amount of new business transacted. The 1930 now business represents an increase of £441,259 over the 1929 figure, while the number of policies increased by 133, compared with the previous year's increases of £707,483 in sum assured and 1,211 in number of policies. The amount discontinued during the year exceeded the 1929 figure by £454,144, as against an actual decrease of £270,880 in that year when compared with 1928. A table showing the progress over a period of ten years is given below.

Year.Policies Issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
192119,9266,778,258226,72811,7723,229,942112,765194,34256,738,3491,826,716
192217,6866,376,813210,68014,9104,453,186149,610197,11858,681,9761,887,786
192322,2488,408,585278,77513,6493,951,557134,289205,71763,119,0042,032,272
192423,7869,016,163302,64914,7344,329,561148,403214,76967,895,6962,186,518
192524,3809,435,956318,62616,0914,861,071164,843223,05872,380,4912,340,272
192624,4279,425,686324,34916,3255,018,926172,468231,16076,787,2512,492,153
192724,8319,797,732334,49917,1515,512,913187,813238,84081,072,0702,638,839
192827,03910,826,619371,10017,7845,786,691212,071248,09586,111,9932,797,922
192928,25911,534,102393,68517,4905,515,811194,040258,84692,130,2892,997,567
193028,38311,975,361413,69618,1505,969,955207,937269,07098,135,6953,203,326

The amount in force has been added to by £6,005,406 as a result of (lie year's operations, as against the previous year's addition of £6,018,291.

In the case of now business transacted during 1930 the average sum assured under each policy was £422, and the average premium £3 9s. 1d. per cent., while the corresponding figures for total insurances in force are £365 and £3 5s. 3d. per cent. respectively.

Particulars of policies discontinued during the last five years are contained in the next table, annuities not being included in the numbers shown, which thus do not coincide with these given in the preceding table which includes annuities.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Totals.
Number of Policies.
19261,3862,8094,2277,41043516,267
19271,5173,1054,4477,44358717,099
19281,5343,3224,6527,70052517,733
19291,5743,3874,7437,19754017,441
19301,6893,3294,6047,98849618,106
Sum assured.
 ££££££
1926425,060535,3211,307,8262,579,310171,4095,018,926
1927536,610604,8361,450,8232,689,398231,2465,512,913
1928550,361758,1421,559,6062,679,806238,7765,786,691
1929541,801692,6581,531,3952,496,737253,2205,515,811
1930618,679651,4801,482,9623,006,977209,8575,969,955

Maturities and surrenders have decreased by £41,178 and £48,433 respectively when compared with 1929, while deaths and lapses have increased by £76,878 and £510,240 respectively. The increase in the amount written off by way of lapse is outstanding, especially when it is noted that the 1929 figure was £183,069 less than that for 1928. The total amounts written off represent for 1930 and 1929 6.48 per cent. and 6.41 per cent. respectively of the amount in force at the end of the year immediately preceding.

Reducing the amounts in the foregoing table to a percentage basis, the following result is arrived at:—

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
19268.4710.6626.0651.393.42100.00
19279.7310.9726.3248.784.20100.00
19289.5113.1026.9546.314.13100.00
19299.8212.5627.7645.274.59100.00
193010.3610.9124.8450.373.52100.00

The proportions per cent. of the amount in force at the end of 1929 written off during 1930 on account of the four main causes work out at 0.67, 0.71, 1.61, and 3.26 for death, maturity, surrender, and lapse respectively.

A statement of the income and outage of all the operating in the Dominion, so far as during business only is concerned, further illustrates the increase in business during the last ten years. The ratio management expenses to premium and total receipts is also given.

Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19212,648,7151,661,405987,310286,83316.0010.83
19222,763,7291,839,932923,797282,60315.1310.23
19233,003,1791,871,9711,131,208302,96015.1810.22
19243,115,1422,062,9611,052,181352,18016.3611.31
19253,275,6842,104,6091,171,075377,99416.4111.54
19263,472,5262,137,9451,334,581385,18715.7511.09
19273,616,3672,460,5221,155,845395,24015.3610.93
19283,855,1752,684,3441,170,831419,35815.2110.88
19294,139,9292,655,7671,484,162453,39615.3210.95
19304,495,0002,863,7661,631,234465,45614.7510.35

The excess of receipts over expenditure for 1930 is greater than in any previous year and is £147,072 above the 1929 figure, despite an increase of £207,999 in the total expenditure for the year. With the exception of 1929, there has been a gradual decline in the management expense ratio since 1925.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).
1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.
Revenue.£££££
Renewal premiums2,143,8162,259,8442,397,3842,578,7202,773,720
New premiums301,577313,426359,761381,550381,815
Consideration for annuities29,01822,78132,35744,96745,719
Interest985,3351,019,9221,057,7401,118,8491,289,049
Increase in value of investments1,524........
Other revenue11,2563947,93315,8434,697
Total revenue3,472,5263,616,3673,855,1754,139,9294,495,000
Expenditure.£££££
Claims by death684,894907,124896,226896,0761,040,313
Claims by maturity586,093615,867813,423729,892674,962
Annuities41,08142,38641,75839,00440,904
Surrenders325,337370,310375,489380,737428,907
Cash bonuses29,28948,44146,59150,57672,581
Management385,187395,240419,358453,396465,456
Taxes48,79950,95759,75761,53694,366
Depreciation in investments25,52918,84321,26519,21818,194
Other expenditure11,73611,35410,47725,33228,083
Total expenditure2,137,9452,460,5222,684,3442,655,7672,863,766

New premiums have shown an uninterrupted advance during the period covered by the table, the total increase amounting to 28 per cent., and the total premium receipts have during the same period increased by £852,723, or approximately 37 per cent. The other principal item of revenue—viz., interest on investments, &c.—has risen approximately 38 per cent. The total expenditure during 1930 increased by £207,999, compared with a rise of £355,071 in receipts.

ANNUITIES.

Annuity business has never occupied a very prominent position in the life insurance activities of the Dominion. In 1930, 62 policies were issued for a total value of £4,946, making the average annuity £79 15s. 6d., while the consideration paid amounted to £45,719.

Year.Issued.Discontinued.Policies in Force at End.
Number.Annuities per Annum.NumberAnnuities per AnnumNumberAnnuities per Annum
  £ £ £
1926473,306582,24172545,022
1927432,686522,91671644,792
1928423,806516,65870741,940
1929614,983584,55571042,368
1930624,946533,85471943,460

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.

A summary of the progress of industrial assurance business is given in the following table:—

Year.Policies issuedPolicies discontinuedPolicies existing at End of Year
Numbersum assuredAnnual premiumsNumbersum assuredAnnual premiumsNumbersum assuredAnnual premiums
  ££ ££ ££
192127,7991,459,76284,43717,500821,65850,169162,7995,952,040384,241
192229,4831,524,34291,39919,637919,04957,428172,6456,557,333418,220
192330,5161,659,39599,44219,820949,90561,193183,3417,266,823456,469
192436,7051,992,763120,27323,0191,129,37471,317197,0278,130,212505,425
192538,8822,120,066127,59724,9141,230,40977,782210,9959,019,869555,239
192642,9932,343,604141,17829,0051,396,63088,709224,9839,966,843607,708
192751,0592,746,990167,35434,1591,675,682106,804241,88311,038,151668,258
192851,1622,750,212168,40937,1331,826,187117,468255,91211,962,176719,199
192956,0603,051,937188,53038,2031,872,983120,455273,76913,141,130787,274
193053,6762,952182,30643,0392,162,976136,231284,40613,930,923831,349

During 1930 there was a decrease in new insurances to the extent of 2,384 policies and a total of £99,105, compared with the previous year's increase of 4,898 policies and a sum insured of £301,725. The average sum insured in the case of new policies amounted to £55 and the annual premium to £6 3s. 6d. per cent., corresponding averages for the total policies in force at the end of the year being £49 and £5 19s. 4d. respectively. Discontinuances in 1930 increased by £289,996, as against the previous year's increase of £46,796. Between 1920 and 1930 the number of policies in force has increased by 131,906 (86 per cent.), and the amount held at risk by £8,616,987 (162 per cent.).

A summary of the number of industrial policies and the sums assured written off according to the several causes is now given in the form of a five-years 'table.

YearDeath.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
Number of Policies.
19261,4835,8831,41319,99023629,005
19271,5406,8841,81123,53339134,159
19281,0067,3132,05025,07548937,133
19291,7297,8182,08326,24532838,203
19301,7228,7792,22930,11119843,039
Sum assured.
 ££££££
192648,383139,77872,0011,122,10013,7021,396,030
192751,003177,25090,1021,329,44421,8831,075,682
192853,102200,595113,5151,438,74020,2291,826,187
192961,095211,725117,4111,465,55717,1951,872,983
193062,574260,125117,2381,711,16511,8772,162,979

The amount written off in each year is considerably greater in proportion in the Industrial than in the Ordinary Branch. Whereas in the case of the latter 6.48 per cent. of the amount in force at the end of 1929 became void during 1930. the corresponding percentage for industrial insurance was 16.46. As in the Ordinary Section, the increase in lapses during the year is very marked; the amount written off under this heading being £245,608 in excess of the 1929 figure, as against that year's increase of £26,811.

The lapse rate in the Industrial Branch is very heavy when compared with the Ordinary Branch, the proportions of total discontinuances for the respective sections for 1930 being 79.11 per cent. and 50.37 per cent., while the percentages of the amount in force at the end of 1929 lapsing being 13.02 and 3.26 respectively.

Surrenders on the other hand are considerably less in proportion in Industrial Insurance, the percentage of the amounts in force at the end of 1929 written of! on this account being 0.89, as against 1.61 in the Ordinary Section.

Industrial Assurance.—Income and Outgo.

Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
££££Per Cent.Per Cent. 
1921394,098194,798199,300130,64535.9633.15
1922434,957223,345211,612136,26034.3531.33
1923485,362253,101232,261148,30733.9330.56
1924539,409291,282248,127169,34735.3031.39
1925598,599322,156276,443186,76935.2331.20
1926655,244423,685231,559202,93335.0030.97
1927723,558503,165220,393229,12735.9731.67
1928797,797561,260236,537244,45734.9830.64
1929869,071603,228265,843264,31335.0330.41
1930944,406700,613243,793275,63633.9529.19

It will be noted that there has been a substantial reduction in the expense ratio for 1930, the figure being 33.95 per cent. of premium receipts. The corresponding figure in the Ordinary Branch was 14.75 per cent. The difference is largely accounted for by the high cost of collection of premiums in the Industrial Branch, principally in the shape of renewal commission. In the Ordinary Branch commission (new and renewal) worked out at 7.39 per cent. of the premium income, and in the Industrial Branch at 20.49 per cent. Excluding commissions the ratio of management expenses to total income works out at 11.57 per cent. in the Industrial Branch, as against 5.17 per cent. in the Ordinary.

Industrial Assurance.—Receipts and Expenditure (Excluding Transfers).

1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.
Revenue.£££££
Premiums579,882636,950698,919754,478811,871
Interest70,40282,79296,085110,617128,168
Other Revenue4,9603,8162,7933,9764,367
Total revenue655,244723,558797,797869,071944,406
Expenditure.     
Claims by death110,754128,968138,860152,598191,470
Claims by maturity79,512107,959132,484135,054162,270
Surrenders21,81527,79035,02438,15040,494
Management202,933229,127244,457264,313275,636
Taxes4,1764,9104,7104,44111,633
Depreciation in investments6792461,65524113,527
Other payments3,8164,1654,0708,4315,483
Total expenditure423,685503,165561,260603,228700,613

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS

The balance-sheets of the companies transacting industrial business, do not in every case apportion their liabilities and assets over ordinary and industrial business, for although the legislation in force requires separate statements to be furnished for receipts and expenditure, policies issued and discontinued, &c., no such requirement exists in regard to balance sheets. The figures presented below accordingly refer to both classes of insurance, and, as indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

The aggregate capital and liabilities at the end of 1930, as compared with the two preceding years, were as follows:—

 1928.1929.1930.
Paid-up capital94,554162,097165,128
Life assurance and annuity funds22,951,36423,947,41032,417,873
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds284,478320,098343,001
Claims admitted but not paid180,129155,661146,127
Other liabilities534,304623,324722,292
Totals£24,044,829£25,208,500£33,794,421

The New Zealand assets at the end of each of the five years 1926—30 were as follows:—

Assets1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.
 £££££
Mortgages on property6,040,7546,387,6526,633,7657,010,9397,449,324s
Loans on policies3,440,6013,757,8013,948,1144,121,0004,617,273
New Zealand Government securities6,679,6696,358,5475,904,9325,896,6226,153,307
Securities of other Governments75,57135,00040,00040,00040,000
Municipal and local bodies securities2,863,3883,083,5553,483,4173,748,41911,454,737
Landed and house property866,5101,159,5051,401,0671,404,4441,451,861
Other investments4,6596,3815,95990,55791,715
Loans on personal security6,0378,8508,4746,0163,147
Agents' balances11,0527,32413,8127,7517,810
Outstanding premiums.285,040304,389304,389345,969380,553
Interest accrued,&c.284,811292,847291,515294,710447,458
Cash132,188187,710182,604294,71076,204
Other assets1,609,2361,711,9481,799,1191,946,4421,621,032
Totals22,299,51623,301,50924,044,82925,208,50033,794,421

The abnormal increase of £8,585,921 in the total assets for 1930 would appear to be due in a large measure to the action of certain companies in transferring to their New Zealand branches securities, mainly municipal and local-body, formerly held on behalf of their head offices in Australia.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.

The Life Insurance Department of the Government of New Zealand was founded in 1869, at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities for the insurance of their lives. The institution possesses the unique advantage of being based on the solid principle of State security, payment of all policies being guaranteed by the Government of the Dominion. Industrial insurance is not transacted by the Department.

At the end of 1931 the average sum assured per policy in force was £302, compared with £266 ten years earlier.

The following table gives a synopsis of the activities of the Department for the last ten years in so far as the amount of business transacted is concerned. As in 1922, the effect of the prevailing economic conditions is reflected in the substantially reduced amount of new business underwritten during 1931, the decrease compared with 1930 being £439,873.

Year.New Business.Policies in Force at End of Year.
Number of Policies.PremiumsSum assured.Number of policies.Premiums.Value of Business.
Sum assured.Bonuses.Total.
  ££ ££££
19223,79740,0711,286,60959,487483,73415,995,2351,453,86617,449,101
19234,75448,8151,581,72260,545501,32116,549,4511,357,16117,906,612
19245,14954,1971,718,84261,804522,39117,190,7831,696,38118,887,164
19255,83060,9511,910,01363,775549,95618,008,4021,584,92719,593,329
19265,71060,6091,883,70565,396575,42018,743,3971,475,00720,218,404
19275,57858,0061,791,84566,856595,78019,303,9161,973,43421,277,350
19285,80263,1381,915,46568,562617,64219,974,5812,109,89022,084,471
19295,73562,4141,918,60070,189642,14020,700,0692,265,53922,965,608
19305,78062,1371,946,32271,868665,44721,418,4132,426,62123,845,034
19314,03340,5291,506,44971,075660,39921,472,7612,580,58724,053,348

The total income of the Department for 1931 was £1,143,730—viz., premium income, £662,380; interest and rents (after payment of land and income tax), £463,284; annuity purchase money, £18,066. The total income for 1931 was £29,408 in excess of the figure for the preceding year.

During the year 1931, payments (including bonus additions) to the value of £283,436 were made on account of matured policies and £200,577 was paid out to representatives of deceased policyholders. Expenses of management totalled £54,847 and commission £32,755, making the total expenses £87,602. The ratio of expenses to total income was 7.71 per cent., and to premium income 12.96 per cent.

The total assurance annuity, and endowment funds, apart from a special investment fluctuation reserve of £275,547, amounted at the end of 1931 to £8,568,627, an increase of £319,780 during the year.

The Department's balance sheet on the 31st December, 1931, showed that the total assets amounted to £8,912,858, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the four preceding years for purposes of comparison:—

Class of Investment.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
*Mainly due and overdue premiums and interest, and interest accrued.
 £££££
Mortgages on freehold property2,875,4953,105,3053,365,0333,677,9233,777,109
Loans on policies978,496999,0411,014,9211,073,3981,198,959
Government securities2,205,0102,263,0022,273,1602,198,1602,235,460
Rural advances bonds85,23085,39585,569
Local bodies' securities1,176,3561,089,4961,120,2511.167,6971,179,864
Landed and house property161,474147,520145,421150,017126,584
Miscellaneous assets*177,409190,669207,325203,966264,752
Cash in hand and on current account10,16155,1983,5842,00744,561
Totals7,584,4017,850,2318,214,9258,558,5638,912,858

The rate of interest realized on the mean funds of the Department, after deduction of land and income tax from interest, was as follows:—

 £s.d. £s.d.
19225311192751010
1923568192851010
19235681928599
1924577192951010
192559119305117
1926511119315134

SUBSECTION B.—ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

In terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal contingencies for which policies may be issued are in respect of—

  1. Accident, disease, or mental or physical disability;

  2. Employers' liability under statutory or common law;

  3. Charges under the Workers' Compensation Act taking precedence of encumbrances, mortgages, or charges lawfully existing.

With the huge increase in motor traffic in recent years an important class of policy—viz., motor car comprehensive, has come into existence, and has increased rapidly. Compulsory insurance to cover third-party risks is an important new departure, which is referred to later on in this subsection. Other important classes of accident insurance policies are in respect of plate glass insurance and fidelity guarantee insurance.

A substantial deposit is required to be made with the Public Trustee by any company whose head office is situated overseas. No deposit is necessary in the case of companies incorporated in the Dominion under the New Zealand laws. The amount of the deposit required is dealt with in the next subsection.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1930 was 51, the principal registered offices of the companies concerned being as follows: Great Britain, 20; Australia, 9; Hong Kong, 1; United States, 1; and New Zealand, 20.

The net premium income for 1930 exceeded that of 1929 by £75,420 and the total net income (exclusive of reserve to meet unexpired risks) by £82,729. Claims paid during 1930 were £92,991 in excess of the 1929 figure, while the total expenditure was greater by £99,771. The excess of income over expenditure in 1930 amounted to £190,474, as against the previous year's figure of £213,516.

Year.Number of OfficesReceipts.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other Receipts.Total.Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other Expenses.Total.
 ££££££££ 
192135706,0148,561714,575337,190108,28972,611100,728618,818
192235706,37011,876718,246361,527105,04972,726112,629651,931
192336752,99514,248767,243388,903118,37276,599123,594707,468
192436851,68217,248868,930440,759137,75185,902127,041791,453
1925401,116,46341,5051,157,968550,608188,879116,015124,381979,883
1926461,247,60183,0771,330,678674,133206,591139,502124,8911,145,117
1927471,279,31881,7351,361,053741,760199,743145,704136,4021,223,609
1928491,336,63386,4621,423,095810,277201,726155,400131,6081,299,011
1929511,560,241102,4791,662,720915,502222,260167,955143,4871,449,204
1930511,635,661109,7881,745,4491,008,493214,507174,461151,5141,548,975

As against the increase in premium income must be considered the augmentation in claims, which have shown an even greater proportionate increase.

An interesting review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of ten years are shown in percentages of outgo to income under various heads.

YearRatio per Cent. of
Claims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Total Receipts.
192147.7615.3410.2714.2739.8887.6486.59
192251.1814.8710.3015.9441.1192.2990.77
192351.6515.7210.1716.4142.3093.9592.21
192451.7516.1710.0914.9241.1892.9391.08
192549.3216.9210.3911.1438.4587.7784.62
192654.0316.5611.1810.0137.7591.7886.06
192757.9815.6111.3910.6637.6695.6489.90
192860.6215.0911.639.8536.5797.1991.28
192958.6814.2410.769.2034.2092.8887.16
193061.6013.1110.679.2633.0494.7088.74

The ratio of claims to premiums has increased very appreciably in recent years. The figure for 1930, which is 2.98 above that for 1929, is the highest yet recorded. Management expenses, on the other hand, have evinced a steadily declining tendency, the ratio to premium income for 1930 being 1.16 less than the corresponding figure for 1929, and 9.26 below that of the peak year 1923.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.

In the following table, particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last four years. It will be noticed that there is an apparent discrepancy between the totals of premiums and claims as shown herein and the figures already quoted. This is accounted for by the fact that in order to arrive at the net financial results of the years operations it is necessary to take into account reinsurance transactions and up to this stage of the discussion premiums and claims have been taken at the not figure.

Year.Employers' Liability.Personal Accident.Motor vehicle.Other Forms.Totals.
Premiums.
 £££££
1927583,644151,940518,21774,1431,327,944
1928590,799157,766570,85462,1301,381,549
1929635,657160,180852,63456,9121,705,383
1930629,099157,999890,71056,0411,733,849
Claims.
1927402,02284,626269,53217,101773,281
1928411,75394,906314,58617,226838,471
1929443,96283,669447,11015,653990,394
1930452,87285,512570,45513,2241,122,063

With the exception of motor vehicle insurance there has been a decrease in premium receipts in each class when compared with 1929. It should be explained here that the figures for motor-vehicle insurance, which include risks under the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act. 1928, are on a slightly different basis from the remaining classes and as regards the same class for 1929 in so far as the period covered is concerned. As regards premiums for third party risks, the figures relate to the motor-vehicle registration year ended 31st May, 1931. while claims cover a period commencing with the beginning of the financial year of the respective companies and ending with the 31st May, 1931. This factor, together with the large amount of outstanding claims at the end of the previous year is responsible for the increase of £123,345 in the amount of claims paid for the motor vehicle insurance when compared with 1929.

Reducing the figures for the last three years to a percentage basis, the following results are arrived at:—

Class of Insurance.Claims to Premiums.Premiums to Total Premiums.Claims to Total Claims.
1928.1929.1930.1928.1929.1930.1928.1929.1930.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Employers' liability69.6969.8471.9942.7637.2736.2949.1144.8340.36
Personal accident60.1652.2354.1211.429.399.1111.328.457.62
Motor-vehicle55.1152.4464.0441.3250.0051.3737.5245.1450.84
Other forms27.7327.5023.604.503.343.232.051.581.18
Totals60.7158.0764.71100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

MORTGAGEES INDEMNITY INSURANCE.

The Mortgagees' Indemnity (Workers' Charges) Act, 1927. provides that when mortgages are presented for stamping an additional stamp duty of Is. is to be paid, known as a mortgagee's indemnity fee. The indemnity fees are paid into the Consolidated Fund (up to 1930 they were paid into the now defunct Land Assurance Fund), from which losses incurred by mortgagees through the enforcement of charges under the Workers' Compensation Act are met. A section of the Act definitely absolves the mortgagor from any obligation to insure or keep insured the mortgagee against loss of this nature in respect of any mortgage under the Act.

MOTOR VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS).

The Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third party Risks) Act was passed in the session of 1928 for the purpose of compelling owners of motor-vehicles to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death of or bodily injury to another person.

The payment of the insurance premiums is made annually to Deputy Registrars of Motor-vehicles at the same time as the annual license fee is paid under the Motor-vehicles Act. Owners of motor-vehicles are required to nominate each year the insurance company with which the contract of insurance is to be made, and the contract is deemed to be complete on the payment of the premium.

Rates of premiums, prescribed by regulations, include the following: Trailers. 5s.; motor cycles, £1; hearses and mourning coaches, £1; tractors and traction engines, £1; private motor cars, £1; private motor cars used wholly or in part for the purpose of trade or business, £2; trade motors, 30s.; motor-vehicles used by fire brigades, £2; public motor-vehicles, £7 if designed to seat not more than seven persons, with a varying scale upwards according to seating-capacity.

The liability of any insurance company under any contract under this Act is limited to £2,000 in respect of any passenger in the motor-vehicle concerned, and to £20,000 for all claims made by or in respect of passengers. Otherwise there is no limit as to amount.

The following particulars give the experience of the first three years during which the Act has been in operation. It should be noted that the figures for claims do not represent the amount paid during each year, but refer to accidents happening during each particular period.

Registration Year ended 31st May,Total.
1930.1931.1932.
 ££££
Premiums received235,007242,864233,731711,602
Claims paid and estimated liability in respect of claims outstanding at 31st May, 1932202,327192,541202,753597,621
Ratio per cent. of claims paid and outstanding to premiums86.2979.2886.7583.98

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

In the year 1901 the Government Insurance Department opened an Accident Branch. On the 1st January, 1925, the accident business was transferred to the control of the State Fire Insurance Office. General accident business is undertaken, but the branch was opened more especially with a view to relieve employers of labour of the liability imposed upon them by the Workers' Compensation Act.

A summary of income and expenditure is contained in the following table:—

Year.Income.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other.Total.Claims.Other.Total.
 ££££££
192233,3487,68941,03720,32911,11131,440
192335,2687,71842,98622,40212,56434,966
192439,6138,37347,98624,76413,77338,537
192549,9678,98358,95030,55320,00650,559
192658,34010,19968,53933,85420,35254,206
192765,56010,89576,45538,97221,22860,200
192871,73112,36884,09943,80722,70066,507
192981,35313,34394,69649,85326,77676,629
1930104,93514,861119,79661,04134,22495,265
1931102,06216,316118,37882,56227,211109,773

Premiums during the year 1931 showed a decrease of £2,873, and claims an increase of £21,521. The net surplus for the year's working was £8,605, compared with £24,531 for 1930.

The ratio of claims to premiums for the year 1931 worked out at 80.89 per cent., as against the previous years' percentage of 58.17. The ratio of working expenses to premiums for 1931 was 18.37 per cent., compared with 18.22 for 1930.

The total assets at the end of 1931 amounted to £360,092, compared with £336,024 at the end of 1930. New Zealand Government securities represent 41 per cent. of the total assets, and local authority securities 26 per cent. Reserves and funds, which stood at £303,448 at the end of 1930, have been increased to £312,053.

SUBSECTION C.—FIRE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

In the Dominion's legislation four separate classes of fire insurance offices are distinguished-namely, (1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) British offices similarly established; and (4) mutual fire insurance. associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

The Companies Act, 1908, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum incorporation can be effected only with unlimited liability. Insurance companies established or incorporated overseas require to have a like paid-up capital intact. The transaction of business by such companies is, however, subject to special legislation as set out below. Mutual associations are referred to specially at a later stage in this subsection.

Statistics of fire insurance are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Office. For 1930, statistics were collected from 42 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: Great Britain, 21 & New Zealand, 13; Australia, 5; Hong Kong, I; United States of America, 2.

INSURANCE COMPANIES' DEPOSITS.

Since the passing of the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act in 1922, and its amendment, also in 1922, deposits in cash must be made with the Public Trustee by fire and accident offices.

The actual amounts of the deposits under the principal Act were: British companies in respect of fire insurance business, £15,000; employers' liability business, £15,000; and all other classes of business (except life and marine), £5,000. Foreign companies were required to deposit a sum of £35,000, which covered all classes of business (except life and marine). Overseas companies becoming established in New Zealand after the passing of the principal Act are required to make deposits on a somewhat higher scale than the foregoing viz., British offices £22,500 on account of fire business, the same for employers liability insurance business, and £5,000 in respect of all other classes (other than life and marine). A newly established foreign company must deposit the sum of £50,000, and this covers all classes of business other than life and marine.

A further amendment was passed in 1927 requiring agents operating in New Zealand on behalf of underwriters established abroad to make deposits on the same scale as that ruling for companies.

No deposit is required from a company constituted in New Zealand under the New Zealand laws.

The amount hold by the Public Trustee on the 31st March, 1932, under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act was £1,020,000, excluding interest accrued but not disbursed. Those moneys are invested in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office, and interest is payable to the respective companies.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life policy holders which is not available to other phases of insurance transacted. The amount, of funds (other than life) in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, in excess of 286 millions.

Liabilities.Total Assets.
Overseas Companies.Local Offices.Mutual Associations.
*These figures in the case of mutual associations relate to premium note capital.
 ££££
Paid-up capital Reserves31,366,6723,195,025228,132*34,789,829
Reserves191,283,6394,752,45150,123,126196,086,213
Other liabilities54,352,0651,096,82912655,449,020
Totals277,002,3769,044,305278,381286,325,062
Life funds422,473,004422,473,004
Grand totals699,475,3809,044,305278,381708,798,066

In the following table the figures for the amount of assets in New Zealand under various heads are given for the last three years.

Assets in New Zealand.1928.1929.1930.
 £££
House and landed property973,2351,014,8731,001,524
New Zealand Government securities3,640,4784,105,0484,358,785
New Zealand local—authority securities1,678,1551,731,7041,737,096
Mortgages,&c.334,084330,693311,183
Outstanding premiums279,562328,401387,718
Cash and other assets in New Zealand2,173,3742,387,3212,749,191
Total New Zealand assets.9,078,8889,898,04010,545,497

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.

Looking now at the general progress of fire-insurance business in the Dominion, a comparison of recent operations is afforded by the table below.

The gross amount of insurance cover in force on the 31st December, 1930, exceeded the corresponding figure for 1929 by £11,435,197, while the amount under written during the year was £9,209,256 in excess of the previous year's total. Premiums charged on insurances underwritten increased by £33,561. Return premiums on account of cancellations,&c., totalled £159,415, leaving the net premium income on account of direct insurances at £2,006,913, an increase of £26,701 over the 1920 amount.

——1928.1929.1930.
*Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.
Offices in New Zealand.   
Number of separate companies424242
Number of branches163160161
Number of agencies14,30714,30814,321
Amounts underwritten.   
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£409,742,653£424,156,269£435,591,466
Number of policies representing the foregoing*720,451731,717732,748
Gross amount of now and renewal business underwritten during year*£451,707,795£464,269,172£473,538,428
Number of policies representing the foregoing*775,414788,986791,591
Premiums.   
Total gross premiums charged on business (now and renewal) under written during year*£2,113,049£2,132,767£2,166,328
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten9s. 4d.9s. 2d.9s. 2d.
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£1,951,069£1,980,212£2,006,913
Losses.   
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned6,5496,5596,626
Gross losses£1,343,233£1,122,305£1,077,951
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (now and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.300.240.23
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)68.8556.6853.71
Average loss£205£171£163

The table set out below shows the premium income and the fire losses, together with the percentage of loss in each year.

Year.Premium Income.Fire Losses.Percentage of Loss.
 ££ 
19211,768,416738,63841.8
19221,785,308739,07641.4
19231,780,463796,28144.7
19241,772,9241,046,32859.0
19251,886,290876,35846.5
19261,903,6751,127,14059.2
19271,950,7361,257,51564.5
19281,951,0691,343,23368.8
19291,980,2121,122,30556.7
19302,006,9131,077,95153.7

The amount paid out during 1930 in respect of fire losses shows a reduction of £44,354 compared with 1929. while the ratio of losses to premiums—viz., 53.7, is the lowest recorded since 1925. The number of separate losses with which the several offices were concerned showed an increase during the year of 67, while the average loss per fire was £8 8s. 6d. less than in 1929.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

A statement of the total income and outgo, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross reserve for unexpired risks, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

1928.1929.1930.
Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.
*The gross figures are Inclusive of reinsurance premiums from other offices.
Income.££££££
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at beginning of year927,424015,507932,095018,515977,789615,993
Amount of (Ire premiums receivable during year*2,213,3041,370,7332,252,7301,378,4602,279,7221,400,512
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c.97,69497,694104,695104,695114,301114,301
Rents30,00630,00632,47932,47932,14332,143
Other revenue2,3382,3386756755,8705,870
Totals3,270,7662,116,2783,323,2742,134,8303,400,8252,168,819
Outgo.££££££
Amount of tire losses incurred during year, Including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage and amounts covered by reinsurance1,343,233931,8231,122,305734,2211,077,051707,813
New Zealand Government taxes22,54321,97331,76129,81038,57338,018
Local-authority rates3,3752,8633,0632,4813,0812,004
License fees4,3474,1074,2123.9724,6544,378
Fire Board levies66,578,52,53568,24055,12267,24052,771
Rents25,78723,94424,57022,61123,80521,858
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others266,073147,405205,959146,723259,703138,406
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses240,718220,281232,989211,323239,690221,085
Other expenses of management147,800125,444150,163121,127148,769114,733
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year932,605618,615077,789617,157954,300621,412
Other expenditure3,2403,2405,1575,1574,0734,008
Totals3,056,3892,152,2302,886,2081,049,7042,822,9101,928,046

Heavy fire losses in l928 resulted in an actual deficit of £32,844 on the year's workings; but a comparatively favourable loss experience in 1929 and 1930 produced balances of £183,708 and £246,192 respectively in favour of income. The ratio of claims to premiums works out at 08.0 per cent., 53.3 per cent., and 50.5 per cent. for 1928, 1929, and 1930 respectively. Excluding fire losses, the net expenditure in 1930 was £495 less than in 1929, while the net income was greater by £36,511. It should be noted that these figures are exclusive of reserves to meet unexpired risks.

A summary of the not revenue and expenditure for 1930 of the three classes of offices operating in New Zealand is contained in the next table.

Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.*Claims.Salaries and CommissionsTotal.*
*Excluding reserve to meet unexpired risks.
 £££££
Overseas companies756,097787,240386,131145,416557,534
Local companies626,107744,991309,778145,416557,534
Mutual associations18,30820,59511,9046,77721,375
Total1,400,5121,552,826707,813359,4911,306,634

Under the various heads below will be found the percentage ratio of working expenses to premium income for the years 1926—30.

Items.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Net working expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income40.7041.5342.3040.9339.69
Net working expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to net premium income37.2237.7338.2336.9335.92
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)32.3833.4634.1033.2632.77
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)29.8330.5431.0930.2329.82

Excluding taxes, which in the true sense of the word cannot be termed a working expense, the ratio of working expenses to net premiums showed an increasing tendency during the three years 1926-28. A slight reduction in the principal expenditure items during 1929 and 1930 has resulted in a decrease of 2.61 in the percentage ratio during the last two years. It is contended in some quarters that Fire Board levies are not a working-expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and it is interesting to note that their exclusion from working-expenses on the net figures reduces the 1930 ratio from 39.69 to 35.92 per cent.

FIRES AND LOSSES.

The following table gives figures of fires and losses during each of the last ton years. It should be noted that from 1924 onwards these figures relate to calendar years, and the figures of losses thus differ slightly from those shown elsewhere, which refer to varying periods covered by the accounts of the different offices.

Year.Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings, &c., affectedGross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.

*Included in previous columns. For statistical purposes a conflagration is defined as a fire where three or more buildings are affected.

†On buildings affected.

    ££Per Cent
19213,067663,5654,086,411738,63818.08
19223,353553,6813,686,681739,07620.05
19233,687513,9884,223,264796,28118.85
19244,124414,4054,368,6211,008,74623.09
19254,046284,3404,728,691861,97718.23
19264,628415,0146,249,0241,129,25718.07
19275,029465,3666,555,9881,210,66118.47
19284,972445,2757,661,8931,454,32818.98
19295,064365,3127,060,1321,093,56815.49
19304,863545,1457,058,9181,013,05914.35

The gross loss for 1930 shows a decrease of £80,509 when compared with 1929, the number of separate fires is less by 201, and the number of buildings, &c., affected has decreased by 167.

The next table shows remainder of the Dominion for each of the four principal urban areas and the fires and losses for 1930:—

Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings affectedGross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.

*Included in Previous columns

†On buildings affected.

North Island.   ££Per Cent.
Auckland urban area57546031,256,383109,8278.74
Wellington urban area63996751,635,86698,6976.03
Secondary urban areas5373573814,639116,48314.30
Rest of North Island1,198241,3011,186,007379,29231.98
Totals for North Island2,949403,1524,892,895704,29914.39
South Island.      
Christchurch urban area471480456,05425,9885.70
Dunedin urban area3861394734,88433,8034.60
Secondary urban areas2052214200,44842,07420.99
Rest of South Island72111774590,343198,23433.58
Totals for South Island1,783141,8621,981,729300,09915.14
Anywhere in New Zealand131131184,2948,6614.70
Totals for Dominion4,863545,1457,058,9181,013,05914.35

Compared with 1929, losses in the North Island decreased by £13,198, and in the South Island by £02,709. Substantial reductions have been recorded in the Wellington and Christchurch urban areas, while in Auckland and Dunedin a slight rise has taken place.

The lower loss ratio in the cases of the principal urban areas as compared with the rest of the Dominion is to be expected in view of the greater fire-brigade facilities for handling fires in the larger centres. Companies usually allow this factor to influence the premium required.

The following table shows the amount of fire insurance claims paid per head of population during the period 1920-30, separate figures being given for the various provincial districts and urban areas, and for the North and South Islands:—

North Island.

District.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1926-1930
 s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
Auckland Provincial District17 519 1123 1012 913 417 5
Auckland urban area —13 1015 425 87 810 214 6
Hamilton urban area12 719 513 115 118 111 11
Gisborne urban area30 536 323 99 312 822 3
Remainder20 423 422 918 916 1120 5
Hawke's Bay Provincial District21 1023 320 1121 1125 222 7
Napier urban area18 424 1024 1118 220 319 2
Hastings urban area18 627 911 435 724 323 8
Remainder31 220 423 017 928 224 0
Taranaki Provincial District15 812 921 316 013 915 10
New Plymouth urban area29 1111 319 38 812 316 1
Remainder11 213 321 1118 514 315 10
Wellington Provincial District16 420 425 219 917 019 9
Wellington urban area12 917 434 1025 813 1020 11
Wanganui urban area5012 108 715 89 710 4
Palmerston North urban area36 325 715 317 631 125 1
Remainder19 824 919 613 1020 019 6
Totals, North Island17 319 923 1016 115 618 5
Urban areas.15 017 825 715 013 117 3
Remainder19 1022 121 917 418 419 10

South Island.

District.1926.1927.1928.1929.Gross1926—1930
 s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
Marlborough 'Provincial District25 930 1019 967 723 833 6
Nelson Provincial District12 810 724 214 717 816 0
Nelson urban area23 511 1145 107 518 1121 6
Remainder9 510 217 616 1017 414 3
Westland Provincial District31 941 641 616 712 429 4
Canterbury Provincial District13 811 512 1114 58 612 2
Christchurch urban area10 512 911 412 54 110 2
Timaru urban area6 33 108 934 57 212 2
Remainder20 411 116 512 1115 1015 4
Otago Provincial District13 310 411 66 48 510 0
Dunedin urban area18 112 211 75 107 1011 1
Remainder7 18 011 57 09 28 7
Southland Provincial District7 911 811 511 1018 012 2
Invercargill urban area8 015 910 111 019 1013 0
Remainder7 89 71212 417 011 9
Totals, South Island13 812 814 813 911 313 2
Urban areas13 012 212 910 17 711 4
Remainder14 413 216 718 614 1115 0
Grand totals, Dominion15 1117 120 515 213 1110 6
Urban areas14 315 821 013 211 215 2
Remainder17 818 719 917 917 017 11

During the period covered by the above statement the fire rate in the Dominion per 1,000 of population has increased from 3.10 to 3.28, while the average for the five years works out at 3.33.

Causes of Fires.

From 1924 onwards particulars regarding causes of fires have been obtained from insurance police E. and summarized results for the quinquennium 1920—30 are contained in the following table:—

Cause of Fire.Urban Areas.Reminder of Dominion.Total.
Number of Separate FiresLoss.Number of Separate FiresLoss.Number of Separate FiresLoss.
*Included In various causes from which spread.
  £ £ £
Electricity1,400268,033411134,1801,811402,213
Gas56127,661682,09362929,754
Naked lights62031,97954641,6171,66673,596
Defective chimneys and kindred causes798167,6711,004378,9411,802546,612
Smoking, and careless use of matches1,542160,319608100,6542,150260,973
Sparks from fireplaces3,999144,9141,742194,6435,741339,557
Heating, boiling down2568,121756,66133114,742
Use and misuse of highly in—flammable spirits and materials28798,13423438,096521136,230
Incendiarism and arson16793,7379223,448259117,185
Outside causes.39468,75232557,934719126,686
Other causes13812,092647,61020219,702
Totals, known causes10,1621,081,4135,169985,87715,3312,067,290
Fires spread from other buildings641*160,389607*180,2221,248*340,611
Floating, travelling, and transit risks1,127104,819
Unknown causes.3,7251,555,1094,3731,833,0448,0983,388,153
Totals13,8872,796,9119,5422,999,14324,5565,900,873

In all there were 24,550 separate fires during the period. This does not represent the number of buildings, &c., affected, as a lire spreading to other buildings has been counted as one only. Of the total, 1,127 were on account of floating risks such as motor-cars, and have been excluded from the total of “known” causes. Of the remainder the cause was given in 15,331 cases, leaving 8,098, or 35 per cent. of cases, in which the insurance offices had no knowledge as to the cause of fire. It should also be remembered that in some instances, more especially where a total or semi-total loss was sustained, the actual cause was a matter of conjecture only. These cases, however, are few in number, as the vast majority of total losses are included in the total of unknown causes.

EXTENT OF LOSS.

The following table gives particulars of fire losses in 1930, classified according to the amount of loss. It will be seen that the majority of claims are for small amounts: no less than 50 per cent. of the total number of fires resulting in losses of less than £10. The aggregate loss involved in such fires, however, amounted to less than 1 per cent. of the total.

Loss Category.Number of Separate FiresInsurance Cover on Buildings,&c., affectedAmount of Loss.Average Amount of Loss per FireProportion of Loss to Total Loss.
£ £ £££Per Cent
Under102,4042,045,1169,81240.97
10 and under 255301,020,7047,784150.77
25 and under50252718,2528,857350.88
50 and under 100228491,17016,012701.58
100 and under20030330342,9641424.24
200 and under300200179,38248,1412414.75
300 and under400143145,21149,6813474.90
400 and under500142176,72863,0264446.22
500 and under750256327,907155,25760615.33
750 and under1,000135328,805115,91585911.44
1,000 and under2,000141556,453187,7601,33218.54
2,000 and under3,00033207,28978,9612,3937.79
3,000 and under4,0001186,63037,5603,4153.71
4,000 and under5,00010123,53144,7154,4724.41
5,000 and over15286,409146,6149,77414.47
Totals4,8037,058,9181,013,059208100.00

MUTUAL FIRE—INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

Mutual associations are dealt with by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows at least 100 owners of isolated or farm property to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Such associations effect insurance on the premium note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

In addition to furnishing returns to the Census and Statistics Office, each mutual association (of which there are three in existence) is required to furnish to the Public Trustee a statement of the condition of the association as at. the 31st March in each year. Policies in force as at 31st March, 1932, amounted in the aggregate to £6,310,511. Premiums collected during the year totalled £30,385, while the total income amounted to £33,746. Fire losses amounted to £12,795 and total expenditure to £28,706

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.

On the 4th January, 1905, the State Fire Insurance Office opened for public business with an advance of £2,000 borrowed from the Treasury. At the end of the first year the Office showed an income of £13,135 and a not surplus of £481. From this the progress of the Office may be gauged from the figures for 1931, which show an annual income of £265,503, and assets of over £977,000.

The surplus for the year 1931, after making provision for rebates, reserves, and depreciation and writing down of office promises, was £21,688. The ratio of not losses to net premium income was 52.28 per cent. in 1931 and 40.56 per cent. in 1930.

Year.Net Premium Income.Total Net Income.Net Losses.Accumulated Funds.Assets.
 £££££
1922 … …142,592156,47646,091410,006447,605
1923 … …154,164169,24946,17845S,513493,962
1924 … …165,070190,30060,817499,007530,283
1925 … …176,664207,41856,997568,061604,096
1926 … …197,471233.54579,062623,622661,519
1927 … …207,611243.49698,135670,061707,826
1928 … …21A,634252,094SI,585744,271771,959
1929 … …217,991258,99575,317G21,091G21,091
1930 … …221,910272,21390,001889,494931,577
1931 … …216.007265.503112,932918.182977.477

Exclusive of Government taxes, which amounted to 12.11 per cent., the working expense ratio to premium income in 1931 was 27.05 per cent., and without Fire Board contributions only 23.38 per cent. Comparative figures for 1930 were 9.53, 27.33, and 23.71 per cent. respectively.

FIRE BRIGADES.

The following table gives particulars of fire brigades (including branches) in the Dominion for each of the last five years:—

Year.Stations.Officers.Men.Total Personnel.
19271684482,1152,563
19281714542,1262,580
19291714532,0832,536
19301704512,0972,548
19311734492,1132,562

Chapter 29. SECTION XXIX.—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments of 1911, 1915, and 1922. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with a central Government officer entitled the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general oversight by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was introduced by the Finance Act, 1910, and is now embodied in the National Provident Fund Act, 1926. (Vide Section XXIV.).

LODGES AND MEMBERS.

The table following gives the number of lodges, courts,&c., and of members as at 31st December in each of the last three years.

Name of Order.Lodges.Members.*
1929.1930.1931.1929.1931.1931.
*Incomplete; see below
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Odd fellows24725125633,80834,69034,794
Independent Order of Odd fellows20320620913,40113,57813,322
National Independent Order of Odd fellows333256248230
British United Order of Odd fellows111929792
Ancient Order of Foresters16616516419,77320,04019,746
Ancient Order of Shepherds111393736
United Ancient Order of Druids14614614522,93523,36322,706
Independent Order of Rechabites6868685,0335,2165,239
Order of Sons of Temperance101010506516537
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111155155159
Hibernian Australasian Catholic Benefit Society6970683,8703,9353,824
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia151414943997984
Grand United Order of Odd fellows131517606647585
Isolated friendly societies6568663,7373,6483,406
Working-mens clubs161717
Independent Order of Good Templars111111
Specially authorized societies161616......
Totals1,0511,0631,067105,154107,167105,660

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure,&c., are required by law, but it would appear that many lodges do not comply with the requirements. For the year 1931 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 912 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 105,600 at the end of the year, as compared with 906 lodges and 107,167 members for 1930. During the year 6,109 members were admitted by initiation, &c., and 1,109 by clearance; 874 died, 1,121 left by clearance, and 6,730 by arrears, &c.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS.

In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence:—

Year.Deaths of Members.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.Deaths of Members' Wives.Per 1000 Members at Risk.
19277767.983203.29
19287567.563413.41
19298688.393633.51
19308217.703343.13
19318748.183723.48

The number of members sick during 1931 was 21,886 representing 22.0 per cent. of members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1931 aggregated 231,038 weeks, equal to seventy-three days per sick member, and sixteen days for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

The total funds of the societies and branches as at the 31st December,1931, amounted to £4,277,715, made up as follows:—

Year.Deaths of Members.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.Deaths of Members' Wives.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.
19277767.983203.29
19287567.563413.41
19298688 393633.51
19308217.703343 13
19318748.183723.48

Dividing the total funds by the number of members at the end of the year capital per member is £40 9s. 9d. There has been amount a continuous increase in the accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies during the ten years 1922-31. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the increase over the period amounting to 26 per cent., in spite of increase in membership of 31 per cent.

Year.Total Funds.Average Capital per Member.Year.Total Funds.Average Capital per Member.
 ££ s. d. ££ s. d.
19222,593,69232 2 219273,526,71735 17 11
19232,747,95232 12 619283,728,08736 18 9
19242,955,34033 16 019293,927,43337 7 0
19253,136,23734 6 719304,130,11738 10 9
19263,337,68335 6 8'19314,277,71540 9 9

Of the total funds of £4,277,715 held as at the 31st December, 1931, £3,664,770 was invested at interest; land and buildings were valued at £459,367; and goods, furniture, and regalia at £23,672; cash on hand amounted to £96,764; and other assets were valued at £33,136.

Year.Total FundsFunds invested at Interest.Proportion of Funds invested.
Mortgages on Freehold Property.Government and Municipal Debentures.Deposited with Banks.Other Investments.Total.
 ££££££Per Cent.
19273,526,7172,704,594211,63589,79117,8523,023,87285.74
19283,728,0872,854,741212,50596,34320,8453,184,43485.42
19293,927,4333,002,848199,75996,12440,2533,338,98485.02
19304.130,1173,186,455220,72381,80451,3853,540,36785.72
19314,277,7153,275,007244,15989,83955,7713,664,77685.67

The figures of Sick and Funeral Funds and of interest earnings thereon during 1931 are given for each order in the following table:—

Order.Total Worth of Sick and Funeral Funds as atInterest earned during 1931.Average Rate per rent.
1st January, 193131st December, 1931
 ££££
M.U.I.O.O.F.1,210,8891,265,92660,7255.03
I.O.O.F.303,895322,17216,3255.35
N.I.O.O.F.5,9225,7942474.31
B.U.O.O.F.6,4076,6903735.86
A.O.F.705,405713,63235,3535.11
A.O.S.1,4311,411846.09
U.A.O.D.844,498880,66444,6345.31
I.O.R173,943171,8338,3884.97
O.S.T.27,10428,2891,4125.23
S.D.T.12,18312,1706575.55
H.A.C.B.S.99,578104,2724,8524.88
P.A.F.S.A.45,65847,4122,3075.08
G.U.O.O.F.2,9183,2661454.80
Other societies56,77859,7683,3986.01
Totals3,496,6093,623,299178,9005.15
Sick and Funeral Funds, 1931.
Receipts.£Expenditure.£
Members' contributions186,42Sick pay152,549
Interest and rent152,549Funeral donations39,733
Repayments by central body178,90Contributions and levies to central86,058
Other receipts11,846Other expenditure39,425
 ——— ———
 £444,455 £317,765
 ——— ———

Members' contributions averaged £1 15s. per member, and interest and rent receipts amounted to £1 13s. 7d. per member, reckoned on the mean number of members for the year. Sickness benefits paid averaged £6 19s. 5d. per member sick, or £1 8s. 8d. when averaged over all members, while funeral benefits represented 7s. 6d. per member.

Chapter 30. SECTION XXX.—BUILDING SOCIETIES.

The law relating to building societies incorporated in the Dominion is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908, which is a consolidation of legislation most of which has been operative since 1880. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must before registration be certified to as conforming to legal requirements by a revising barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. No stamp duties are payable on any instruments or documents made under the Act.

Building societies are afforded all the powers of an ordinary mortgagee, and where a mortgagor makes default in payment of moneys the society may exercise the usual power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Office. The dates upon which the societies close their accounts vary considerably within the year, but the figures given below may be taken as corresponding approximately to the financial years ended on the 31st March.

By an Order in Council of 7th June, 1932, made under section 51 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act. 1932, the maximum interest on deposits with building societies was fixed at 3 per cent. per annum for the savings-bank department (if any) and from 3 to 4 per cent. on fixed deposits, according to period of deposit.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES.

The number of societies in existence in 1930-31 was 94. Of these, 51 were permanent and 43 terminating, the latter being comprised of 199 groups. Of recent years there has been considerable growth in permanent building societies, which numbered 37 in 1920-21 and 35 in 1910-11. Terminating societies have declined numerically, being 41 in 1920-21 and 53 in 1910-11, but their activities as measured by the number of groups (116 in 1920-21 and 71 in 1910-11) have extended fairly rapidly.

SHARES.

A synopsis of the extent to which investments have been made in building society shares during the last five years is contained in the table next presented:—

1926-1927.1927-1928.1928-1929.1929-1930.1930-1931.
Investing Shares.…     
Number of shares…245,763256,228280,182296,669312,817
Members holding…59,02154,53456,27757,17655,970
Aggregate value…£2,518,082£2,668,059£2,983,357£3,234,759£3,585,468
Capital Shares. …     
Number of shares …210,527392,287469,980487,145513,094
Members holding…3,1694,2984,3664,5764,758
Aggregate value…£789,088£9S8,503£1,108,910£1,175,249£1,243,846

The average value in 1930-31 of each investing share paying periodic subscription was £11 9s. 3d., as compared with £10 3s. 4d. in 1925-26, and of each capital share £2 8s. 6d., as compared with £3 15s. 4d. five years ago, A comparison (1930-31) of the distribution of share money and the number of holders of shares between permanent and terminating societies yields the following results:—

Permanent.Terminating.Total.
Investing Shares.……   
Number of shares.……107,924144,893312,817
Members holding.……13,79342,17755,970
Aggregate value.……£1,565,097£2,020,371£3,585,468
Capital Shares.……   
Number of shares.……513,094513,094
Members holding……4,7584,758
Aggregate value……£1,243,840£1,243,846

Of the total aggregate value of both investing and capital shares, amounting to £4,829,314, 58 per cent. is held in permanent societies and 42 per cent. in terminating societies. On the other hand, the number of members holding shares in permanent societies is only 31 per cent. of the total, the terminating societies' shareholders representing 69 per cent. It should be pointed out, however, that one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

For several years up to and including 1929-30, building societies experienced an increasing demand for money available for household property, as will be seen from the figures in the table below, which reflect the extent of advances made to shareholders.

1926-1927.1927-1928.1928-1929.1929-1930.1930-1931.
Receipts.£££££
Investors' subscriptions and capital shares625,556718,881762,557741,627766,364
Advances repaid…781,856737,943859,7961,026,8661,063,098
Deposits…1,442,7241,697,5361,874,0912,157,6772,238,896
Interest…212,212232,631264,291299,711322,024
Other receipts…143,079,212122,896111,148237,039218,088
Total receipts…3,205,4273,509,8873,871,8834,462,9204,608,470
Payments.     
Withdrawals…328,942360,212365,966506,574431,465
Advances…1,170,3441,347,9741,406,5751,515,0401,452,108
Expenses of management…54,03056,97359,82763,65165,915
Deposits repaid…1,422,2351,451,3631,700,9461,859,8872,212,798
Interest, dividends,&c.237,614263,559304,019567,338455,778
Total payments …3,213,1653,480,0813,837,3334,512,6904,618,064

LOANS AND BORROWERS.

The numbers of loans and borrowers, both of permanent and of terminating societies, are as follows:—

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total.
Borrowers.Amount.Borrowers.Amount.Borrowers.Amount.
  £ £ £
1926-19277,0413,497,4916,0861,907,38113,1275,404,872
1927-19287,8994,099,1056,0291,995,77113,9286,094,876
1928-19298,5824,486,2826,5822,216,19815,1646,702,440
1929-19309,3634,948,2657,0962,382,64516,4597,330,910
1930-19319,9995,528,7947,6532,523,09217,6528,051,886

Since 1925-26 there has been an increase of 5,631 in the number of borrowers and of £3,065,075 in the amount borrowed. Permanent societies show the greater advance. The average amount borrowed for each of the last five years was:—

Class.1926-1927.19227-1928.1928-1929.1929-1930.1930-1931.
 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
Permanent societies496 14 6518 18 9522 15 0528 9 10552 18 8
Terminating societies313 8 1331 0 7336 14 1335 15 6329 13 9
All societies412 0 10437 0 10442 0 0445 8 0456 2 11

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The liabilities and assets of building and investment societies for each of the last five years are as follows:—

Liabilities.

yearTo Shareholders (Including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits).Deposits.To Bankers and other CreditorsTotal Liabilities.
 ££££
1926-1927…3,960,2941,436,423353,0995,749,816
1927-1928…4,402,6651,684,276421,2006,508,141
1928-1929…4,899,0851,856,434400,4067,155,925
1929-1930…5,288,5572,104,003439,7277,832,287
1930-1931…5,778,7382,296,376484,1228,559,236

ASSETS.

yearAdvances on Mortgage.Other Investments and Assets.Cash in Hand and at Bank.Total Assets.
£££££
1926-1927…5,404,872194,404150,5405,749,816
1927-1928…6,094,876236,420176,8456,508,141
1928-1929…6,702,440241,642211,8437,155,925
1929-1930…7,330,910323,069178,3087,832,287
1930-1931…8,051,886314,824192,5268,559,236

Chapter 31. SECTION XXXI.—MORTGAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

UNDER the Property Law Act a “mortgage” is defined as including a charge on any property for securing money or money's worth; and “mortgage-money” means money or money's worth secured by a mortgage. Under the Land Transfer Act “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing—

The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt;

The repayment of future advances, or repayment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise;

The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge;

The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent-charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act, and take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property re-registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge 011 the land.

Property That May be Mortgaged.

Any land covered by the definitions of “land” in the Property Law Act, 1908, and the Land Transfer Act, 1915, may be mortgaged. Where, however, property is subject to restrictions upon alienation, these restrictions usually apply to prevent such property being mortgaged. The following are the main instances in which mortgage of property is forbidden by law:—

Family homes registered under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

Maintenance-moneys under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

Inalienable life annuities (Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910).

Various pensions (Pensions Act, 1926).

Property subject to restraint upon anticipation, unless by consent of the Supreme Court.

Property subject to restraint upon alienation in accordance with section 24 of the Property Law Act. 1908.

An infant's property, by the infant (Infants Act, 1908, sections 12 and 13).

Redemption.

A memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage debt and operates as a deed of reconveyance of the estate and interest of the mortgagee in the mortgaged property “to the person for the time being entitled to the equity of redemption”; but the mortgagee may execute a deed of reconveyance “if he thinks fit and the mortgagor requires it.” The Public Trustee is empowered to receive mortgage-moneys on account of absentee mortgagees, and in the case of a deed of mortgage to execute the necessary memorandum of discharge. A mortgagor may redeem in the following cases:—

Before the due date, on payment of interest for the unexpired term of the mortgage. At the due date, in accordance with the provisions of the mortgage.

After the due date, upon giving three months' notice in writing or paying three months' interest in lieu of notice, except where the mortgagee is or has been in possession or has taken steps to enforce his security, in which case the mortgagor may redeem at any time upon payment of all moneys due.

After default and before sale by the mortgagee. If the mortgagee has entered into possession of the mortgaged land or part of it, the mortgagor loses his right of redemption after twenty years from the date of the mortgagee's entering into possession, or after twenty years from the last written acknowledgment of the mortgagor's title or of his right to redeem.

The Property Law Act abolished what was formerly known as the doctrine of consolidation of mortgages. Where a mortgagor is liable under more than one mortgage, he may now pay off one mortgage without being called on to pay off any mortgage or mortgages on property not comprised in the mortgage he is paying off.

Rights of Mortgagee.

Under New Zealand law a mortgagee has no power of foreclosure in respect of realty. The following, however, represent his principal rights:—

He is entitled to the custody of the title-deeds of the property mortgaged.

He may sue on the personal covenant contained in the mortgage-deed.

He may enter and take possession. This right is exercisable either by actually entering upon the land or a part of it or by bringing an action for possession. If there is a tenant whose rights are binding on the mortgagee, the latter can give notice to the tenant to pay the rent to him, and this will be equivalent to taking possession

He may assign his interest, either absolutely or by way of submortgage.

He may sell, either under the express powers (if any) in the mortgage-deed, or under powers implied by statute, if these have not been negatived in the deed.

Instead of selling, as above, a mortgagee entitled to exercise his power of sale may apply to the Registrar of the Supreme Court to conduct the sale. The mortgagee must state in his application the estimated value of the land, and the date of the sale must be not less than one month and not more than three months from the date of the application. Ho may bid at the sale and become the purchaser of the land, but in such case the amount paid for the land shall not be less than the value of the land as estimated. If it is, the mortgagor must be allowed in account the full amount of the estimate.

MORTGAGORS RELIEF.

The special economic conditions prevailing in the Dominion led to the passing of the Mortgagors Relief Act during the early session of 1931. This Act forbids a mortgagee to exercise certain of the usual powers of a mortgagee (except where the property has been abandoned by the mortgagor), to execute any judgment, decree, or order of Court, or to file a bankruptcy petition against the mortgagor, otherwise than as laid down in the Act.

Before proceeding to do any of the acts referred to, the mortgagee must give the mortgagor notice of his intention to do so. In respect of a notice of intention to exercise any power or issue any process of execution in regard to chattels, the mortgagor has seven (now fourteen) days, and in respect of the other matters referred to, one calendar month, in which to make application for relief to the Supreme Court, or, where the principal moneys concerned are not in excess of £2,000, to a Magistrate.

The Court is empowered to order that the mortgagee shall not before a date specified in the order do any act or exercise any power, save by leave of the Court on account of a breach by the mortgagor of any terms or conditions imposed by the Court. The specified date must be not more than twelve months after the application for relief, but an extension for not more than twelve months may be granted on a further application. No appeal may be made from an order of the Supreme Court or of a Magistrate.

The Act came into force on 18th March, 1931, and remains in operation until a date appointed by Proclamation, or until 31st December, 1933, whichever date is the earlier. Any proceedings pending at the date of cessation may be continued and completed, and any orders in force shall continue to the date specified in the order, but may not be extended. The Mortgagors Relief Amendment Act, passed at the end of the second session of 1931, extended the powers of the Court for the relief of mortgagors, and provided for the appointment of Mortgagors' Liabilities Adjustment Commissions to assist the Court. Where farm lands are concerned, the Court has power to postpone due dates of payment of principal or interest, to reduce rates, or to remit arrears of interest.

The Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1932, inter alia, enables the mortgagor to apply for relief notwithstanding that the mortgagee has not given notice of his intention to exercise powers of sale, &; extends to all classes of mortgage special provisions formerly applicable only to farm lands; enables relief to be granted from obligations under personal covenants; extends the period of seven days in the case of chattels to fourteen days; and enables relief to be granted to lessees by way of remission or reduction of rent.

REDUCTION OF INTEREST.

Part III of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act (passed 10th May, 1932) had as its purpose reductions in rates of interest payable by mortgagors and in rents and certain other fixed charges, commensurate with reductions in salaries and wages made by Part I of the Act and by the Finance Act of 1931.

The term “mortgage” for the purpose of the Act has a wider meaning than in ordinary usage. It “means any deed, memorandum of mortgage, instrument, or agreement whereby security for the payment of moneys or for the performance of any contract is granted over land or chattels or any interest therein respectively”; and includes company debentures, mortgages of life-insurance policies, agreements 'for the sale and purchase of land, and customary hire-purchase agreements within the meaning of the Chattels Transfer Act, 1924.

The Act does not apply to mortgages (not being for a fixed term, expired or unexpired) securing the repayment of principal moneys repayable on demand, nor to mortgages executed after 1st April, 1932.

The reduction in the rate of interest is 20 per centum, and it applies to all such interest accruing on or after 1st April, 1932, and before 1st April, 1935. There is provision, however, that the rate of interest shall not be reduced below OA per cent. in the case of chattel-mortgages, nor 5 per cent. in the case of other mortgages except in the case of income-tax free company debentures to which section 171 of the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923. is applicable, where the minimum is 4½ per cent.

Provision is made for an appeal for relief by an aggrieved mortgagee to the Supreme Court or to a Stipendiary Magistrate (if the annual interest does not exceed £300) on the ground that the existing rate of interest was fair in the circumstances, or that adequate concessions had already been given, or that the reduction would cause undue hardship.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.

A table is given showing the amount represented by mortgages registered and discharged during each of the last twenty years.

Year ended 31st March,Mortgages registeredMortgages discharged.Year ended 31st March,Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
 ££ ££
1913…22,597,47813,293,906192326,031,59614,579,767
1914…21,352,69512,726,773192437,862,41922,246,512
1915…19,382,21311,276,289192541,123,96629,733,883
1916…22,463,29712,802,549192647,093,78033,958,144
1917…21,056,87412,394,603192739,979,68129,233,329
1918…18,120,92411,614,517192833,190,51923,998,840
1919…19,007,28611,040,897192933,559,93225,269,613
1920…48,442,90023,086,746193039,841,76528,338,643
1921…66,960,43429,464,132193130,609,66620,057,939
1922…34,789,32413,234,365193213,463,62810.123,495

The sum secured by mortgages registered in 1931-32 is the lowest since 1905-06.

Although affording a valuable index of the movement over the period, the figures cannot be accepted as indicating the amount of indebtedness incurred by way of mortgage. Duplicate registrations are included, the extent of the duplication not being available prior to 1929-30; furthermore, the figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness. On the other hand no amount is shown as secured in a proportion of cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances, &c. in addition there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not registered; and stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the statistics.

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. Moreover, in the case of table mortgages, the whole amount remains on the register till the last instalment of principal is repaid.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.

The total amount for which mortgages were registered, both under the deeds-registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the last five years is given in the subjoined table.

In addition to a total of 16,304 mortgages which represent the net aggregate of £13,410,581 for 1931-32, there were 2,720 mortgages in which no amount was shown as secured.

Mortgages.—Total Amount Registered.

District.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
 ££ ££
Auckland…10,125,7419,688,28110,752,2818,438,7223,834,204
Poverty Bay…960,7811,052,985937,980628,197406,614
Hawke's Bay…1,860,3792,043,1562,373,7751,976,284989,341
Taranaki…1.645,5981,919,1302,334,1011,527,284638,822
Wellington…9,058,7829,104,79011,401,8608,463,3593,356,832
Nelson.…393,411430,594609,512497,919322.408
Marlborough…411,475515,254499,782479,637218,170
Canterbury…5,014,8474,881,7336,161,2364,867,8891,967,237
Otago.…2,473,9732,523,6292,943,1902,261,4521,133,394
Southland…1,118,9581,219,4991,598,6501,279,365507.889
Westland…126,574180,881229,398189,55888,717
Gross totals…33,190,51933,559,93239,841,76530,609,66613,463,628
Duplications…972,621401,21953,047
Net totals38,869,14430,208,44713,410,581

All of the eleven registration districts show marked decreases in the value of mortgages registered during 1931-32, as compared with the previous year, the aggregate decrease for the whole Dominion being £16,797,806.

MORTGAGES UNDER EACH REGISTRATION SYSTEM.

A distribution of the registrations according as to whether the mortgage was registered under the deeds system or the Land Transfer Act is now given for the last three years.

District1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.,
Deeds RegistrationLand Transfer.Deeds RegistrationLand Transfer.Deeds RegistrationLand Transfer.
 ££££££
Auckland…2,189,5898,562,6921,550,067'6,888,655664,5673,169,637
Poverty Day…4,000933,9801,300626,897406,614
Hawke's Buy…1,2502,372,5251,0001,975,284989,341
Taranaki…85,6242,248,4773,5381,523,746638,822
Wellington…230,70611,171,15443,1938,420,1613,356,832
Nelson45,234564,27860,707437,21215,002307,406
Marlborough…39,810459,9721,260478,3771,500216,670
Canterbury…6,661,2368554,867,0341,967,237
Otago …626,8732,316,317481,5351,779,917196,412936,982
Southland…9721,597,6781,279,365507,889
Westland…229,398189,55888,717
Totals…3,224,05836617,7072,143,46028,466,206877,48112,586,147

Of the gross total of £13,4G3,628 registered in 1931-32, £12,580,147, or 93 per cent., came under the Land Transfer Act. The proportion, which had altered very little over a number of years, is now increasing, consequent on the passing of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.—CLASSIFIED BY AMOUNT.

Of the net total of £13,410,581 registered for the financial year 1931-32, mortgages up to £500 in value represented 18 per cent. of the total value registered, from £501 to £1,000 23 per cent., from £1,001 to £5,000 37 per cent., and above £5,000 22 per cent. The following table gives the number and amount in each registration district according to the sum advanced:—

District.£500 and under.£501 to £1,000.£1,001 to £5,000.Over £5,000.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
Auckland2,601719,4571,233915,5138501,636,84380562,391
Poverty Bay14137,9855443,1024279,22713246.300
Hawke's Bay411111,405249181,200143332,93932363,797
Taranaki406110.419209152,716173345,287530.400
Wellington2,025510,096901677,9485651,173,12290995.666
Nelson32582,44113499,1094280,592460,266
Marlborough8419,0833023,5733374,5018101,013
Canterbury1,618397,662577434,683310679,12352455,769
Otago1,249309,224447322,845186382,60514118,720
Southland483117,111212144,31197192,123754,344
Westland12830,1064329,8911228,720....
Gross totals9,4712,444,9894,0893,024,8912,4535,005,0823052,988,666
Duplications51,71532,53214,000544,800
Net totals9,4662,443,2744,0893,022,3592,4525,001,0823002,943,866

In addition to the foregoing, there were 2,720 mortgages registered for which no amount was shown. Excluding these, the average advance for each mortgage registered was £825, as compared with £962 in 1930-31.

MORTGAGES ON URBAN AND RURAL SECURITIES.

Figures are available in the case of Land Transfer registrations showing for each registration district the amount advanced on urban and rural properties. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages registered under the deeds system, but bearing in mind that the latter constituted in 1931-32 less than 7 per cent. of the total it will be evident that the figures given approximately indicate the character of the securities. The distinction is between “town and suburban” and “country” holdings, but information is not always available to enable a strictly accurate classification to be made. Generally, however, town and suburban mortgages are regarded as such if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs and include also mortgages secured on small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. Mortgages classified as town and suburban are secured on areas averaging about a third of an acre in extent, as compared with an average area, in 1931-32, of some 334 acres in the case of “country” securities.

The value of mortgages on country property registered in 1931-32 was £1,043,419 more than that on town and suburban property. In point of numbers 62 per cent. of the mortgages referred to town and suburban areas, and 38 per cent. to country properties. The average amount secured per acre on rural holdings was £2 19s. 10d., as against £1,427 in the case of town and suburban properties. The average amount of each mortgage on country property is £1,001, as compared with £525 on town and suburban holdings.

Mortgages Registered Under the Land Transfer Act, 1931—32.

District.Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount secured.Number.Area.Amount secured.
Auckland2.6031,3721,377,762,241570,7681,791,869
Poverty Bay16996103,676151161,819302,938
Hawke's Bay626202450,140327113,770539,201
Taranaki417137187,06551998,703451,757
Wellington2,8108691.682,331,220358,3671,674,501
Nelson31475143,953238149,915163,453
Marlborough916664,2594117,122152.413
Canterbury1,898512846,3201,05333,4741.120,917
Otago1.305399614,774481225,282322,208
Southland548273240,863423131,338267,026
Westland1454560,2176016,40128,500
Totals10,9864,0465,771,3640.8072.276,9596,814,783

A table showing information for each of the last ten years is also given.

Mortgages Registered Under Land Transfer Act, 1922—23 TO 1931—32.

Year ended 31st MarchNumberArea.Amount secured.
Town and Suburban.CountryTotalTown and SuburbanCountryTotal
  Acres.Acres.Acres.£££
192827,4387,4044,172,0544,179,4589,544,79111,819,04321,363,834
192432,6378.8193,249,65615,541,66415,930,46331.472,12731.472,127
192535,217126,24.066,69016,294,62917,778,01034.072,63934.072,639
192640,418204,302,6584,428,87818,033,25421,783,94239,817,196
192738,5577,9854,004,8564,012,84117,475,12717,290,50315,258,697
192834,2027.3413,626,9373,634,27815,633,14213,773,80529,406,947
192934,7967,4364,303,8584,311,29415,432,01115,026,60430,458,615
193038,8628,0524,206,5984,214,65018,936,21917,68i,48836,617,707
193132,3296,6693,689,5113,696,18014,262,91914,203,28728,466,206
193217,9324.4062,276,9592,281,0055,771,3646,814,78312,586,147

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED

Of the gross total of mortgages released in 1931-32, £9,516,148 was under the Land Transfer Act and £607,347 under the deeds-registration system. The corresponding figures for the previous year were £18,868,846 and £1,189,093 respectively.

The total amount of mortgages discharged for the last three years is as follows:—

District.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £
Auckland9,6457,004,5456,7764,892,6874,2562,669,765
Poverty Bay664884,224443561,279252285,034
Hawke's Bay1,7382,050,9991,0801,153,408621532,786
Taranaki1,8341,861,7831,4041,293,003719522,159
Wellington7,8927,810,7676,8416,194,4193,6922,914,405
Nelson789383,567621338,033471247,423
Marlborough399499,370261354,029139190,016
Canterbury4,9294,110,8063,7332,870,1262,2481,432,853
Otago3,2722,355,9182,4321,454,0611,607853,454
Southland1,6971,286,1741,300876,748734419,485
Westland19990,49015570,14612556,115
Gross totals33,05828,338,64325,04620,057,93914,86410,123,495
Duplications39,65021,248487,110
Not totals33,05528,328,99325,04420,056,69114,86010,036,385

MONTHLY REGISTRATIONS AND DISCHARGES.

Monthly figures of registrations and discharges are regularly published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. The gross totals for each month from January, 1931, to September, 1932, are as follows:—

Month.Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
1931. £ £
January1,336877,892974678,683
February1,8531,326,5591.271928,839
March2,1711,431,5821,4901,098,816
April1,5981,409,780966832,562
May1,9091,444,9931,4931,150,227
June1,8811,328,4831,5321,058,550
July2,0681,392,2651,6251,067,471
August1,7541,139,0961,461937,553
September1,6061,256,1531,327853,284
October1,8731,216,3111,419892,393
November1,393795,6311,207725,692
December1,5621,083,1881,222898,780
1932. £ £
January831621,417642453,182
February1,297818,957974566,935
March1,266957,354996687,166
April1,145850,882955753,364
May1,210664,5911,025623,643
June1,232806,3741,088876,006
July1,342906,4211,102809,012
August1,392950,4301,115674,714
September1,324996,277992812,217

RATES OF INTEREST.

Classified according to the various rates of interest, and excluding duplicate registrations, the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered during 1930-31 and 1931-32 were:—

Rate per Cent.1930-31.1031-32.
* Including State advances and rural intermediate credits.
 ££
1/2..100
1..1,115
2310..
2 1/2200120
2 3/4 1/4..4,400
315,324330
3 1/4..2,300
3 1/36,000..
3 1/29822,462
420,05536,818
4 1/4328..
4 1/222,97670,784
4 3/42001,059
51,251,114943,995
5..4,000
5 1/44,2656,205
5 1/2740,783741,708
5 3/4128,92020,300
69,584,0724,036,054
6 1/4309,506169,529
6 3/10..3,000
6 1/25,152,4352,109,654
6 2/3..1,200
6 3/427,6878,690
73,119,9991,196,265
7 1/434,650..
7 1/2537,819335,769
7 3/44,9001,350
81,226,633413,086
8 1/2139,50145,920
8 3/41,000..
9236,55671,573
9 1/23,4901,020
10537,966117,360
11250..
121,554700
121/21,600..
13..350
15..590
15 1/2..750
208131,757
30300..
3755..
4875..
6040..
Unspecified*7,036,0833,113,315
Totals30,208,44713,463,628

The great bulk of the money raised by way of mortgage bears interest at rates varying from 0 to 7 per cent., the 6-per-cent. class actually showing the largest amount, followed by 6½ per cent. The average rate of interest on mortgages registered during each of the last twenty years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Average Hate per Cent.
19135.76
19145.82
19155.76
19165.74
19175.80
19185.84
19195.84
19205.75
19215.89
19226.42
19240.38
19256.30
19266.22
19276.47
19286.46
19296.46
19306.35
19316.25
19326.28

But little variation is shown during the period from 1913 to 1921. The year 1921-22, however, witnessed a jump to 6-42 per cent., coinciding with the financial stringency associated with the post-war trade depression. The peak of 6-57 per cent. was reached in the following year, after which there was a gradual downward trend to 1925-26. The rise after 1925-26 is more apparent than real, and is probably due mainly to the fact that commencing with 1926-27 State Advances mortgages are all treated as unspecified (the rate of interest is generally not shown in the mortgage registration), whereas formerly in some districts they were included as unspecified and in others according to the known interest-rate. There has been a definite fall in the average rate since 1928-29, with a very slight rise during 1931-32.

MORTGAGES AND LAND VALUES.

In the returns of land, which are required by law to be furnished annually to the Commissioner of Taxes by all owners of land of an aggregate unimproved value in excess of £500, provision is made for showing (for mortgage-exemption purposes) particulars of amounts owing by the taxpayer at noon on the 31st March, secured on the land either by registered mortgage or by agreement to purchase. Although this source of information does not cover all mortgages (owing to exemptions and to neglect to furnish returns in certain cases), nevertheless most informative figures on the question of the incidence of mortgages in conjunction with such matters as area, unimproved value, and location (i.e., urban or rural) are disclosed. For the purposes of the mortgage statistics land is classified into three types-viz., rural, urban, and mixed. In practice it is necessary to subdivide each of these into two on account of the fact that in a proportion of cases returns are not furnished. The six types shown in the statistics are:—

For the purposes of the mortgage statistics land is classified into three types-viz., rural, urban, and mixed. In practice it is necessary to subdivide each of these into two on account of the fact that in a proportion of cases returns are not furnished. The six types shown in the statistics are:—

  1. Cases where returns furnished—

    1. Country or farming lands;

    2. Town lands or business-sites

    3. Partly country and partly town lands.

  2. Cases where returns not furnished—

    (4) Country or farming lands;

    (5) Town lands or business-sites

    (6) Partly country and partly town lands

In the case of mixed country and town lands where 75 per cent. or over of the unimproved value is represented by country or town lands (as the case may be), the whole has been so classed. The group “partly country and partly town lands” covers only those cases where neither country nor town lands represent 75 per cent. or over of the unimproved value.

The statistics given in the various tables which follow are for the tax year 1029-30, the mortgages, area, and unimproved value relating to the position on 31st March, 1929. In the two years succeeding these statistics were not compiled.

The first table summarizes the statistics according to each of the six types, distinguishing also between cases where the amount of unimproved value was under or over £15,000, the limit of the mortgage exemption.

Mortgages, 1929.—Summary by Type.

Type, and Amount of Unimproved Value.Number of Returns.Total Area.Unimproved Value.Total Mortgages.
  Acres.££
1. Under £15,00040,54718,022,535116,202,68098,505,054
Over £15,0001,3035,735,47337,031,31316,885,122
Totals41,91023,758,008153,233,993115,390,176
2. Under £15,00020,410190,37636,336,82427,582,279
Over £15,000583102,35622,704,3199,850,983
Totals20,993292,73259,041,14337,433,262
3 Under £15,000894327,0572,003,4581,817,946
Over £15,00053115,2871,953,405573,446
Totals947442,9444,556,8632,391,392
4. Under £15,0005,8791,765,7099,894,4161,216,826
Over £15,000143534,9043,706,846234,601
Totals6,0222,300,67313,661,2621,451,427

The foregoing figures show the extent to which returns are not furnished. Out of 76,977 cases covered by the statistics, returns were not furnished in 13,127 instances, or 17 per cent. of the total. The unimproved value in these 13,127 cases aggregated £22,224,474, or 9 per cent. of the total unimproved value, but the mortgages covered (ascertained from other sources) amounted to only £2,201,463, or 11 per cent. of the total. The discrepancies are duo to the fact that those not furnishing returns include both owners of freehold unencumbered and owners with mortgages but with unimproved values in excess of £15,000, where the mortgage exemption ceases. Unfortunately the position is further complicated by neglect to furnish returns in a proportion of cases where the ordinary exemption equals or exceeds the mortgage exemption, and even in cases where it does not and where additional exemption would have been secured had the return been supplied. It seems, however, reasonable to assume that for holdings under £15,000 for which no returns wore supplied the amount of mortgages will not be greatly in excess of that shown under the respective headings, having been ascertained from other sources.

If for holdings over £15,000 in types 4, 5, and 6, the proportions ruling between unimproved value and mortgages in the corresponding types 1, 2, and 3 respectively were applied, the total of mortgages would be increased on this account by only £1,700,000, making (as at 31st March, 1929) a total of £159,000,000 for lands covered by the land-tax requirements.

For a continuation of this summary aide the 1932 Year-Book for a fully detailed statement vide Statistical Report on Prices, Wages for 1929.

Chapter 32. SECTION XXXII.—BANKRUPTCY.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the Bankruptcy Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of previous enactments), and the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in eases where the liabilities do not exceed £300.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of £6 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in the case of a debtor's petition. Not less than £30 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

Immediately on a debtor's petition being filed or a creditor's petition being adjudicated on, the Registrar of the Court gives notice to the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy, in whom all the property of the bankrupt thereupon vests. The bankrupt must hand over his books to the Official Assignee, make out balance-sheets, give inventories of his property and debts, and generally assist in the realization of his property. The Assignee may summon the bankrupt before himself, or before a Magistrate, to be examined on oath. The Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, forbids (save with the consent of the Court, on the application of the Official Assignee) the publication of a report of any examination of a bankrupt before the Assignee or of any matter arising in the course of such an examination.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding-up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application, which must be made within. four months after adjudication, may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee or a creditor.

UNDISCHARGED BANKRUPTS.

Section 14 of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, provides for the annual gazetting of the names, occupations, and other particulars of all persons who were adjudged bankrupt since 31st March, 1927, and who have not obtained an order of discharge, or whose order of discharge was suspended for a term, or was subject to conditions remaining unfulfilled. The number of undischarged bankrupts under this section at 31st March, 1932, was 2,818.

TRANSACTIONS IN BANKRUPTCY.

The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last five years was as follows:—

Year.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by CreditorsCases in which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Order* of Discharge were suspended.
1927729138228844
1928677129130839
1929579108128555
1930607113220842
1931723125226740

The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover private assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by Official Assignees. Certain statistics of private assignments are now available, and details of these appear at the end of this section.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities and assets, but there is usually a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realized by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors. It is the two latter sets of figures that really gauge the extent of financial embarrassment suffered in a community in a time of trade depression.

It should be understood that in the following table the figures in each column refer to all transactions under the respective heads during the year, the amounts realized by Assignees and paid in dividends and preferential claims relating partly to the current year's bankruptcies (many of which, however, are not disposed of during the year) and partly to previous bankruptcies.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid In Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
1922690344,861126,145834,35663,009
1923674368,673124,641668,92565,667
1924670279,602118,641703,99574,878
1925653235,37798,648471,02880,187
1926752236,915102,899585,68771,515
1927867331,363108,850679,47372,388
1928805236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,65591,180502,11254,759
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185

A similar classification by districts for the year 1931 is given below:—

District or Sub-districtNumber of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by political Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid In Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
Whangarei3317,6764,07129,4832.453
Auckland13266.81021,834205,6278,419
Hamilton8632,26614,672104,6657.819
Gisborne257,1571,84613,4961,613
Wairoa106198134,568744
Napier2012,2691,66014,4631,559
Dannevirke42.4351,0499,1041,579
New Plymouth3736,2483,50443,6982,011
Hawera333,1642,52621,1622,136
Wanganui4167.8137,115173,7704,648
Taihape162.34773510,885259
Palmerston North4711.8315,65933,8982,608
Pahiatua54.0165035,826285
Totals848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185

The table following shows for each of the last ten years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the average dividend paid.

YearAverage Debts proved per Estate.Proportion of Dividends to Debts.Year.Average Debts proved per Estate.Proportion of Dividends to Debts.
19221,2097.55192778410.55
19239929.8119289528.95
19241,0501084192973110.91
192572117.0219301,0618.29
192677912.2119311,229606
The total payments in 1931 made from assets realized were-£
Dividends to creditors (excluding preferential and secured claims)55,341
Preferential claims (rents, wages,&c.)7,844
Secured claims9,824
Government commission8,192
Costs of actions, solicitors' and supervisors' fees6,136
Expenses incurred in carrying on.'estates6,500
Other charges4,640
Total£98,477

Balances in bank to the credit of estates aggregated £40,457 on 31st December, 1931, an increase of £10,073 during the year.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the number of bankrupted with various amounts of liabilities:—

Liabilities.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Under £502122212521
£50 and under £1008175589055
£100 “£250225225220185235
£250 “£500177160153170195
£500 “£1,000123168152147176
£1,000 “£2,000119948580122
£2,000 “£5,0005933247046
£5,000 and over282411924
Not stated2........
Totals867806687780848

Liabilities in the bulk of failures do not exceed £1,000, the number under this amount, in 1931 being 032, representing 75 per cent. of the total.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS.

The following table shows in summarized form the occupations of those adjudged bankrupt in the last three years:—

Class of Occupation.1929.1930.1931.
Fishing and trapping344
Agricultural and pastoral96126160
Forestry11129
Mining and quarrying664
Processes relating to minerals11..
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products744
Processes relating to metals, tools, jewellery,&c311824
Makers of ships, boats, conveyances.&c131620
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress8612
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco26715
Processes relating to wood, &c., n.e.i.7105
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography316
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals68108123
Transport and communication536259
Commerce and finance152164199
Public administration, clerical, and professional232628
Entertainment, sport, and recreation9127
Personal or domestic service272741
Dependent on public or private support141422
Indefinite occupations129156106
Total687780848

Of the 1931 total. 307 were employers of labour, 313 were working on their own account but not employing labour, and 228 were working for wages.

PRIVATE ASSIGNMENTS.

Official bankruptcies, as explained earlier, do not comprise all financial failures. In order to present a more complete picture of this phase of economic life, the bankruptcy statistics have been supplemented since 1928 by the collection of data relating to private assignments. The statistics cover all operations arising out of deeds of assignment made under section 167 (2) of the Stamp Duties Act, 1923.

If private assignments be added to bankruptcies, the total number of failures in 1931 was 1,16(5, made up of 848 bankruptcies and 318 assignments (excluding 6 cases where assignors subsequently became bankrupt). The corresponding total for 1930 was 1,023.

The table following shows private assignments during 1931. The column for assets realized covers only the proceeds of realization in respect of 1931 assignments fully realized.

District or Sub-district.NumberAssets.Liabilities.Assets realized (completed estates).
Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.
*Includes twenty-three estates for which no returns received.
   £££££
Whangarei51315,49130,98013,80129,38711,106
Auckland284142,960101.50845,536120,43622,766
Hamilton794.01913,3505,12217,6083,090
Gisborne236122804,1333.24790
Wairoa..1..2,500..4.446..
Napier127955,0222488,497160
Dannevirke122,6441.0223,2872.225443
New Plymouth927,6416.1945,0659,6133,248
Hawera345,2745,3355,3776.1494,547
Wanganui533,84212,2334,01211,3291.944
Palmerston North856,9003,09510,3413,6204,211
Pahiatua1..544..757..373
Masterton..2..23,763..16,137..
Wellington252419,67648,98923,14754,22710,176
Blenheim11633495910653377
Nelson111,084501,2658501,084
Reefton1..255..1,055..145
Greymonth1154668,2055,2672,099
Hokitika116,9003,2809,8502,8505,267
Christchurch15279,77387,30018,18772,1425,275
Ashburton1..1,256..4,756..1,174
Timaru665,70322,2877,76423,4104,733
Oamaru311,9951,6144,16411,0941,813
Dunedin121513,63875,43819,60671,5818,934
Invercargill4112,03925,0202,69428,7851,285
Totals140178*150,188488,383185,332497,82289,325

Assets of the 295 estates for which returns were received were valued at £638,571, and the liabilities were estimated at £683,154. Assets realized in completed estates represented 48 per cent. of liabilities.

Classification of Amount of Liabilities.

The following table classifies estates assigned during the last four years according to the amount of liabilities:—

Liabilities.1928.1929.1930.1931.
££    
50 and under100..311
1002501091315
25050028183938
5001,00053264868
1,0002,00056325378
2,0005,00036394268
5,000 and over..12112327
Unspecified..11342423
Total..206172243318

Forty-one per cent. of the specified estates in 1931 show liabilities below £1,000. In the case of official bankruptcies the corresponding figure was 75 per cent.

Occupations of Assignors

The occupations of assignors in broad classes wore as follows—

 1928.1929.1930.1931.
Agricultural and pastoral1191116
Forestry......3
Mining and quarrying..1....
Processes relating to minerals..1..1
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products3..63
Processes relating to metals, tools, jewellery, &c.9738
Makers of ships, boats, conveyances, &c.3..26
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress5151113
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco6269
Processes relating to wood, &c., n.e.i.4276
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography2..32
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals25293448
Transport and communication10111210
Commerce and finance11277126164
Public administration, clerical, and professional461112
Entertainment, sport, and recreation......3
Personal or domestic service8979
Dependent on public or private support11....
Indefinite occupations3245
Total206172243318

No fewer than 217 of the assignors in 1931 were employers of labour,90 were working on their own account, and 11 only were working for wages.

Chapter 33. SECTION XXXIII.—WEALTH.

STATE ASSETS.

A STATEMENT compiled by the Treasury and showing the value of State assets which may be set 0ff against the public debt is now included in the Financial Statement each year. The latest statement, showing the position as at the 31st March, 1932, is here reproduced.

Estimated State Assets, 31st March, 1932.

Cash and investments—
Cash in the Public Account and in the hands£££
of officers of the Government871,160  
Less liabilities outstanding1,839,247  
  Dr. 968,087 
Investment of cash balances 5,570,021 
Post Office Savings-bank Reserve Fund 1,000,000 
Bank of New Zealand shares (nominal value) 2,109,375 
Public Debt Redemption Fund21,725,645  
  29,436,954 
Sinking funds accrued—   
State Advances debt  2,080,783
State Coal-mines7,990  
Westport Harbour loans261,828  
Samoan loan22,392  
Nauru and Ocean Islands Sinking Fund Account65  
Electric Supply Sinking Fund Account62,059  
  2,435,117 
Loans and advances outstanding—   
Mining purposes37,370  
Local bodies' inscribed debt (annuity value of interest receivable)716,964  
Samoan loan (less sinking fund)148,808  
Repatriation advances outstanding211,999  
Discharged soldiers' mortgages and property £ held14,513,304  
Less amount included in Public Debt Redemption Fund10,500,000  
State Advances—Mortgages and property held, less sinking funds and investments included elsewhere40,195,417  
General purposes relief—Advances outstanding32,609  
Rural intermediate credits-Advances outstanding400,000  
Revenue earning and trading accounts—   
   45,756,471
Railways (capital. cost, including unopened lines and value of assets taken over from provinces, less capital written off)59,050,726  
Telephones and telegraphs (value of assets) 10,383,503 
Electric-power supply and development (capital cost) 11,554,265 
Westport Harbour-works (value of assets) 472,275 
Lighthouses and harbour-works (capital expenditure) 1,303,850 
Tourist and health resorts (capital expenditure) 678,831 
State coal-mines (value of assets) 185,153 
Kauri-gum (trading capital) 9,647 
Nauru and Ocean Islands (purchase price of rights) 565,040 
   84,203,290
Lands and forests—   
Crown lands (estimated value, including settlement£ £
lands, Native lands, and education reserves)31,230,811  
Land-drainage (capital invested)1,932,263  
Irrigation and water-supply (capital expenditure)1,006,492  
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement (capital expenditure) 747,489 
Samoan Crown Estates (value of Dominion's interest) 684,661 
Howard Estate 84,895 
State forests (estimated value of forests, reserves, plantations, and nurseries) 37,382,995 
Indirectly productive expenditure—   
Public buildings (including school buildings) 16,222,819 
Roads (including roads on Crown lands and main highways) 27,842,066 
Quarries (acquisition and working) 9,743 
Development of mining (capital expenditure) 881,065 
Immigration (capital expenditure) 3,314,905 
Total  £283,871,645

In general, the State assets shown represent actual public property. As, however, the expenditure by the State on roads, immigration, and the development of mining is reflected in the value of property (both public and private), it is preferable to omit these items when considering the value of public property, the total of which thus reduces to £252,000,000.

It may be here stated that, although much of the expenditure of counties, boroughs, town districts, and road districts has been in respect of the construction of streets, roads, and bridges, these items are not included as assets of the respective bodies under the next heading.

ASSETS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The form of return in use for the collection of statistics of local governing authorities provides for particulars of cash assets and an estimate of other assets being supplied. The figures in respect of the latter are far from complete, no assets apart from cash assets being included by some local authorities, while in other cases no value is assigned to reserves. Nevertheless the following total as at 31st March, 1931, may be taken as an approximate though somewhat conservative estimate of the position—

Class of Local Authority.Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).
 ££
Counties1,429,3131,958,819
Boroughs5,902,70429.346,543
Town districts91,538584,206
Road districts35,742178,812
River districts54,486277.754
Land-drainage districts.74,09066,794
Electric-power districts2,544,37812,899,574
Water-supply districts1,0342,430
Urban drainage districts216,2661,055,637
Urban transport districts278.0583,699,835
Local railway district1,052197,700
Gas-lighting district12,155166,698
Rabbit districts28,76717,389
Fire districts32,011571,878
Harbour Boards1,492,82315,480,732
Totals12,194,41766,504,801

The foregoing figures are exclusive of sinking funds, which at 31st March, 1931, amounted to £9,323,461. The inclusion of sinking funds, as in the following table, which shows the nature of the assets, brings the total assets of these classes of local authorities to £88,022,679

 £
Cash assets12,194,417
Sinking funds9,323,461
Halls, libraries, offices, sundry premises, furniture3,552,651
Electrical-works17,719,600
Gasworks1,438,162
Tram way-works5,735,630
Railway-works172,442
Wharves, quays, slips, docks, dredges, boats, tugs, sheds,9,065,173
Drainage, sewerage, and water-supply systems11,671,045
Reserves, parks, gardens, recreation-grounds, cemeteries,3,037,440
Endowments3,733,731
Reclaimed land3,867,829
Workers' dwellings, road men's cottages316,306
Sundry plant, tools, stocks, and materials2,604,940
Other and unspecified2,989,852
Total£88,022,679

Hospital Boards, which are not included in the foregoing figures, had assets (excluding outstanding fees and subsidies) of approximately £5,000,000 at 31st March, 1931, bringing the total for all local bodies to £93,000,000.

PUBLIC WEALTH.

In arriving at the aggregate public wealth of the Dominion, as distinct from private wealth, it is necessary to take into account the fact that of the total indebtedness of local bodies at the 31st March, 1931, £6,000,000 was owing to the General Government. The approximate public wealth of the Dominion based on the foregoing statements of assets would thus be £252,000,000, plus £93,000,000, minus £6,000,000, making a net total of £339,000,000.

PRIVATE WEALTH.

Estimates of the private wealth of the Dominion are arrived at on the assumption that the wealth per head of the living is approximately equal to that left by the average person dying. The fact that the younger and more numerous members of the population do not possess as much accumulated wealth as the older members, taken in conjunction with the fact that the death-rate varies with age, renders it necessary for this purpose to divide the population into quinquennial age-groups. The average wealth of persons dying within any one age-group being known, the average wealth of living persons belonging to that age-group is assumed to be identical, and an estimate of the total private wealth of the Dominion is arrived at by weighting the average wealth of persons in each age group by the number of persons in that group.

The average wealth of deceased persons is obtained by a consideration of the estates certified for stamp duty. The number of estates dealt with in any period, however, is usually equal to about one-third only of the total deaths registered during that period; and as most persons leave some estate, however small, it is necessary to make some allowance for estates which have not passed through the Stamp Duties Office. It should be noted in this connection that estates under £1,000 escape estate duty, and if under £500, succession duty, though many estates of a lower value than the figures indicated are passed for probate or letters of administration. A fixed allowance is made for unrecorded estates, ranging from £30 for males and £10 for females for the age-group 15 to 20 years to £150 for males and £50 for females at ages 35 and over. No allowance at all is made for estates of persons under 15.

To obviate fictitious results due to the infrequency of very large estates in the returns, combined with the lapse of time between death and the certification of the estate, it is necessary to base the estimate on the experience of a series of years. On the other hand, movements in values render it undesirable to take a very long period, and the New Zealand estimate is based on the average of the last five years available.

In a time of rapidly moving values, even a five-year average will give incorrect results unless allowance is made for the movement. Based on the estate and death figures for the quinquennium 1927-1931, the aggregate private wealth estimate for the Dominion at the end of 1931 works out at £720,000,000, of which £525,000,000 represents the wealth of men and £195,000,000 that of women. But values at the end of 1931 are known to be much lower than during the average of the five years, and an adjustment is necessary.

A basis of adjustment is found in the movement of share values, which were 22 per cent. lower in December, 1931, than over the average of the period, and it seems reasonable to accept this figure as a rough approximation of the average fall in real-estate values. It should be remembered, however, that an appreciable proportion of the estates left by deceased persons is in the form of insurance policies, bank deposits, Government bonds, to which the 22 per cent. fall is not applicable. In the absence of a definite figure, it seems that the deduction to be made is in the neighbourhood of one-sixth of the 720,000,000 above referred to. The estimate of aggregate private wealth at the end of 1931, on the basis of values then ruling, therefore becomes £600,000,000, which is equal to £413 per head of all population, excluding Maoris, and £651 per head of population aged 20 and over.

It is obvious that estimates of private wealth based on the probate system are approximate only, owing to the various factors involved. Reference has already been made to the fact that part of the wealth of deceased estates consists of insurance policies. In the probate returns the maturity value of the policy is taken, whereas among the living the average surrender value of policies in force is much below the maturity value. Against this, however, is the fact that pensions and annuities enjoyed by the living do not enter into deceased estates, where there is also a pronounced tendency towards conservatism in the valuation of personal property for death duty purposes. Further, a not inconsiderable amount of property is disposed of before death by way of gift, and thus does not appear in the probate returns.

Any attempt to allow further for the effect of the various items referred to would probably only result in a spurious accuracy on a subject in regard to which all that is possible or even desired is a reasonably close approximation. The inevitable shortcomings of the system should not be overlooked, however, particularly in making comparisons between New Zealand and other countries.

It should be explained that the computation of private wealth relates to the population exclusive of Maoris. The inclusion of Maoris would not affect the per caput rate to any extent, but would involve an addition of 4 or 5 per cent. to the total. An addition of 4 per cent. to the aggregate figure previously given for 1931 would bring the estimated private wealth of the Dominion to £625,000,000.

A table is now given showing the number of estates finally passed during 1930 and 1931, classified according to amount. Estates of Maoris are here included.

Amount.Number of EstatesAggregate Net Value of Estates
1930193119301931
£ £  ££
Under 5002,2221,990446,378415,571
500 and under 1,0001,027951739,372695,708
1,000 and under 2,0008988731,291,9131,259,700
2,000 and under 3,0004294251,053,0091,044,417
3,000 and under 4,000227253787,971883,834
4,000 and under 5,000183140818,021625,457
5,000 and under 7,5002572271,584,2801,395,584
7,500 and under 10,0001281231,110,5671,049,859
10,000 and under 15,000128981,566,5311,212,725
15,000 and under 20,00061541,043,319934,302
20,000 and over128866,587,6803,333,649
Totals5,6885,22017,029,04112,850,806

The table below shows for the period 1927 to 1931 the total number of estates, classified according to age of deceased and amount of estate.

Age.Under £500.£500 to £999.£1,000 to £1,999.£2,000 to £2,999.£3,000 to £3,999.£4,000 to £4,999.£5,000 to £7,499.£7,500 to £9,999.£10,000 to £14,999.£15,000 to £19999.£20,000 and over.Total.
Under 52....................2
5 and under 104....................4
10 and under 1512..1..........1....14
15 and under 2043111................55
20 and under 2520536211312..111272
25 and under 30263874935121111414
30 and under 3530497381686614....480
35 and under 404211441052817886444749
40 and under 4548521712562221526188210990
45 and under 5058031023010651374022207111,414
50 and under 55690368311130875279173013231,800
55 and under 607644363961881027591484914402,203
60 and under 6582950848622012588123686228642,601
65 and under 70878525486293164112145767232782,861
70 and under 759145585882841871191899582421003,158
75 and under 809235525302901541201689683541113,081
80 and under 8571043438517812998145858639932,382
85 and under 90418263234151965685565219431,473
90 and under 951578185372115372012922496
95 and over42151489683523115
Unspecified30611481432517381713720681
Totals8,9504,7564,1662,0381,2058261,19262958527462425,245

Of the total number of estates finally passed during the five years 1927 to 1931. 54 per cent. were of a value less than £1,000. The number of estates of a value of £5,000 and over was 13 per cent. of the total of the total number of estates finally passed during the five years 1927 to 1931. 54 per cent. were of a value less than £1,000. The number of estates of a value of £5,000 and over was 13 per cent. of the total; of £10,000 and over, 0 per cent.; and of £20,000 and over, 2½ per cent.

AN ESTIMATE OF NATIONAL WEALTH.

The public wealth of the Dominion has been estimated at approximately £339,000,000. and the private wealth, including that of Maoris, at approximately £625,000,000. In the probate figures used as the basis of computation of private wealth, deductions are made on account of debts, mortgages, and other charges against property. As, however, these in general will rank as assets when estates to which the charges are owing are in their turn passed for probate, the general effect is negligible, except in so far as such items as-State advances and debts owing overseas are concerned. The State advances outstanding are included in the public-wealth figure.

In the case of the public wealth the figure given practically represents gross assets, no deduction having, of course, been made on account of indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing bodies. Were the whole of this indebtedness owing outside the Dominion, no deduction on this account would be necessary for the purpose of the present computation, which is merely to ascertain an approximation of the wealth of the Dominion, without taking account of the fact that there are external charges against that wealth. In arriving at the sum of public and private wealth, however, it is necessary to make allowance for the indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing bodies within the Dominion, this being included in the private-wealth estimate.

Of the gross public debt at the 31st March, 1932, £118,000,000 was domiciled in New Zealand, and of the gross debt of local governing bodies (other than Hospital Boards) a year earlier £40,000,000 was domiciled in the Dominion, exclusive of the £0,000,000 borrowed from the General Government, allowance for which has already been made in the estimation of the approximate public wealth. Of the Hospital Boards' debt of £1,450,000, it may be assumed that £1,000,000 was domiciled in New Zealand.

To arrive at an estimate of the national wealth the sum of £159,000,000 requires to be deducted from the aggregate of the public and private wealth figures previously given, the result being:—

 £
Approximate public wealth339,000,000
Estimated private wealth625,000,000
Total964,000,000
Less public and local-body debt domiciled in Dominion159,000,000
Estimated national wealth£805,000,000

It appears scarcely necessary to recapitulate reasons why the estimate given can be regarded at best as a rough approximation only. No practicable, system has yet been devised that will permit of a reliably close estimation of national wealth being arrived at, and the difficulties in this respect are enormously increased during a period of changing values, such as have been experienced during recent years.

VALUE OF LAND HOLDINGS

The bulk of the wealth of the Dominion is represented by land and improvements thereon, particulars of the valuation of which are given in Section XXVI of this book. Further information concerning the value of land, with particular reference to its utilization and its relative distribution among the population, is obtainable from the annual returns of land which are furnished to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of land-tax assessment. Statistics compiled from these returns are available for the five years 1924-25, 1925-26, 1926-27, 1928-29, and 1929-30, and afford valuable information not only as to the distribution of land on a value basis, but also as to the incidence of land taxation. For a detailed discussion of the statistics compiled from the land-tax returns reference should be made to the 1932 Year-Book; it is possible to repent here only three concise tables.

It should be explained that in the statistical tabulation it has not been found possible to cover each year the whole of the returns for that year, returns under query or not to hand at the time of tabulation being of necessity omitted. Apart from the fact that the actual totals would be somewhat in excess of those shown, the omission of a small percentage does not impair the statistical value of the tables or invalidate conclusions drawn from the figures.

The following table summarizes the principal heads of information from the 1929-30 tabulation. In connection with the division into country, town, and mixed lands, it should be noted that the last-mentioned includes only those eases where less than 75 per cent. (on an unimproved-value basis) is urban or rural respectively. In cases where 75 per cent. or over is urban or rural, as the case may be, the whole has been so classed.

 Country or Farming Lands.Town Lands or Business Sites.Partly Country and partly Town Lands.Total.
Number of returns47,93227,9271,11876,977
Number of taxpayers30,44820,10883551,391
Area. Acres26,058,6S1342.942466,02126,867,644
Unimproved value of land £166,895,25567,192,7684,968,450239,056,473
Total mortgages £116,841,60338,117,5452,457,145157,416,293
Exemptions Ordinary;6,303,9696,949,499178,68413,432,152
Mortgage £62,770,79215,918,7671,057,68179,747,240
Hardship £151,417111,6386,237269,292
Total £69,226,17822,979,9041,242,60293,448,684
Taxable balance £97,669,07744,212,8643,725,848145,607,789
Tax assessed £700,804440.82137,3401,178,965

The following table shows the distribution of holdings according to unimproved value for 1928-29 and 1929-30. The insignificant totals for holdings under £500 are due to the fact that, with few exceptions, such are entirely exempt from land-tax. It should be understood that the classification by amount is on the basis of the unimproved value of the land, and not, in the case of taxpayers, on the basis of taxable balance.

Amount.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Unimproved Value.
1928-291929-19301928-19291929-19301928-19291929-1930
Under 5007801,17232378175,306294,772
500-99923,73226,10615,06717,37917,016,70818,869,506
1,000-2,49925,66927,20415,54817,04239,756,31942,324,231
2,500-4,99925,66927,20415,54817,04239,756,31942,324,231
5,000-7,4996,3764,4474,3293,03944,045,31027,059,748
7,500-9,9992,1442,05618,455,089
10.000-14,9991,8271,9041,8181,90422,060,93423,071,659
15,000-19,99978881378781313,552,30413,946,956
20,000-29,99966171465971416,007,53317,244,468
30,000-39,9992632772632778,992,1049,482,113
40,000-49,9991111391111394,890,1006,109,294
50,000-99,99915619515610510,250,62312,936,622
100,000 and over254125413,799,6066,713,245
Totals72,33376,97746,27651,391222,274,200239,056,473

Area figures are of little value in the case of urban and mixed lands, on account of eighth-and quarter-acre sections being treated in the statistics as having no area at all. The following summary (1929-30), which gives valuable information as to area and value in conjunction, accordingly relates only to lands classified as rural:—

Area, In Acres.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Area.unimproved value
Total.Per Return.Per Acre.
   Acres.££s.d.£s.d.
Under 57784861,4211,029,3591,32318724710
5 and under 101,0426897,1391,008,106907 95141443
10 and under 201,8301,22525,4331,955,0271,008130761710
20 and under 504,2752,818144,6795,455,9481,270 411371432
50 and under 1OO6,9744,013503,97811,487,8001,647410221511
100 and under 2009,8875,7771,393,75022,100,1412,2411901181
200 and under 3206,6114,0711,661,89318,884,5992,85610101173
320 and under 6407,8045,1283,551,88029,702,7813,813159877
640 and under 1,0003,2952,1772,626,10616, 996,4775,15853695
1,000 and under 2,0003,1002,1734,274,39922,943,9807,40158574
2,000 and under 5,0001,5001,2054,003,013019,374,24512,41979431
5,000 and under 10,0003683332,502,7987,961,89621,635119337
10,000 and under 30,0001871642,924,1515,869,76431,38923202
30,000 and under 50,0002119783,158573,54327,3111150148
50,000 and under 100,00088604,582124,31315,53926041
100,000 and over33390,24861,29520,431134032
Not stated189159..1,239,3156,55745..
Totals47,93230,44826,058,681166,895,2553,481184681

Chapter 34. SECTION XXXIV.—INCOMES.

INTRODUCTORY.

No complete statistics of annual income are available for New Zealand, but valuable data exist in regard to incomes of those furnishing returns to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of income-tax assessment. In 1923 a system of annual statistics from the particulars on the income-tax returns was inaugurated, and the detailed results have since been published by the Census and Statistics Office in one of its annual statistical reports.

As, with certain exceptions, the annual returns of income are not required where the income is less than £250 (in 1932, £200) and hitherto have generally not been furnished where the income is between £250 and £300, these returns are confined to a comparatively small minority of the population, and do not permit of statistics being compiled covering the great majority of incomes.

This deficiency was remedied to a great extent by the inclusion of a question in the schedule used at the census of 1926, referred to later in this section.

Information concerning the system of income-tax in New Zealand is given earlier under the heading of Taxation (vide p. 435). To permit of a proper understanding of the statistics given in the present section it is advisable to peruse the observations under the reference given.

Part of the statistical information given in this section (that relating to income-tax) more properly belongs to Section XXIIIB (Taxation), but it is preferable to treat the figures relating to incidence of tax with those showing the distribution of the incomes on which the tax is assessed.

It should be explained that the incomes returned in any year are those received during the previous year. The figures given throughout this section in respect of 1931-32 returns, for instance, relate approximately to incomes received during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1931.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX.

The following table briefly summarizes the main items of information for each of the last five years:—

Item.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.

*Five percent. of unimproved Value.

†Abolished in 1931-32.

Number of returns104,581108,286113,838118,757130,704
Number of taxpayers51,93152,84655,23558,99480,245
 £££££
Earned income34,752,10536,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,802
Assessable income58,651,56161,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,392
Exemptions-     
5 per cent. of capital value2,895,1603,042,3443,464,4232,378,960*
Ordinary (under section 74)23,206,85924,739,01625,631,88126,879,17223,322,337
Children, …c.2,597,6212,686,7592,798,5782,938,1983,889,584
Life-insurance premiums, …c.936,0981,022,4041,140,7751,221,6011,473,320
Taxable balance29,015,82329,535,98432,344,56032,800,13131,483,151
Tax assessed3,104,8693,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,757

The table above reflects both changes in the national income and alterations in the incidence and degree of taxation. This is particularly noticeable in the latest year given, increases having taken place in the number of taxpayers in the groups below the £500 level and decreases in all groups above it.

INCOMES BY CLASSES

For the financial year 1931-32 returns received by the Commissioner of Taxes and showing any income totalled 130,704. Of these 3,287 were in respect of companies, 1,420 were furnished by non-resident traders, and 23 by agents for debenture-holders, the remaining 125,974 (90 per cent. of the total) being in the general class of taxpayers, which includes absentees other than non-resident traders.

Of 125,974 persons in the general class dealt with, no fewer than 51,068 had an income of less than £300, and 13,171 of these-absentees or trustees, or otherwise not entitled to exemption under section 74 were assessed for tax. Of the 74,306 with incomes of £300 or over, 62,344 were assessed as having to pay income-tax, the remaining 11,962 having no taxable balance left after the various exemptions and deductions had been taken into account

The whole of the 3,287 companies, the 1,420 non-resident traders, and the 23 agents for debenture-holders were required to pay income-tax, no exemptions being applicable to these three classes.

A cclassification of returns and taxpayers on the basis of class is given in the following table for each of the last four years:—

Class.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Returns.Tax-payers.Returns.Tax-payers.Returns.Tax-payers.Returns.Tax-payers.
Individuals.103,61448,330108,74250,330113,34953,626125,97475,515
Companies3,2623,1063,5973,4063,7243,6843,2873,287
Agents for debenture holders-9797969634342323
Non-resident traders1,3131,3131,4031,4031,6501,6501,4201,420
Totals108,28652,84611,83855,235118,75758,994130,70480,245

The general class represents throughout the period the great majority of the returns, and it occupies a similar position in regard to taxpayers, though in this respect its proportion of the total is somewhat, less-viz. (in 1931-32), 94 per cent., as compared with the 96 per cent. shown previously as its proportion of the returns. When attention is turned to aggregate assessable income, the percentage of this class to the total is still further reduced, being in 1931-32 only 82 per cent., aggregating £49,611,556. Companies account for the greater portion of the remainder with £9,960,799, while non-resident traders and agents for debenture-holders follow with £447,481 and £148,556 respectively.

SOURCE OF INCOME.

In the compilation of the statistics a distinction is made as to the source from which the income is derived, incomes being divided into ten groups according to source, as follows:—

Group No. Source.
0Salary or wages.
1Professional occupations (on own account).
2Commerce, trade, or business.
3Industry or manufacture.
4Farming.
5Provision of transport or communication.
6Building and construction.
7Mining or extraction.
8Investments and the like.
9Provision of or engaging in entertainment, sport, or recreation.

Actual figures as to the amount of income derived from the various sources are not available on account of the fact that in a considerable proportion of cases income has been obtained from more than one source. The rule followed in such cases in compiling the statistics is to include the whole income under the principal source from which it was derived. As an indication of the extent to which the figures are affected, attention may be drawn to the inclusion of approximately 4 per cent. of earned income in the total assessable income of the source “Investments and the like.”

Of the ten classes of source from which income is derived, source 0,“Salary or wages,” is the most important as regards number of incomes, number of taxpayers, amount of assessable income, and amount of earned income. It may be added that this source also leads in the matter of exemptions-so much so, in fact, that its total of £29,089,491 assessable income in 1931 32 shrank to a comparatively low taxable balance of £9,027,175, which yielded £660,574 of tax.

The following table shows the number of returns and of taxpayers classified according to source for each of the last four years:—

Source.1928-291929-301930-311931-32
Returns.TaxpayersReturns.TaxpayersReturns.TaxpayersReturns.Taxpayers
062,20325,44664,82426,66167,92228,40576,69647,094
13,4812,6723,5122,6953,4742,7463,4992,721
218,0429,73919,0519,99319,81510,43118,9009,414
31,6331,2641,5971,1911,3871,1081,120925
47034121,5989182,5401,0851,458585
51,0564721,1194741,1347851,183484
61,5888581,5887761,5248011,338626
7132741136813790172124
819,38111,87120,32812,37320,48213,23126,11518,060
9673810886342312223212
Total108,28652,846113,83855,235118,75758,994130,70480,245

Source 4 (farming) ranked, second to source 0 in 1922-23 as regards number of returns. For the year 1923-24 income derived from the direct use or cultivation of land was wholly exempted from income-tax, but the tax was reimposed in the following year in the case of Crown lands held as small grazing-runs or on pastoral lease, which would otherwise have escaped both land and income tax. For 1929-30 income-tax was placed on income from farm-lands in excess of £14,000 unimproved value (altered for 1930-31 to £7,500, and from 1st April, 1932, to £3,000).

A classification of assessable income on the foregoing basis next given, the average assessable income being also shown for each source:—

Source.Aggregate.Average.
1928-291929-301930-311931-321928-291929-301930-311931-32
 ££££££££
025,276,53326,389,58927,587,26529,089,491406407406379
12,945,5043,031,2632,995,9502,550,768846863862729
214,776,77815,665,89215,493,44111,784,388819822782624
33,501,7663,233,1593,913,1732,674,4442,1442,0252,8212,388
4540,0932,722,0242,101,776572,7337681,703827393
51,122,5771,087,945984,122674,5141,063972868570
6943,763904,421833,642534,228594570547399
7212,898176,795228,070296,2991,6131,5651,6651,723
811,631,22712,060,65911,934,20511,839,824600593583453
975,368108,470146,418151,7031,1251,004428680
Total61,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,392564574558460

Source 0 (salary or wages) is seen to have the greatest aggregate, but the lowest average. The highest average is shown for source 3 (industry or manufacture), followed in 1931-32 by source 7 (mining or extraction). The effect of the re-imposition of income-tax on incomes from farm-lands of the higher values is seen by a comparison of the 1929-30 figures with those for former years, both in this and in subsequent tables, while the heavy decline in 1931-32 reflects the fall in prices of farm products and consequent diminution of farming incomes.

SIZE OF INCOMES.

A third principle of classification followed in the compilation of the statistics of incomes and income-tax is according to size of income. An annual report published by the Census and Statistics Office gives full details of incomes of the various sizes in conjunction with source of income and class of taxpayer. These details cannot be repeated here, but the following table showing the number of returns and of taxpayers according to size of income gives a good indication of the relative distribution of incomes over £300 per annum throughout the community.

Size of Income.1928-291929-301930-311931-32
ReturnsTaxpayers.ReturnsTaxpayers.ReturnsTaxpayers.ReturnsTaxpayers.
£ £        
Under 30035,8343,48237,3543,79838,8674,83654,16015,663
300- 39930,76112,00532,64012,52734,88313,78437,78826,881
400- 49915,05311,57015,73611,95316,57812,77115,31114,497
500- 5997,5707,1397,9317,4408,2017,7787,4557,356
600- 6994,6894,5514,7674,6174,9674,8314,4504,397
700- 7992,9392,8503,0352,9363,1643,1002,6492,616
800- 8992,1472,1062,1532,0962,2152,1511,7441,727
900- 9991,4191,3811,5351,5071,5121,4831,2891,273
1000-19995,4105,3195,7875,5435,7925,6954,2464,226
2000-49991,9551,9352,2222,1492,0362,0231,2731,271
5,000-9,999291290428421296296185185
10,000-19,9991131131281261321326867
20,000-49,9997070808070705252
50,000-99,9992222282826262323
100,000 and over1313141418181111
Total108,28652,846113,83855,235118,75758,994130,70480,245

The reduction of the general exemption from £300 to £260 in 1931-32 has had the effect of increasing the proportion which the number of taxpayers bears to the number of returns in each income group up to £800, at which amount this exemption ceases to operate.

Of the 130,704 persons, companies, &c., dealt within 1931-32, 54,160, or 41 per cent., had incomes of less than £300, their aggregate incomes being £11,452,875, or only 19 per cent. of the total. Incomes under £1,000 aggregated £42,327,505, or 70 per cent. of the total, but represented 96 per cent. of the returns. Only 154 (less than 1/8 per cent. of those who furnished returns) showed incomes of £10,000 or over, but their total incomes amounted to £7,364,750, or approximately 12 per cent. of the grand total of £60,108,392.

Information as to aggregate incomes within the various categories is given in the next table. A column is added showing for 1931-32 separate figures for the general class of taxpayers (Class I).

Size of Income.Aggregate Assessable Income.
1928-291929-301930-311931-32
Total.Class I. 
£ ££££££
Under 3007,935,9378,150,5308,413,04411,452,87511,214,311
300- 39910,626,72411,175,57111,938,48612,547,94512,439,911
400- 4996,795,1766,927,2917,304,2406,765,7596,671,487
500- 5994,102,4214,299,0444,446,0204,040,1123,932,820
600- 6993,014,4283,062,4593,196,1842,856,4812,741,929
700- 7992,192,5662,262,7222,356,5461,972,5991,882,148
800- 8991,811,0951,816,7531,869,4381,472,6561,392,522
900- 9991,343,1061,453,9851,428,5671,219,0781,138,292
1,000- 1,9997,242,7547,811,2707,720,3435,651,1505,009,116
2,000- 4,9995,606,3396,510,5775,843,6513,603,4572,632,574
5,000- 9,9991,991,3422,898,4161,946,0971,221,530461,350
10,000- 19,9991,556,8171,723,0331,806,735944,97095,096
20,000- 49,99922,47,8452,374,6282,088,2481,617,445
50,000-99,9991,616,1071,944,4041,882,9441,739,810..
100,000 and over2,943,5342,969,5343,977,5193,062,525..
Totals61,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,39249,611,556

Class I represents 98 per cent. of aggregate assessable income in cases where the income is under £1,000, but only 1¼ per cent. among incomes of £10,000 or over.

EARNED INCOME.

Of the gross assessable income of £60,168,392 in 1931-32 £37,279,802, or nearly 62 per cent. of the total, ranked as earned income, and as such became entitled to a reduction of 10 per cent. in taxation prior to 1931-32, when for the 10 per cent reduction there was substituted a 33½ per cent. surtax on unearned income. Earned income is, of course, practically confined to the general class of taxpayers, no part of the income of companies and of agents for debenture-holders, and only a very small proportion of that of non-resident traders (including theatrical artists), coming within the definition of earned income. A comparison of aggregate assessable income and earned income for ten years is here given:—

Year.Individuals.Non-resident Traders.Totals of all Classes.
Assessable Income.Earned Income.Assessable Income.Earned Income.Assessable Income.Earned Income.
 ££££££
1922-2337,522,86728,648,205471,25919,69346,353,94128,667,898
1923-2433,612,63224,410,999313,9539,87144,738,06424,420,870
1924-2537,201,59627,017,388519,92417,95649,947,00927,035,344
1925-2639,270,53428,376,760520,71725,40252,632,48828,402,162
1926-2741,327,01930,306,769680,84256,66854,804,29330,363,437
1927-2846,286,85234,698,604509,90753,50158,651,56134,752,105
1928-2948,372,18236,347,872501,92215,50361,026,50736,363,375
1929-3051,947,72539,099,513525,411..65,380,21739,099,513
1930-3152,329,79139,620,423519,26245,43866,218,06239,665,861
1931-3249,611,55637,261,742447,48118,06060,168,39237,279,802

The distribution of earned income over the various sources, both absolutely and in proportion to assessable income, is shown in the next table for the last four years. More than half of the total increase in 1929-30 is due to the re-imposition of income-tax in the case of farm-lands over £14,000 in unimproved value The reduction of the limit to £7,500 in 1930-31 was insufficient to balance the effect of the fall in farm incomes generally.

SourceEarned Income.Proportion of Assessable Income.
1928-291929-301930-311931-321928-291929-301930-311931-32 
 ££££Per centPer centPer centPer cent
024,226,64825,218,62126,513,45027,914,38896969696
12,703,7442,779,6082,755,6592,384,98992929294
27,011,6526,886,2816,787,1005,076,54947444443
3321,723320,624247,726105,36791064
4461,5942,150,0481,722,011470,98385798282
5342,331366,934376,356307,11630343846
6775,515703,440666,295442,17282788083
743,09835,77743,02651,65320201917
8436,541621,591490,504492,5134544
940,52916,58963,73434,07254154422
Totals36,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,80260606062

The next table shows the amount of earned income included in the total assessable income for the various categories according to amount of assessable income:—

Amount of Assessable Income.Earned Income.Proportion of Assessable Income
1928-291929-301930-311931-321928-291929-301930-311931-32
£ £££££Per centPer centPer centPer cent
Under 30064,60,3846,650,5066,840,1259,195,10981828180
300- 3999,211,0489,665,39010,436,68510,680,70587868785
400- 4995,484,6455,580,7065,916,9075,277,00481818178
500- 5993,057,1803,164,2343,317,62328,78,00875747571
600- 6992,094,6942,126,9942,273,6711,906,02669697167
700- 7991,460,6231,502,3801,575,2741,272,60467666765
800- 8991,172,3551,155,3221,206,930859,40365646558
900- 999800,479909,511875,435707,48760636158
1,000- 1,9993,968,1044,359,5304,270,2232,999,57355565553
2,000- 4,9992,215,5712,828,7662,393,7781,300,79340434136
5,000- 9,999317,702831,385378,687182,78816291915
10,000- 19,99997,184297,093161,75520,30261792
20,000- and over23,40627,69818,768..0000
Totals36,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,80260606062

EXEMPTIONS.

As explained earlier in this section, non-resident traders and agents for debenture-holders are not entitled to any exemptions. In the following table the aggregate exemptions to each of the other two classes of taxpayers (I, Individuals, and II, Companies), are shown for the last four years:—

ClassAggregate Exemptions,Proportion of Assessable Income
1928-291929-301930-311931-321928-291929-301930-311931-32
 ££££Per centPer centPer centPer cent
I30,146,08231,521,57932,855,83028,685,24162616358
II1,344,4411,514,078562,101..11124..
Total31,490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

The whole of the exemption shown in the case of companies was in respect of the unimproved-value provision which was repealed in 1931-32. Of the £28,685,241 exemptions in Class I in 1931-32, £23,322,337 was allowed as ordinary exemption (£260), £3,889,584 on account of allowances for children and widowed mothers, and £1,473,320 on account of life-insurance premiums, payments to superannuation funds, &c.

The exemptions are next shown spread over incomes derived from the various sources set out earlier in this section:—

Source.Aggregate Exemptions,Proportion of Assessable Income
1928-291929-301930-311931-321928-291929-301930-311931-32
 ££££Per centPer centPer centPer cent
019,218,23920,022,14920,985,50120,062,31676767669
1887,565912,248872,803730,56930302929
24,850,4354,972,2584,461,3063,263,99133322928
3572,113617,487226,47471,477161963
4186,120370,3571,165,155257,44134145545
5292,430308,853274,444230,93326282834
6413,422419,653392,669279,52644464752
735,49528,90128,79032,28517161311
85,017,8425,365,1224,986,2753,751,90143444232
916,86218,62924,5144,8022217173
Total31490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

The highest percentage of exemptions is recorded for source 0, which, as previously demonstrated, has the lowest average income.

As a percentage of assessable income, exemptions naturally show a decrease as income increases, as is well brought out in the proportion columns of the next table.

Size of IncomeAggregate ExemptionsProportion of Assessable Income
1928-291929-301930-311931-321928-291929-301930-311931-32
£ £££££Per CentPer CentPer CentPer Cent
Under 3007,585,4967,792,5157,984,10110,634,51496969593
300- 39910,018,18510,540,33411,251,04210,282,66194949482
400- 4995,456,9635,619,3545,893,0234,067,56980818160
500- 5992,539,5592,679,9382,720,1801,701,72962626142
600- 6991,399,3681,425,2761,455,260758,53146474627
700- 799772,085808,162792,556323,25535363416
800- 899413,910413,214415,797167,90423232211
900- 999226,604254,053232,639131,48217171611
1,000- 1,9991,170,9441,309,9241,225,956438,0051617168
2,000- 4,999844,390961,351858,455144,1021515154
5,000- 9,999352,919357,026218,16922,7271812112
10,000- 19,999165,721217,782120,58512,762111371
20,000- 49,999330,877335,798133,008..15146..
50,000- 99,999121,415196,57467,385..8104..
100,000 Under Over92,087124,35649,775..341..
Totals31,490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

There has been a decided movement over the period, incomes generally showing a fall in the percentage of exemption to assessed income. The substitution of an unimproved-value exemption for the former capital-value exemption is largely responsible for the differences between 1929-30 and 1930-31, while the repealing of the unimproved-value exemption and the reduction in the general exemption accounts for the differences between the percentages for the two latter years.

Figures for the three classes of exemptions for the year 1931-32 are given in he next table, which also shows the average exemption per return:—

Size of IncomeTotal Exemptions.Average Exemptions per Income returned.
Section 74* (£200).Children, &c.Life Insurance, &c.Section74* (£200).Children &c.Life Insurance &c.
*As amended by the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1931.
£ £££££££
Under 30010,187,340354,18292,99218872
300- 3998,392,8291,513,707376,1252224010
400- 4992,938,144856,721272,7042575618
500- 5991,126,711404,992170,0261515423
600- 699419,845229,608109,078945225
700- 799105,340139,59178,324405330
800- 89926,83786,84554,222155031
900- 99920,84662,79047,846164937
1,000- 1,99953,597193,372191,036134645
2,000- 4,99926,50644,36073,236213558
5,000- 9,99912,5313,1167,080681738
10,000- 19,99911,811300651174410
Totals23,322,3373,889,5841,473,3201783011

The general (£260) exemption, which is reduced on incomes above that amount and does not apply at all to those above £800, averaged in 1931-32 £222 for incomes between £300 and £400, £257 for incomes between £400 and £500, and £151 between £500 and £600. Thereafter the average diminishes rapidly, but does not altogether disappear until the £10,000 class is reached, this being due to the inclusion in large trust returns of small amounts the recipients of which come within the provisions of the £260 exemption.

TAXABLE BALANCE.

After all exemptions have been deducted from the assessable income the balance of income (if any) is taxed in accordance with the schedule in force at the time. Figures of taxable balance are readily ascertained from a study of the corresponding totals of assessable income and of exemptions, and will be given hero under one system of classification only-viz., that on the basis of amount of assessable income.

Size of IncomeAverage Taxable BalanceProportion of Assessable Income.
1928-291929-301930-311931-321928-291929-301930-311931-32
£ £££££Per centPer centPer centPer cent
Under 300350,441358,015428,943818,3614457
300- 399608,539635,237687,4442,265,28466618
400- 4991,338,2131,307,9371,411,2172,698,19020191940
500- 5991,562,8621,619,1061,725,8402,338,3833838395S
600- 6991,615,0601,637,1831,740,9242,097,95054535473
700- 7991,420,4811,454,5601,563,9901,649,34465646684
800- S991,397,1851,403,5391,453,6411,304,75277777889
900- 9991,116,5021,199,9321,195,9281,087,59683838489
1,000- 1,9996,071,8106,501,3466,494,3875,213,14584838492
2,000- 4,9994,761,9495,549,226'4,985,1963,459,35585858596
5,000- 9,9991,638,4232,541,3901,727,9281,198,80382888998
10,000-19,9991,391,0961,505,2511,686,150932,20889879399
20,000-49,9991,916,9682,038,8301,955,2401,617,445858694100
50,000-99,9991,494,6921,747,8301,815,5591,739,810929096100
100,000 and over2,851,7632,845,1783,927,7443,062,525979699100
Totals29,535,98432,344,56032,800,13131,483,15148495052

The next table enables an interesting comparison to be made between taxable balance per return and taxable balance per taxpayer, and affords a comparison in these two respects between the various years, and for incomes of different sizes.

Size of IncomeAverage Taxable Balance per Return.Average Taxable Balance per Taxpayer
1928-291929-301930-311931-321928-291929-301930-311931-32
£££££££££
Under 30010101115101948952
300- 3992019206051515084
400- 499898385176116109111186
500- 599206204210314219218222318
600- 699344343350471355355360477
700- 799483479494623498495505630
800- 899651652656748663670676756
900- 999787782791844808796806854
1,000- 1,9991,1221,1231,1211,2281,1421,1731,1401,234
2,000- 4,9992,4362,4972,4492,7172,4612,5822,4642,722
5,000- 9,9995,6305,9385,8386,4805,6506,0375,8386,480
10,000- 19,99912,31111,76012,77413,70912,31111,94612,77413,914
20,000- 49,99927,38525,48527,93231,10527,38525,48527,93231,105
50,000- 99,99967,94162,42369,82975,64467,94162,42369,82975,644
100,000 and over219,366203,227218,208278,411219,366203,227218,208278,411
All Incomes273284276241559586556392

TAX ASSESSED.

The revenue from income-tax during the financial year ended the 31st March, 1932, was £4,447,814. This amount is £81,057 in excess of the total tax shown in the statistical tables as having been assessed for the same year (£4,366,757), the difference being due partly to the imposition of an additional 5 per cent. in the event of late payment, partly to the inclusion of arrears in the total of tax collected, and partly to the omission of a few returns from the statistical tables.

A summary of assessments of income-tax during each of the last ten years gives the following results:—

YearTotal Tax assessedAverage Tax assessed.
Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £l of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Tax-able Balance.
 ££ s. d.£ s. d.s. d.s. d.
1922-233,639,60339 10 494 7 31 73 5
1923-243,335,20544 12 492 8 31 62 11
1924-253,173,08539 17 976 2 71 32 5
1925-263,190,27739 13 1172 16 01 32 2
1926-273,235,69938 4 766 3 51 22 2
1927-283,104,86929 14 659 17 41 12 2
1928-293,166,00829 4 959 18 21 02 2
1929-303,322,67229 3 960 3 11 02 1
1930-313,949,55833 5 266 19 01 22 5
1931-324,366,75733 8 254 8 41 52 9

It should be noted that the maximum tax fell from 7s. 4d. in the £1 in 1922-23 to 4s. 6d. in the £1 in 1925-26 and subsequent years and rose to 4s. 6d.. in 1930-31 and to a figure slightly in excess of 8s. in 1931-32.

In 1931-32 the 3,287 taxpaying companies were assessed for £2,311,214 income-tax, the 23 agents for debenture-holders for £12,595, and the 1,420 non-resident traders for £28,406. The remaining £2,014,542 was divided among 75,515 taxpayers in the general class. The following table shows the tax assessed in the case of each of the four classes during the last four years, and also contrasts the incidence of the assessment between the classes in 1931-32:—

Class.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1931-32.
1928-291929-301930-311931-32Per IncomePer TaxpayerPer £1 of Assessable IncomePer £1 of Taxable Balance
 ££££££s. d.s. d.
I1,126,2381,207,3221,349,8532,014,54216270 101 11
II1,979,6422,061,8602,563,6482,311,2147037034 84 8
III31,57421,5552,70812,5955485481 81 8
IV28,55431,93533,34928,40620201 31 3
Totals3,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,75733541 52 9

A table on the same lines as the foregoing is now given showing the figures for each of the ten groups of sources:—

Source.Total Tax assessedAverage Tax assessed, 1931-32.
1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.Per IncomePer TaxpayerPer £1 of Assessable IncomePer £1 of Taxable Balance
 ££££££s. d.s. d.
0303,919325,934365,382660,5749140 51 6
1141,864151,220164,348195,56356721 62 2
21,391,1721,556,8571,685,4131,589,805841692 83 9
3527,562466,103781,415639,6685716924 94 11
428,584110,73196,68439,00527671 42 6
5153,606142,855129,29995,954811982 104 4
646,69343,42136,69625,12019400 112 0
734,13127,91541,22966,9933895404 65 1
8529,853485,548634,2421,029,01939571 92 7
98,62412,08814,85025,0561121183 43 5
Totals3,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,75733541 52 9

The effect of the progressive rates of income-tax can he better seen from the next table, which gives information according to size of assessable income.

Size of Income.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1931-32.
1930-31.1931-32.Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable Balance.
£ ££££ s. d.£ s. d.s. d.s. d.
Under 30014,27239,1160 14 52 9 110 10 11
300- 39921,46499,0372 12 53 13 80 20 10
400- 49943,709119,1017 15 78 4 40 40 11
500- 59954,090119,5927 15 78 4 40 40 11
600- 69960,996128,99428 19 929 6 90 111 3
700- 79963,364118,65844 15 1045 7 21 21 5
800- 89969,009107,47361 12 662 4 71 61 8
900- 99962,87095,19073 17 074 15 61 71 9
1,000- 1,999451,634624,099146 19 8147 13 72 32 5
   ££  
2,000-4,999599,537687,8565405413 104 0
5,000-9,999349,026335,4221,8131,8135 65 7
10.000-19,999441,873268,2433,9454,0045 85 9
20,000-49,999460,030434,1548,3498,3495 45 4
50,000-99,999390,539426,21918,53118,5314 114 11
100.000 and over867,145763,60369,41869,4185 05 0
Totals3,949,5584,366,75733541 52 9

The wide range between the different sources is due to the great variation in the average income derived from the respective sources, combined with the fact that the rate of taxation in the £1 increases with increasing taxable balance, the minimum rate during 1931-32 being 9 1/10 d. in the £1, and the maximum slightly in excess of 8s.

The average income between £300 and £400 paid in 1931-32 only £2 12s. 5d., or just under 2d. in the £1 of total assessable income returned, as compared with £147, or 2s. 3d. in the £1, for incomes between £1,000 and £2,000.

CENSUS STATISTICS OF INCOME CATEGORIES.

As mentioned in the introductory portion of this section, an attempt was made at the population census of 1920 (vide Vol. XI of Census Results) to obtain some approximate information as to the incomes of the people. Although by no means free from defects, interesting information was obtained and tabulated according to age, occupation, &c.

The income distribution is given briefly below, according to the income categories of the census questionnaire. The figures are exclusive of Maoris and of children under 10 years without occupation.

Income.Males.Females.
AdultsTotalAdultsTotal
No income13,20826,649258,667290,210
Under £5213.84824,83927,07638,366
£52 and under £15674,061111,76363,10785,602
£156 £20880,13985,23915,92516,584
£208 £312139.466141,55511,16411,254
£312 £36424,42924,4842,0172,029
£364 or over43,08343,1244,4524,465
Not specified17,88720,4376,5438,047
Totals406,121478,090388,951456,557

AGGREGATE PRIVATE INCOME.

From the census statistics of income categories, taken in conjunction with the statistics compiled from the income-tax returns for the income year ended 31st March, 1926, it is possible to compile an approximate estimate of the aggregate income of individual members of the community for the year 1925-26. In such a computation certain weaknesses exist, reducing any estimate to a rough approximation only. The compilation is discussed at greater length in the 1932 Year-Book. The conclusion arrived at is given below.

Census incomes under £312:—£
Cases where category not specified 4,500,000.
Maoris3,000,000
Incomes of persons over £300:— 
As shown by income-tax returns37,000,000
From farming pursuits6,000,000
From company dividends5,000,000
Total£136,000,000.

Allowing for the effect of approximations and arbitrary allocations, the estimated income of individuals for 1925-26 may be set down with reasonable accuracy as lying between £130,000,000 and £140,000,000.

Chapter 35. SECTION XXXV.—PRICES.

RETAIL PRICES.—INTRODUCTORY.

RETAIL-PRICE quotations, from which index numbers are regularly calculated, are collected each month in twenty-five towns of the Dominion, selected as being representative of New Zealand as a whole. These twenty-five towns are distributed over both Islands, from Whangarei in the North to Invercargill in the South, and are representative of both coastal and inland districts, and of both large and small centres. Returns of prices are collected by local Inspectors of Factories, for the most part from representative retailers, and from these data index numbers are computed in the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. These index numbers are published each month in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The commodities for which monthly prices are collected and monthly index numbers compiled are almost exclusively articles of food, divided into three groups-groceries, dairy-produce, and meat. Fuel and light prices also have been collected at monthly, and house-rents at six-monthly, intervals since the inauguration of price statistics in 1914. Some years ago the inquiry was extended to cover clothing and miscellaneous items, figures for which are now collected at quarterly intervals. A full list of the commodities covered will be found in the “Annual Report on Prices, &c.”

Separate series of index numbers of retail prices are compiled and published for the following groups:—

Group I.-Groceries.

Group II.-Dairy-produce.

Group III.-Meat.

Group IV.-Housing.

Group V.-Fuel and light.

Group VI.-Clothing (including drapery and footwear).

Group VII.-Miscellaneous items.

In addition, index numbers are compiled and published for the food (that is, the first three) groups combined, and also for all groups combined.

Prior to the year 1931 the retail-price index numbers were compiled on a pre-war base; but during 1931 a series of index numbers was initiated based on the average of prices ruling during the five years 1926-30. Although habits of household consumption change but slowly, it was considered desirable that retail-price statistics should be now based on a post-war distribution of expenditure. Again, the interest in comparisons of retail prices with those ruling before the war is lessening, and a recent base provides a more satisfactory background for the measurement of present and future price movements.

In order to permit of the revision being carried out, a collection of household budgets was made in 1930, so that an estimate of the proportionate distribution of expenditure in the various main groups of household expenditure might be made. These data are used in combining the group index numbers in order to arrive at a single figure representing all groups combined. The results of the budget collection were published in some detail in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 793-795).

In the compilation of the index numbers for the food groups, rent, and fuel and light, the aggregate expenditure method is used-that is, the retail price of each individual item in these groups is “weighted” according to its average annual consumption in the Dominion during the years 1926 to 1930. In the clothing and drapery and miscellaneous groups the unweighted geometric average of price ratios is used for most subgroups, no reliable data being available as to the consumption of individual items in these groups, except in the case of two subgroups in the miscellaneous group (fares and cleaning supplies), where the aggregate expenditure method is adopted.

RETAIL FOOD—PRICES.

The following table shows the annual average index numbers for the three food groups combined, for each of the four chief centres and for the Dominion as a whole during the past ten years. In the compilation of these indexes each item and separate group (groceries, dairy-produce, and meat) is accorded its proper relative importance in the combined food-groups index number. The average of annual Dominion index number for the years 1926 to 1930=1000.

Three Food Groups.—Index Numbers.

YearAuckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1922935959975949955958
1923944972977964964965
192410151006997101010071005
1925104610201008103010261030
1926102710151010104710251026
1927976978982986981983
1928100998099010069961004
19291030984995100910051013
1930983959946966964974
1931848827843829837845

The index numbers in the table are comparable both horizontally and vertically, since each column has the same base.

To obtain a general estimate of the course of prices for the whole Dominion it has been necessary to obtain a weighted average of the index numbers for each of the twenty-five representative towns. Price-indexes for each town have been weighted in accordance with the number of people in the respective centres, and a composite index number has been obtained, which, though necessarily artificial, represents accurately enough the average level of retail prices in the Dominion.

The twenty-five towns considered have a total population of approximately half that of New Zealand, and they are therefore more or less completely representative of the Dominion. The four chief centres, which include well over a third of the Dominion's population, account for about 70 per cent. of the population of the twenty-five towns, so that their influence in the Dominion index number is naturally predominating. This, however, can be defended on the ground that the chief centres not only comprise a great part of the people of the Dominion, but also set the standard which is generally followed throughout the country.

The 1931 index numbers for each of the four cities and the Dominion are the lowest recorded during the last decade, a substantial fall during 1930 being followed by an even greater decrease in 1931. The Dominion annual average index (845) for the latter year was only 20-2 per cent. above July, 1914, prices. That the lowest point was not reached in 1931 is evident from the monthly indexes so far compiled for 1932, the latest available Dominion index number (August, 1932) being 761-an increase of 8-3 per cent. over the July, 1914, index number.

Attention may be drawn in passing to the comparatively small differences recorded between the average figures for the four chief centres and the Dominion weighted averages. In this respect, as will be shown later on in this section, the average of the three food groups combined stands in marked contrast to the rent group.

RETAIL PRICES OF GROCERIES.

Index numbers of retail prices of groceries in each of the four chief centres are given in the following table, which also shows the unweighted average of the four centres and the Dominion weighted average. The average of the Dominion annual index numbers for 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

YearAuckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
192210911,1001073106810831,100
1923102410411017103910301043
1924104710621034106110511060
192510471042984104410291044
1926103810331021106510391047
19271021995989100610021015
192810421007989102010151033
1929985953932958957973
1930928922883924914932
1931899876842887876891

Prices in the groceries group have fallen steadily, though slowly, during the last ten years, the 1931 Dominion index number being the lowest, recorded during that period.

The factors underlying the fluctuations in the groceries group will be more clearly understood when it is remembered that the items comprising the group are varied in nature, and may be treated in three subgroups as shown below. The fundamental distinction is that the items comprising Group 1A are almost wholly imported from overseas, while those in Group 1B are almost wholly produced in the country. Sugar is not strictly a product of New Zealand, the raw material being imported and refined at Auckland. The Dominion weighted average index number, 1920-30, equals 1000 in each ease.

Groceries Subgroups.—Index Numbers.

Year.Auckland.WellingtonChristchurchDunedin.Average of Four Centres..
Group Ia.—General Groceries.
192710409499901014998
19281017947972990982
1929986915902965942
1930965919881956930
1931901847815865857
Group Ib.—Bread, Flour, Oatmeal, Potatoes, and Onions.
19279999959697
19281059103799010171026
19291002985963954976
1930931943893922922
1931941940839846892
Group Ic.—Sugar.
19271,11310951,1671,1821,139
19281021101510241,1091042
1929903897861957905
1930825831836850836
1931779772796779782

Prices in each subgroup have fallen appreciably since 1927. General groceries have fallen continuously, a gradual fall during 1928, 1929, and 1930 being followed by a sharp decrease in 1931. The subgroup covering locally produced commodities also exhibits price recessions, the 1931 index numbers being the lowest recorded during the five years under review. A feature of the price indexes for this subgroup is the fact that the Christchurch and Dunedin figures are considerably below those for Auckland and Wellington.

The index number of sugar prices has fallen continuously since 1927, We 1931 index (782) being at an exceptionally low level.

RETAIL PRICES OF DAIRY—PRODUCE.

The next table shows annual average retail price index numbers for the dairy-produce group. The Dominion weighted average index number for 1926-1930 equals 1000.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
19229911015969954982985
19239941039998100010081009
192410581,1041010109410671053
1925105910701010106110501043
1926106510721009106210521045
192710361032968102210151010
192810321025958102510101006
19291005103194310241001999
1930942954905954939939
1931819836766778800807

Between 1922 and 1929 dairy-produce prices did not fluctuate to any marked extent, the lowest Dominion annual index number during that period being 985 (in 1922) and the highest 1053 (in 1924). A sharp fall between 1929 and 1930 was, however, followed by an even greater fall in 1931, the index number for the latter year (807) being the lowest recorded for many years past.

RETAIL PRICES OF MEAT.

Between the years 1922 and 1929 the general trend of meat prices was upward, the lowest Dominion index number recorded during that period being 813 (in 1922) and the highest 1052 (in 1929). A slight falling-off in meat prices in 1930 was followed by a collapse in 1931, the index number for the latter year (834) representing a fall of 199 points, or 19.3 per cent., as compared with the 1930 figure. Retail prices of meat in 1931 were still slightly higher than in the year 1922; but. dining the early months of 1932 prices fell to a lower level than was recorded during the slump of 1922, the index number for June 1932 (747) representing a considerable decrease on the 1922 annual average index number.

Meat:—Index Numbers.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average. (1020-30 = 1,000.)
1922755792897841821813
1923835858926870872862
1924953879954901922920
19251035961102899310041008
192699095910011021993994
1927896924985941937937
19289669261012980971979
192910809731079103610421052
193010529901023100510181033
1931829781897815831834

INCREASES OF FOOD—PRICES OVER LEVEL OF JULY, 1914.

For purposes of all the foregoing tables the base period has been taken as the aver-age of the years 1926-30. For some purposes, however, interest centres on the increase in prices over those prevailing immediately prior to the outbreak of the Great War. One of the advantages of the aggregate expenditure method is that it enables index numbers computed on one base to be converted by a simple application of the rule of proportion to another base regarded as desirable for some special purpose. The following table shows Dominion weighted average increases in food-prices between July, 1914, and each quarter of 1931:—

GroupFirst Quarter, 1931.Second Quarter, 1931.Third Quarter, 1931.Fourth Quarter, 1931.Average for Year 1931.
Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*
*Over July, 1914.
Groceries (index number, July,. 1914: 624)93149.287239.783934.592147.689142.8
Dairy-produce (index number July, 1914: 719)84317.285518.97828.87494.280712.2
Meat (index number. July, 1914: 759)86914.58127.08299.28258.78349.9
Three food groups (index number, July, 1914: 703)88225.584020.381916.583418.084520.2

INTERNATIONAL RETAIL—PRICE COMPARISONS.

The accompanying table exhibits recent retail-price quotations, in London and in Wellington, of certain articles in common household consumption. The London prices shown for butter and cheese are those of New Zealand produce.

Bread (2 lb. Loaf).Flour (24 lb.).Sugar (Pound).Tea (Pound).Milk (Quart).Butter (Pound).Cheese (Pound).
London.Wgtn.London.Wgtn.London.Wgtn.London.Wgtn.London.Wgtn.London.Wgtn.London.Wgtn.
1930.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.
February4 1/465561 1/22 3/42 1/22026 1/2762118 1/21312
May4 1/461/25160 3/42 3/42 1/22026 3/4671815 1/41211 3/4
August461/25162 1/22 3/42 1/22027 1/46719171211 1/4
November33 /461/24362 3/42 1/22 1/22027 3/4761713 1/21111 1/4
1931.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.
February31 /261/238612 1/22 1/4202775171599 3/4
May31 /261/23959 1/22 1/22 1/42024 3/4661/2161487 1/2
August31 /461/236582 3/421924 3/4661/2161598 1/4
November31 /261/23858 1/22 1/22 1/21923 3/46541/21614 1/4108 1/4
1932.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.
February31 /261/23856 3/42 1/22 3/41921751/21512 1/498 1/4
May31 /263848 3/42 1/42 1/22120 1/2661412 1/298 1/4
August31 /2638492 1/22 1/22119651/2151298 1/4

Butter and cheese are consistently cheaper in Wellington than in London. Milk was for a time exactly the same price in Wellington and London, but during 1932 the Wellington price has been lower than the London price in February and equal to the London price in May, when the Wellington winter price and the London summer price were in operation. Bread and flour are considerably dearer in Wellington, owing to higher prices prevailing for wheat, while-tea is also some what higher in price in Wellington.

Using the weights used in the compilation of the New Zealand food price-index, attempts have been made to determine the relation between food-prices in New Zealand and in other countries, experiments having shown that the use of the weights employed in the computation of the index numbers of the other countries respectively does not greatly affect the result in the case of comparisons between countries with not essentially dissimilar standards of living. The commodities included, though comparatively few, cover the most important foodstuffs. The percentages shown in the first column of figures in the table following are the results, taking food-prices in New Zealand (Dominion weighted average) in February, 1932, as 100.

The figures in the last column of this table have been arrived at by working back from the results shown in the previous column on the basis of the published index numbers respectively for the countries concerned.

Country.Percentage of Food Prices to New Zealand Fond Prices.
February, 1932.July, 1914.
United States115129
Canada105125
Australia116105½
South Africa121 1141

HOUSE—RENT

In investigating changes in the cost of housing the Census and Statistics Office has deemed it sufficient to trace the movement of house-rent over a series of years.

Such provide a reasonably accurate indication (and, in effect, the only practical means available) of movements in housing-costs in general, not only for those paying rent, but also for those who own or partially own the dwellings they occupy. It is probable that this assumption is less valid in the abnormal conditions existing in 1931 and 1932.

By reason of the fact that leases, infrequent changes of residence, and the difficulty of departing from customary rents all tend to make the movement of the general level of rents comparatively slow, it has not been deemed necessary to attempt to measure the changes over short periods. The data from which the rent figures are compiled are therefore collected semi-annually only, in the months of February and August. Annual index numbers for rent are computed on the assumption that the February index number represents conditions prevailing during the first four and a half months of the year, the August number conditions prevailing during the next six months, and the number for February of the following year conditions prevailing during the last one and a half months of the year.

House—Rent.—Index Numbers.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average (1926-30 = 1000).
1922739781729629720724
1923795877794666783792
1924863986884689856859
19259341038947751918912
19269901,111977808972962
192710191,191101088010251000
192810041,261100490910451014
19299851,33699093710621019
19309531,32697395810531007
19318761,241926936995953

It is advisable to stress that the index numbers in respect of rent indicate the movement in the average rentals of a large number of houses already let, in many cases for some time, and that they do not purport to convey any statement as to the price at which housing accommodation has been obtainable from time to time by would-be occupants of houses then being relet.

The following table shows the average rents ruling in each of the four chief centres at the last three collections:—

Number of Rooms.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.
Aug., 1931.Feb., 1932.Aug., 1932.Feb., 1931.Aug., 1932.Feb., 1932.Aug., 1931.Feb., 1932.Aug., 1932.Feb., 1931.Aug., 1932.Feb., 1932.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
418817816628112612301971891701811175166
522112222063263111276249245220262252230
627225523639036031628102711250297292260

House-rents reached a peak level in 1929, since which year the Dominion rent-index number has fallen at each successive collection. The August, 1932, index numbers are of special interest in view of the fact that the effect of certain rent-reducing legislation, brought into operation in April, 1932, is apparent in the August figures. It will be noted that the average rentals quoted in the above table for August are, generally speaking, substantially below the February figures. The Dominion weighted average index number for August, 1932, shows a decrease of 9-7 per cent. since February; while the following movements in the indexes for the four chief centres have been recorded since that month: Auckland, 8.l per cent.; Wellington, 13.3 per cent.; Christchurch, 11.1 per cent.; and Dunedin 8.2 per cent.

Index numbers for each of the twenty-five towns at each of the last five collections are appended, along with yearly index numbers for 1930 and 1931.

House—Rent.—Index Numbers for Twenty—Five Towns.

Town.Yearly Average 1930.Yearly Average 1931.August, 1930.February, 1931.August, 1931.February, 1932.”August, 1932.
Auckland953876952929852811745
Wellington1,3201,2411,3321,2651,2421,1681013
Christchurch973926965965908884795
Dunedin958936964957931893820
Whangarei101797810211034951917875
Hamilton10059421015973907985851
Rotorua10581012105510351006959864
Waihi446446428445448441444
Gisborne914879913895881826765
Napier932934933933936925865
Dannevirke836760852749772743711
New Plymouth104995910561003933933857
Wanganui867801861858772748653
Taihape929870938900863809739
Palmerston North103498310491003978941912
Masterton917903929919897875784
Blenheim811754834783742716667
Nelson880877877871877894782
Greymouth754772735754783779723
Ashburton870838889853832817759
Timaru900890968929873837773
Oamaru875845879880832795706
Alexandra621635634636642602574
Gore778683789695669700599
Invercargill826795813824782762711
Dominion weighted average (1926—30 = 1000)10079531008987940904816

FOOD AND RENT.

Generally speaking, apart from the consideration of different rates of population-increase, the chief centres have higher rentals than the minor centres. As, however, the four largest centres have lower indexes for food than the majority of the smaller towns, the combination of these two groups presents quite a different picture from that displayed by either group individually.

GroupYearly Average, 1931Yearly Average, 1930.
Weighted Average of Four Chief Centres, (a.)Weighted Average of Twenty-one Smaller Centres (B.)Excess of (b) over (a).Dominion Weighted Average.Dominion Weighted Average (1920-30 = 1000).
*Excess of (a) over (b).
Groceries87992041891932
Dairy-produce8058138807939
Meat830841118341033
Three food groups83985920845974
House-rent986874112*9531007

Rent is shown to be higher in the larger cities than in the secondary towns, while the reverse position holds in the case of groceries, dairy-produce, and meat.

The following table shows the index numbers for the various groups for each of the twenty-five towns on the base: Dominion weighted average expenditure, 1026-30, equals 1000:—

Food Groups and Rent.—Index Numbers for Twenty—Five Towns, 1931.

Town.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-11: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.
Auckland899819829848876
Wellington8768367818271,241
Christchurch842766897843926
Dunedin887778815829936
Whangarei924775836846978
Hamilton986818792861942
Rotorua10248728589141012
Waihi912842878877446
Gisborne1038855656833879
Napier897869795849934
Dannevirke922829862872760
New Plymouth894755868844959
Wanganui905835858868801
Taihape1023860840903870
Palmerston North891742762798983
Masterton936779830849903
Blenheim963803948912754
Nelson903834968910877
Grey mouth882841969905772
Ashburton868797910865838
Timaru896820952897890
Oamaru839794860835845
Alexandra1014841893917635
Gore879787862846683
Invercargill923809836856795
Weighted average for Dominion891807834845953

Oamaru, Christchurch, and Ashburton are the cheapest in respect of prices of groceries, while Gisborne has the highest index for this group. Rotorua is dearest in respect of prices of dairy-produce, while the Greymouth index for meat is highest, closely followed by Nelson. Palmerston North and New Plymouth show the lowest prices for dairy-produce, while meat is exceptionally cheap in Gisborne.

RETAIL PRICES OF FUEL AND LIGHT.

Considerable difficulties are met with in any attempt to follow accurately the course of prices in the fuel and light group. It has, in fact, been found impossible to settle on any list of commodities used in anything like comparable proportions as between the four chief centres at any one time, or indeed in any one centre over any great length of time. Not only does the comparative usage of coal, electricity, gas kerosene, and candles vary greatly even between the four centres, but the first commodity presents a very special difficulty for comparative purposes by reason of the several different qualities of it used in the various towns.

However, a small group of seven items-coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas for lighting, electricity for lighting, and candles-has been considered, and prices for the four chief centres have been collected for as many past years as possible (from 1907 onwards). It was not feasible to extend even this list to the remaining twenty-one centres covered by the retail-prices investigation.

Fuel and Light.—Index Numbers.

PeriodAuckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres (1920-30 = 1000.)
Year.     
1922109710521,1009311045
192310639801053894998
192410499661051873685
192510599801041893993
1926107797710578971002
1927107897910619011005
19281,11597410548991011
19291,114968986898992
19301,112968988897991
19311,108951995892987
192510599801041893993
1920107797710578971002
1927107897910619011005
19281,11597410548991011
19291,114968986898992
19301,112968988897991
193111O8951995892987
Quarter.     
First, 19311,111964998894992
Second, 19311,108962997892990
Third, 19311,107956994891987
Fourth, 19311,107922994891979
First, 19321,107907995891975
Second, 19321028919995894959
First, 19321,107907995891975
Second, 19321028919995894959

The average index number for this group for the four chief centres fell sharply between 1922 and 1923, since which year very little variation in the index number has taken place. Fuel and lighting prices are on the average cheaper in Dunedin than in any of the other centres, although household electricity is cheaper in Christchurch than in Dunedin.

RETAIL PRICES OF CLOTHING AND OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS.

In regard to the method of treatment of the clothing and miscellaneous groups, it is to be explained that, as in the case of fuel and light, the inquiry is in general restricted to the four chief centres; further, except as regards fares, in respect of which accurate weights based on usage in the base period are available, enabling the aggregate-expenditure method to be employed, no satisfactory information is available or procurable which would enable individual weights to be allotted to each item. For this reason the same measure of precision is not possible in the treatment of these groups, but by selective balancing of representative items and arranging them in representative subgroups a measure of weighting is secured, each subgroup being treated as a separate unit. The ratios of prices at the date under investigation to the average of prices in 1926-30 for the various items comprising the different subgroups are first averaged (employing geometric averages), and the results so obtained are then combined in order to arrive at the price ratio for the group.

The movement of prices of clothing and miscellaneous items from year to year may be traced in the table under the next heading.

RETAIL PRICES.—ALL GROUPS.

From the collection of household budgets in 1930, the average household expenditure under various heads was found to be as follows:—

 Per Cent.
Food29.52
Housing21.93
Clothing, drapery, and footwear12.61
Fuel and light!6.17
Miscellaneous29.77

These weights are applied to the index numbers of the different groups in the process of arriving at the “all groups” retail price-index, with the exception that the weight applied to the miscellaneous group is 11-08 and not 29-77. Thus 81 per cent. of household expenditure is covered by the index number. The remaining 19 per cent. represents miscellaneous items for which it has been found impossible to obtain reliable price-quotations. Their omission has the effect of giving them the same general average price-movement as the 81 per cent. covered.

The following table shows the index numbers for all groups for each of the last ten years. It should be noted that the annual index numbers given represent the average price-level during each year, not at any of the particular points during the year at which the prices for the respective groups were collected:—

ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS.

(Base: Dominion weighted average of prices in 1926-30 in twenty-five centres in case of Groups I to IV, and average of prices in 1926-30 in four chief centres in case of Groups V, VI, and VII = 1000.)

Year.Food Groups.Rent.Fuel and Light.Clothing Drapery and Footwear.Miscellaneous.All Group Combined.Increase Percent Over July 1914.
GroceriesDaily ProduceMeatThree Food Groups
 (I.)(II.)(III.)(I-III.)(IV.)(V.)(VI.)(VII.)(I-VII.) 
*Month of July.
1914*624718759703535585686601628..
19221,10098581395872410451,2741,10395251.6
1923104310098629657929981,193105595952.7
19241060105392010058599851,139103398456.7
192510441043100810309129931,1111015100459.9
1926104710459941026962100210601013101060.8
1927101510109379831000100510171033100159.4
1928103310069791004101410119951002100660.2
1929973999105210131019992980986100459.9
19309329391033974100799194798698156.2
193189180783484595398786998690644.3

The index numbers for all groups combined had not fluctuated to any great extent between 1922 and 1930. The 1931 annual average index number (906) showed a fall of 7.6 per cent. when compared with the 1930 figure, and an increase of 44.3 per cent. over the July, 1914, level of retail prices.

WHOLESALE PRICES.

In most countries index numbers of wholesale prices are compiled from the rice data available in trade journals or from the published reports of wholesale markets. In New Zealand wholesale markets scarcely exist, and consequently price data for the wholesale-prices investigation have been collected from wholesale merchants and traders, who from the volume of the business they transact are able to supply representative information.

Since 1917 such wholesale-price quotations have been collected monthly, the inquiry being for the most part confined to the four chief centres. In the case of a few commodities (e.g., newsprint), of which there is a local consumption so large that the article can scarcely be omitted from the price-index, yet for which no actual local market exists, the inclusion of the commodity in the index number has been rendered possible by ascertaining movements of prices from the import statistics. Statistics of imports and exports as a source of price data have, however, been avoided as far as possible, on the ground that where quotations are obtained from traders care can be taken to ensure that the grade, &c., quoted for is kept constant. A considerable volume of data as to wholesale prices was secured from merchants and traders (and in a few cases from import figures) by means of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information was secured to permit of the compilation for each year from 1891 onwards of a “general” wholesale-price index number based on the prices of 106 commodities.

During 1926 a revision of the wholesale price-index was effected, specially designed, inter alia, to permit of the inclusion in the index number of several such items as motor-spirit, &c., the importance of which has increased enormously of late years. As the maximum usefulness of the revised wholesale index number will no doubt be found in future comparisons rather than in comparisons with the past, such new commodities have been allotted weights proportioned not to their 1909-13 consumption, but to their present-day consumption divided by a figure representing the ratio of the present-day population to that of the years 1909-13. The list of commodities represents a wide range, covering articles of homo production and of foreign production, of farm, mine, marine, factory, &c., origin, and representing all stages of production.

Index numbers under the revised system have been compiled only from 1913 onwards, the indexes shown for years prior to 1913 in the following table having been recomputed from the former indexes on the basis of the relationship of the old and new figures for 1913.

The base adopted for purposes of the wholesale-price inquiry is the average of the wholesale prices in the four chief centres during 1909 to 1913, the price quotations from the various merchants being so combined that each return from any given town has the same weight in the averaging process as any other return from that town, while in obtaining Dominion average prices for any given commodity each of the four centres is given the same weight.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Index Number.Year.Index Number.Year.Index Number.
189110161905101619191,782
18929931906103819202,092
18949471908102819221,665
1895940190997019231,598
18969641910100519241,634
18979631911101619251,627
18989931912106419261,553
18999131913101219271,478
19009371914105319281,492
190195119151,18419291,488
190299619161,27319301,449
190397519171,44919311,336
190494219181,705  

Full details of the revised system were given in the 1927 number of this book. A schedule of the various commodities covered by the inquiry, classified by groups and with the class indicated in each case, was published in the 1925 number of the “Annual Statistical Report on Prices, &c”;

The wholesale-price index is purely a commodity index, no attempt having been made to cover the wholesale prices of services such as the supply of electric power, transportation,&c.

For purposes of the wholesale inquiry recourse is had to a modification of the method of the retail-prices investigation-the aggregate expenditure method. The 1927 Year-Book gives a detailed account of this also.

The following table shows annual wholesale index numbers by groups.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS BY GROUPS.

Group1913.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
1. Foodstuffs. &c., of vegetable origin-
A. Agricultural produce9671,729I4401,6311,5841,5371,275
B. Fresh fruit and vegetables10311,2891,4641,2471,4081,2151,104
C. Milled agricultural products98219281,7131,7131,6961,7181,645
D. Other vegetable foodstuffs and groceries10101,6841,7101,6821,6421,6231,660
A-D. Four subgroups combined9911,7081,5931,6361,6121,5761,475
2. Textile manufactures10202,0942,0101999195618621,681
3. Wood and wood products10722,07719791954197419981887
4. Animal products—
A. Meats1,1111,3781,3131,3701,4501,4491037
B. Raw animal products (not foods)10851,2871,4171,6631,341840649
C. Leather1,1261,5621,57718891,7181,5021,244
D. Manufactured foodstuffs and groceries of animal origin10301,4871,4271,4531,4811,2821,112
A-D. Four subgroups combined10881,4101,3681,4491,4651,3531035
5. Metals and their products932107010119519689891028
C. Non-metallic minerals and their products-
A. Mineral oils1004895752762803802757
B. Coals1037187518921903189118681848
C. Other non-metallic minerals and their products10261,7371,7231,7111,7021,6721,661
A-C. Three subgroups combined10221,4531,4001,4061,4171,4011,373
7. Chemicals and manures10301,2231,1711,1671,1631,1551,101
All groups combined10121,5531,4781,4921,4881,4491,336

In the next table index numbers are given by classes from 1922 to 1931. The table also shows the separate index number for such imported items as are included in the wholesale-price investigation; alongside which, for purposes of convenience of comparison, are set the index numbers of locally produced items included in the wholesale-price series. The export price index number is also included for purposes of comparison, but it should be noted that this index is computed by a different method from that adopted in connection with the computing of the wholesale-price index.

These index numbers should be taken for no more than they purport to represent, viz., the movement in wholesale prices of those commodities covered by the wholesale prices inquiry which belong to the respective classes. The figure for Class III, for instance, does not purport to show the movement in building costs, nor does that for imported items purport to be an index number of import prices.

The index numbers for all classes combined and for imported items have been revised, and so differ from corresponding figures appearing in previous issues of the Year-Book.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS BY CLASSES.

Year.Consumers' Goods.Producers' Materials, &c.Imported Commodities.Locally-produced Commodities.All Classes combined.Index Number of Export Prices.
Class I: Foodstuffs.Class II: Non-Foods.Class III: Materials for Building and Construction.Class IV: Materials for other Industries.
Average 1909-1310001000100010001000100010001000
19221,49619512,2611,7101,7281,6131,6651,363
19231,5651,7952,1751,5861,5551,6331,5981,610
19241,5921,7902,1511,6601,5341,7141,6341,788
19251,6111,7422,1271,6621,5161,7201,6271893
19261,4961,6522,0341,6201,4371,6491,5531,540
19271,4591,58419451,5071,3761,5621,4781,525
19281,5151,56018901,5241,3461,6131,4921,683
19291,5191,55118971,5151,3421,6081,4881,623
19301,4301,52819121,4901,3321,5451,4491,283
19311,2391,48718331,3821,3091,3591,336984

Of the total base aggregate expenditure, Class I represented 30.1 per cent., Class II 20.5 percent., Class III 7.4 per cent., and Class IV 42.0 per cent., while the imported items aggregated 42-S per cent. of the total.

Broadly speaking, the peaks for groups comprising mainly exported articles represented a lower level than the peaks for groups comprising mainly imported articles. The prices both of New Zealand's staple exports and of her staple imports are, in general, determined by world-market conditions; so that, roughly, the prices in New Zealand of articles of export represent world prices minus the cost of transport, insurance, duties, &c., while the prices in the Dominion of articles of import represent world prices plus the cost of transport, insurance, duties, &c.; all of which items during the war period increased considerably more rapidly than did the prices of commodities.

The index numbers for all classes show considerable decreases in 1931 as compared with 1930.

WHOLESALE PRICES IN NEW ZEALAND AND ENGLAND

The following table of comparative wholesale prices in England and New Zealand during June, 1932, is of interest as showing the relative prices of agricultural and dairy produce in the two countries:—

Item.Unit.EnglandNew Zealand.
Description.Price.Description.Price.
*April,1932
   £s.d. £s.d.
Flour2,0001bLondon straights843New Zealand121510
WheatCwt.English Gazelle065Tuscan0810
Oats081Gartons0103
PotatoesTonGood English1050New Zealand table6176
ButterCwt.New Zealand4186New Zealand 1st grade568
BaconDanish2150New Zealand sides430
WoolLb.Victoria good average009Merino007*
CheeseCwt.New Zealand2166New Zealand303

Wheat, flour, and bacon are considerably dearer in New Zealand than in England, and butter, oats, and cheese are also dearer; while potatoes and wool are lower in price in this country.

EXPORT PRICES

For some years past index numbers have been compiled and published at monthly intervals, indicating the direction and extent of fluctuation in the level of prices in New Zealand produce exported. These index numbers were based on the declared values for export as recorded by the Customs Department, while each commodity included in the compilation was accorded ah importance corresponding to the quantity of that commodity exported during the particular month or year under investigation. For example, the annual index number for the year 1931 indicated the relationship between the total value in that year of exports, of items included in the index numbers and the value of the quantities of the various commodities exported in 1931 at the average prices ruling during the years 1909-13, the base period of the investigation. Thus the weight or importance of each item in the regimen of the index number varied according to fluctuations in the quantities exported from month to month and from year to year.

The exports of several of our staple products exhibit a marked and well-defined seasonal cycle, so that certain commodities are scarcely represented in the export-price indexes for certain months, these months being more or less fixed from year to year for each separate commodity. If the commodity thus regularly appearing and disappearing exhibited a price-movement very different from that of the remainder of exported commodities, the price-index for exported commodities as a whole would inevitably exhibit fluctuations from month to month that were in one sense fictitious; for it was possible for a change thus to be recorded in the export-price index, although the actual prices per unit of every single commodity included in the index number had not altered.

In normal times, however, there is no great disparity in the price-movements of the more important commodities included in the index number; so that an increase or decrease in the relative importance of any particular item in any one month (or year) was not likely to affect the index number materially. During the last two years, however, the collapse in prices has not distributed itself evenly over the whole field of commodities exported. For instance, the fall in wool prices has been considerably greater than that recorded in any other principal commodity. As a consequence, material fluctuations were caused in the monthly index numbers, which were not due to price-movements alone, but rather to fluctuations in the quantity of wool exported from mouth to month. This influence was particularly marked in the “slack” period of the exporting season.

In order to remedy this weakness in the index number, the system of compilation has been modified; the “weight” allotted to each item included in the new series now introduced being the average quantity of that item exported during the previous five exporting seasons-i.e., years ended 30th June.

By adopting a moving average of quantities exported over a series of years as weights, it is considered that, the new index number will still retain the advantages of a system of moving weights in that major changes in the character of the export trade of the Dominion will be reflected in the weight allotted to each item of export included in the compilations. At the same time the haphazard fluctuations caused (particularly to monthly index numbers) by adventitious changes in quantities of different commodities exported from month to month or from year to year will be avoided.

In the revision of the export-price index numbers, the opportunity has been taken of revising the grouping of commodities somewhat in order to permit of a closer analysis of the effect of price-movements on different sections of the producing community. Up till the present time the “all groups” index number has been taken generally as indicative of the movement in export prices of farm-produce; and, while this is substantially in accord with fact in that over 90 per cent. of total exports can be classified under this heading, it is considered that it would be more informative to compile group index numbers for pastoral produce, agricultural produce, timber, and minerals separately in addition to an “all groups” index number covering all New Zealand produce exported. In addition, pastoral produce is subdivided into four groups-wool, meat, dairy-produce, and other pastoral produce.

Several new items have been included in the list of commodities covered-namely, coal, gold, silver, frozen pork, opossum-skins, grass-seeds, beechwood, and honey. The items formerly classified under the heading “miscellaneous group” have been either distributed among appropriate existing groups or included in the two new groups-timber and minerals. The minerals group includes coal, gold, silver, and kauri-gum. The inclusion of gold was considered proper and desirable, gold being an ordinary item of export. Indeed, an index number which omitted gold would not be truly representative, gold production being of considerable importance in the economy of the Dominion, and would not properly indicate the movement in general export prices, owing to the fact that the value of gold moves in the opposite direction from that of most other commodities. The exclusion of gold would tend to exaggerate the upward movement in prices in times of prosperity, and to overstate the fall in times of depression.

The revised index numbers for all groups combined and for all pastoral produce are shown in the next table, compiled on the base: 1909—13 = 1000.

Export Prices.—Index Numbers (Revised Series).

Year.Group 1: Dairy produceCroup II: Meat.Group III: WoolGroup IV: Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I-IV: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural Produce.Group VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I-VII: All Groups combined.
1914…10311,19610991,1001095988100010091089
1915…1,2061,3921,2221,1471,2511042102310391,239
1916…1,3641,4341,7251,3801,4781,238109010631,460
19171,5361,6571,77319651,66319431,18710951,655
19181,5521,6731,7772,171109118751,1021,1621,684
19191,7161,66518022,4711,7871,79719281,1991,776
192018191,69618002,31818241,4182,2521,3381,619
19212,27319098351,2971,7251,3292,4371,3911,713
19221,4951,6159241,2401,3521,4512,3331,3711,363
19231,6482,0091,2741,4291,6191,3382,1391,3301,610
19241,6612,01519021,59518061,3772,3831,3011,788
19251,5202,2182,234195110141,4702,4721,2501893
19261,40918551,4271,6431,5411,4492,5151,1821,540
19271,3751,7031,5261,6171,5291,4172,4091,1291,525
19281,4761801192418051,7001,3502,33810811,683
19291,45718271,7101,7031,6341,4242,38010781,623
19301,2061,71210031,2431,2791,2672,44710621,283
19319891,3016797679651,155219l1,177984

Export prices collapsed in the later months of 1930, the annual average index number for that year (1283) representing a fall of 310 points as compared with the 1929 figure. This rapid downward movement in export prices continued during 1931, the annual average figure for that year reaching the extremely low level of 984-1.6 per cent. below 1909-13 export prices. Each individual group shared in this collapse with the exception of the group minerals; while the index number for wool (679) was considerably lower than that recorded for any other group.

The index number for the group “All pastoral and dairy produce” has fallen from the comparatively high level of 1700 in 1928 to 965 in 1931-a decrease of almost 43 per cent. during the last three years.

EFFECT OF PRICE MOVEMENTS ON FARM EXPENDITURE.

Prices of a large selection of farm-products are included in the official wholesale and export price index numbers. Many of the principal items of farm expenditure, however, are not covered by the wholesale price index, which is purely a commodity index. A special index number has now been constructed in which such items as interest-payments, rates and taxes, wages, freight, and commission are included in addition to the material commodities which are bought for use in farm production. Statistics of prices of farm-implements, saddlery, harness, and sundry other commodities not already covered by the wholesale prices inquiry have also been obtained from merchants and manufacturers of farm machinery, and included in this index, so that practically the whole of the working-expenses of the average farm are now represented. A full description of the method of compilation of this index number is contained in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book.

While it is considered that the farm expenditure indicates the effect of price movements on farm expenditure generally, it is not intended to apply to particular types of farming or to particular localities. Again, the weights used in compiling the index are fixed, so that it is assumed that expenditure is distributed in the same proportions during each year under review.

Indexes for the years 1922 to 1931 (on base 1914 = 1000) are given below. For purposes of comparison the general indexes of wholesale and retail prices, and the export index number for all pastoral and dairy produce combined, are also included on the same base year.

Year.Farm Expenditure Index.Pastoral and Dairy Produce Export Price Index.General Wholesale Price Index.All Groups Retail Price Index.
19141000100010001000
19221,5431,2351,5811,516
19231,5931,4791,5171,527
19241,5861,6491,5841,567
19251,582174S1,5461,599
19261,5551,1071,4751,608
19271,5741,3961,4031,594
19281,6421,5531,4171,602
19291,6361,4921,4131,599
19301,6281,1681,3761,562
19311,4908811,2691,447

The peak year for the farm-expenditure and wholesale-price index numbers was the year 1920; for retail prices, the year 1921; and for export prices, the year 1925. Although the farm-expenditure index lad a relatively low peak-level (1001) this index has not fallen to the same extent as the other indexes, the 1931 figure (1490) being still considerably above the 1911 level of prices-in marked contrast to the export-price index number for pastoral and dairy produce, which was, in 1931, 11.9 per cent. below the corresponding figure tor the year 1914.

It is interesting to compare the farm-expenditure index with the export-price index. From 1915 to 1921 the export-price index was the higher-the difference being 235 points in 1917. In 1921 the position was reversed, the farm-expenditure index in that year being 31 points above the export price-level. By the year 1922 the export index had dropped to 1235, the farm-expenditure index for this year (1543) being 308 points above that figure. A recovery in export prices during the two succeeding years once more brought this index to a higher. level than the farm-expenditure index, the 1924 index being 03 points and the 1925 index ICO points higher. Export prices again fell away: and since 1925 the export index has remained below the farm-expenditure index, the difference in 1931 being 609 points.

SHARE PRICES.

The fluctuations in the market value of shares listed on the Stock Exchange form a very sensitive indication of changes in business conditions generally, and an index number of ordinary share prices is thus a valuable complement to other business indicators-such as trade and production statistics, wholesale and export price index numbers, &c. Index numbers of share prices, based on the market prices of forty-nine leading shares on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges, are now compiled by the Census and Statistics Office. The selection of the shares for inclusion in the index number has been made with the object of reflecting New Zealand economic conditions; and, consequently, only companies whose business is conducted largely or wholly in New Zealand have been included. Again, only ordinary shares-the return on which varies directly with the profits of the company in which shares are taken-are considered; preference shares and other investments normally bearing a fixed return being excluded.

The market prices on which the index numbers are based have been extracted from Stock Exchange lists of individual exchanges prior to September, 1929, and from the list of share prices included in the Stock Exchange Gazetteand its successor, the Official Record of the Stock Exchanges of New Zealand since that month. The prices quoted relate to the last trading day in each month; so that the “monthly” index numbers compiled from this data relate to that day only, while the annual averages represent the average of the monthly index numbers. The base adopted is the average price ruling during the year 1926 (-1000). For further observations on the methods employed refer to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for August, 1932.

Following are annual index numbers for various groups and all groups combined

Share Price Index Numbers

Group.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Banks100099910241029883718
Insurance100098410741,1431023921
Loan and agency10009029561032763517
Frozen meat100091610451041835646
Woollens100096310431,180977792
Breweries10008938791,3261,201773
Gas100010021012109710601008
Timber1000801675603480323
Minerals10019779971058991859
Miscellaneous100098910431052855678
All groups combined …1000966100210,111913739

NOTE:—These index numbers are comparable horizontally but not vertically.

In the following table index numbers of market prices of ordinary shares on the last trading-day of each month since January,1926, are shown. This index indicates the average movement in prices of forty-nine ordinary shares in companies operating in New Zealand; each individual share and group of shares included being “weighted” according to its importance in the investment market of the dominion.

Share—Price Index Numbers, All Groups Combined.

1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
*No lists issued for these months.
January9889819711056957748715
February9929319711058964751680
March9999809791059956779671
April10049859841056945781666
May10089719911067950755669
June10189559861079948742674
July10109529971054916738708
August99995110211091892697738
September100094810351083834687764
October99595510371052858728..
November98896610421038830734..
December***1012*729..
Annual average10O096610021061913739..

International comparisons of price indexes can be made only with considerable caution; but, in the case of the indexes of share prices, selected for inclusion in the table below, many of the difficulties attendant on such comparisons are lessened by the facts that all series are compiled on the same base year (1926) and that the method of compilation of each of the indexes is substantially comparable in each case. Naturally enough, the indexes for England, United States, and Canada are based on a much wider selection of shares than the New Zealand or the Australian figures; and, moreover, the volume of transactions on the exchanges in these countries is such that a finer market price can be arrived at than is possible in the Dominion.

The following table shows the highest and lowest monthly indexes for 1929, 1930, 1931, and the month of April, 1932:—

Month.New Zealand (Official).Australia* (Melbourne Stock Exchange Record).England (Bankers' Magazine).,Canada (Official).United States (Standard Statistics Company).
*May, 1920 = 100
1929-Highest108108124209225
Lowest10192110157151
1930-Highest9683111167181
Lowest835389103109
1931-Highest786590112122
Lowest6950676558
1932-April6762645444

While the index numbers in the above table show the movement in ordinary share prices in each country covered, comparisons of recent index numbers for one country with those for another country should not be made without taking into account the relative exchange value of the various local currencies. For example, the index numbers quoted for New Zealand express the movement in share prices in New Zealand currency, the exchange value of which has depreciated since the beginning of 1930-a factor which should be borne in mind when comparing New Zealand indexes with figures for countries still on the gold standard; or, conversely, with currencies of a lower exchange value than the New Zealand pound. The following table is interesting in this connection, in that it shows the relative values in April, 1932, of an investment of £100 sterling made in 1926 in representative shares on each of the different stock exchanges.

Country.Month of April,1932.
Index Number of Share Prices (1920 = 100).Average Rate of Exchange on London.Present Value of Shares bought in 1926 for £100 Sterling.
In Local Currency.In Sterling.
*Per £100 sterling.
    £
England64 £ 6464
Canada54$4.1730$262½63
New Zealand67£ 109.5*£ 6761
United States44$3.7524$21457
Australia62£ 125.25*£ 6250

Chapter 36. SECTION XXXVI.—WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOUR.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE material used in the compilation of statistics of wages in New Zealand is taken almost entirely from the awards of the Arbitration Court. It is recognized that the rates specified in such awards are minimum rates, and that wages may in some cases be above the prescribed minima, so that a rise or fall in the award rates does not necessarily connote an immediate change in the wage rates of workers being paid more than these rates. Nevertheless, for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage rates over any considerable space of time, the award rates form a more reliable basis than any information which could be collected directly from employers or trade-union secretaries as to the riding or predominant rates in any industry. In the case of two important classes of workers-agricultural and pastoral employees and railway employees-no awards exist. Information has been obtained from the Labour Department as to the ruling rates of wages in the former case, and from the Railways Department in the latter ease.

The award rates for the four principal districts-Northern, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland-have in general been taken as representative of the ruling wages throughout the Dominion. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in cases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts the award rates for that centre have been used. For instance, the rates used for coal-mining and sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

The system of compilation of wage index numbers has been revised, separate index numbers now being compiled for men and women workers.

WAGE RATES OF MALE EMPLOYEES.

Method of Weighting.

The wage rates used in the compilation of the index numbers for male workers are those paid to adult workers only. In weighting these rates three sources of information as to the numbers engaged in the various occupations have been drawn on— viz., (1) the occupations statistics of the 1926 census, (2) the annual factory production statistics, and (3) the membership rolls of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. It is possible to allocate weights to the individual occupations included in these computations. Although in some few cases absolute accuracy in weighting cannot be hoped for, the data are sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view, since minor differences in weighting do not affect the accuracy of the index number. Occupations are grouped into industries, with an appropriate weight for each occupation and each industry; while industries are grouped into fourteen principal industrial groups. The weights for the individual occupations and industries have been devised from the census or the factory production statistics; while the industrial-group weighting has been taken from the membership, as at 31st December, 1926, of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act, except in the case of agricultural and pastoral workers, the weights for which industrial group have been interpolated, using the 1926 census figures as a basis. Trade-union membership is relatively very low for this typo of worker. For full detail of weighting refer to the “Statistical Report on Prices, Wages, & c.,” for the year 1928.

Nominal—Wage Index Numbers.

The following table shows the index numbers of nominal wages of males for each industrial group and all groups combined. The base is the Dominion weighted average wages for all groups combined, 1909—13 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1914.1923.1924.1925.1920.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
food, drink, and tobacco1,1671,7391,7981840180218751883188218851,791
Clothing, boots, Act10201,6051,61010551,67710981,7301,7321731033
Textiles and weaving9591,5711,5711,57110281090109010901,6771,533
Building and construction1,1591,7011,7231,7371,78418041810181518191,715
Wood—manufacture10501,7101,7391,7501,7001,7921834181118411,725
Printing, Are.1,288191319132,0032,0122,0132,0122,0132,0141890
Metal—working and engineering1,1011,7701,771181218221882188218851,3851,757
Other manufactures1028109310931,7071,7551,7091,7731,7801,7781072
Mining1,11210871,70018401819180218491822183l1,724
Agricultural and pastoral8831,2971,3071,3051,3311,3781,5811,5841,6761,379
Land transport1011103510441,7121,7141,7391,7481,7511,7511039
Shipping and cargo—working1,1211,795180418351842184918491,30719211818
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1,1181,5521,6371,5751002102010311,63110311,537
Miscellaneous10001,509102411,15010851,7101,7371,7381,7381035
All industrial groups combined10001,5991034105910831,7101,7051,7071,7721044

NOTE.—The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally. Where board and (or) lodging is a usual perquisite attached to any occupation, an allowance estimated to cover the value of such has been added to the money wage.

The highest index numbers are recorded in the group “printing, …&c.,…” the 1931 index in this industry being 1890 and representing an increase of 1890 per cent. above the “all groups” level in 1909—13. It is worthy of note that this group is consistently high, the 1914 index 6238 being considerably higher than that recorded in any other industry. The preponderance of highly skilled tradesmen in this group is, no doubt, the cause of the high average level of wages.

The index for the group “agricultural and pastoral …”(6379) is the lowest, followed by …”textiles and weaving (1533), and “hotels and restaurants” (1537). In the “agricultural and pastoral,…” “hotels and restaurants,…” and “shipping and cargo-working …” groups the estimated value of board and lodging is added to the money wage in order to make a legitimate comparison with other industries. In the case of waterside workers (an important subgroup of the shipping group) this allowance is, of course, omitted.

Wages rose steadily and in fairly regular gradations from year to year from 1914 to 1918. When the provisions of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act providing for the regulation of wages in accordance with movements in the cost of living came into effect the lag between prices and wages was partially eliminated; consequently sharp increases took place —160 points between 1919 and 1920, and 116 points between 1920 and 1921. The effect of the post-war slump thereafter becomes apparent, decreases being recorded in the two subsequent years (1922 and 1923). the nominal wage index for all groups of industries falling from 1666 in 1921 to 1612 in 1923. Following the recovery from the slump, the index number rose year by year until in 1929 it reached 1767, and, in 1930, 1772, the highest level yet recorded. A general order of the Arbitration Court, dated 29th May, 1931, reduced all rates of pay and allowances prescribed by awards and industrial agreements by 10 per cent. The rates of remuneration of apprentices are exempt from this order; and, in addition, flax-mill employees in the Wellington Industrial District, who had already suffered a substantial cut in wages, were exempted. The average rates of pay of agricultural and pastoral workers, although not subject to the Court's order, are considerably below those ruling in 1930. As a consequence of these reductions a substantial fall is recorded in the 1931 annual average index numbers for all groups, the combined index number (1644) being the lowest since the year 1924. This reduction in wages, being on a strictly percentage basis, has caused a levelling up in the group indexes, the relatively higher-paid groups of workers suffering the largest reduction in money wages.

The following table shows the index numbers of male wage rates for all groups combined for each industrial district and the Dominion weighted average. From this table comparisons may be made between the index numbers for the four principal industrial districts. The base is the Dominion weighted average wages for all industrial groups combined, 1909—13 (= 1000).

Year.Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Dominion.
191410461069106810721066
19231,6041,5981,6421,6121,612
19241,6221,6211,6711,6321,634
19251,6471,6341,6981,6701,659
19261,6651,6581,7291,6991,683
19271,6871,6801,7771,7201,710
19281,7521,7591,7841,7671,765
19291,7551,7621,7881,7701,767
19301,7591,7651,7881,7991,772
19311,6451,6361,6641,6291,644

NOTE.—The wage indexes in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally

Effective Wage Rates.

The index numbers quoted in the foregoing pages relate to nominal wages-that is, they are based on actual money rates without any allowance being made-for changes known to have occurred in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit during the period under review. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance; for a rise in wages may be offset by a fall in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit. Changes in the index numbers of retail prices are inversely proportional to changes in the purchasing-power of the pound; and index numbers of effective (or “real”) wages can be arrived at by dividing the index numbers for nominal wages by the corresponding index numbers for retail prices covering all groups of domestic expenditure. To this end the index numbers of nominal wages on the base 1909—13 = 1000 are first converted to the base 1914 by dividing them by the correction factor 1—066, the 1914 index number of nominal wages of males on the former base being 1066. The resulting nominal-wage index numbers on the new base are then divided by the retail price indexes (all groups) on base July 1914 = 1000, and the resulting quotient multiplied by 1000 yields the effective-wage indexes for the years concerned.

The base for the table following is the purchasing-power of Dominion weighted average wages for all industrial groups combined, 1914 (= 1000.)

Industrial Group.1914.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Food, drink, and tobacco10951,1041,1021,1041,1321,166
Clothing, boots,…&c9659991013101610411062
Textiles and weaving9009989939951007997
Building and construction108710611060106510921,115
Wood—manufacture9851064107410801,1061,121
Printing, …&c1,2081,1841,1791,1811,2091,229
Metal—working and engineering1,1171,1071,1021,1061,1311,143
Other manufactures96410411038104410051087
Mining10711096108310691,1111,121
Agricultural and pastoral828811926929946897
Land transport97710231024102810521066
Shipping and cargo—working10521088108310961,1541,182
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1049957955957980999
Miscellaneous93810061017101910441063
All industrial groups combined100010071034103710001069

NOTE.—The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

In the compilation of index numbers of effective wage rates no allowance has been made for changes in the hours of labour, in the volume of unemployment, or in other miscellaneous factors affecting the distinction between real and nominal earnings.

It will be observed that the 1931 annual average index number of effective wage rates is slightly higher than that for 1930, the fall in nominal wage rates (which, in the main, became operative from May, 1931) being more than compensated for by a substantial reduction in retail prices during the year. Again, as the general wage reduction does not apply to the first four months of the year, the annual average nominal wage indexes do not show the full effect of this reduction.

The table which follows shows the movement in retail prices, and in nominal and effective male wages since 1914.

The “all groups …” effective-wage index numbers were slightly above the 1914 figure in 1927, and have since moved upwards gradually, reaching a maximum figure of 1009 in 1931. Wage rates increased between 1927 and 1930, the improvement in the effective wage index being caused both on account of this increase, and also by a fall in retail-price levels. This fall was sufficiently substantial to offset the effect of the all-round reduction in wages in May, 1931, on the annual average index number for that year.

Year.Retail Prices.Nominal Wages.Effective Wages.Year.Retail Prices.Nominal Wages.Effective Wages.
191410001000100019291,5991,6581037
19271,5941,604100719301,5621,6651006
19281,6021,656103419311,4431,5421069

Movement in Individual Groups.

The index numbers in the preceding tables being all on a common base, comparisons between movements in the various groups cannot be readily made; an increase of (say) 10 per cent. in the group “clothing and boots,” in which the index numbers are consistently low, being considerably smaller numerically than an increase of the same percentage in (say) the printing trade, where the index numbers are considerably higher. The following tables bring out the movements in the various groups more clearly, the 1914 index number for each group being taken as base in each ease.

The bases in the following table are the Dominion average wages for each industrial group respectively, 1914(=1000).

Nominal —Wage Index Numbers (Males).

Industrial Group.1914.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Food, drink, and tobacco10001,6071,6141,6131,6151,537
Clothing, boots, …& c.10001,6501,6811,6831,6841,587
Textiles and weaving10001,7691,7691,7681,7481,598
Building and construction10001,5571,5021,5651,5691,479
Wood-manufacture10001,7071,7471,7531,7531,643
Printing, …& c.10001,5631,5631,5631,5631,468
Metal-working and engineering10001,5801,5801,5831,5821,476
Other manufactures10001,7211,7251,7301,7311,627
Mining10001,6301,6191,5941,6031,509
Agricultural and pastoral10001,5611,7901,7941,7851,562
Land transport10001,6711,6791,6831,6811,575
Shipping and cargo-working10001,6491,6491,6661,7141,622
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service10001,4541,4591,4581,4581,375
Miscellaneous10001,7101,7371,7381,7381,636
All industrial groups combined10001,6041,6561,6581,6651,542

NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative percentage increases of-wages in the different industrial groups since 1014, not of the actual relative levels of wages in the different industries.

The bases in the following cable are the purchasing-powers of dominion average wages for each industrial group respectively, 1914 (=1000).

Effective —Wage Index Numbers (Males).

Industrial Group.1914.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Food, drink, and tobacco1000995998100810341065
Clothing, boots, …& c.100010221039105210781,100
Textiles and weaving1000199510931,1051,1191,107
Building and construction100096496597810041025
Wood-manufacture10001057108010961,1221,139
Printing, …& c.100096896697710011017
Metal-working and engineering100097897798910131023
Other manufactures10001066106610811,1081,128
Mining10001009100199610261046
Agricultural and pastoral10009671,1061,1211,1431082
Land transport100010351038105210761091
Shipping and cargo-working100010211019104110971,124
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1000900902911933953
Miscellaneous10001059107410861,1131,134
All industrial groups combined10009931023103610661069

NOTE: —Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative percentage movement of effective wages in the different industrial groups since 1914, not of the actual relative levels of wages in the different industries.

Care must be exercised in drawing inferences from these tables, for, while horizontal comparisons are quite valid, the vertical comparison between the various groups is valid only in so far as it shows in which groups the greater or the smaller increases have been observed since the base period 6914 in this case. For example, although nominal wages of males in the “textile and weaving” group show in 1931 an increase of 59 —8 per cent. since 1914, while those in the group “mining” have increased by only 50 —9 per cont., nevertheless wages were higher in the latter group in 1931 since they were considerably higher in 1914 — the base year.

The movement in nominal wages was very even as between the different industrial groups, being, with one or two exceptions in 1931, between 50 and 55 per cent. above the 1914 level. The groups “wood manufacture,…” … “other manufactures,…” and “shipping and cargo working …” show the greatest increase since 1914. Wages in the two former groups were relatively low in 1914, particularly in the case of the “other manufactures” group. Average wage rates in the shipping and cargo-working group remain relatively high, the wages of two important classes of workers in this group-namely, seamen and firemen continuing at the 1930 rates.

WAGE RATES OF WOMEN WORKERS.

Index numbers showing movements in the wage rates paid to women workers have been compiled, using the award rates of the Arbitration Court as representative of the ruling rates of wages. A much smaller list of occupations is used than is the case in computing index numbers of wage-movements for male workers. Although only fourteen occupations are taken into consideration in the case of women workers, it has been ascertained that those occupations cover a large proportion of the total women in industry-more than sufficient to be a representative sample for measuring movements in wages. The weights used have been computed from the data as to occupations made available by the 1920 census results. In order to arrive at district weights the Dominion totals were split up in proportion to the numbers of women registered in the various unions in the different industrial districts.

The table following shows index numbers for women divided into the principal industries in which women workers are engaged. It should be remembered that domestic servants (numerically a very important branch of women workers) are not represented in the compilation of those indexes.

The highest index numbers are recorded in the “hotel and restaurant workers group”. The comparatively high level of wages in this industry is, no doubt, accounted for by the fact that board and lodging is a usual perquisite of hotel workers, while meals are usually provided for restaurant employees. The estimated value of these additions has been added to the money wages in this industry. Women, in general, receive lower money wages than men, so that the addition of board and lodging has the effect of raising wages for women in a much greater proportion than the addition of the same perquisite does in the case of men. Indeed, wages for men in this group are low as compared with most other industries.

In the printing trades the next highest level of wages is recorded, followed closely by shop assistants. Wages in the clothing and textiles trades are at a lower level than those in the other industries under review.

In the table following the base is the Dominion “all groups” weighted average wages, 1900 —13 (— — — 1000).

Nominal —Wage Index Numbers (Women).

Year.Clothing Trades.Textile Workers.Printing-trades Employees.Hotel and Restaurant Workers.Shop Assistants.All Groups combined.
19149199199061,4249191,134
19231,4361,3641,7082,0591,4201,707
19241,4361,3641,7282,0671,5591,723
19251,4441,36418002,0871,5871,740
19201,5141,44518002,1041,5871,780
19271,5141,50318082,1091,6421,790
19281,5191,50318092,1131,7541803
19291,5191,50318092,1131,7541803
19301,5191,50318152,1131,7541804
19311,4311,4151,71019891,6511,698

The movement in effective wages (i.e., nominal wages corrected for movements in the purchasing-power of the pound) are indicated in the table following: —

Effective —Wage Index Numbers (Women).

Group.19141927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
(Base: Dominion “all groups” effective wage in 1914 = 1000.)
Clothing810841836838858£ 75
Textiles810831827829848865
Printing799100099699710251045
Hotels and restaurants1,2561,1671,1631,1651,1931,216
Shop assistants8109089669679001009
All groups100099099399410191037
(Base: Effective wage in each group in 1914 = 1000.)
Clothing100010331031103410581079
Textiles100010241021102310471067
Printing10001,2521,2471,2491,2821,307
Hotels and restaurants1000929926928950968
Shop assistants10001,1211,1921,1941,2221,245
All groups100099099399410191037

AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES.

The following table shows the unweighted averages of award rates for the four principal districts as at 31st March of 1914 and of each year from 1928 to 1932.

The estimated value of board and lodging has been added to the wages in those occupation where it is a necessary perquisite of employment.

Average Minimum Weekly Adult Wages.

Occupation.Average Wage (Four Principal Districts).
At 31st March,
191419281929193019311932
 s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
Bakers—Journeymen55 0100 0100 0100 0100 090 0
Labourers48 080 680 680 680 672 6
Butchers—First shopmen72 6116 10½116 10½116 10½116 10½105 2
Second shopmen62 6105 0105 0105 0105 094 6
Butter-factory employees —
Churning and buttermaking —
General hands52 081 981 981 981 973 9
Flour-milling—Kilnmen48 096 096 096 096 086 5
Assistant smuttermen48 088 088 088 088 079 2
Rollermen56 0100 0100 0100 0100 090 0
Meat-freezing—
Slaughtermen (per 100 sheep)27 640 040 040 040 036 0
General hands54 091 891 891 891 882 6
Meat-preserving—
Boners62 0103 7103 7103 7103 792 3
Meat-preservers — Second man59 695 495 495 495 485 10
Sausage-casing making— General hands58 895 495 495 495 485 10
Aerated-waters and cordial making —
Cordial-makers58 993 093 093 093 083 9
Bottle-washers45 083 083 083 083 074 8
Brewing-Labourers47 7½83 683 683 683 674 8
Tailors-Journeymen53 995 095 095 095 085 6
Factory hands56 087 687 687 687 685 6
Tailoresses (factory)—Journey women57 645 045 045 045 040 6
Boot operatives —
Male52 688 1188 1188 1188 1180 0
Female journeywomen27 650 050 050 050 045 0
Woollen-mills —
Males-Spinners51 093 993 993 993 984 5
General hands46 682 682 682 682 674 3
Females-All adults26 345 045 045 045 040 6
Building and construction —
Bricklayers68 5…¼99 11…¼99 11…¼104 6104 694 1
Carpenters64 3½101 9101 9101 9101 991 7
Joiners (outside work)64 3½101 9101 9101 9101 991 7
Plasterers67 9½99 11102 3102 3104 193 8
Plumbers (competent)66 099 099 099 099 089 1
Builders …' labourers52 6½82 682 682 682 674 3
Sawmilling, bush —
Engine-drivers, first class54 0104 6104 6104 6104 694 1
Lawyers53 0½103 4103 4103 4103 493 0
Tailers-out43 989 1089 1089 1089 1080 11
Yardmen55 8…¾100 2100 2100 2100 290 2
General hands51 084 486 986 986 978 1
Boatbuilding-Shipwrights62 8103 8…¼104 6104 6104 694 1
Metal-works,…& c.—
Blacksmiths, floormen61 799 099 099 099 089 1
Boiler making-Journeymen62 899 099 099 099 089 1
Iron and brass moulders64 7½99 099 099 099 089 1
Tinsmiths-Journeymen62 899 099 099 099 089 1
Engineering —
Fitters, …&c.64 7½99 099 099 099 089 1
Electrical workers61 10½99 099 099 099 089 1
Motor mechanics64 11½99 099 099 099 089 1
Occupation.Average Wage (Four Principal Districts).
At 31st March,
1914.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
* A further reduction of 10 per cent. Became operative as from 1st April, 1932.
Skin and leather workers—s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Curriers5801020102010201020919
General hands496858858858858771
Mineral and stone workers—
Bookmakers5311 1/21042104210421042939
General hands469 1/2864864874874787
Mining (coal)—
Surface—Tippers537 1/29088778778777810
Labourers543 1/29088778778777810
Engine-drivers, first class67611601176117611761059
Miners on day wages6331102106101061010010952
Truckers5511941929936936842
Mining (gold)—
Miners in rises or winzes with machines646942942942942849
Quarrymen528 1/2853 1/4853 1/4853 1/485 769
Agricultural and pastoral workers—
General farm hands (agricultural)420690690690690455
Harvesters700930930930930750
Ploughmen484700700700700488
Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)230326350340300260
Shepherd4928008008008004911
Wool-pressers300976976946820750
Dairy-farm hands444690690690690435
Railways—
Engine-drivers (average grade 1 and grade 2)75011241124112411241011*
Firemen (average grade 1 and CO grade2)09459459459458411*
Guards (average grade 1 and grade 2)6301100110011001100990*
Tramways—Motormen536946950950950856
Conductors4771/2896906906906816
Shipping and cargo-working—
Assistant, stewards, first class4359339339339338311
Assistant stewards, second class36690119011901190118110
Chief cooks780125612561256125611211
Second cooks54111071107110711071964
A.B. seamen5411100210021002992972
Ordinary seamen, first class458783783783773753
Waterside workers—Ordinary cargo624972972102810281925
Hotel workers—Chefs (male)112613201320132013201189
Waiters (male)530870870870870783
Cooks (female)526796796796796717
Housemaids320626620626026563
Waitresses431626626626626563
Miscellaneous—
Soft-goods assistants (male)550950950950950856
Warehouse storemen5131/4850850850850766
Grocers1 assistants500950950950950856

The wage rates published above are, with two exceptions, minimum rates of pay as prescribed in awards of the Arbitration Court. No awards exist for general farm hands, information as to wages for these wage-earners being collected from Inspectors of Factories in the principal industrial districts. A special inquiry as to rates of pay in this industry was made by this Office in 1929 to ascertain how closely the wage rates offered for labour engaged through the Employment Bureaux corresponded to the actual ruling rates for farm labour. The results of this inquiry are contained in the 1931 issue of the. Year-Hook (pp. 813 —815). The rates of wages quoted for railway employees are also actual ruling rates, and not award minima.

HOURS OF LABOUR.

The following table shows index numbers of hours worked in the various industrial groups for 1014 and for each year from 1922 to 1931. The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court in most cases; but where hours are not prescribed in the awards reference has been made to the Factories Act and the Shops and Offices Act. The agricultural and pastoral workers group has been omitted from the computations, which cover both male and female employees. The base is the Dominion weighted average hours worked in all industrial groups combined. 1909 —13 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1914.1922.1923.1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Food, drink, and tobacco993949948945945945945945945945945
Clothing, boots, &c.928901901901901901901901901901901
Textiles and weaving976934934934934934934934934934934
Building and construction910900900901901901901901901901901
Wood-manufacture951914914917917917917917917917917
Printing, &c.973889889890890890890890890890890
Metal-working and engineering958910908908908908908908908908908
Other manufactures973947946945945945945945945945945
Mining958908908920920920918918918918918
Land transport1002930929952952952952952952952952
Shipping and cargo-working10541098109810981098104310431043104310431043
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1,203982982982982982982982982982932
Miscellaneous955901897890890890890890890890890
All industrial groups combined995943942946946941941941941941941
NOTE:-The index number in the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

The index, numbers in the above table being all on a common base, comparisons between movements in the different groups cannot be readily made. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly, the 1909 —13 hours worked in the case of each group being taken as the base in each ease for that group. Caro must be exercised in drawing inferences from this table; for while horizontal comparisons can be rigorously effected vertical comparisons are of value only for the purpose of indicating which groups have shown the greatest and which the smallest decreases since the base period.

INDEX NUMBERS OF AVERAGE HOURS WORKED.
Industrial Group.1909-13.1914.1922.1923.1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Food, drink, and tobacco1000995951950947947917917947947947947
Clothing, boots, &c.1000997968968968968968968968968968968
Textiles and weaving10001000957957957957957957957957957957
Building and construction1000983983983984984984984984984984984
Wood-manufacture10001000961961964964964964964964964964
Printing, 7c.10001000909909910910910910910910910910
Metal-working and engineering1000997947945945915945945945945945945
Other manufactures1000999972971970970970970970970970970
Mining10001000948948960960960958958958958958
Land transport1000999927926949949949949949949949949
Shipping and cargo working10009801020102010201020969969969969969969
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1000990808808808808808808808808808808
Miscellaneous1000962907903896896896896896896896896
All Industrial groups combined1000995943942946946941941941941941941
NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative percentage changes in hours worked in the different industries since the base period, not of the actual respective number of hours worked in the different industrial groups.

The outstanding feature of the table is the gradual and almost uninterrupted decline in the index number. The increase recorded between 1923 and 1924 is due almost exclusively to an increase in the hours of labour in certain branches of the Railway service.

The following tables show the index numbers for the various districts. In spite of the fact that certain industries are more or less confined to certain districts and that, consequently, fluctuations arise from this fact alone, the index numbers show remarkably little variation as between district and district. The base both in this and —The next table is the Dominion weighted average hours worked for all industrial groups combined, 1909 —13 (= 1000).

Chapter 37. SECTION XXXVII.—LEGISLATION SPECIALLY AFFECTING LABOUR.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

AT a very early stage in the economic history of New Zealand, legislative enactments designed for the protection of the wage-earner and the amelioration of social conditions generally were placed on the statute-book. It is not surprising that such Acts as the Trade-unions Act of 1878 and the Master and Apprentices Act of 1865 found places among the laws of this country so early in its history, since experience in the older countries in a more advanced state of economic development had proved the necessity for a certain amount of State regulation of the terms of the wage contract. But legislators of New Zealand were not content merely …' to follow in the wake of their brethren overseas; and we find the. State, in its endeavour to improve social conditions generally, not only regulating industry by a rapidly growing code of labour laws but also venturing into the economic field itself when it considered such participation in the public interest. The establishment of a Government Life Insurance Department in 1869 and of a Public Trust Office in 1873, and in later years the establishment of a State Fire Insurance Office, are examples of this.

In addition to the Master and Apprentices Act and the Trade-unions Act, certain sections of other early Acts deal with labour conditions. Section 23 of the Offences against the Person Act of 1867 protected servants and apprentices from ill treatment by their employers, while a considerable portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act of 1877 regulated conditions of life aboard ship, payment of wages, …& c. The Inspection of Machinery Act of 1882 provided for the inspection of machinery in factories, …& c., and required that persons in charge of boilers should be properly qualified. An Employers' Liability Act was passed in 1882, this Act legislating in the matter of industrial accidents with the object of mitigating the consequences to the worker without recourse to expensive litigation at common law.

Until recent times factory production was of very minor importance in New Zealand when compared with that of the agricultural and pastoral industries; nevertheless, even in the “eighties …” and early “nineties …” it was apparent that some of the evils experienced in the early stages of the development of factory production in the older countries already existed in New Zealand; and, during the lean years between 1885 and 1891 (during which period there was an excess of emigration over immigration of about 15,000), the grim spectre of unemployment hovered over the erstwhile prosperous colony. In 1889 it was alleged that “sweating …” existed in New Zealand, especially in the clothing trades; and, although a Commission set up to inquire into the matter declared it could find no traces of this evil, a minority report did not fully agree with this view, and it was admitted that conditions were unsatisfactory in various respects.

An important measure affecting labour passed during this period of stress was the Electoral Act of 1889, which established the principle of “one man one vote. …” This enactment prevented property-owners with holdings in several electorates from voting in each electorate. The extension of the franchise to women followed four years later.

The maritime strike of 1890, which caused great distress throughout the country, proved to the trade-unions that they were not sufficiently strong to obtain their demands by direct action; and, at the same time, aroused public interest and caused the Legislature to frame measures designed to prevent the recurrence of such industrial strife in the future. A brief resume of the enactments affecting labour passed during the period 1890 —98 is here given.

The Truck Act of 1891 ensured to the worker the payment of his wages in fi11 in coin of the realm; the Wages Attachment Act of 1895 limited a creditor …'s right to obtain orders of Court attaching forthcoming earnings; the Factories Act of 1891 provided for the inspection of factories and the regulation of conditions of employment therein; and the Shops and Shop-assistants Act of 1892 provided similarly for the benefit of workers in shops. Trade-unionists, who were protected by an Act passed in 1878 from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that they were in restraint of trade, were still further protected by the Conspiracy Law Amendment Act of 1894, which deemed that any act by a union in furtherance of a trade dispute should not be deemed unlawful so as to render such persons liable to criminal prosecution for conspiracy, if such act committed by one person would not be deemed unlawful. This removed a very serious handicap under which unionists up to this time had suffered. The Servants Registry Act of 1895 provided for the inspection of servants registry-offices and regulated the fees charged therein. The Shipping and Seamen Act Amendment Act, 1894, contained, inter alia, clauses improving conditions aboard ship. The Coal-mines Act of 1891 contained, in addition to clauses aiming at the improvement of working-conditions, provision for a fund-to be established by a levy on all coal sold-for the relief of the families of miners killed or injured during the course of their employment. The inspection of accommodation provided for shearers was dealt with in the Shearers Accommodation Act of 1898, which also gave the Inspectors authority to demand that, where necessary, improvements should be made. The scope of this Act was extended in 1907 to include agricultural labourers and flax-mill and sawmill hands. Other important measures affecting workers passed during these years were the Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, which provided for the payment of a yearly pension to every person (with only a limited number of exceptions) over sixty-five years of age with twenty-five years residence in the country; and the State Advances to Settlers Act of 1894, which, by providing for the advancing of money to settlers on the land, gave the poorer classes an opportunity of acquiring rural holdings.

The most important of the labour laws passed during this period was the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act of 1894, which was designed for the peaceful settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. This Act is dealt with in some detail in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book (pps. 707 —710).

Another interesting experiment brought into operation at this time was the construction of public works under the co-operative system, which was adopted by the Government in 1891. Works such as road and railway formation have been carried out by this system, the plant, explosives, … c., being supplied to the men by the State at cost price or at low hire. A modified form of the system then adopted is still followed in public works construction.

The enactments passed during the period 1890 —98 form the nucleus of the labour code at present in force in this country, although in some cases administrative experience has found defects in the working of certain sections of these Acts and rendered subsequent amendments necessary; while the rapid economic development of the country and the growth of new ideas on the subject of labour legislation has led to many additions to the enactments passed during that period. The passing of the Labour Department Act in 1903, giving statutory recognition and powers to the Department of Labour, which had been formed in 1891, was an important milestone in the progress of labour legislation in New Zealand. The duties of the Department are to administer the labour laws and to furnish information in all industrial matters, while power is given to collect statistics with the authority wherewith a commission of inquiry is invested.

In 1905 a Workers Dwellings Act was passed authorizing the Minister of Labour to erect dwellings to be let to bona fide workers at a rental of 5 per cent. per annum of the capital value of such dwellings, and in the following year a system of advances to workers for the purpose of acquiring homes was instituted. Later statutes dealing with the same subject were the Housing Acts of 1910 and 1919 and the State Advances Act of 1913, which, as amended in 1923, is the existing law on the subject. A section of the Finance Act, 1932 (first session), contains authority for the capitalization of arrears of interest in respect of State advances. This provision, which was designed for the temporary relief of mortgagors, expires automatically in May, 1935. Certain sections of the War Legislation Amendment Act of 1916 dealt with house rents; the maximum rent being fixed by statute at 8 per cent. per annum of the capital value of the dwelling, except in cases where the dwelling had been erected, improved, or structurally altered since the commencement of the Great War. Material alterations in the law from 1st August. 1927, were made by the Rent Restriction Act, 1926. which also enacted a repeal of the whole legislation on the subject as from 1st January, 1928. A postponement of the changes to 1st May, 1928. was made by the Rent Restriction Continuance Act, 1927. which kept the rent restriction provisions in force till 1st January, 1929. Further postponements in respect of the latter have since been made, the date of expiry now standing at 1st August, 1933.

In order to encourage the principle of profit-sharing among workers the Companies Empowering Act was passed in 1924, empowering any company registered under the Companies Act, 1908, to issue labour shares to its employees. Such shares, which are not transferable, have no nominal value, and do not form part of the ordinary capital of the company. Except as otherwise provided, these shares entitle the holders to the same privileges as the ordinary shareholders. In the event of an employee leaving his employment or dying, the shares must be surrendered in cash or capital shares to him or to his heirs. The Act of 1924 required the Arbitration Court to inquire into the merits of each scheme before such scheme could be validated, but this requirement was repealed in 1931.

In 1910 an Act was passed establishing a National Provident Fund subsidized by the State; and in the following year the Widows' Pensions Act was placed on the statute-book. In 1926 a scheme of allowances to parents of three or more children was provided for by the Family Allowances Act. These Acts are referred to in detail in Section XXIV of this book.

An important addition to the labour laws of New Zealand was made in 1930 by the-passing of the Unemployment Act. Details of this enactment and of its amendments of 1931 and 1932 are given later on in this section.

With but few exceptions, the labour legislation on the New Zealand statute-book is designed for the protection of individual sections of workers; for example, the Factories Act applies to factory workers, the Shops and Offices Act to employees in shops and ollice3, the labour clauses of the Shipping and Seamen Act to seamen, and the Coal-mines Act …'o miners, …&c. The Arbitration Act has a wider scope in that awards are made under it covering almost every type of industry carried on in the country. From another point of view, however, it is specific in application, in that only unions registered under the Act come under its provisions, and that each award applies to a particular body of workers in a particular trade and usually in a definite district or locality. Acts like the Workers' Compensation Act are more general in their application, but it is only such enactments as the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act (which has replaced the old Wages Protection Act), as well as other statutes on cognate subjects, which are general in application. Certain sections of the Bankruptcy Act, which give priority of payment for wages or salaries of workers (with certain ' Rations as to amount and period) in preference to certain other debts in the case of the bankrupt' of an employer, fall in the same category. Under the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, wages now take precedence over rents. Under the Companies ' Act wages (with the same limitations as under the bankruptcy Act) are a first claim on the assets of a company being wound up.

In no case do the provisions laid down by any particular labour law cancel the worker's rights at common law; but since, naturally enough, better conditions are laid down by statute than the worker is entitled to at common law, it is unusual to find in these days litigation under the common law affecting master and servant. It sometimes happens, however, notably in workers ' compensation cases, that appeal is made at common law instead of under the Act, since there are no statutory limits to the damages which. may be obtained at common law.

Since with the exception of such of the labour statutes as are of general application, no labour legislation exits affecting certain classes of worker e.g., domestic servants there relations with their employers are governed mainly by the common laws affecting master and servants.

PRINCIPAL LABOUR LAWS.

Following is a list of the more important Acts dealing partially or exclusively with the regulation of conditions of employment and cognate subjects:—

Factories Act. 1921—22.Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925.
Shops and Offices Act, 1921—22.Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1913.
Workers' Compensation Act, 1922.Unemployment Act, 1930.
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act, 1908.Shipping and Seamen Act (certain sections), 1908.
Scaffolding and Excavation Act, 1922.Mining Act (certain sections), 1927.
Apprentices Act, 1923. 

Each of the Acts listed above is reviewed in some detail in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book (page' 705—710).

RECENT AMENDMENTS TO LABOUR LEGISLATION.

During the past two years several laws designed to mitigate the severity of the economic depression have been enacted. Certain of these laws formulate definite amendments to the previously existing code of labour legislation, while other enactments, which cannot, however, be classed as labour laws, affect wage-earners in common with other sections of the community. Among the latter, the following emergency measures, passed during the 1931 sessions of Parliament and the first session of 1932, may be cited: The Mortgagors Relief Act, 1931, and its amendments of 1931 and 1932, which, inter alia, empower the Courts to vary the terms of a mortgage; and the Immigration Restriction Act, 1931, which empowers the Governor-General to make regulations restricting the number of immigrants entering the country. Both these statutes lapse on the 31st December, 1933. Again, certain sections of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, enforce a statutory reduction in rents and interest on mortgages, reductions in old-age and other pensions, and in family allowances paid under the Family Allowances Act.

Recent amendments to laws directly regulating wages and working-conditions are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs:—

Finance Act, 1031.—Part I of this Act reduced salaries, wages, &c., of persons in the Public Service by 10 per cent. In Part II of the Act the Arbitration Court is empowered to amend, by general order, awards or industrial agreements with respect to rates of remuneration. The Court, is also empowered to amend apprenticeship orders in respect of rates of wages.

National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.—This Act included provision for a further reduction in salaries, &c., of persons in the Public Service; salaries and wages not exceeding £225 per annum being reduced by 5 per cent., while those of £225 to £720 were reduced by 10 per cent.; those exceeding £720 by 12A per cent.; and. in addition, certain specific reductions of 15 per cent. were made.

Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment, 1932.—This Act amends the law in two important respects.

In the first place, the Act as now amended provides for compulsory conciliation but voluntary arbitration among unions registered. If an agreement is made between employers' and workers' representatives at Conciliation Council proceedings, such agreement is registered under the Act and becomes binding on both parties. In the event of no agreement being arrived at, the dispute may be forwarded by mutual consent to the Arbitration Court for decision; but if the parties fail to agree to either of these courses, the award lapses thirty days after the break down of conciliation proceedings. An exception is made, however, in the case of female workers. Upon application by an industrial union the Court will issue an order fixing minimum rates of wages that may be paid to female workers, not-withstanding the fact that the award covering these workers has been cancelled.

Secondly, the-Act now makes provision for the review of existing awards. Any union (of employers or workers) may apply for the review of an existing award in force not less than six mouths, and with an unexpired term of not less than three months. Such an application shall be set down for hearing by the Conciliation Council as nil industrial dispute.

Unemployment Act, 1930, and Amendments of 1931 and 1932.—In the last few years unemployment in New Zealand, in common with other countries, has assumed serious proportions. A committee was set up in 1928 to investigate the problem; and, following on the; presentation of its report, an Unemployment Act was passed in 1030. Particulars of the taxation provisions of the Act, as amended in 1931 and 1032, are given in Section XXIII of this volume. One-half of the total expenditure from the Unemployment Fund was originally borne by the Consolidated Fund by way of subsidy, but this provision in the Act was repealed in an amending Act in 1932.

An Unemployment Board is established to assist in the administration of the Act. The Board consists of the Minister charged with the administration of the Act (who is Chairman), the Commissioner of Unemployment, and three members appointed by the Governor-General.

In order that the Board may effectively function, it is empowered to establish labour exchanges or to co-operate in the management of labour exchanges established by the Labour Department or otherwise; to take steps to ensure co-operation between the different Government Departments, local authorities, and other public bodies carrying out public works, so that the employment provided will be evenly distributed throughout the year. The Board is further empowered to make inquiries into new industries which may be profitably established in New Zealand; to assist unskilled workers to lit themselves for employment by the vocational training of such workers; and to make grants or loans to persons or authorities to enable them to carry on works calculated to relieve unemployment. The 1932 amending Act also empowers the Unemployment Board to make provision for the settlement of unemployed workers and their families on cultivable land, acquiring the land if necessary by expenditure from its funds.

The Act of 1930 authorizes the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund, but this authority has not been utilized, the funds being devoted to that subsidizing (or refunding in full) of wages of men for whom work has been provided under various relief schemes. The 1932 amendment, however, authorizes the Unemployment Board to expend moneys m the purchase of food, clothing, or other necessities; and since the passing of this amendment ration-cards have been issued in necessitous cases as a supplement to payment for relief work.

The employment of an unregistered person or of a person who is more than one month in arrears with any instalment of levy is an offence under the Act.

Finance Act, 1932.—Section 56 of this Act makes provision for the amendment, suspension, or cancellation of contracts of apprenticeship entered into under the Apprentices Act, 1923; On application of any party a Stipendary Magistrate may vary the terms of, suspend, or cancel such a contract; provided the Magistrate is satisfied that, owing to the economic conditions affecting the industry, the employer cannot be reasonably expected to carry out the terms of the contract.

Chapter 38. SECTION XXXVIII.—TRADE—UNIONS.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS.

THE numbers and memberships of industrial unions of employers registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act as at the end of each of the last five years are shown in the following table.

As at 31st March,Industrial District.Totals.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.
Number of Unions.
1927343029297232136
1928332930297222134
1929323330297222137
1930313331287222136
1931303229287221131
Membership.
19271,2251,0581,589925164782585,072
19281,2261,0521,572933166721685,045
19291,2131,1931,5411,717178651665,929
19301,1601,1871,4781,787173611635,865
19311,1301,0571,1591,268176751234,880

The number of unions of employers and their membership rose gradually to 149 unions, with 5,819 members, in 1914, the year following that of the prolonged water-side workers' strike. Since that year there have been many slight variations, a considerable decrease being recorded in 1931—a reflection of the adverse economic conditions prevailing.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF WORKERS.

Industrial unions of workers and their membership are shown in the following table as at the end of each of the last five years. It should be noted that the statistics cover only unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and that all unions are not so registered.

As at 31st March,Industrial District.Totals *
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and SouthlandTaranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.
*Including unions of railway employees—not included in figures for any district.
Number of Unions.
192710080651001871415401
192810081671001871314403
192910081701001881517409
193010180711001991716416
19311007769961991715405
Membership.
192726,07925,94117,67314,9121,7454956112,483101,071
192826,62026,11217,83514,9431,8165386432,449103,980
192925,68025,75117,81914,2801,7255986962,827102,646
193026,01225,46316,86614,5571,8305967812,581101,526
193123,23822,48415,65112,4731,7955757621,94690,526

In drawing inferences from the preceding table allowance must be made for the fact that, as these figures represent the numbers on the rolls of the various unions, a certain amount of duplication takes place, it being quite possible for a worker to be a member of two or more unions at the one time, especially in the case of a casual occupation such as waterside working. It is quite impossible to form any idea as to the extent to which such duplication takes place; but it is very unlikely that it occurs to such an extent as to affect materially the total figures.

The membership of workers' unions rose year by year, without exception, from 17,989 in 1900 to 73,991 in 1914. It fell off during the war years, but a phenomenal rise was recorded in 1919, the year immediately following the cessation of hostilities. The total for 1928 (103,980) is the highest so far recorded. Decreases in membership were recorded in 1929, 1930, and 1931, the last-mentioned in particular reflecting the economic depression.

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership:—

Year.Under 50.50 and under 100.100 and under 200.200 and under 300.300 and under 500.500 and under 1,000.1,000 and under 2,000.2,000 and under 3,000.3,000 and over.Totals.
Number of Unions.
1901994330195411..202
192712784742739252041401
192813180772736272041403
192914182722932281951409
193014984722734262031416
193116277583130291431405
Membership.
19012,7593,0184,0324,8152,0732,5201,6512,900..23,768
19273,6075,95110,2136,28015,09416,72324,8969,1909,117101,071
19283,5775,66310,4516,49813,96618,88926,3319,6198,986103,980
19293,8135,85610,1707,02912,10618,62124,47311,4159,163102,646
19303,9916,0719,9736,72613,36618,99126,6326,8578,925101,526
19314,3045,6657,9667,57811,24420,60218,5666,7447,85790,526
Percentage of Total Membership.
190111.6112.7016.9620.268.7210.606.9512.20..100.00
19273.575.8910.116.2114.9316.5524.639.099.02100.00
19283.445.4510.056.2513.4318.1725.329.258.64100.00
19293.715.719.916.8511.7918.1423.8411.128.93100.00
19303.945.989.826.6213.1618.7126.236.758.79100.00
19314.756.268.808.3712.4222.7620.517.458.68100.00

The steady growth in the average size of industrial unions of workers is brought out in the above table. It is noteworthy that while the actual number of unions has increased from 202 in 1901 to 405 in 1931, an increase of 100 percent., the membership has increased from 23,768 to 90,526, an increase of 235 percent. The increase in membership in unions containing 300 members and over is particularly marked.

INDUSTRIAL AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

In the next table industrial unions of employers as at the end of 1931 are shown according to industry, and membership according to district.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS AS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1931.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Totals.Number of Unions.
Food, drink, &c.298130134126........68815
Clothing, boots, &c.3250291218..6..14711
Building-and construction12931828321017......95726
Wood-manufacture8344275........15910
Paper-manufacture and printing7443344011......20213
Metal-working and engineering63171830........1286
Other manufactures....95........142
Mining. &c.1....4........52
Agricultural and pastoral1492923867006261....1,65010
Land transport94582221........1955
Shipping and cargo-working13241413714639412
Hotels, restaurants, &c.175..121..11......3074
Miscellaneous19818210250......33415
Totals1,1301,0571,1591,268176751234,880131

The most noteworthy feature of this table is the extremely high membership of unions of agricultural and pastoral employers. As will be seen from the table immediately following, this is in marked contrast to the position respecting unions of workers, a position due no doubt to the fact that many small farmers belong to the employers' unions. The workers, on the other band, are almost entirely seasonal workers, especially in the case of the majority of those unionized—viz., the shearers and the threshing-mill employees. In these cases the workers travel round and work for several employers in the one season.

It is worthy of note that the Otago and Southland District, while lower than the other principal districts in respect of number of unions of employers, has actually the highest number of members. This is due to a relatively large membership in the “Agricultural and pastoral “group.

Similar information to that given for industrial unions of employer. —“now given for workers' unions, as at the end of 1931.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Totals.Number of Unions.
* Including 3 unions of railway employees, with a total membership of 11,602.
Food, drink, &c.2,4393,9382,3771,9227049032..11,50249
Clothing, boots, &c.1,8344611,4221,032......164,76519
Textiles and weaving147602298587........1,6349
Building and construction2,9163,8732,2011,753191201938311,23071
Wood-manufacture87251540845640..217003,01224
Paper-manufacture and printing702888551576....7212,74519
Metal-working and engineering1,5711,6641,15375514813191475,54231
Other manufacture52315421126835..61..1,25226
Mining, &c.2,254....328......4603,04214
Agricultural and pastoral7251,0573,0441,339..269....6,43411
Land transport1,3841,4691,147677975076..16,502*25*
Shipping and cargo-working2,7964,0508991,17621550882819,55538
Hotels, restaurants, &c.2,1241,4111,11255025765681805,7679
Miscellaneous2,9512,4028281,05410818251587,54460
Totals23,23822,43415,65112,4731,7955757621,94690,520*405*

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS.

At 31st December, 1931, there were 13 industrial associations of employers and 34 of workers, the former having 73 affiliated unions and the latter 228. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case.

Industrial Group.Employers.Workers.
Associations.Affiliated UnionsAssociations.Affiliated Unions
1930.1931.1930.1931.1930.1931.1930.1931.
Food, drink, &e.1122441919
Clothing, boots, &e.1143221212
Textiles and weaving........1155
Building and construction332726655445
Wood manufacture22910221212
Paper manufacture and printing221212331414
Metal working engineering1144341924
Other manufactures        
Agricultural and pastoral11441..2..
Land transport........221625
Shipping and cargo —work111010443234
Hotels, restaurants, &e.........1199
Miscellaneous1122663739
Totals13137473353423122S

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an analysis of the proportion of workers belonging to unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to the total number of wage-earners in the country (from Census returns). Space considerations preclude its repetition, but it may be stated that the percentages at five-yearly intervals 1900—25 were: S, 11, 19, 24, 26, 24. Considering the proportions at the end of 1925, the lowest ratio of unionists was amongst agricultural and pastoral workers (6 per cent.), and the highest, shipping and cargo-working (67 per cent.), building and construction (65 per cent.), and food and drink, &c. (61 per cent.).

Chapter 39. SECTION XXXIX.— EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT.

INTRODUCTORY.

EXCEPT for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available.

Unemployment was well known to have been acute in the middle and late “sixties,” owing to the paralysing effect of the Maori wars in the-North Island and to the collapse of the alluvial gold booms in Otago and West land. At no time, however, during the depression of the late “sixties” does there appear to have been any unemployment among females. With the inauguration at the beginning of the “seventies” of the Vogel policy of public works and assisted immigration, employment was available for large numbers of new arrivals. At the beginning of the “eighties” scarcity of funds for the prosecution of public works necessitated, along with other considerations, the checking for a space of the stream of assisted immigrants. By 1883 the position had materially improved; but unemployment once more became serious in the late “eighties” and early “nineties,” mainly owing to the fall in the prices that New Zealand's products (notably wool) were fetching in the World's markets, and to a further slackening of the rate of prosecution of public works. During both of these periods the unemployment position was so acute as to be responsible for a considerable exodus of male population to Australia and elsewhere.

Direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand is available from t he census (since 1896) and from the records of I lie Labour Department (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade-unionists. and of monthly employment in factories and works, have been collected in recent years by the Census and Statistics Office-the former from 1925 to 1930 and the latter since 1926.

The collection of data from trade-union secretaries as to unemployment among unionists has been discontinued, more reliable statistics as to the extent of unemployment being now available as a result of the activities of the Unemployment Board set up after the passing of the Unemployment Act of 1930.

CENSUS DATA ON UNEMPLOYMENT.

The great disadvantage of the Census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only, and consequently does not throw light on the rapid fluctuations in unemployment which are characteristic of periods of economic stress. Nevertheless, the census provides reliable data as to the actual numbers unemployed on the census dates?, and. while information has been available from other sources as to the movements in unemployment from time to time, it has hitherto been extremely difficult to gauge the actual total of unemployed wage-earners in the country at any particular time from any other source. Moreover, the census provides data as to unemployment in conjunction with such interesting relevant facts as conjugal condition, nationality, length of residence, age, religion, &c. combinations of data which are not readily available from other sources of information as to unemployment.

Census.Number of Males Unemployed.Proportion per Thousand Male Wage-earners.
12 April, 189614,759100
31 March, 19018,46748
12 April, 19068,18939
2 April, 19117,15230
15 October, 19165,92026
17 April, 192111,06139
20 April, 192610,6943,

A more comprehensive survey of unemployment than had previously been Attempted was made at the 1926 census, data being obtained as to the number of working-days lost during the twelve months immediately preceding the census through sickness, accident, or injury, and through lack of employment not due to strikes or lockouts. A concise description of the results of the 1926 census inquiry on unemployment is contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 850—56), while full statistics are published in Volume X of the results of the 1926 census.

EMPLOYMENT BUREAUX OF LABOUR DEPARTMENT.

The creation of. The Labour Department in 1891 has not only assisted to deal with the problem of unemployment, but has been the means of useful statistical data being obtained and recorded. The figures relating to the activities of the employment bureaux of the Department do not show the full volume of unemployment, but they may safely be regarded as roughly symptomatic of the general unemployment situation.

The following table shows the numbers of the unemployed assisted to employment from year to year by the Labour Department. The figures exclude the operations of the Women's Employment Branch of the Department, which was twice created (not under identical names) on these somewhat rare occasions when then; was a dearth of employment for women, and twice discontinued as urgency passed:—

Year ended 31ft March,Number assisted.Year ended 31st March,Number assisted.Year ended 31st March,Number assisted.
18922,69319066,71219204,205
18933,87419077,39319213,304
18943,37119086,30519224,989
18953,030190910,39119233,987
18962,87119108,50610243,877
18971,71819117,10219253,890
18982,03519125,73619263,397
18992,11519135,848192710,268
19002,14719145,645192815,246
19013,12419157,515192916,363
19021,83019165,978193021,890
19033,70419172,966193130,223
19042,86019182,952193218,328
19053,13019193,199  

Commencing with 1926, unemployment, particularly during the winter months, assumed substantial proportions, in spite of steps taken by the Government, local bodies, and private organizations to provide work. In 1929 and 1930 matters reached a stage which led to the passing of the Unemployment Act, 1930, the main provisions of which are given in Section XXXVII of this book.

The slackness in industry and trade already evident when the Unemployment-Act came into force has intensified to such an extent since the end of 1930 that, despite the employment of large numbers of men on various relief works under the control of the Unemployment Board, the number of unplaced applicants on the registers totally unprovided for has steadily increased.

The following table shows the position at quarterly intervals commencing with the first quarter of 1929. The highest levels (in heavy type) for each year are also included.

Week endedNumber of Placement during Week.Number of placements in Government included in Foregoing.Number of Registered Unemployed at End of Week.
Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Other Branch offices.Total.
18 Feb., 19293912451,0333473071885542,429
20 May, 19293862221,1514215582829963,388
19 Aug., 19294272828304736761787842,941
14 Oct., 19291,0779251,4546789066292,5976,264
18 Nov., 19295174347453344041519902,624
17 Feb., 19304283348174834001695802,449
20 May, 19303862221,151,4215582629963,388
18 Aug., 19302902541,2961,0069795661,7925,639
17 Nov., 19302992282,1321,0571,0184362,1256,768
15 Dec., 19301,0763713,1011,8541,7716874,02911,442
16 Feb., 19311,1807204,6473,3133,0581,8729,95222,842
18 May, 1931539895,0863,8144,4192,31423,92039,553
17 Aug., 1931138597,1564,9805,2502,87828,66849,132
5 Oct., 1931518337,1905,3785,2173,09230,53151,408
16 Nov. 1931446636,9215,4145.0532,94528,46248,795
15 Feb., 1932299565,8135,8544,6832,77725,94445,071
16 May, 1932524116,5775,1454,5563,22232,95152,451
15 Aug., 1932706356,9354,6254,7723,08536,98*56,402

In the compilation of the statistics care is taken to exclude from the figures of applications remaining on the books all cases of applicants for employment from whom the Department of Labour has not heard for fourteen days; it being assumed that such applicants have obtained employment through other means, such as private employment bureaux, newspaper advertisements, the good offices of friends and relatives, &c.

The relatively high level recorded on 14th October, 1929, is no doubt largely clue to the announcement by the Government of a comprehensive programme of relief works; all engagements on such works to be made from unemployed registered at the bureaux of the Labour Department.

The rapid increase in unemployment during 1930 and 1931 is illustrated in the following table, which shows new applications, placements, and total number of registered unemployed at monthly intervals. Since February, 1931, the numbers of men placed on Scheme 5 of the Unemployment Board are shown separately. They cannot be regarded as “placements “each week, nor are they wholly unemployed.

Week endedNew and Renewed Applications for Employment during'Week.Placements through Bureaux during Week.Registered Unemployed at End of Week.Registered Unemployed obtaining Relief —work under Scheme 5 of Unemployment Board.Totally Unemployed.
1930.
January 6926931,565..1,565
February 39193262.398..2.308
March 31,1202742.578..2,578
April 71,3182023.328..3.328
May —51,5502973.953..3,953
June 21,9448615,259..5,259
July —71,5653775,445..5,445
August 41,5853985.279..5.279
September 11,3653015.371..5,371
October 61.4512626,052..6,052
November 31.7103726.080..6.080
December 22,4554478,038..8,038
1931
January 54.9381,0028.703..8,703
February 24,9351.54317.556..17,556
March 26,06629129.43412.11017,315
April 63,15416337,59826,03711,561
May —44,64247736.92123,95012.971
June 13,97344342,52330.42512.098
July —32,85330546,35934,39611,963
August 32,56132848.39635.50412,892
September 72,72619451.01836,37414.644
October 52.27251851,40837,00914,399
November 22,14136150.28436,75813,526
December 71,92619647.09633,44613,650
1932
January 41.02812344,56122.26822,293
February 12,03440045,65430.44715,207
March 72,47923344,36832,39311,965
April 42.27120145,79933,33312,466
May —23,4—1236250.09334,98015,113
June 12,59643954,02740.87413,153
July —42,43177654,32842.97511,353
August 12.69868355,83745.51510,322

During the last twelve months a weekly average of upwards of 35,000 registered unemployed have been provided with partial employment under Scheme 5 of the Unemployment Board. These men are still included on the unemployment registers. Men employed on the more permanent relief schemes of the Unemployment Board, however, are withdrawn from the unemployment registers. It should be explained that the numbers shown as totally unemployed include men ordinarily engaged on Scheme 5, but standing down during the week shown in accordance with the system still in operation in country districts and formerly throughout the Dominion.

In making comparisons between registrations since the beginning of 1931 and in previous years several important reservations must be borne in mind. In the first place, the passing of the Unemployment Act provided the unemployed with a definite incentive to register, since the Unemployment Boar I made it clear that all workers engaged under its schemes for relief would be recruited from the ranks of the registered unemployed only. Consequently it is evident that the registered unemployed in 1931 and 1932 must more nearly approximate to the total unemployed in the Dominion than was the; case in previous years.

An analysis of registered unemployed into the principal occupational groupings during the first complete week in each quarter is set out below.

Date.Building Trades—men.Engineering Trades—men.Other Skilled Tradesmen.Labourers and Quarrymen.Farm Hands.Hotel and Restaurant Workers and Cooks.Others.Total.*
* Includes cases unspecified as to classification.
1930.
Mar. 10272141821,489169843872,652
June 9384228863,3322791206095,067
Sept. 84922731023,5352121467155,536
Dec. 81,0144502515,0022982041,2139.630
1931.
Mar. 93,3671,1922,08613,6131,2626801,55029,941
June 84,7081,8944,75520,4412,2947945,54943,453
Sept. 75,7802,1075,87525,1492.6707698,66851,018
Dec. 75,5301,8635,60822,5262,1167018,73647,096
1932.
Mar. 75,7732,0085.24919.9742,0307108,17944.368
June 136,5892,1646,33625.3653,1498329,68754,122

A significant indication of the depression in trade generally during 1931 and 132 is the increasing number of skilled tradesmen registered as unemployed. Normally there is very little incentive for skilled workmen to register at the labour bureaux, since the vast majority of placements through the bureaux are on unskilled work. The marked increase in registrations by skilled tradesmen in l932 is evidence of a willingness on the part of such workers to take any work that is offering, whether killed or otherwise.

The seasonal variation in unemployment is illustrated below. The average number of unemployed on the register during each month of the years 1927 to 1931 is expressed as a percentage of the average number so registered during these five years. A difference of 1 per cent. represents 106 registered unemployed.

Month.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
January12172222124
February14242325201
March16252627308
April17252932356
May19303243366
June22313150416
July23303552446
August26252952453
8eptember22222554483
October20224957480
November17182663463
December15 1791435
Average for year192412948381

During the years 1927, 1928, and 1929 the maximum monthly numbers of registered unemployed were recorded between May and August, while in January of 1927 and in December of 1928 the lowest numbers were recorded. During 1929 the normal seasonal fluctuation is observed, except for the sudden increase in October of that year consequent on the announcement by the Government that work would be found for registered unemployed. In 1930, however, the seasonal fluctuation was lost sight of in the abnormal increase in registrations during the later months of that year.

The increase in registrations during 1931 and 1932 is well illustrated by this table. It will be noted, however, that during October, November, and December of those years a slight recession from the peak figure established in September took place, consequent on the seasonal increase in employment, normal in the later months of the year.

Considerable interest attaches to the relative extent of unemployment in the major centres of population. The next table shows the numbers of registered unemployed at monthly intervals during 1930, 1931, and 1932.

Number of Registered Unemployed.

Week ended.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Other Districts and Post-offices.Total.
1930.
Jan. 63532574701353501,565
Feb. 38134014581246022,398
Mar. 38751905521346272,578
April 71,1405237362306993,328
May 51,1316147102981,2003,953
June 21,3806509113361,9825,259
July 71,4716448903642,0765,445
Aug. 11,2188019314521,8175,279
Sept. 11,4087081,0394431,7135,371
Oct. 61,7478921,0574551,9016,052
Nov. 31.0038041,0245081,8416,080
Dec. 12,3291,2001.3895472,5738,038
1931.
Jan. 51,3771,8001,3814913,3948,703
Feb. 24,4002,4152,0551,0517,63517,556
Mar. 26,6394,0884,0822,21612,40929,434
April 66,4034,0134,0342,38919,55937,598
May 44,5723,4254,0542,23522,63536,921
June 15,9523,9444,8602,54525,22242,523
July 66,5394,3134,9502,84827,70946,359
Aug. 36,9394,8055,0962,87428,62248,396
Sept. 77,3505,0235,3243,06230,25951,018
Oct. 57,1905,3785,2173,09230,53151,408
Nov. 26,9925,4155,0883,02729,76250,284
Dec. 75,3915,4075,1552,81428,26947,096
1932.
Jan. 45,6025,4685,0672,73825,68644,561
Feb. 15,8175,9025,1012,70526,12945,654
Mar. 75,7735,0374,2392,80326,51644,368
April 45,7405,0134.0102,88728,14945,799
May 26,2355,2794,2753,20131,10350.093
June 66,4205,2584,6642,93134,75454,027
July 46,5264,0574,5213,04235,58254,328
Aug. 16,7864,4924,7373,06536,75755,837

An interesting aspect of the geographical distribution of registered unemployed in recent months is the rapidly increasing volume of registrations in the secondary centres and country districts. Prior to the year 1931 registered unemployed in the four chief centres accounted for the vast majority of registrations throughout the Dominion: the actual proportion on 1st December, 1930, being 68 per cent. On 1st August, 1932 (the latest available date), the corresponding figure was 34 per cent. Another interesting point in this connection is the fact that, whereas the actual number of registered unemployed in each of the four cities is now (August, 1032) less than the maximum registered in recent months, unemployment outside the four cities is still growing in volume, the latest figure available being the highest yet recorded.

The highest number of registered unemployed in any individual city or town is recorded in the case of Auckland. Wellington and Christchurch follow considerably below Auckland; while in Dunedin the number of registered unemployed has been consistently much lower than in any of the other three chief cities. However, in making comparisons of this nature, it is necessary to take cognizance of the relative populations of the cities compared. The following table is of interest in this connection:—

Urban Area.Estimated Population. 1st April, 1932.Number of Registered Unemployed.
1st August, 1932Peak Level.
Number.Per 1000 Inhabitants.Number.Per 1000 Inhabitants.
Auckland218,4006.786317,38534
Wellington144,8004,492315,91141
Christchurch128.9004,737375,32541
Dunedin87,4003.005353,22237

The peak level up to the present time (August, 1932) was reached in Auckland on 31st August, 1931, with 7,385 registered unemployed; in Wellington on 11th January, 1932, with 5,911 registered unemployed; in Christchurch on 14th September, 1931 (5,325); and in Dunedin on 10th May, 1932 (3,222). It is interesting to note that in the cases of Auckland and Christchurch the highest points reached during 1932 are considerably lower than the maxima for 1931.

It should be remembered that only males are registered at the Employment Bureaux of the Labour Department, so that the figures quoted in the preceding pages do not take account of unemployment among women. Although no recent data are available as to the number of women and girls unemployed, this aspect of the unemployment problem has become serious, and a special committee was set up by the Unemployment Board in 1931 to co—operate with voluntary organizations in the relief of unemployment among women; and grants; have been since made from the Board's funds for this purpose.

UNEMPLOYMENT RELIEF.

Immediately unemployment began to be seriously felt in the winter of 1925 steps were taken by the State and by local authorities to absorb as much labour as possible on ordinary public works and on relief works. One of the first enactments of the 1920 session of Parliament was the Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment) Act, which empowered local authorities, without taking a poll of the ratepayers, to borrow moneys for the purpose of providing relief works for unemployed men.

In addition to providing direct employment as far as possible, the State further assisted by subsidizing expenditure by local authorities. In spite of the efforts of the general and local governments, however, unemployment continued in evidence; and, with a view to remedying the situation, the Government undertook, in September, 1929, to find employment within a specified time for all genuinely unemployed, provided that they registered at the Government labour bureaux and were willing and able to accept the work offered.

As will be realized from a survey of the recent statistics included in the immediately preceding pages, the magnitude of unemployment has grown very considerably since 1929. The question of providing some permanent solution of the problem has received a good deal of attention, and in 1928, arising out of a recommendation of the National Industrial Conference of that year, a committee was set up to go fully into the matter. Following on the report of this committee, an Unemployment Act was passed in the 1930 session of Parliament. Details of this enactment and its amendments are contained in Section XXXVII of this book.

Unemployment Board.

The Unemployment Board under the Act of 1930 and subsequent amendments comprises the Minister of Employment (Chairman), the Commissioner of Unemployment, and three other members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is Deputy Chairman of the Board. Details of the operations of the Board will be found in its annual report to Parliament for the year ended 31st March, 1932 (parliamentary paper H.—35, 1932). The following briefly outlines certain of the larger features of its activities:—

Scheme 1.—Subsidy on basis of £2 for £1 to local bodies on operations involving at least 50 per cent. labour cost.

Scheme 2.—Subsidy on basis of £1 for £1 on wages for work made available by private individuals, the Board's contribution being limited to a maximum of 7s. per day per man.

Scheme 3.'(.—As a Christmas 6930) relief measure, £8,789 was expended as a grant to local bodies to provide two days' work for each man who had been unemployed and registered as such for 14 days or over.

Scheme 4a.—Subsidy of 10s. per week (single men) and 20s. per week (married men) on wages paid to additional farm labour employed, board and lodging, where necessary, to be provided by the employer.

Scheme 5—This scheme is designed to provide partial employment for unemployed, mainly in the larger centres of population, with the co-operation of local bodies, which provide work on roading, land-reclamation, &c. The local body provides tools, supervision, and workers' compensation insurance, while the Unemployment Fund bears the cost of the wages of the men so employed. The Board endeavours to place in more directly productive avenues of employment as large a number of Scheme 5 workers as possible. The rates of pay of workers employed under this scheme vary between 15s. per week for single men and 40s. per week for married men with three or more dependants in the four chief cities, while a slightly modified scale with somewhat different conditions applies in the smaller centres of population.

Camps for Single Unemployed Men.—The Unemployment Board has established camps in various parts of the country where single men are employed in improving access to the backblocks, scrub-cutting, drainage, and other work of a productive nature. The men are provided with food, while camps are erected for their lodging. In addition, they receive in cash approximately 10s. per week.

Small-farm Plan.—The Unemployment Board is endeavouring to place as large a number of unemployed workers as possible on rural allotments of from 5 to 10 acres, as a means of relieving unemployment and of ensuring a supply of readily available and skilled labour for employment by neighbouring farmers on seasonal farm-work.

Subsidy lo Wages paid on Building Operations.—The Unemployment Board, in order to stimulate building activity, has recently brought into operation a scheme whereby the wages of workers engaged in certain specified building operations are subsidized by the Board.

Numerous subsidiary relief schemes have been promulgated or aided by the Board, among which may be mentioned a subsidy to gold prospecting, a subsidy on wages-cost of contracts by unemployed for farm-development work, assistance to the flax industry, financial assistance to women's organizations for the relief of distress among unemployed women, &c.

It should be mentioned that Schemes 1, 2, and 3 are no longer in operation.

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT.

The growth of unemployment throughout the world in recent years has prompted in most countries statistical examination of the fluctuations or periodicity of employment. Until recent years the statistics available on this phenomenon in New Zealand have been somewhat scanty, being restricted to employment on public works. In addition to the material quoted in the earlier portion of this section data are now available on some of the avenues of industrial employment (including building and construction, but excluding transport and mining) as well as that contracted with local authorities.

On pages 858 to 869 of the 1929 Year-Book a fairly exhaustive treatment was given of the data relating to the annual course of employment in 1926 in factories, mills, works, &c., in building and construction establishments, and on public works. The following broad conclusions which emerged from the investigation are. of sufficiently general application to warrant repetition hereunder:—

  1. Those industries closely allied to the agricultural and pastoral production pass through definite periods of activity and slackness during the calendar year. The period of activity commences in November or December, attains its maximum about February, and recedes in March, April, and May; then commences the slack period, which is at. its worst about-August, after which a recovery, at first gradual, then sharp, brings the perennial return to activity.

  2. The manufacturing and building industries are apparently subject to seasonal fluctuations in employment, the general characteristics of which are activity in the summer and slackness in the winter months.

  3. The number of artisans and labourers employed by the Public Works Department increases in the winter and decreases in the summer months, but does not, on the scale ruling in 1926, substantially alter the general course of employment throughout, the year in the industries covered in this discussion.

For the purposes of these statistics the term “wage-earner” covers workers whose contract of employment provides for the payment of remuneration on an hourly, daily, weekly, or other short-period basis as distinct from clerical and other classes of employees where the contract is based on what is generally regarded as the “salary” basis.

Factory and Building Industries.

The following table shows, by industrial groups, the maximum and minimum monthly numbers of male and female wage-earners (excluding proprietors actively engaged, managers, overseers, accountants, clerks, &c.) engaged in factories, mills, works, &c., and in the building industry, during the calendar year 1930, together with the monthly average for the year:—

Industry.Maximum for Year.Maximum for Year.Average of Twelve Mouths.
Number.Month.Number.Month.
Males.
Animal food10,187Jan.5,323Aug.7,750
Vegetable food2,038April1,954Sept.1,996
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1.902Dec.1,700June1,787
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1,212Feb.504Sept.874
Working in wood6,987May5,936Dec.6,635
Paper—manufactures205July178May198
Heat, light, and power7,460April7,216Jan.7,335
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2,674Jan.2,317Dec.2,508
Metals other than gold or silver5,569May.5,199Dec.5,450
Precious metals135May, June130Feb, April132
Books and publications4,011July3,887Oct3,968
Ornaments and minor art products170April158Feb163
Designs, medals, type, and dies118May, June110Dec116
Machines, tools, and implements862Jan702Dec790
Carriages and vehicles5,043Jan4,670Dec4,871
Harness, saddlery, and Leatherware957Mar660Nov813
Ships, boats, and their equipment910Nov665April797
House—furnishings2,181June1,910Dec2,037
Chemicals and by—products1,555April1,125Dec1,404
Textile fabrics934Mar899Nov911
Apparel2,333June2,164Jan2,253
Fibrous materials432April275July345
Building and construction8,083April6,925Dec7,694
Females.
Animal food125Mar.67Aug.101
Vegetable food1,660Mar.1,454Jan.1,565
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants556Dec482Jan.519
Paper—manufactures268Jan.242May.253
Metals other than gold or silver61June44Jan51
Books and publications1,129April1,072Oct.1,098
Harness, saddlery, and Leatherware148Nov.110Jan.130
House—furnishings300April250Dec.280
Chemicals and by—products284Jan236May.259
Textile fabrics1,343Feb.1,2918ept.1,309
Apparel8,128Oct.7,423Jan.7,892

Due allowance should be made for the inclusion of male wage-earners in establishments operated by local authorities (other than Electric-power Boards) both under factories, mills, works, &c., and under local authorities, when these two branches of employment are being considered together.

The tables following give for all factory industries and building and construction a monthly comparison for 1929 and 1930, together with the monthly deviations from the means of the respective years.

Month.1929.1930.Differences, 1929 and 1930.Deviation from Mean.
1929.1930.
Factories, Mills, Works. &c.
MALES.
January57,31456,323-991+2,370+3,273
February57,69955,949-1,750+2,755+2,899
March57,73556,383-1,352+2,791+3,333
April55,87856,365+487+934+3,315
May54,75854,869+111-186+1,819
June52,72952,369-360-2,215-681
July51,26650,705-561-3,678-2,345
August51,78850,075-1,713-3,156-2,975
September52,73550,418-2,317-2,209-2,632
October54,26550,490-3,775-679-2,560
November55,41650,710-4,706+472-2,340
December57,74151,947-5,794+2,797-1,103
Averages54,94453,050-1,8942,0202,440
FEMALES.
January13,34813,291-57-772-608
February13,62613,739+113-494-160
March13,81313,973+160-307+74
April13,81714,050+233-303+151
May13,94413.970+26-176+71
June13,98614,025+39-134+126
July14,03314,006-27-87+107
August14,09913,878-221-21-21
September14,32714,052-275+207+153
October14,76514,068-697+645+169
November14,87813,962-916+758+63
December14,80313,773-1,030+683-126
Averages14,12013,899-221382152
Building and Construction.
January8,9468,021-925-567+327
February9,0707,888-1,182-443+194
March9,2227,838-1,384-291+144
April9,3038,083-1,220-210+389
May9,3568,017-1,339-157+323
June9,4247,942-1,482-89+248
July9,4557,785-1,670-58+91
August9,6167,606-2,010+10388
September9,8967,469-2,427+383-225
October9,9427,482-2,460+429-212
November9,9907,267-2,723+477-427
December9,9386,925-3,013+425-769
Averages9,5137,694-1.820303286

Public Works.

AS pointed out earlier in this discussion, seasonal unemployment has to a certain extent been coped with by the institution of relief works by the Public Works Department, which has tended to swell the numbers engaged on public works. This employment on public works falls under the following headings:—

  1. Where the cost of the works is met directly by the Public Works Department.

  2. Where the cost of the works is met by the Public Works Department and local authorities.

  3. Whore the cost of the works is met by local authorities only.

Unfortunately, complete statistics covering all phases of this employment are not extant. Those available for past years relate to class (a), and part of class (6) to the extent to which the cost is met by the Public Works Department; furthermore. they do not include the employees of contractors. The statistics are entirely exclusive of workmen engaged by local authorities, and are calculated by dividing the total amount paid as wages during each month by the sum which would represent the full-time earnings of one worker during each particular period. The statistics cover those workers who are employed on “time” as well as “piece “rates.

Even with the deficiencies referred to the available figures are not without interest, and afford some measure of the additional work provided by the State in periods of unemployment. The following figures show the monthly average number of men employed on public works over a range of years:—

Year ended 31st March,Roads.Railways, Buildings, Ac.Total.Year ended 31st March,Roads.Railways, Buildings, Ac.Total.
18951,1039622,06519261,6185,4027,080
19001,8251,2433,06819272,0955,3307,425
19051,4072,1193,52619283,0435,0448,087
19101,7023,9295,69119294,6434,1098,752
19152,4942,2344,72819305,3805,48710,867
19201,4952,4983,99319316,3656,05712,422
19251,6145,1516,76519325,2554,1829,437

Figures for each month since January, 1929, are next given, in such form as readily to permit of a comparison between corresponding months of the four years as well as showing the movement from month to month:—

Month.1929.1930.1931.1932.
January9,54611,14012,0618,264
February10,50312,01012.0008,874
March10,28612,03411,5808,940
April10,25911,97611,5436,520
May10,24612,43610,2136.427
June9,80512,81510.1836,247
July9,59813,0399,8976,542
August9,90913,0159.5336,489
September10,08312,5929,4456,256
October11,36112,5129,155..
NovemberI2,19812,7168,605..
December11,75612,3278.591..

Figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics showing each month the number engaged on the various public works throughout the Dominion. A summary for each month of the year ended 31st March, 1932, is given hereafter.

Month.Railways.Roads.Hydroelectric Works.Public Buildings.Other Works.Total.
1931.
April2,3936,4051,74423576611,543
May1,8205,7881,83020257310,213
June2,3155,3741,90717940810,183
July2,4625,0861,8591793119,897
August2,5094,6471,8213022549,533
September2,4454,6421,8642872079,445
October2,0014,7681,9361992519,155
November1,3384,9891,8842091858,605
December1,2075,0511,7901943498,591
1932.
January1,0654,8221,7452204128,264
February9225,6571,6741324898,874
March7575,8331,5231227058,940
Averages1,7705,2551,7982054099,437

Local Authorities.

Employment by local authorities comprises principally the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, and the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric supply, and tramways) and social services. This avenue of employment is, like the Public Works Department, used as a “safety-valve” in the relief of unemployment. In the case of certain works local-authority payments as wages to relief workers are subsidized by the General Government.

Particulars relating to the monthly maximum and minimum and yearly average number of wage-earning employees engaged by the various classes of local authorities during the local-body year ended March, 1931, are presented in the following table. The statistics do not cover Hospital Boards, Fire Boards, or Electric-power Boards. The latter are included in the figures already given for manufacturing industries.

Class of Local District.Maximum for Year.Maximum for Year.Average of Twelve Months.
Number.Month.Number.Month.
Boroughs21,185March.9,670April.11,722
Counties10,789March.4,256Nov.5,265
Harbour Boards2,454Sept.2,104Oct,2,310
Urban transport districts1,822April1,765Feb.1,780
Town districts968March180Oct.314
Urban drainage districts168Feb.124Aug.145
River districts254July166Dec.210
Road districts1,081March114April.227
Rabbit districts108Aug.75Dec.86
Land—drainage districts650March52Oct.165
Gas—lighting district56May36Nov., Feb.,42
Railway district30May, July,17Feb., March26
Water—supply districts20Oct,6March11
Totals38,371March19,286Nov.22,303

During the twelve months ended 31st March, 1931, local authorities (excluding Electric-power Boards, Fire Boards, and Hospital Boards) provided employment on the average for some 22,303 wage-earning employees.

Measured by the deviations from the mean, there were considerable fluctuations in the numbers of wage-earners engaged each month by local authorities. The lowest figure 69,286) was recorded for November, while the highest (38,371) appears for March. From April with a total of 19,597 the. figures fluctuated slightly from month to month to 19,626 in January, when (consequent on the introduction of the Unemployment Board's Scheme No. 5) a large increase to 29,301 in February was recorded, with a further increase to 38,371 in March.

Chapter 40. SECTION XL.—INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE collection of information regarding industrial disputes was initiated by the Census and Statistics Office at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year was obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department.

Under the system originated in 1920 returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the statistics based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if parties to the dispute or other private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to demand information from the parties concerned in the dispute, and by exercising this power when necessary they can obtain complete information.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute “refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

Reference to enactments framed to mitigate the severity of industrial disputes will be found in the section on labour legislation.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE.

From the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 till the end of 1905 there wore no industrial disputes dealt with under the Act; indeed, New Zealand may be said to have been almost entirely free from industrial disputes during that period.

The following table shows for each year from 1922 onwards the numbers of industrial disputes, firms affected, workers involved, and working-days lost, with an estimate of the amount of wages lost.

Year.Disputes.Firms affected.Workers involved.Working —days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
192258676,41493,45660,782
192349797,162201,812114,074
1924345814,81589,10562,732
192583939,90574,55249,149
192659676,26447,81132,355
192738404,47612,48511,819
192839569,25821,99722,304
192947507,15125,88926,940
192938445,46731,66937.299
193024376.35648,48644,544

The number of working-days lost is calculated by multiplying the number of workers involved by the number of days lost (exclusive of 8undays and public holidays). It is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place, and no allowance is made for loss of work from unemployment or other causes which might have occurred even if there had been no dispute. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of work done, but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

The next-table shows the nature of disputes and the number of workers involved during the last ten years.

Year.Nature of Dispute.Number of Workers involved.
Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lock—out.Total.Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lock—out.Total.
19225341..585,778376260..6,414
19234522..496,659207296..7,162
192433..1..3414,791..24..14,815
192573622837,6941,229479359,905
19264991..594,4371,78839..6,264
192735..3..384,389..87..4,476
192832412394,4473,864859889,258
192940241475,1141,837185157,151
19303413..385,170140157..5,467
193119311245,42935057256,356

Of the 24 disputes recorded during the year 1931, 12 were of three days In the next table industrial unions' duration or less, while 12 lasted for more than one week. There were no disputes which could be classed as serious, 80 men being involved1 and 4,160 working-days lost in the one dispute which lasted for eight weeks or over. The table following illustrates the duration of disputes during 1931.

Duration.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working—days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
1 day and less61,648977898
2 days and more than 1 day27451,4901,530
3 days and more than 2 days41,7245,2565,458
Over 3 days and loss than I week151204250
1 week to 2 weeks59799,3769,583
2 weeks to 4 weeks385015,89011,727
6 weeks to 8 weeks227911,13311,100
8 weeks and over1804,1604,000
Totals246,35648,48644,544

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

The following table shows the number of for the last five years and also the number of the Westland District is outstanding.

Year.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
*Includes one partial strike which involved workers in Canterbury, Wellington, and Northern districts.
Number of Disputes.
19277 7  119438
19288 8  164339
19291312  232647
19308 3  184538
19314 4  131124*
Number of Workers involved.
19271,107 443  2,4332951984,476
1928906 1,175  7,025341189,258
192952219138  5,9381153477,151
1930877 65  4,0921642695,467
19311,798 739  3,54127356,356

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISPUTES.

In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industries in which disputes took place. The classification into industrial groups is the same as that used in the compilation of wage and trade-union statistics. In eight of the fourteen groups or the classification there were no disputes, and such groups have been omitted.

Industrial Group19271928.1929.1930.1931.
Number of Disputes.
Food, drink,61631
Wood—manufacture....11..
Mining1423242316
Agricultural and pastoral11....1
Shipping and cargo—working151315116
Miscellaneous211....
Totals3839473824
Number of Workers involved
Food, drink,366859326205481
Wood—manufacture....1812..
Mining3,1098,0096,2374,9155,144
Agricultural and pastoral68....5
Shipping and cargo—working544352555335726
Miscellaneous4513015....
Totals4,4769,2587,1515,4676,356

Out of a total of 186 disputes during the five years 100 occurred in the mining industry. Of the 32,708 workers involved in disputes during the five years 27,414 were engaged in this industry. The great majority of these disputes were, however, of very short duration.

The greatest number of disputes in any one industry during 1931 was recorded in the mining industry, where 16 strikes took place. Very few of these disputes can be classed as serious, however, as is evidenced by the fact that the average number of working-days lost through industrial disputes in this industry was, in 1931, 9.2 days.

Industrial Group.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Directly.Indirectly.Total.
       £
Food, drink, &c.1181400481241146
Mining16195,132125,14447,10743,406
Agricultural and pastoral115 54015
Shipping and cargo—working616726 7261,098977
Totals24375,9444126,35648,48644,544

CAUSES OF DISPUTES.

In the next table the causes of disputes occurring during the years 1927—31 are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included disputes concerning a reduction or increase in the rates of wages in industries where time rates are paid, or concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for piecework in industries where piece rates are paid. Disputes concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for overtime are also included in this class.

Disputes concerning the number of hours of work are classified under the heading “Hours.”

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment.”This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs — the employment of non-unionists, or the dismissal of men when, in the opinion of the other workers, their dismissal is due solely or mainly to the fact that they are prominent in union activities.

The heading “Other working-conditions” includes all causes of disputes relating to conditions of work, &c.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all disputes caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance with their own particular employer, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

Cause1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Number of Disputes.
Wages88366
Hours..........
Employment10811102
Other working—conditions1815271911
8ympathy..4213
Other causes24422
Totals3839473824
Number of Workers involved
Wages1,3845743371,1871,482
Hours..........
Employment3526321,1681,554573
Other working—conditions2,4423,2403,2362,5673,491
Sympathy..3,8641,837140350
Other causes29894857319460
Totals4,4769,2587,1515,4676,356

The following table classifies disputes for the year 1931 according to cause, and shows for each group of causes the number of disputes, the number of workers involved, the time lost, and the estimated loss in wages.

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Wages61,48215,84511,627
Employment25735,2805,639
Other working—conditions113,49123,20623,271
Sympathy3350895875
Other causes24603,2603,132
Totals246,35648,48644,544

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT.

Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes during the last five years. There were no settlements during the period by negotiations under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act.

Method of Settlement.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act48861
Compromise between parties to the dispute5171185
Substitution24132
Otherwise2710272116
Totals3839473824
Number of Workers involved
Negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act5965314088801,120
Compromise between parties to the dispute1,3402,3441,8688941,492
Substitution5629237814
Otherwise2,4846,3544,8523,6153,730
Totals4,4769,2587,1515,4676,356

Further information for the year 1931 is given in the next table.

Method of Settlement.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
    £
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act11,1203,6006,650
Compromise51,49216,20512,185
Substitution214373315
Otherwise163,73028,30828,394
Totals246,35648,48644,544

RESULT OF DISPUTES.

The results of all industrial disputes are classified under one of the four heads used in the next table.

Result.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers111115143
In favour of employers61211810
Compromise71015103
Indeterminate146668
Totals3839473824

Result.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.
Number of Workers involved.
In favour of workers1,0791,5103,9322,8091,186
In favour of employers2402,0871,1559062,268
Compromise1,5058771,6581,093740
Indeterminate1,6524,7844066592,162
Totals4,4769,2587,1515,4676,356
Number of Working—days lost.
In favour of workers3,6299,68114,43617,9678,566
In favour of employers3,0113,1433,0822,22721,421
Compromise3,7154,3297,9778,82412,843
Indeterminate2,1304,8443942,6515,656
Totals12,48521,99725,88931,66948,486

An “indeterminate” result is recorded in a considerable proportion of cases. This is only natural since many disputes notably “sympathetic” strikes cannot by their very nature have a definite settlement one way or the other. Again, considerable care has been taken in assigning disputes to the various classes, no dispute being classified as ending in favour of either the workers or the employers unless the result is quite clear. Of disputes ending definitely in favour of one party or the other during the five years, workers won in 54 instances and employers in 47.

In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1931 are shown in conjunction:—

ResultsCause
Wages.Employment.Other Working-conditions.Sympathy.Other Causes.Totals
Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers1..2....3
In favour of employers325....10
Compromise1..2....3
Indeterminate1..2328
Totals62113224
Number of Workers involved.
In favour of workers345..841....1,186
In favour of employers805731,615....2,268
Compromise485..255....740
Indeterminate572..7803504602,162
Totals1,4825733,4913504606,356
Number of Working—days lost.
In favour of workers7,245..1,321....8,566
In favour of employers2145,28015,927....21,421
Compromise8,245..4,598....12,843
Indeterminate141..1,3608953,2605,656
Totals15,8455,28023,2068953,26048,486

Chapter 41. SECTION XLI.—INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

As a result of an international conference of official statisticians held at Geneva in 1923, under the auspices of the International Labour Office set up by the League of Nations, the collection and compilation of statistics of industrial accidents on substantially uniform lines is now being undertaken in virtually all of the principal countries. Prom the administrative standpoint, the principal types of industrial accidents occurring in New Zealand may be classified as follows:—

Factory Accidents:— Section 41 of the Factories Act requires the reporting to Inspectors of Factories of all accidents likely to incapacitate the injured person for at least forty-eight hours. Reports are compiled by Inspectors of Factories in connection with each such accident causing loss of work amounting to three days or upwards. These are ultimately forwarded to the Census and Statistics Office for statistical analysis.

Scaffolding Accidents: —The procedure adopted in connection with the compilation of statistics of scaffolding accidents is identical with that in connection with factory accidents.

Accidents to Railway, Public Works, and Post and Telegraph Employees: —Individual reports of all accidents involving loss of work for three days or upwards are supplied by the respective Departments to the Census and Statistics Office for more detailed analysis and tabulation.

Accidents to Employees in Mines and Quarries: —Particulars of' accidents to employees in metalliferous mines, in coal-mines, and in quarries and other places under the Stone-quarries Act, are given in successive numbers of the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C-2.

Other Industrial Accidents: —There are numerous types of industrial accidents for which it has not-as yet been found practicable to collect and compile statistics. The principal classes of such accidents are those occurring to persons engaged in land transport (other than railway operation), in “watersiding,” in bushfelling, and in marine navigation. Accidents of the last-mentioned type are reportable to the Marine Department under the Shipping and Seamen Act.

FREQUENCY RATES.

For the purpose of computing frequency rates in New Zealand, data as to the number of employees in establishments coming under the heading of various industries have been compiled in the Census and Statistics Office from returns furnished for the purpose by the Labour Department's Inspectors of Factories; while information as to the hours worked has been ascertained from awards, and supplemented by the statistics of short time and overtime compiled from data collected in connection with the annual census of factory production. Similar data have been obtained from the records of the Post and Telegraph, Public Works, and Railways Departments. One hour's work performed by one man is taken as a unit. Data as to man-hours are not available in the ease of scaffolding operations.

The following table shows, in respect of industrial accidents tabulated for live years, the frequency rates and the amount of compensation paid (including medical and surgical expenses.

Year.Total AccidentsAccidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.*Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation for Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.
*Excluding scaffolding accidents
    ££
19265,5742.1145,522107,41119.5
19275,9022.4225,889116,12219.1
19286,3442.2136,333120,47819.0
19297,2182.5037,164136,48619.1
19307,1282.5577,099130,26818.4

The distribution of industrial accidents in 1930 among the classes of industries covered by the statistics is indicated in the following table.

Class.Total AccidentsAccidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation for Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

*No information available.

† Excluding scaffolding accidents.

    ££
Factory2,6521.4022,64147,92918.1
Public Works2,2287.8602,21936,83716.6
Scaffolding394*38611,09728.7
Railways1,6335.5851,63226,31916.1
Post and Telegraph2211.3852218,08636.6
Grand totals7,1282.5577,099130,26818.4

Although scaffolding accidents normally involve the highest average compensation payments, the average payment in respect of accidents to Post and Telegraph employees was considerably higher in 1930 than for scaffolding accidents. An abnormally high proportion of fatal accidents to Post and Telegraph employees in 1930 (fatal out of a total of 221 accidents) is the cause of this unusual position.

The highest number of accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked is recorded in the case of accidents occurring to Public Works employees.

A very high average figure for compensation paid will be observed among Post and Telegraph employees. As stated in a preceding paragraph, 1930 was not a normal year in this respect, owing to a disproportionately large number of fatalities to these employees in that year. Accidents in the sawmilling industry, which is included in the group “Woodworking,” are apt to be exceptionally severe, the average compensation paid in 1930 being £44 18s. In the sawmilling industry, and £30 8s. In the woodworking group as a whole.

In the table published below industrial accidents during the year 1930 are classified into certain important industrial groups, frequency rates and compensation paid being shown separately for each industrial group. Details for individual industries, under this and other headings, are published in an annual report issued by the Census and Statistics Office.

Industrial Group.Total AccidentsAccidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation for Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

*Data on which to compute not available

† Excluding scaffolding accidents.

    ££
Food, drink, and tobacco1,5543.7301,55319.99312.9
Clothing, boots, and shoes500.131493326.8
Textiles and weaving580.6525880513.9
Public Works2,2287.6802,21936,83716.6
Scaffolding394*38611,09728.7
Wood working3061.24830411,07736.4
Paper-manufacture and printing730.594722,27931.6
Metal-working and engineering4231.1994198,43920.1
Other manufactures1530.7751514,32828.7
Transport and communication Railways1,6335.5851,63226,31916.1
Post and Telegraph2211.3852218,08636.6
Tram-car construction and repair92.045926129.0
Quarrying60.5266355.9
Personal service50.191514529.1
Miscellaneous150.3321523515.7
Total7,1282.5577,099130,26818.4

In the group” Clothing, drapery, and footwear,” only 0.131 accidents per 100,001 man-hours worked are recorded, the average compensation paid (£6 16s.) being below that recorded in any other industrial group, with the exception of the “Quarrying” group, where compensation per accident averaged only £5 18s. This was, however, an abnormally low figure for that industry; the corresponding average for the year 1929 being £101 10s.

The average compensation paid in respect of industrial accidents naturally varies considerably in different industries and years according to the proportion of serious accidents occurring. A few fatalities or cases of permanent partial disability will often raise the average compensation paid vary materially, particularly in industries where only a small number of accidents occur during the year under consideration.

The following table shows for each year since 1020 the average compensation paid in conjunction with the extent of disability:—

Year.Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
*Where amount of compensation known.
 Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.
  £ £ £ £
19265,2869.2199189.137588.15,52219.5
19275,63210.1219173.838544.25,88919.1
19286,1059.3188197.040669.86,33319.0
19296,8889.5241194.235698.47,16419.1
19306,8209.0242189.537627.17,09918.4

CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND EXTENT OF INJURY SUSTAINED.

With regard to the extent and degree of the disability sustained, it is usual to distinguish fatal accidents, accidents causing temporary disability, accidents causing permanent partial disability, and accidents causing permanent total disability. In the actual compilation of the statistics difficulty occasionally arises as to whether a particular injury should be regarded as temporary or permanent; and in cases of doubt the conservative practice has been adopted of debiting the injury to the temporary-disability class.

Industrial Accidents, 1926-30.-Causes of Accidents by Extent of Disability.

Cause.Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.Percentage of Total Accidents.
Machinery —
Prime movers6572740.2
Transmission1471781720.5
Lifting-machinery67542207372.3
Power-working machines2,74252393,27410.1
Vehicles1,86345441,9526.1
Explosions and fires19637152480.7
Poisonous, hot, and corrosive substances8661168832.7
Electricity70511860.3
Falls of persons—
From elevations1,58961331,6835.2
Into excavations2344 2380.7
Slipping and stumbling on the level2,45723 2,4807.7
Stepping on or striking against fixed objects —
Stepping on380 13811.2
Striking against1,4441411,4594.5
Falling objects, not being handled by the person injured69824117332.3
Falls of earth85025128872.8
Handling of objects—
Heavy5,93410066,04018.8
Sharp2,05227 2,0796.5
Hand-trucks, &c.4911015021.6
Hand tools —
In hands of person injured —
Glancing of tool4,4787844,56014.2
Breaking of tool742 760.2
Flying particles56733 6001.9
Other81610 8262.6
In hands of other than person injured362813701.1
Animals (including vehicle accidents due to animals)367313721.2
Miscellaneous —
Strains, sprains, and septic wounds undefined as to cause (sustained while slaughtering)468  4681.5
Doors, windows, covers, gates (excluding elevators)3115 3161.0
Other64218106702.1
Summary.     
Factories13.2446915613,99143.5
Public Works6,847192527,09122.0
Scaffolding1,88797332,0176.3
Railways7,765133417,93924.7
Post and Telegraph1,09519141,1283.5
Totals30,8381,13219632,166100.0

NATURE OF INJURY.

A classification of accidents according to the nature of the injuries sustained gives the following results for the last five years: —

Nature of Injury.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.Totals 1926-30.
Contusions and abrasions1,0891,8131,5161,9621,9888,368
Burns and scalds2151882172472021,069
Concussions3028224045165
Cuts and lacerations1,9941,7262,0082,2612,16710,156
Punctures4343244154214102,004
Amputations174139152182139786
Dislocations2337394234175
Fractures2362472432862381,250
Sprains and strains1,1291,1951,3541,4941,6006,772
Other and ill-defined2502053782833051,421
Totals5,5745,9026,3447,2187,12832,166
Number of cases where septic poisoning followed8058109231,0029764,516
Percentage of all accidents14.413.714.513.913.714.0

A feature of special interest brought out by this table is the relatively high percentage of accidents in which septic poisoning followed. Although the probability of sepsis intervening depends largely on the general health of the patient, there is no doubt that carelessness in attending to slight wounds is a major cause of septic poisoning. Prompt attention to slight wounds and reasonable after-care would materially reduce the number of cases of septic poisoning.

The type of accident varies in the different classes of industry. Cuts and lacerations predominate among factory accidents: contusions and abrasions in Public Works, Railway, and scaffolding accidents; while sprains and strains form the highest individual type of accident to Post and Telegraph employees.

PART OF BODY AFFECTED.

Informative figures showing the number of cases in which the different parts of the body were affected by industrial accidents occurring in 1926-30 are given in the following table:—

Part of Body affected.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.Totals 1926-30.
Head124123124138137646
Eyes1791922022862491,108
Rest of face831028196101463
Neck201011282089
Back4334534906076482,631
Thorax and contents2042152472932901,249
Abdomen and contents13012396121136606
External genitals161415182285
Upper limbs      
Collarbone and shoulder90135134148145652
Arm3413773564474081,929
Hand and wrist8318299161,0121,0414,629
Finger and thumb1,7921,7781,8902,0491,9789,487
Lower limbs      
Pelvis, hip, and thigh9897114134140583
Leg4915475896756442,946
Ankle and foot6627518629599644,198
Undefined or multiple80156217207205865
Totals5,5745,9026,3447,2187,12832,166

Accidents to the fingers and hands form a large proportion of total accidents. Out of a total of 32,160 accidents classified during 1926 to 1930, 14,116 cases were recorded where fingers or hands were affected.

A tabulation made for 1930 correlating nature of injury with part of body affected showed that the most common type of accident was to to the fingers and thumbs, resulting in cuts or lacerations: of the 7,128 accidents tabulated, 1,204 came under this category; of the 139 cases of amputations also, 128 resulted in loss of some part of the fingers or thumbs; contusions of the feet numbered 341, and cuts and lacerations of the hand 390; of the 1,600 sprains, 550 resulted in injury to the back, while sprained ankles, &c., accounted for a further 256.

DURATION OF INCAPACITY.

A further measure of the extent of disability is furnished in the eases of temporary disability by data as to duration of absence from work as the result of the accident A summary of this aspect of the matter is given below.

Duration.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.Totals, 1926 to 1930.
No.No.No.Percent.No.Percent.No.Percent.No.Percent.
1 week or under1,1501,2561,41822.41,58622.01,54921.76,95921.6
1 week to 2 weeks1,6731,7621,86729.42,19730.52,21731.19,71630.2
2 weeks to 4 weeks1,4501,5211,65126.01,82825.31,83625.88,28625.8
4 weeks to 6 weeks4664845608.85888.15708.02,6688.3
6 weeks to 13 weeks4094414587.25317.45087.12,3477.3
13 weeks to 6 months4139300.6350.5210.31660.5
Over 6 months4139300.6350.5210.31660.5
Total specified cases of temporary disability5,2875,6276,10196.26,89095.56,82295.730,72795.5
Cases where employee did not return or duration not stated451750.1350.590.21110.4
Permanent partial disability2022201983.12543.52583.61,1323.5
Fatality4038400.6390.5390.51960.6
Totals5,5745,9026,344100.07,128100.07,128100.032,166100.0

In many cases the injured employee did not cease work immediately, in some instances a considerable period intervening. The following table shows for such cases occurring during the year 1930 the length of time elapsing before the employee left work, and the final cause of cessation of work.

 Factories.Public Works.Scaffolding.Railways.Post and Telegraph.
Period elapsing.     
Under 1 week2531711031667
Over 1 week and under 2 weeks2918140..
Over 2 weeks17141252
Final Cause.     
Incipient septic poisoning15068411021
Strains535028526
Other causes9685618622
Totals.2992031238169
Percentage of all accidents11.39.13.023.331.2

This indicates that many employees suffering from minor injuries pay no immediate attention, especially in the case of small cuts, strains, or abrasions. The neglect may cause more severe pain (with abrasions, septic poisoning), and the absence then enforced is likely to be longer than if the first injury had had immediate attention. Lost time means lost wages, especially if the injury results in under three days' absence, in which case no compensation is payable. Further, in the case of apprentices, lost time has to be made up at the termination of the period of apprenticeship, and these two considerations are likely to militate against the worker ceasing work immediately on account of a minor injury.

By the 31st January of the calendar year following that in connection with which factory accidents under investigation occurred, there must always necessarily be a number of employees injured during the previous calendar year who have not yet returned to work. In order to render the statistics of time lost and compensation paid as complete as possible supplementary reports on such outstanding cases are prepared by Inspectors of Factories for the Census and Statistics Office in June of the year following that in which the accidents occurred. By June most outstanding cases can be cleared up, although there remains a not altogether inconsiderable residuum of cases where employees fail to return to their former work especially through having taken up other employment or through the seasonal closing-down of the industry (e.g., freezing) in connection with which the accident occurred, so that they cannot be traced. The cases still outstanding at the end of January must naturally be the severer cases, and, as the severest cases of all may still be out-standing in Juno, the toll of time lost as a result of factory accidents tends to be slightly underestimated in the statistics. The June clearing-up accounts for a few-minor discrepancies between the statistics of factory accidents published in this volume and those published in the Annual Report of the Department of Labour.

ACCIDENT SEVERITIES.

The mere number of industrial accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked is not a complete measure of hazard, for it takes no account of the severity of accidents. The only measure of accident severity is time lost, but in arriving at an estimate of working-days lost some difficulty is experienced in dealing with cases of death and permanent partial disability.

In view of the fact that the age of the individual is not particularly relevant to the character of the hazard from which the injury has occurred, it is assumed for the purpose of calculating accident-severity rates that a constant loss of (50,000 working-hours is occasioned by each fatality irrespective of the age of the person at the time of death. In respect of permanent partial disablement an international scheme for the apportionment of loss of earning-power caused by this type of accident has been drawn up by the International Labour Office.

Under this scheme, which has been adopted with some slight modifications in the treatment of New Zealand statistics, time lost on account of permanent partial disability is assessed on the basis of a proportionate part of the time lost in connection with injuries resulting in death. For example, dismemberment or loss of use of hand is regarded as a 50-per-cent. Disability that is, the time lost on account of an injury of this type is assessed as 50 percent. Of 00,000 working-hours i.e., 30,000 working-hours.

 1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.
*Excluding scaffolding accidents.
Total cases resulting in —     
Temporary disability5,3325,6446,1066,9256,831
Permanent partial disability202220198254258
Fatality4038403939
Total5,5745,9026,3447,2187,218
Calendar days lost per accident151136127124125
Hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked (i.e., severity rate)*1,9902,0701,5481,9111,874

The principal advantages gained by adopting a fixed allowance of working-days lost in cases of death or permanent partial disability is that by this moans adventitious fluctuations in severity rates caused by the ranging ages of persons injured in different industries is eliminated.

A more detailed explanation of the method of compilation of accident severities is contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Hook.

The severity rate for all accidents has varied between 1,548 (in 1928) and 2,070 (in 1927). The extent of the toll on industry exacted by industrial accidents is realized when it is considered that during 1930 one hour was lost as a result of such accidents out of every 53 hours worked in the industries covered by those statistic.

Comparison of the severity rates as between different industrial groups is affected by the varying proportions of serious accidents and fatalities in different industries. When a large number of accidents occurs in any one industry the severity rate affords a true measure of industrial hazard in that industry, but where the number of accidents in any one year is very small, the presence or absence of even one fatality will have a marked effect on the severity rate.

Industrial Accidents, 1926-30 Extent of Disability and Severity Rates.

Industrial Group.Total Cases of Accidents resulting inCalendar Days lost per Accident.Hours lost per 100,000 Man-hours worked (Severity Rate).
Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
*Excluding scaffolding accidents.
Food, drink, &c.7,594186147,794631,535
Clothing, boots, &c.18212 1948357
Textiles and weaving27026 296115523
Public Works6,847192527,0911425,770
Scaffolding1,88797332,017275*
Woodworking1,383240131,6362682,084
Paper-manufacturers and printing3993944422311,042
Metal working and engineering2,085114122,2111441,175
Other manufacturers98755121,0542091,268
Transport and communication      
(1) Railways7,765133417,9391043,226
(2) Post and Telegraph1,09519141,1281611,297
(3) Tram-car construction331 3447736
Quarrying265 314292,265
Personal services445 49185476
Miscellaneous2418125097646
Totals30,8381,13219632,1661321,792*

LOSS OF EARNING-POWER INVOLVED.

Provision is made in certain eases for the actual impairment of wage-earning capacity to be stated. Of the 258 cases of permanent partial incapacity in 1930, 177 answered the question as to what wages the employee would earn on resumption. In 135 eases it was reported that, though dismemberment or disablement had occurred, no diminution of earning-power had taken place. In 42 cases, however, definite and serious impairment eventuated.

Of 23 such cases in the factory accidents, 2 were of 30 per cent., 0 of 20 per cent. and under 30 per cent., 8 of 10 per cent. and under 20 per cent., and 7 of under 10 per cent. In those reported under the provisions of the Scaffolding and Excavation Act (17 cases) 13 remained unchanged, 1 was of 45 per cent., 1 of 34 per cent., 1 of 30 per cent., and 1 of 16 per cent. The Railways Department's returns do not supply this information, but of the 37 cases where such particulars were given in the Public Works accidents, no impairment of earning-power was incurred in 22 cases: there were 3 of GO per cent. and under 70 per cont., 3 of 50 per cent. and under 60 per cent., 5 of 30 per cent. and under 40 per cent., 3 of 10 per cent. and under 20 per cent., and 1 of under 10 per cent.

AGES. OF THE PERSONS INJURED.

The average ages of workers meeting with accidents where the age was reported were as follows for the year 1930:—

 Males Years.Females Years.Both Sexes Years.
Factories32.0721.3131.64
Public Works35.98..35.98
Scaffolding33.44..33.44
Railways36.40..36.40
Post and Telegraph32.17..32.17
All reported accidents34.4021.3134.20

If the extent of the disability incurred is related to the age of the male employee, it is found that the age of persons suffering permanent incapacity varied little from the general average, but with regard to fatalities the average of all the groups was almost 3 years greater (37-45), and in the individual groups the differences range from 1 to 11 years.

The average age of males injured in industrial accidents is just slightly less than the average age of male wage-earners as returned at the 1926 census viz., 35-33. In the case of females, however, the census average age for all wage-earners (27-85 years) is substantially higher than the average for those injured; and it would appear that women employees in factories are, in general, younger than those engaged in other forms of employment. The very much younger ages for females than for males is accounted for by the fact that males normally spend the whole of their working-lives in factories, &c., while for the majority of women employees remunerated employment is terminated at a comparatively early ago by marriage.

HOUR OF OCCURRENCE.

The following tabulation of industrial accidents, according to the hour of occurrence, shows the effects of fatigue during the working day:—

 Males.Females.Both Sexes.
 Years.Years.Years.
Factories32.0721.3131.64
Public Works35.98..35.98
Scaffolding33.44..33.44
Railways36.40..36.40
Post and Telegraph32.17..32.17
All reported accidents34.4021.3134.20

This table shows the latter part of the morning 10 a.m. and 11 a.m. being almost equal in incidence as the time when most accidents occur; but it is apparent that the Saturday half-holiday reduces materially the number of accidents occurring in the late afternoon, and this should be considered in its interpretation. Finally, most establishments are idle between noon and 1 p.m. When these facts are allowed for, it would appear that for most classes of accidents there is a tendency for the risk to increase (in sympathy with increasing fatigue) with each additional hour of the working half-day, the midday and the night-time rest eliminating the cumulated effects of such fatigue. In the case of some causes of accidents, the increased risk with the number of hours continuously worked is much greater than in other cases: the increase, as the working half-day progresses, in the number of accidents caused by falls of persons in particular is exceptionally marked.

A more definite indication is given by considering the length of time the employee had worked when the accident occurred.

Number of Hours already worked.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.Totals 1926-30.
*Excluding accidents to Post and Telegraph employees in the year 1930 (221 in number).
Under 12773153434094181,762
1 and under 24195866337127443,094
2 and under 37779221,0121,2021,0714,984
3 and under 47598631,0041,1361,0814,843
4 and under 53855295316196212,685
5 and under 63474805565705582,511
6 and under 75396997688698493,724
7 and under 85376497518388633,638
8 or over3223673534504421,934
Not stated1,2124923623602032,629
Not applicable  315357141
Totals5,5745,9026,3447,2186,907*31,945*

The foregoing tabulation shows that the greatest number of accidents occurred during the third, and to a lesser extent during the fourth, hour worked in the day.

Chapter 42. SECTION XLII.—ELECTRIC POWER.

STATE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-POWER.

ALTHOUGH abundant water-power is available throughout New Zealand, comparatively little use was made of it before 1900, but since then the development has been extensive. In 1903 water-power to the extent of 9,911 horse-power was actually in use. By 1913 this amount had risen to 34,956 horse-power, by 1923 to 54,244, and by 1932 to 229,185. The lost-mentioned figure is nearly four times that for 1925, the increase being mainly due to the bringing into operation of the Government hydro-electric stations in the North Island.

The Public Works Act vests the sole right to use the water-power of the Dominion in the Crown, subject to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right to develop such power, or to delegate it to any local authority, or, outside a mining district, to any person or company, subject to conditions. Advantage has been taken of this in several cases, the right in the case of local authorities being issued subject to a royalty of Is. per year per kilowatt of maximum output, and in the case of private concerns developing water-power for electrical distribution, subject to a royalty of 4s. Per year per kilowatt of maximum output.

Persistent demands were made for some years that the Government should itself develop the power resources of the Dominion for the benefit of the people generally, and in 1910 the Aid to Water-power Works Act was passed, and the Lake Coleridge scheme for the supply of Christchurch City and Canterbury Provincial District was selected for development. Operations were commerced on these works in 1911 and completed in 1915, with a capacity of 4,500 kw., which was extended to 27,000 kw. In 1926, and further extended to 34,500 kw. In 1930. After the successful inauguration of the Lake Coleridge scheme a complete system was drawn up of interconnected power systems in both the North and South Islands.

For the North Island the scheme embraces three main stations-viz., Mangahao (24,000 h.p.), Lake Waikaremoana (40,000 h.p., capable of extension to 140,000 h.p.), and the Arapuni Rapids, on the Waikato River (60,000 h.p., capable of extension to 120,000 h.p.). The Mangahao and Waikaremoana Stations have been linked up, and it is intended later to extend the linking-up to include Arapuni also.

In the South Island developments are in hand for an ultimate capacity as follows:—

 Horse-power
Lake Coleridge (Public Works Department)46,000
Waitaki River, Kurow (Public Works Department)40,000
Waipori Falls (Dunedin City Council)28,000
Lake Monowai (Southland Electric-power Board)16,000
 130,000

As in the North Island, the two Government stations will be interconnected. It is proposed that the other two stations will be linked up also, making a complete system covering the major portion of the South Island.

A commencement with the first of major generating stations in the North Island was made at Mangahao in 1922, the full development of 24,000 kw. being undertaken. Mangahao was completed in 1925.

A start was made almost immediately with the Waikaremoana station of 40,000 kw., and power was turned on to full capacity in November, 1929. These two stations are now working as a single system.

In November, 1920, the Waihi Gold-mining Company's electric-power plant, of 6,300 kw. at Horahora was acquired by the State. Considerable extension, to 10,300 kw., was made in 1925. The requirements of the whole of the Auckland District were in time to be supplied from Arapuni (60,000 kw.), and a commencement with this huge development was made in 1925. The first unit of 15,000 kw. was brought into operation in June, 1929, and the station linked up with Horahora. Two further units were in use by March, 1930, and the fourth and final unit of the present development went into commission in 1932. Unfortunately, in June, 1930, an earth movement occurred, necessitating the temporary closing-down of the station. Following on a report from an export engineer (Professor Hornell) brought from abroad, remedial measures to recondition the headworks were made, and the station resumed operation in 1932.

The Waitaki River has been selected as the next source of power for the South Island system. Cons ruction is progressing, but the financial depression has resulted in the date of completion being put back to 1934 or later.

The following table for the last five years covers those systems in actual operation in each year: —

 1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
*Aggregate of power-houses. Due to Arapuni being temporarily shutdown.
 £££££
Capital outlay4,908,1756,109,9378,709,5279,450,51710,149,137
Total revenue452,296516,127681,792615,242680,003
Power purchased123,01389,2058,18165,61925,389
Working-costs109,268125,914150,666162,779178,372
Interest226,261276,992403,264358,821339,619
sinking fund35,31250,37423,78317,12618,062
Depreciation83,81096,675137,778110,149103,083
Total costs577,664634,160723,672704,494664,525
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
Units generated257,284,009302,456,037489,546,987465,928,407462,081,637
Units purchased40,613,52742,345,7607,772,88811,553,58016,295,235
Totals297,897,536344,801,797497,319,875477,481,987478,376,872
Units sold267,271,506310,753,555444,617,054427,138,304428,164,585
 kw.kw.kw.kw.kw.
Maximum load*53,46056,804109,250124,98095,030

CLASSIFICATION OF STATIONS.

In view of the ramifications of the electric supply industry it is difficult to present a compendious statistical treatment covering the whole industry. Indeed, the development of the central generating stations, supplemented by subsidiary distributing stations, would render the one treatment, from some aspects at least, unintelligible, since the generating undertakings differ essentially front the distributing undertakings. The treatment given hereunder deals separately with generating as distinct from distributing stations. In many cases distributing stations operate “standby” generating plants when required, and in a few cases small generating plants are operated continuously.

It should be noted that the classification into generating and distributing stations is based on whether an undertaking purchases more energy than it generates or vice versa. Under the heading “Generating” the establishments cover (1) central generating undertakings where the energy is, except for a very small quantity, sold in bulk, and where the problem I retail distribution is scarcely touched upon: (2) establishments such as, for instant, the Southland Power Board, where all the energy is generated and is sold partly in bulk but is mostly retailed: and (3) the smaller generating undertakings which, in addition to the generation of the energy, sell in retail to the various consumers. Out of 694,582,312 units sold in 1931-32 by undertakings classified under the heading of generating stations, 418,400,856 wore sold in bulk and 276,175,456 were retailed.

It will be realized that the stations grouped under the headings” Generating” and” Distributing” are not necessarily comparable from year to year for the reason that as hydro-generated energy becomes available some stations formerly principally generating now purchase more than they generate and are consequently transferred to the “distributing” group.

With regard to the distribution side of the industry, attention is drawn to the fact that a certain amount of energy is generated by the undertakings themselves. During the year ended 31st March, 1932, stations classified for statistical purposes under the heading of” Distributing” purchased 435,705,044 units and generated 4,558,265 units. Of the latter total, 1,801,642 units were generated by the Wairarapa Electric-power Board, which purchased 6,280,110 units.

GENERATING STATIONS.

Schemes in Operation.

In addition to the Government schemes the following hydro-electric schemes of 1,000 kw. and over are in operation: —

Waipori River, thirty-two mile.” from Dunedin. The present capacity of the plant is 23,125 kv.a., and the capital outlay to 31st March, 1932, was £1,685,864.

At Wairua Falls (Whangarei) a 2,000 kw. plant was installed in 1916 by the Dominion Portland Cement Company.

New Plymouth has a plant of 4.125 kw., installed in 1905.

The Southland Electric-power Board has constructed a 7,050 kv.a. plant at Lake Monowai.

The Taranaki Electric-power Board has constructed a plant to develop 4,000 h.p. from the Manganui River; the Marlborough Electric-power Board a plant to develop 1,000 kw. from the Waihopai River; the Tauranga Borough Council a plant to develop 3,000kw. from the Wairoa River; and the Grey Electric-power Board a plant of 2,500 kw. from the Arnold River.

There are numerous smaller hydro schemes and several systems generating energy from other sources, the principal of the latter being the steam station of the Auckland Electric-power Board, which, following the breakdown at Arapuni, installed an additional 15,000 kw. set.

The statistics given subsequently relate to all undertakings engaged in the generation of electric current for sale. A number of private plants (including a fairly big plant run for the operation of the Otira Tunnel) do not sell current. Particulars of the Government stations which have already been shown separately are included.

Classification According to Source of Power.

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, there were 41 undertakings which generated more energy than they purchased. Of these 30 were operated by local authorities, 4 by the General Government, and 7 by private enterprise.

 Steam.Gas.Oil.Hydro.Total.
*Including employees whose salaries and wages were not paid directly out of revenue from sale of energy.
Number of stations3233341
Number of employees*5651191,2951,880
Capital outlay (book £value)3,210,16520,60521,86014,829,03418,081,664
Revenue (not including £rates)711,8853,8585,6531,352,6472,073,443
Expenditure £713,2675,4905,5951,474,0802,198,432
Units generated157,413,830108,314174,321625,395,299783,091,764
Units purchased1,155,815  18,458,12719,613,942
Units sold132,530,06283,665133,016561,835,569694,582,312
Expenditure per unit sold1.29d.15.75d10.10d0.63d.0.76d.
Units sold per £100 of capital outlay4,1284066083,7893,841
Unit sold per employee234,5667,60614,780433,850369,459
Percentage of each Class to Totals.
Employees*30.00.60.568.9100.0
Capital outlay (book value)17.80.10.182.0100.0
Revenue (not including rates)34.30.20.365.2100.0
Expenditure32.40.30.367.0100.0
Units sold19.1  80.9100.0

Employees and Wages.

The following summary shows for 1931-32 the principal details for employees and for salaries and wages paid:—

Class of Employment.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.
Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total. 
(a) Salaries or Wages paid out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
    £££
Secretaries, managers, engineers114111544,09715644,253
Clerical staff1857025537,8838,78846,671
Wage-earning employees1,08351,088254,782477255,259
Totals1,382761,458336,7629,421346,183
(b) Salaries or Wages not paid directly out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
    £££
House-wiring22 222,916 2,916
Trading departments7182,148132,161
New construction-works391139285,7685985,827
Total420242290,8327290,904
Grand totals1,802781,880427,5949,493437,087

Capital Outlay.

The following is a summary of the data collected for 1931-32: —

Class of Expenditure.Expenditure during year ended 31st March, 1932.Total Expenditure up to 31st March, 1932.
 ££
Land in connection with power-house, headworks, cottages, &c.173254,346
Power-house, buildings, cottages, &c.80,0771,354,750
Generating plant, headworks, &c.421,3067,058,648
Special standby plant52,064263,599
Main transmission-line and main substations147,9363,154,560
Distribution systems, substations, land, cottages, &c.165,3064,144,136
Public (street) lighting11,290223,622
Interest during construction159,1761,311,580
Motors and other apparatus on hire53054,049
Stocks and materials (excluding stocks trading department)..193,650
Capital sunk in trading department (including land, buildings, &c.)..121,984
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, law-costs, &c.42,5691,485,182
Totals1,080,42719,620,106

Statistics relating to the capital outlay of any industry are not always simple to collect. Confusion arises as to whether the term covers the gross capital expenditure, or this figure less depreciation and expenditure on plant scrapped or sold i.e., the net capital outlay. Formerly the gross capital outlay figure less expenditure on plant scrapped or sold was asked for, but commencing with 1927-28 the inquiry was enlarged to cover both the gros9 and net outlays. The latter is, however, available for capital assets as a whole only, and not for individual items.

The amount allowed for depreciation during the year was £232,583, and the total amount up to 31st March, 1932, was £1,538,442. As previously mentioned, depreciation cannot be given for individual assets, owing to the practice followed in many cases of crediting all depreciation to the one reserve account. The total book-value of capital outlay to 31st March, 1932, was £18,081,604.

During the year under discussion over £1,000,000 was expended in capital equipment for these stations classified for statistical purposes under the heading “Generating,” and of this amount 39 per cent. was on generating-plant, headworks, &c., against 29 per cent. on transmission and distribution systems. The total capital expenditure to date on transmission and distribution plant is now slightly in excess of that on generating-plant and head works.

Closely allied to the question of capital outlay is that of accrued funds, which take two forms: First, sinking funds for the liquidation of loans; and, second, provision made out of current revenue for the purchase of new plant when that in use becomes worn out or obsolescent. At 31st March, 1932, accrued funds of generating-stations amounted to £1,568,562, classified as follows: —

 £
Depreciation funds25,417
Renewal funds190,774
Sinking funds1,352,371
 £1,568,562

Power Plant.

Particulars relating to the power plant in use at generating-stations during the year ended 31st March, 1932, are set out hereunder: —

Source of Power.Main plant.Standby Plant.Total.
 Number.B.h.p.Number.B.h.p.Number.B.h.p.
Water-turbines and Pelton wheels89218,50951,25594219,764
Boilers2252,70087,2003059,900
Steam-engines1853,04957,8822360,931
Gas-engines324032816521
Oil-engines53062017,6832517,989

Units Generated.

Altogether 783,091,764 unite were generated at generating-stations during the year under discussion, 59 per cent. of this total emanating from the Government systems of Horahora-Arapuni, Mangahao-Waikaremoana, and Coleridge, their respective contributions to the total figure being 14, 28, and 17 per cent.

In addition to the units generated, Government stations purchased 16,295,235 units from local authorities operating hydro, steam, or oil plants, while purchases amounting to 3,318,707 units were made by non-Government generating stations.

The following is a summary for all generating stations during the year ended 31st March, 1932: —

Station.Units.Percentage Non-productive.
Generated.Purchased.Total.Sold.
Horahora-Arapuni107,534,67015,986,614123,521,284115,082,3526.83
Mangahao-Waikaremoana224,267,16025,885224,293,045193,543,27213.71
Mangahao-Waikaremoana224,267,16025,885224,293,045193,543,27213.71
Lake Coleridge130,279,807282,736130,562,543119,538,9618.44
Other stations321,010,1273,318,707324,328,834266,417,72717.86
Totals783,091,76419,613,942802,705,706694,582,31213.47

Of the total units sold 418,406,856 were sold in bulk and 276,175,456 were sold retail.

Revenue.

The fact that the Government hydro stations sell in bulk to distributing units (Electric-power Boards, Borough Councils, &c.), whereas the majority of the other stations sell retail, is clearly displayed by the revenue figures relating to the sale of current. Although the former stations provided 62 per cent. of the total units sold, their revenue from the sale of current constituted only 33 per cent. of the total revenue from this source for all stations. The fact that the costs of operation are relatively lower in the Government stations as compared with the other stations is also a factor in accounting for the relatively smaller proportion of the total revenue coming from the former stations, since costs of. operation are the principal determinants of the selling-prices of the energy. The revenue for the year ended 31st March, 1932, for generating stations, classified according to the source whence it was derived, is given hereunder: —

Source of Revenue.Horahora-Arapuni.Mangahao-Waikaremoana.Lake Coleridge.Other Stations.Total.
 £££££
Sale of energy158,183295,957216,3821,356,4022,026,924
Profits-Sale of apparatus....1162,1722,288
Miscellaneous3,7013,9661,69829,38138,746
Interest......5,4855,485
Rates......54,33954,339
Totals161,884299,923218,1961,447,7792,127,782

Expenditure.

A study of the expenditure figures immediately reveals that overhead costs, comprising management expenses and capital charges, completely over-shadow the prime costs, which may be taken as the operating-expenses. During the year ended 31st March, 1932, of the total expenditure recorded (£2,198,432), no less than 70 per cent. represented overhead expenses, while operating-expenses or prime costs stood at 30 per cent. It is not difficult to imagine from these figures that the actual output of electrical energy can be enormously increased for a relatively small additional per-unit cost.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure recorded for generating stations during the year ended 31st March, 1932.

Comparisons in costs between the Government stations should not be made without taking into consideration the varying quantities of energy purchased, mainly from steam, oil, or gas standby stations. The more energy purchased the higher will be the per-unit costs.

 Horahora-Arapuni.Mangahao-Waikaremoana.Lake Coleridge.Other.Total.
Operating Expenditure.
 £££££
Cost of power22,514732,80210,61136,000
Cost of generation11,98513,8133,72059,85589,373
Fuel16,699....194,773211,472
Stores3,484..1538,01911,656
Repairs5,894..4,94844,76355,605
Standby plant25,973..3,7531,03730,763
Cost of transmission17,75515,2378,8337,45949,284
Cost of distribution4139,5916,055149,330165,389
Public (street) lighting......8,6528,652
Totals104,71738,71430,264484,499658,194
Miscellaneous Expenditure.
Cost of management3,65210,7996,64581,940103,036
Insurance......33,26033,260
Losses from trading......579579
Other expenditure6,634..33618,54525,515
Totals10,28610,7996,981134,684162,750

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.

The policy of the Government generally is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of the local authorities. Formerly the only local authorities available were the cities, boroughs, counties, and town districts, but with the extension of electric supply into the country areas a wider organization became necessary, and this was first provided under the Electric power Boards Act of 1918. This Act provides for several local districts to combine for the purpose of electric-power distribution, and to set up a special Electric-power Board to carry out the work, with rating powers over the district concerned. The legislation was consolidated and amended in the Electric-power Boards Act, 1925, amendments to which were enacted in 1927 and 1928. An Act, of 1930 established an Association of Electric-power Boards and Municipal Electric lighting authorities.

So far only one of the four main cities—viz., Auckland—has been included in the inner area of a power district, but of the secondary centres the cities of Wanganui, Palmerston North, and Invercargill, and the boroughs of Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, Masterton, Lower Hutt, Petone, Blenheim, Greymouth, Timaru, and Oamaru are included.

Twenty-six Boards—viz., Waitemata, Franklin, Cambridge, Central, Te Awamutu, Waitomo, Thames Valley, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Central Hawke's Bay, Dannevirke, Wanganui-Rangitikei, Manawatu-Oroua, Horowhenua, Tararua, Wairarapa, Hutt Valley, North Canterbury, Malvern, Banks Peninsula, Springs-Ellesmere, Ashburton, South Canterbury, and Waitaki—have carried out fairly complete reticulation of their areas, and are distributing power taken in bulk from the systems of Horahora-Arapuni, Mangahao-Waikaremoana, and Lake Coleridge. The Auckland Board has taken over the city electric-power station, and has provided large extensions of both plant and mains. South Taranaki is arranging to take bulk supply from the Government. Seven Boards—viz., Wairere, Opunake, Taranaki, Marlborough, Golden Bay, Teviot, and Southland—have local water-power stations in operation. The Westland Board has delegated its license to a private company for a term of years, while the Grey Board erected first a steam station and later a hydro station on the Arnold River. The Tauranga, Otago, and Otago Central Boards have arranged to purchase power in bulk from other authorities. The other five viz., North Auckland, Waimea, Buller, Reefton, and Hurunui — are not yet actually functioning.

DISTRIBUTING STATIONS.

Electric-power Boards are not the only authorities engaged in the distribution of electric current, a considerable number of local authorities of other classes being also so engaged. The following data and explanations cover all distributing stations whether they are operated by Electric-power Boards, other local authorities, or private enterprise.

As indicated earlier, the statistics given hereunder in respect of distributing stations cover some stations which generate a small amount of energy apart from that which is purchased from the generating stations. This generation as a general rule is carried on with steam and oil plants which have not yet been scrapped, and which now operate chiefly as standby plants.

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, there were 59 undertakings in the Dominion purchasing energy from generating stations, and, with the exception of a small amount sold in bulk, retailing it to the consumer. All these stations were operated by local authorities, with the exception of a small station in Canterbury operated by a dairy company and another one at Rotorua operated by the New Zealand Government through the Department of Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and Publicity. The Auckland Provincial District leads the way in the number of distributing stations, no fewer than 18 out of the total of 59 for the whole Dominion being located within its boundaries. Canterbury follows Auckland with 17, while Wellington, Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, Otago, and Southland have 9, 7, 3, 3, and 2 respectively.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

Particulars regarding distributing stations for the year ended 31st March, 1932, are presented hereunder:—

Class of Employment.Males.Females.Total.
PERSONS ENGAGED.
(a) Salaries or Wages paid out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
Secretaries, managers, engineers148..148
Clerical staff212176388
Wage-earning employees7293732
Totals1,0891791,268
(b) Salaries or Wages not paid directly out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.   
House-wiring1532155
Trading departments441054
New construction works3521353
Totals54913562
Grand totals1,6381921,830
SALARIES AND WAGES PAID.   
 £££
To employees in Class (a)297,86122,541320,402
To employees in Class (b)114,5241,765116,289
Totals412,38524,306436,691

POWER PLANT.

The plant of distributing stations was returned as follows for the year ended 31st March, 1932:

Kind of Engine.Main Plant.Standby Plant.Total.
No.Brake Horsepower.No.Brake Horse power.No.Brake Horse power.
Water-turbines and Pelton wheels796041,390112,350
Boilers614,500117,0001721,500
Steam-engines311,500136,6901618,190
Gas-engines....63956395
Oil-engines....195,260195,260

The generating-plant at distributing stations consisted of 10 main-plant generators of 8,600 kv.a. and 38 standby generators of 10,514 kv.a.

CAPITAL OUTLAY.

Of the total capital expenditure of distributing stations at 31st March. 1932, 71 per cent. was sunk in distribution works, against 10 per cent and 8 per cent in transmission-lines and generating (including standby) plant respectively. The relatively low figure for transmission-lines is due to the fact that the transmission-lines between the generating and distributing stations appear in the capital outlay for the former. The following summary shows the capital outlay during the year ended 31st March, 1932, and the total to that date.

Class of Expenditure.Expenditure during Year ended 31st March, 1932.Total Expenditure to 31st March, 1932.
 ££
Land in connection with power-house, head works, cottages, &c.1,62030,118
Power-house buildings, cottages, &c.1,309186,486
Generating plant, head works, &c.4,208748,328
Special standby plant8389,494
Main transmission-line and main substations17,9971,001,698
Distribution system, substations, land, cottages, &c.223,7117,373,009
Public (street) lighting2,230202,044
Interest during construction889374,699
Motors and other apparatus on hire1033,494
Stocks and materials (excluding stocks in trading department)..146,400
Capital sunk in trading department (including land, buildings, &c.)..98,305
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, law-costs, &c.)2,031488,555
Totals254,18110,742,630

Depreciation amounting to £1,123,185 has been written off the capital expenditure shown, thus reducing the book-value of the assets to £9,619,445.

Distributing stations had set aside at 31st March, 1932, £1,553,350 in the way of accrued funds. Sinking funds comprised £1,050,617, while depreciation funds represented £261,389. The balance was made up as follows: Renewal funds, £132,528; accident funds, £25,031; and other funds, £83,785.

UNITS PURCHASED AND GENERATED.

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, 4,558,265 units were generated; and 435,705,044. units were purchased by distributing stations.

Of the total units dealt with during the year (440,263,309) only 1 per cent was generated by the distributing stations, the balance (99 per cent.) being purchased from generating stations or intermediate distributing stations. Losses in transmission and distribution accounted for 14 per cent of the total units generated and purchased, leaving a balance of 377,764,027 units sold. Of these, 39,414,217 units were sold in bulk.

REVENUE.

The revenue from all sources was recorded as £2,234,685 during the year ended 31st March, 1932, the great bulk of which (£2,153,595) represented revenue from sales of current. Quite a considerable trade was done in the sale and hire of apparatus, this trade providing a profit of £5,244 for the year. Miscellaneous receipts provided £38,699; interest, £22,041; and rates, £15,106.

As regards the revenue from the sale of current, the following figures give a classification of revenue according to the purposes for which the power was consumed.

 Revenue.Percentage of Total.
 £ 
Street-lighting73,3193.4
Light, heating, and cooking1,486,01169.0
Power465,97921.6
Tramways41,1521.9
Other and undefined purposes13,1690.6
Bulk supply73,9653.5
Total2,153,595100.0

EXPENDITURE.

The proportion of operating-expenses to total expenditure in 1931-32 was higher in the case of distributing than in generating stations, while overhead expenses, including miscellaneous and management expenses and capital charges, were relatively higher in the generating than in the distributing stations. The actual percentages were as follows:—

 Operating expensesOverhead
Distributing stations4654
Generating stations3070

The table following shows a classification of the expenditure for undertakings which purchased more energy than they generated during the year ended 31st March, 1932.

Operating Expenses.£
Generation12,634
Power-purchases698,845
Fuel4,644
Stores1,589
Repairs14,107
Standby plant24,824
Transmission10,943
Distribution229,184
Public (street) lighting13,173
Total1,009,943
Miscellaneous.£
Management151,122
Insurance15,172
Losses from trading2,136
Other35,867
Total204,297
Capital Charges.£
Interest525,726
Sinking Fund126,595
Depreciation reserve126,100
Renewal Fund23,522
Reserve Fund31,989
Other136,696
Total970,628
Grand total2,184,868

GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING STATIONS.

Something in the way of a general survey of the whole electric-power industry is afforded by the following table, which shows the principal statistics for both generating and distributing stations for the year ended 31st March, 1932. The figures for Mangahao-Waikaremoana are wholly included in the totals for Wellington Provincial District.

Provincial District.Persons engaged.Revenue (Including Rates).Expenditure.Capital Outlay (less Depreciation) at 31st March, 1932.
  £££
Auckland1,2331,451,1791,481,88110,455,293
Hawke's Bay136196,019191,986878,351
Taranaki182197,783198,4681,206,382
Wellington9691,113,3911,127,1976,702,655
Marlborough2636 04738,987334,893
Nelson5553,06356,148191,558
Westland10646,02045,994400,048
Canterbury539723,688686,2413,515,808
Otago342312,665334,9882,215,567
Southland12231,712221,4101,800,554
Total3,7104,362,4674,383,30027,701,109

Owing to the fact that some generating stations are engaged in retailing current as well as in selling it in bulk, it is necessary to consider the figures for both kinds of stations in a consideration of the quantities of energy used for various purposes and the revenue derived from each source.

The table given hereunder shows the energy retailed classified according to the purpose for which it was used, together with the amount of revenue derived from the sales for each purpose: —

 Units generated.Revenue.
 (000 omitted.)£
Street-lighting11,945140,991
Light, heating, and cooking391,5892,357,383
Power139,352785,793
Tramways42,300142,209
Other and undefined purposes29,33917,252
Total614,5253,443,628

The industrial statistics appear to indicate that development in the electric-supply industry has outstripped that for most other industries. The investment of more than £30,000,000 in the industry within such a relatively short space of time has given it an important place in the economic structure of the Dominion. The capital investment per head of population has advanced from £3.12 in 1920-21 to £20.01 in 1931-32, while the units generated per head of population have risen from 136 to 519.

The “capital turnover,” which is based on the relationship between the revenue and the capital invested, shows that the book-value of the capital outlay at 31st March, 1932 (total capital outlay minus depreciation written off and funds accrued to date), will, on the basis of the present revenue, be turned over in approximately six to seven years. This gives some idea of the permanency of the investment, and is in striking contrast to many other industries where the capital is turned over several times in the one year.

The following table shows fairly detailed comparisons between the figures for the last three years, ended 31st March.

 1930.1931.1932.
Stations No.99100100
Persons engaged (both sexes) No.2,8043,0502,965
Salaries and wages £693,031756,845717,900
Consumers No.284,235300,779309,726
Generators (capacity) —   
Main Kw.228,588223,768222,879
Standby Kw.39,92926,52433,514
Route-miles of lines Miles18,91919,65720,298
Revenue —   
Current —   
Retail £3,334,9353,526,6923,443,628
Bulk £774,759734,849736,891
Other £198,561184,599181,948
Total £4,308,2554,446,1404,362,467
Expenditure —   
Working expenses £1,874,2352,094,7362,035,184
Capital charges £2,363,0662,346,0842,348,116
Total £4,237,3014,440,8204,383,300
Capital outlay —   
Total expenditure £27,655,35329,197,17430,362,736
Per head of population £18.7219.4920.01
Book-value at 31st March £ Units —25,760,60926,970,00027,701,109
Units —   
Generated No.709,683,109759,827,056787,650,029
Per head of population Units480507519
Sold (retail) No.500,511,359590,756,732614,525,266
Bulk sales No. Capacity of plant (main and Kw. stand by)499,569,530448,601,639457,821,073
Capacity of plant (main and Kw. stand by)268,517250,292256,393
Generators Miles of lines —   
Transmission and distribution Miles18,60319,32919,891
Underground cables Miles316328406
Total18,91919,65720,297
Number of —   
Stoves25,99729,48031,973
Milking-machines11,92213,65614,163
Water-heaters37,56442,80345,796
Electric motors49,23260,46461,378

The figures given in respect of employees and salaries and wages are exclusive of those engaged on new construction work.

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER IN USE.

The following table shows the hydro-electric horse-power actually in use in the various districts at the 31st March in each of the last five years:—

District.1927-28.1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-22.
*Arapuni Hydro-electric Station out of action during 1931.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland North2,800 1/22,800 1/22,7942,7942,799
Auckland6,4886,8356,7937,1207,104
Auckland South16,512 1/216,477 1/266,477 1/266,477 1/216,447 1/2*
Gisborne3,2693,26956,01256,01256,329
Hawke's Bay389387 1/2349 1/2349 1/2
Taranaki North10,48910,48910,4309,815 1/210,880 1/2
Taranaki1,5421,4931,6681,572 1/21,300
Wellington North1,1411,1411,1661,16632,853
Wellington34,44334,421 1/234,421 1/235,396 1/21,547
Nelson1,853 1/21,833 1/21,718 1/29212,473
Westland2,3873,5613,3743,3975,256
Canterbury40,50640,50640,50651,349 1/251,377
Canterbury South177177177177
Otago16,574 1/219,570 1/219,744 1/227,169 1/226,065 1/2
Southland10,913 3/414,456 1/414,802 1/414,753 1/214,753 1/2
Totals149,485 3/4157,418 1/4260,433 3/4278,471229,185

The following table gives an analysis of the purposes for which hydro-electric power was employed as at the 31st March, 1932:—

District.Mining.Electric Supply.Flax-mills.Sawmills.Flour-mills.Dairying.Construction Works.Freezing-Works.Paper-mills.Miscellaneous.Totals.
*Arapuni Hydro-electric Station out of action during 1931.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland North..2,770......24......52,799
Auckland1,1795,829..25..17..10..447,104
Auckland South..16,328*......1071/2......1216,447 1/2
Gisborne..56,317..............1256,329
Hawke's Bay
Taranaki North..10,565....24244..20..27 1/210,880 1/2
Taranaki..1,230..40..........301,300
Wellington N...32,812......11......3032,853
Wellington..1,523......7......171,547
Nelson..2,2894565..29......452,473
Westland2324,67948251..18......285,256
Canterbury..51,19427..1075......4451,377
Canterbury S.
Otago50924,019..1211821/2......1,40526,065 1/2
Southland51011,1691/284045101/2..1,2004501,320 1/214,753 1/2
Totals2,430220,7241/21284332944751/2..1,2304503,020229,185

Chapter 43. SECTION XLIII.—MISCELLANEOUS.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

THE Public Trust Office is designed mainly to afford, at low rates of commission, a secure and convenient recourse in any case where a person residing either in New Zealand or abroad, and desiring to draw a will, form a trust, or appoint an agent or attorney in the Dominion, may be in doubt or difficulty as to the choice of a trustee, executor, agent, or attorney. The Office aims also to relieve those who for various reasons may be unable or unwilling to commence or continue the administration of trust property to which they may have been appointed.

The Public Trust Office commenced operations in 1873, at the end of which year 257 estates, of a total value of £17,500, were being administered by the Office. Since then there has been a progressive increase in both number and value of estates administered, the records at 31st March, 1932, showing 20,656 estates of a value of £59,132,512.

Year ended 31st March,Total Value of Estates in Office, Including Unrealized Assets.Funds at Credit of Estates and Accounts.
 ££
192328,904,79817,466,787
192432,404,72419,215,388
192535,570,64220,864,356
192638,009,48024,426,609
192741,043,52326,485,917
192844,155,54828,485,442
192948,334,79031,043,172
193053,049,43734,824,210
193157,527,26336,488,434
193259,132,51236,859,518

New estates which came into the Office during the year ended 31st March, 1932, numbered 3,389, and represented a value of £6,412,123. The classification of these and of the estates under administration at 31st March, 1932, is as follows: —

 New Estates during 1931-32.Estates under Administration at 31st March, 1932.
 NumberValue.NumberValue.
  £ £
Wills estates1,2653,159,2105,31116,737,721
Trust estates326825,4952,5138,880,980
Intestate estates546361,3302,4231,701,602
Mental patients' estates419413,9881,8482,060,500
Miscellaneous estates8331,652,1008,56129,751,709
Totals3,3896,412,12320,65659,132,512

Testators and other clients appointing the Public Trustee their executor or trustee may direct investment of their funds either in the Common Fund of the Office or outside of the Common Fund. In the former case the investments are not earmarked to the estate, but capital and interest are guaranteed by the State. Interest, which is at such rate as is fixed from time to time by the Governor-General, accrues from the date the moneys reach the Office, and is free of all commission and other charges.

In the case of special investment outside of the Common Fund, the investments belong to the estate, but there is no State guarantee, and (subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee) any loss falls on the estate. Commission is charged on the interest collected.

In general, investment in the Common Fund is preferred by clients, the safety of such investment being an important consideration. The Common Fund at 31st March, 1932, held moneys to the total of £25,330,259.

The total amount invested by the Public Trust Office as at 31st March, 1932, on behalf of the estates and funds under administration was £36,321,484.

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, 5,198 wills were deposited with the Public Trustee, and 1,597 were withdrawn on account of the death of the testator or for other reasons, the net increase for the year being 3,601. The number of wills on deposit at the 31st March, 1914, was 6,427; by 1920 it had increased to 25,792; while at 31st March, 1932, it had risen to 77,124.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

During the year ended 31st December, 1931, 795 joint-stock companies were registered, with a total nominal capital of £8,283,581. In the following table companies registered in 1931 are classified according to the amount of their nominal capital.

Amount.Private Companies.Public Companies.Overseas Companies.
Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £ £ £
Under £1,000264107,73052,350....
£1,000 and under £2,000167204,88744,875....
£2,000 and under £3,00097207,724716,200....
£3,000 and under £4,00048151,330618,50026,086
£4,000 and under £5,00025105,25014,000....
£5,000 and under £6,00032162,461945,000210,144
£6,000 and under £7,0001273,000318,000....
£7,000 and under £8,000321,250429,000....
£8,000 and under £9,000972,600216,000....
£9,000 and under £10,000218,000........
£10,000 and under £15,00023252,05312120,000220,000
£15,000 and under £20,0007110,515345,000....
£20,000 and under £50,0008190,00012304,500385,000
£50,000 and above5498,00091,010,00074,354,166
Total7022,174,760771,633,425164,475,396

The next table gives figures of total registrations during each of the last three years, classified according to amount of nominal capital.

Amount.1929.1930.1931.
Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £ £ £
Under £1,00020380,830232105,412269110,080
£1,000 and under £2,000161194,462208255,328171209,722
£2,000 and under £3,000113247,576121264,354104223,924
£3,000 and under £4,00065205,95066202,83756175,916
£4,000 and under £5,00043176,07428116,76326109,250
£5,000 and under £6,00066333,30256284,99143217,605
£6,000 and under £7,00024145,73017103,6221591,000
£7,000 and under £8,00016115,75015107,500750,250
£8,000 and under £9,0001189,08313106,8451188,600
£9,000 and under £10,000872,000437,000218,000
£10,000 and under £15,00054596,50044468,55037392,053
£15,000 and under £20,00020309,75022340,00010155,515
£20,000 and under £50,000611,534,200381,000,25023579,500
£50,000 and above588,370,850293,309,583215,862,166
Total90312,472,0578936,702,6757958,283,581

In comparing one year with another, as in the following table, it should not be overlooked that re-registrations on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons are included. Such re-registrations may have a considerable effect on the year's total, when large companies are concerned.

Year.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £
19123163,591,362
19132826,658,722
19142264,987,526
19153044,431,830
19162584,072,803
19172615,367,201
19182003,055,351
19193285,942,605
19205019,563,933
19213373,498,208
192241713,125,494
192350213,006,085
192456521,367,310
192562114,760,398
192665510,748,231
19276988,701,808
192873610,984,907
192990312,472,057
19308936,702,675
19317958,283,581

TOTAL COMPANIES ON REGISTER.

In the 1930 and previous issues appear the results of a special compilation, showing the number and capital of all companies on the register as at 31st December, 1926.

At 31st December, 1926, there were on the register 1,630 public companies, with an aggregate nominal capital of £89,544,858; a subscribed capital of £58,807,519; a paid-up capital of £49,982,593; and a total of £16,181,126 mortgages under the Companies Act.

As regards the mortgages shown for these companies, however, the figure given falls short of accuracy by reason of the fact that many of the mortgages are to secure current accounts. Moreover, information regarding bank overdrafts and other accommodation not requiring registration is not available.

At the 31st December, 1926, there were 3,439 private companies on the register, having a nominal and subscribed capital of £36,000,343. Assuming that the ratio of subscribed capital to paid-up capital obtaining in the case of private companies engaged in manufacturing industries (this information being available from the annual) returns of factory production) is constant throughout all private companies, the total paid-up capital of all private companies may be put down as approximately £33,400,000. Making a similar assumption in regard to the ratio of mortgages to paid-up capital, the mortgages of all private companies at the end of 1926 works out at about £8,250,000, which added to the paid-up capital gives a total working capital of £41,650,000. For both public and private companies the total working capital would thus be nearly £108,000,000.

The figures given above do not include foreign companies, regarding which information is extremely scanty. At the end of 1926 there were 205 foreign companies on the register. No nominal capital was shown for 22 of these, and the remaining 183 showed a total nominal capital of £145,281,645. This amount, however, gives no indication whatever as to the capital invested in the Dominion.

In addition to the foregoing, there were 22 companies limited by guarantee, 10 unlimited companies, and 8 companies of a miscellaneous character.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.

There were 2,065 applications for letters patent during 1931, 1,299 of these being filed with provisional specifications, and 766 with complete specifications. Patent fees for the year amounted to £9,232.

The total number of applications received up to the 31st December, 1931, was 68,295, and the patents in force in New Zealand at that date numbered 8,671. The number of patent, agents on the register was 18.

In the following table are shown the countries of residence of persons who applied for patents in New Zealand during the last three years. Owing to applications being received from joint applicants resident in different countries, also from applicants giving two addresses, the figures total more than the actual number of applications received.

Country.1929.1930.1931.
New Zealand1,0081,1191,325
United Kingdom495324273
Australia313305215
United States219197122
Germany805045
France351712
Netherlands193110
Italy81010
Canada1579
Sweden979
Austria177
Switzerland856
Union Of South Africa1463
Denmark1171
All Other Countries261520
Total2,2612,1072,067

The total number of applications during 1931 in respect of trade-marks was 999, and the fees received totalled £3,967. Of the total applications, 503 were made by residents of New Zealand, 189 came from Great Britain, 121 from Australia, 106 from the United States, 25 from Germany, 14 from Canada, and 12 from the Netherlands.

The number of applications for registration of designs totalled 151, and the fees received for the year, £115.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade-marks and designs in each of the last ten years:—

Year.Patents.Trade-marks.Designs.Year.Patents.Trade-marks.Designs.
19222,1831,10321419272,0521,325145
19232,0751,16318319282,0701,201163
19242,0851,33818519292,2511,359125
19252,0461,33220319302,1031,265169
19262,1371,14320419312,065999151

For the year 1931 the total receipts of the Patent Office were £13,391 and the payments £5,466, leaving a surplus of £7,925.

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.

The Inspection of Machinery Act makes provision for the Inspection of all steam boilers and digesters, of hydraulic, electric, and other lifts, and of any prime movers such as gas, oil, and air engines used to drive machinery on land, also of machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled.

It also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Working Rail-ways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up by the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Inspector of Machinery.

Annual inspections of machinery during the year ended 31st March, 1932, numbered 37,692, and of boilers, 7,914. The following figures cover inspections during the last four years: —

Number Inspected.Year ended 31st March,
1929.1930.1931.1932.
Boilers—    
Stationary, portable, traction5,2195,0054,9894,728
Digesters, vulcanizers, &c.2,4572,5322,6132,531
Air-receivers45388543655
Machinery— 
Electric motors22,78024,96128,37223,429
Internal-combustion engines12,70312,76414,5109,157
Water-power engines505465597457
Lifts2,2302,6133,0962,988
Cranes245273287310
Hoists1,2091,1881,3231,351
Total47,39350,18956,33045,606

By the Inspection of Machinery Amendment Act, 1931, farm machinery of not more than 6 horse-power was exempted from annual inspection. It is estimated that this has reduced annual inspections by about 24,200. As a consequence considerable administrative changes have been effected.

In addition to the annual inspections of boilers, new boilers to the number of 369, and representing an aggregate of 2,176 horse-rower, were inspected and tested before being used. Of these, 159, of a total horse-power of 575, had been made in New Zealand, the others being imported.

During the year ended 31st March, 1932, 335 certificates were issued to land engineers, engine-drivers, and electric-tram drivers, on their passing the necessary examinations. At examinations during the year 380 candidates sat, 292 being successful.

Revenue and expenditure in connection with inspection of machinery have been as follows: —

 1928-29.1929-30.1930-31.1931-32.
Revenue —££££
Inspection fees, &c.19,92320,79122,53622,802
Examination fees, &c.402369385384
Total20,32521,16022,92123,186
Expenditure21,57321,95724,65322,801

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

The basis of valuation used in New Zealand in the compilation of statistics of the value of production is the wholesale or declared export value, or, where neither of these two is available or applicable, the value at the factory. In the factory-production class, which includes all those factories which do not come within the headings of any other group, the value shown is the value added to materials by the process of manufacture. The totals shown in the following table do not represent the whole value of production, no allowance being made for the production on small holdings of under 1 acre, kitchen-gardens, &c., nor of home products, of which dressmaking, jam-making, &c., would alone comprise something very considerable in the aggregate.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

Year.Group I: Agricultural Products.Group II: Pastoral Products.Group III: Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.Group IV: Mining ProductsGroup V: Fishery Products.Group VI: Forest Products.Group VII: Factory Products.Group VIII: Builders, Labourers, and Industrial Workers &c.Total.
 £££££££££
1918-198,153,66837,308,92814,783,0013,593,916306,1523,174,00112,333,4195,855,03785,508,122
1919-208,967,93336,856,11017,891,1503,778,682386,0593,361,02615,557,6186,449,84693,248,424
1920-218,951,71429,985,05926,170,8122,699,678435,6714,744,60119,125,9467,616,93799,730,718
1921-229,796,42528,563,79621,762,9042,727,205465,4704,541,39817,590,9268,207,70793,655,831
1922-238,365,53031,094,02325,169,1602,761,078363,1404,532,10518,419,6009,732,755100,437,391
1923-247,226,59234,505,09724,588,1823,088,246472,7654,765,57119,648,74811,356,288105,651,489
1924-258,424,42141,946,52026,194,6583,074,094491,4025,126,50920,941,14111,918,109118,116,854
1925-268,399,40132,793,73826,273,9193,142,279584,3725,153,77522,278,37813,081,587111,707,449
1926-278,843,26732,402,15425,664,6703,320,047531,6004,328,74723,118,72813,877,069112,095,282
1927-289,315,93739,279,32928,325,7623,515,779524,5143,237,06722,615,35213,078,486119,892,226
1928-299,375,75742,320,49330,411,1043,498,872451,2513,128,34723,699,73212,418,593125,304,149
1929-308,874,12633,657,21029,684,3223,589,392553,9993,338,29425,033,67913,441,538118,172,560
1930-318,795,65224,575,10223,724,7353,570,799495,7742,659,22723,095,92410,993,34897,910,561

In estimating the total value of production, deductions have had to be made from certain classes for items the inclusion of which would lead to duplication in the aggregate, and this has had the effect of understating the total production of certain of the classes. For instance, the gross value of Group I (Agricultural) was estimated as £27.826,281 in 1930-31, but as the major part of this was utilized for the purpose of adding value to live-stock, the accretions in value of which are accounted for in Groups II and III, the net value only (£8,795,652) has been taken into account in the aggregate.

From the figures of total value of production it is possible, by taking into account the increase of population and the movement of prices, to compile a series of index numbers showing the relative volume of production. The figures are given in detail in the next table: —

Year.Mean Population.Value of Production.Index Numbers of Value of Production (1918-19 = 1000).Index Number of Producers' Prices (1018-19 = 1000).Index Numbers of Volume of Production (1918-19 = 1000)
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
  ££     
1918-191,166,48285,508,12273.3010001000100010001000
1919-201,207,66093,248,42477.211091105310561033997
1920-211,252,20699,730,71879.641,1661086107010901015
1921-221,285,71193,655,83172.8410959949801,1171014
1922-231,311,381100,437,39176.591,17510459721,2091075
1923-241,334,029105,651,48979.201,236108010611,1651018
1924-251,359,995118,116,85486.851,3811,18510771,2821,100
1925-261,392,073111,707,44980.251,306109510151,2871079
1926-271,420,762112,095,28278.901,31110769621,3631,118
1927-281,443,323119,892,22683.071,4021,1339851,4231,150
1928-291,459,983125,304,14985.831,4651,1719961,4711,176
1929-301,477,494118,172,56079.981,38210919101,5191,199
1930-311,497,73297,910,56165.371,1458927781,4721,147

Notwithstanding increased production in the dairying industry, there was a fall in the volume of production in 1930-31, due largely to a serious diminution in building and other constructional activity.

CONSUMPTION OF FOODSTUFFS.

By taking the total production figures of a commodity and adding or subtracting the net imports or exports, a result is obtained which gives approximately the total quantity available for home consumption. In the following table an attempt has been made to gauge the extent to which certain commodities are consumed in New Zealand. In order to eliminate the fluctuations which would naturally occur if a single year were taken—this is especially noticeable in the case of imports and exports—the figures relate to an average of the last three years. It should be mentioned here that in the case of potatoes, onions, and fresh fruits no attempt has been made to estimate the total quantity raised in home gardens for local consumption, and the figures for these commodities are deficient to that extent. Figures for meat (which include bone) are based on arbitrarily selected average weights of dressed carcasses, and are therefore approximate only.

The figures showing production, imports, exports, amount available for home consumption, and consumption per head for the principal items of foodstuffs are given in the table following.

AVERAGE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF FOODSTUFFS.

Article.Production.Imports.Exports.Excess of Imports over Exports.Amount available for Local Consumption.
TotalPer Head.

*Excess of exports over Imports.

†Other than rock-salt.

‡On refined basis.

 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
Butter252,921,905..193,887,829193,887,829*59,034,07639.80
Cheese202,421,595..191,399,675191,399,675*11,021,9207.43
Fresh meat—
Beef258,998,283..42,034,86942,034,869*216,963,414146.28
Mutton224,871,733..118,365,072118,365,072*106,506,66171.81
Lamb239,433,488..231,287,429231,287,429*8,146,0595.49
Pork37,506,800..17,153,73317,153,733*20,353,06713.72
Bacon and ham19,380,0691,229350,673349,444*19,030,62512.83
Potatoes302,578,453915,4132,832,8531,917,440*300,661,013203.37
Onions19,951,6808,329,0672,461,0135,868,05425,819,73417.46
Flour272,246,00020,755,967340,20020,415,767292,661,767197.96
Oatmeal, rolled oats, &c.15,458,000147,739389,116211,377*15,216,62310.29
Maizena and cornflour..2,801,0864,3622,796,7242,796,7241.87
Macaroni and vermicelli..675,83872675,766675,7660.45
Sago and tapioca..3,088,6232,8373,085,7863,085,7862.07
Rice..7,810,58185,2327,725,3497,725,3495.17
Arrowroot..114,612360114,252114,2520.08
Desiccated coconut..1,179,788511,179,7371,179,7370.79
Mustard..230,361509229,852229,8520.15
Peel216,832446,292233446,059662,8910.44
Salt..69,380,48336,66169,343,82269,343,82246.45
Sugar..168,403,1632,651,227165,751,936165,751,936111.03
Tea..11,451,452102,01111,349,44111,349,4417.60
Dried apricots..585,891..585,891585,8910.39
Currants..1,465,119..1,465,1191,465,1190.98
Dates..3,819,571..3,819,5713,819,5712.56
Figs..619,010..619,010619,0100.41
Prunes..1,737,483..1,737,4831,737,4831.16
Raisins and sultanas..9,080,352..9,080,3529,080,3526.08
Apples86,654,4931,236,76547,094,64445,857,879*40,796,61427.60
Pears11,799,4007,7141,937,4361,929,722*9,869,6786.68
Lemons1,525,9341,413,831..1,413,8312,939,7651.99
Bananas..20,672,845..20,672,84520,672,84513.85
Oranges325,85416,057,13428016,056,85416,382,70810.97
Tobacco1,080,2774,392,29836,5714,355,7275,436,0043.64
..Gallons.Gallons.Gallons.Gallons.Gallons.Gals.
Vinegar659,38323,51786022,657682,0400.46
Beer12,397,87274,00015,67358,32712,456,1998.43
Spirits..581,1285,130575,998575,9980.39
Wine34,341182,9781,414181,564215,9050.14

The four staple products of New Zealand are wool, frozen meat, butter, and cheese. The relative local consumption of wool has been dealt with in£IC: percentages for the other staples are given below, covering the period of the preceding table.

APPROXIMATE PROPORTION PER CENT. OF TOTAL PRODUCTION.

 Consumed locally. Per CentExported. Per Cent.
Butter 23.376.7
Cheese 5.494.6
Fresh meat—  
Beef 83.816.2
Mutton 47.452.6
Lamb 3.496.6
Pork 54.345.7
Bacon and ham 98.21.8

GENERAL ELECTIONS.

The 1931 general election of parliamentary representatives was held in December of that year—for Maori electorates on the 1st, and for European electorates on the 2nd. Dealing with the latter only, it is found that out of a total roll number of 838,344 (exclusive of the Bay of Plenty, Oroua, Pahiatua, and Waitomo districts, where no contests were held) some 698,027 (83.26 per cent.) exercised their votes.

A summary for the general elections of 1925, 1928, and 1931, is as follows:—

 1925.1928.1931.
Number of votes recorded for candidates elected380,231365,116382,562
Number of votes recorded for candidates defeated291,740370,275310,510
Number of informal votes8,9068,3004,955
Total number of electors who voted at the election678,877743,691698,027
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total valid votes recorded57.1749.6555.20
Total number of electors on roll (where contest)754,113844,633838,344
Number of districts where no contest1 4
Percentage of electors on roll who voted90.9288.0583.26
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates   
elected to total number of electors on roll50.4243.2245.63
Number of seamen's rights exercised1,5731,771837
Number of electors voting as absent voters37,22338,88731,160
Number of electors exercising postal votes 7,9776,956
Total population of Dominion at last census (excluding Maoris)1,218,9131,344,4691,344,469

The relative interest in the poll evinced by men and women may be measured by the percentage of votes recorded to the number on the roll—viz., men 84.51 per cent., women 81.99 per cent. in 1931, the 1928 figures being 89.03 and 87.03 respectively.

A statement of the voting in individual electorates in 1931 is given in 1932 parliamentary papers H.-33 and H.-33A.

In the four Maori electorates 21,439 votes were recorded in 1931, viz.: Northern Maori, 5,630; Southern Maori, 917; Eastern Maori, 7,099; Western Maori, 7,793. Votes cast for elected candidates numbered 12,889, and for defeated candidates 8,550. There are no rolls in the case of Maori elections.

BY-ELECTIONS.

Since the general election of 1931, two by-elections have been held owing to the death of sitting members. The Southern Maori by-election was held on 3rd August, 1932, and the Motueka on 1st December, 1932.

LICENSING.

According to a return compiled by the Department of Justice, the following are the licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors:—

Publican's licenses 1,032
Accommodation licenses 192
Wholesale licenses 145
Packet licenses 19
New Zealand wine licenses 4
Total 1,392

The date of the return is nominally 1st September, 1929, but the above numbers cannot be increased and the figures may be accepted as correct to the end of December, 1931. In addition, there were (December, 1931) 45 club charters, and November, 1932) 62 wine-maker's licenses. A further 412 conditional license (temporary licenses for race-meetings, agricultural shows, &c.) were granted during 1929-30.

The average number of persons to each licensed (i.e., publicans' or accommodation licenses) house at the end of 1931 may be taken as 1,243, as compared with 1,111 in 1921 and 846 in 1911.

The annual fees payable for licenses are,— 
(1) For a publican's license —£
(a) Within the limits of a borough or town district 40
(b) Outside the aforesaid limits, 25
(2) For a New Zealand wine license 1
(3) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding 20
(4) For a packet license — 
(a) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register 10
(b) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register 5
(5) For a wholesale license 20
(6) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding 30

Fees form part of the revenue of the local body of the district in which the license was issued.

NATIONAL LICENSING POLLS.

The licensing poll of the 14th November, 1928, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the fourth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. The votes recorded for the various issues at each of the four polls referred to are as follows: —

 1919.1922.1925.1928.
For national continuance241,251282,669299,590373,692
For State purchase and control32,26135,72756,03764,276
For national prohibition270,250300,791319,450294,453

In the no-license districts an additional issue is submitted—viz., local restoration—three-fifths of the valid votes cast being required for the carrying of the proposal. The voting figures for each of the twelve districts affected, and the votes recorded for the three national issues for each licensing district, in 1928, are given on pp. 985-986 of the 1930 Year-Book.

The Licensing Poll Postponement Act, 1931, relegated the date of the next licensing poll to that of the second general election after the passing of the Act. The postponement of the poll which in the ordinary course would have fallen in 1931 was enacted on grounds of economy.

REVIEW OF LEGISLATION FOR 1930 AND 1931.

[By Mr. J. CHRISTIE, LL.M., Parliamentary Law Draftsman.]

1930.

In a session extending over four months, only forty-five public Acts were passed by the New Zealand Legislature during 1930. The reason is to be found principally in the absence of the Prime Minister (the Right Hon. Mr. Forbes) and the Attorney-General (the Hon. Sir Thomas Sidey) who left New Zealand in August to attend the Imperial Conference in London.

The following review (written in November, 1931) summarizes the most important enactments of 1930; since then two sessions of Parliament have been held in 1931, and where the legislation of 1930 has been affected by the legislation of 1931, the later legislation is also adverted to. It should be noted, however, that in some instances legislation in 1932 has altered the position as stated herein.

Unemployment. —The Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment Act), 1926, was originally intended to remain in operation for one year only. It has since been annually extended for a year at a time, the last extension being made by an Act of 1931, which has extended its operation until 31st July, 1932. The increase of unemployment throughout New Zealand in 1930, however, necessitated further measures of relief, and the Unemployment Act (1930, No. 10) was passed on the 11th October of that year. By that Act an Unemployment Fund was established, consisting of the proceeds of an “unemployment levy” and of a subsidy from the Consolidated Fund equal to one-half of the total expenditure. The original levy was imposed at a flat rate of 30s. per annum, and was payable by all males over twenty years of age, with certain exceptions of minor importance. For example, persons in receipt of old-age and certain other pensions were exempted, as were also persons whose ordinary place of residence was not in New Zealand. It is to be noted, in particular, that no general exemption was made in respect of unemployed persons themselves; a major purpose of the Act was to provide relief works, and the levy was recovered from the relief wages. For the administration of the Act an Unemployment Board of eight members was set up, two being representative of employers, two of workers, and one of returned soldiers; the other members being the Minister and two persons appointed on the recommendation of the Minister. This Board was found to be unwieldy, and by the legislation of 1931 a Board of five members was substituted. As now constituted, the Board consists of a Minister of the Crown, the Commissioner of Unemployment (who is an officer of the Public Service), and three members appointed by the Governor-General.

The policy of the legislation and of the Unemployment Board has consistently been to provide work and wages, and not charitable relief, the fund being principally used to subsidize local authorities in carrying out works that in the ordinary course would probably not be undertaken at all, or would not be undertaken in the present economic circumstances. By the amending legislation of 1931 the powers of local authorities have been extended to enable them, with the concurrence of the Unemployment Board, to carry out works on privately-owned property—e.g., drainage, reclamation, and irrigation works.

The major alteration of the law made in 1931 was with respect to the maintenance of the fund. By the amending legislation further taxation was imposed, and the fund is now maintained by the proceeds of—

  1. A general levy of 20s. a year on adult males:

  2. A tax on all wages (payable by both men and women) of 3d. in the pound:

  3. A like tax on income other than salary and wages, payable by all men, and by women who are in receipt of an annual income of £250 and upwards:

  4. A subsidy from the Consolidated Fund, equal to the amount of the expenditure from the Unemployment Fund.

The Act makes the necessary machinery provisions to enable the Board to carry out its duties, and to prevent the receipt of benefits by persons whose financial circumstance do not justify their being granted this form of relief.

So far as possible the aim of the Board is to provide money for the employment of men on productive works; in no case is the Board itself an employer of labour, but expends the available moneys in assistance of employers.

Rent Restriction.—The rent restriction legislation was again extended by the Rent Restriction Act, 1930, and yet again by the Rent Restriction Act, 1931. The date now fixed for its expiry is 1st August, 1932. Although the legislation has a very limited operation in actual fact, its presence on the statute-book is said to have a wholesome influence in preventing excessive rents.

Customs and Excise Duties.—The Customs Acts Amendment Act (1930, No. 5) increased the rates of duty payable on the importation into New Zealand of several classes of goods; and also increased the rates of excise duty payable on beer and tobacco manufactured in New Zealand. Many of these duties were further increased by the Customs Acta Amendment Act, 1931. The Act of 1930 abolished primage duty (which was applicable both to dutiable goods and to goods which, except for primage, were non-dutiable); and substituted a surtax on dutiable goods. As a measure of financial expediency, however, it was found necessary in 1931 to reimpose primage duty on non-dutiable goods; the rate has been fixed at 3 per cent. ad valorem.

Taxation and General Financial Provisions.—By Part I of the Finance Act, 1930, increased rates of stamp duty were imposed on almost all dutiable instruments; Part II increased from 20 per cent, to 30 per cent, the rate of estate duty payable in respect of such portion of the final balance of an estate which is in excess of £100,000; Part III increased the rates of amusements-tax; Part IV made provision for the utilization of the Main Highways Revenue Fund in aid of the Consolidated Fund; Part V imposed a “film-hire tax” on persons engaged in carrying on the business of renting “sound-picture films” to exhibitors, to be assessed on the net returns derived from such business. In the case of British films, the rate is fixed at 10 per cent., and in the case of foreign films at 25 per cent., of the net receipts.

The land and Income Tax Amendment Act (1930, No. 8) repealed those provisions of the Act of 1929 which imposed a special land-tax. This tax was found to be unfair in its incidence. In its place farmers in occupation of land of an unimproved value of £7,500 and upwards were made liable for income-tax. By the amending legislation of 1931 the limit of £7,500 was reduced to £3,000.

This Act also made more exact provision for the assessment for income-tax of companies. carrying on in New Zealand the business of life-insurance. Formerly the assessable income of such companies was ascertained by reference to income derived from investments; under the new rules the assessable income is to be ascertained by reference to the amount distributed as dividends to shareholders or as bonuses to policyholders.

The rates of land-tax and income-tax for the year are prescribed in the Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act (1930, No. 7).

Coroners' Inquests.—The Coroners Amendment Act (1930, No. 11) adapts the provisions of section 6 of the Coroners Act, 1887 (Imperial), and sections 18 and 19 of the amending Act of 1926. The main purpose of the legislation is to authorize the holding of a fresh inquest on the discovery, in relation to any case, of new facts or evidence. In such cases all the depositions taken on a former inquest are made available, so that the new proceedings are concerned only with the new facts or evidence, and it is not necessary that the Coroner should again hear evidence on matters concerning which no new evidence is available.

Supreme Court.—By the Judicature Amendment Act (1930, No. 14) a Rules Committee is set up, consisting of the Chief Justice and four other Judges of the Supreme Court, the Attorney-General, and three barristers or solicitors nominated by the New Zealand Law Society and approved by the Chief Justice. Their function is to recommend to the Governor-General such new rules and amendments of rules for the procedure of the Supreme Court and the Court of Appeal as they think are required. Formerly the duty of making recommendations for the amendment of rules was left to the Judges alone, so imposing on them a function that they had little time perform.

Children.—The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act (1930, No. 19) removes from the statute-book a requirement with respect to the registration of the birth of children out of wedlock. Since 1875 it has been the practice, on the registration of such a birth, to enter in the register the word Illegitimate”; this was necessarily repeated in certified copies of the entry (frequently required to be produced when a child was a candidate for some examination or an applicant for employment). In 1912, in order to minimize the harshness of the law, provision was made for the issue of certificates of the date of birth” as distinguished from certificates of the registration entry, and this reform effected its purpose to a limited extent. The amendment effected in 1930 goes further, and dispenses altogether with the necessity of adverting in the register to the fact of illegitimacy. Former entries are deemed to be expunged, so that in no certificates issued in the future will the fact of illegitimacy be proclaimed.

Registration of Nurses.—The Nurses and Mid wives Registration Amendment Act (1930, No. 21) makes provision for the recognition of certain private hospitals and private charitable institutions as training-schools for nurses. Hitherto all nurses have been trained in approved public hospitals. So that existing reciprocal arrangements for the recognition of nurses will not be prejudiced, it is provided in the Act that the approval of any private hospital or private charitable institution as a training-school for nurses may be revoked if the training therein falls below the standard of training and instruction required by the Genera) Nursing Council of England and Wales as a condition for the admission to the English Nurses Register of nurses trained and registered in New Zealand.

Census.—The Census Postponement Act (1930, No. 2ti), as a measure of economy, dispensed with the statutory requirement that a quinquennial census be taken in the year 1931. Unless in the meantime further statutory provision is made to the contrary, a general census will not be taken until 1930.

Native Trustee.—The Native Trustee Act (1930, No. 33) is a consolidation without material alteration of the Native Trustee Act, 1920, and its amendments. The Native Trustee is charged with the administration of certain reserves held for the benefit of Natives; prior to 1920 these reserves were administered by the Public Trustee.

Land-settlement.—The Land Laws Amendment Act (1930, No. 35) makes additional provisions, in amendment of the Land Act, 1924, to facilitate the settlement of Crown lands. By the legislation of 1929 authority was given to the Minister to make provision for the bringing of lands into a state of productivity before their disposal to settlers; in extension of this provision the Act of 1930 makes provision for preference being given, when such lands are being disposed of, to the men who have already been employed in preparing them for settlement.

Special provisions are also made for disposing of blocks of inferior Crown lands on special terms, so as to encourage their development.

Legal Education.—The New Zealand University Amendment Act (1930, No. 30) and the Law Practitioners Amendment Act (1930, No. 37) must be read together, as they both deal with the matter of legal education. Formerly, though in fact the examinations were conducted by the New Zealand University, the authority to prescribe the subject matter of examinations and to appoint examiners was vested in the Judges; the change effected by the Acts now under review was to transfer to the University the whole authority to prescribe the courses of study, the examination, and the educational and practical qualifications of persons seeking to qualify for admission as barristers and solicitors, leaving to the Judges the function of admitting qualified persons to the practice of the Court. The statutory provisions as to practical training and experience are new. For the purposes of advising the Senate of the University with respect to courses of study and training provision is made in the New Zealand University Amendment Act for the establishment of a Council of Legal Education, with representatives of the Judges of the Supreme Court, members of the New Zealand Law Society, and professors or lecturers in law at the University Colleges.

Divorce.—The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act (1930, No. 43) originated as a private member's Bill and, somewhat contrary to usual parliamentary practice, was allowed to proceed. Section 2 extends the grounds of divorce by including therein orders for judicial separation made out of New Zealand and in force for three years or upwards. Such orders, if made in New Zealand, have been grounds of divorce since 1920.

Section 3, departing from the recognized principles of private international law, is of more general interest. It is expressed in the form of a verbal amendment to section 12 of the Act of 1928, and is in the following terms:—

(3) Where a wife living in New Zealand prays for divorce on any ground and has been living in New Zealand for not less than three years immediately preceding the filing of the petition, and has such intention of residing permanently in New Zealand as would constitute a New Zealand domicile in the case of a feme sole, and has been living apart from her husband for a period exceeding three year3, she shall be deemed to be domiciled in New Zealand and to have been at the time of the petition domiciled there for two years at least within the meaning of section ten of this Act.”

The first petition under this section was, because of the importance of the principles involved, removed for hearing into the Court of Appeal, where the question was considered as to whether the section in question was intra vires the New Zealand Legislature. The unanimous decision of the Court was that it was intra vires.

Disabled Soldiers.—The Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act (1930, No. 38): This Act is complementary to the Repatriation Act, 1918, which established a Repatriation Department. The Department was merged in the State Advances Department in 1924. The increase in unemployment necessitated further action in the interests of former members of our Expeditionary Forces, and the Act now under review made provision for the vocational training of disabled soldiers, and for the establishment of local advisory committees to assist in finding employment for such men. The Act is administered by the Commissioner in charge of war pensions.

1931.

The following notes do not take into account legislation of 1932.

During 1931 there were two sessions of Parliament, the first beginning on the 11th March and ending on the 7th May; the second beginning on the 25th June and ending on the 11th November. The first was in the nature of an “emergency” session, Parliament being called together principally for the purpose of dealing with the general financial position and also for the purpose of passing special legislation in relation to the series of earthquakes that caused extensive damage in the Hawke's Bay District in February of that year. A major part of the year's legislation is concerned with phases of public economy; in the Customs Act and the Land and Income Tax Acts the purpose is to increase the amount of the public revenue; the Finance Act (No. 1) has for its purpose the reduction of public and private expenditure, effected by a general reduction in salaries and wages; the Mortgagors Relief Acts are designed to protect mortgagors (principally farmers) from the harsh exercise by mortgagees of their powers of re-entry into possession or of enforcing recovery of principal or interest.

The following review deals with so much of the legislation as may be of more than local interest only.

Public and other Expenditure.—The Finance Act (1931, No. i) deals in Part I with the expenditure of public moneys, and in Part II with provision for the reduction of rates of wages payable in accordance with the terms of industrial awards and industrial agreements (in force under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act). Similar legislation was passed in 1921 (in the Public Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1921-22, and the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1921-22).

The general effect of Part I is to effect as from the 1st April, 1931, a reduction of 10 per cent, in all salaries, wages, allowances, fees, commissions, and other emoluments payable out of the Public Account. The Act has no application to Judges of the Supreme Court (a reduction of their salaries being regarded as a breach of constitutional law), but applies to all other offices, whether held under the general provisions of the law or by virtue of special contract. Contributors to the several superannuation funds have been accorded the right of continuing to contribute to such funds the same amount as if they had not suffered a reduction of salary.

Part II (relating to rates of wages payable under awards and industrial agreements) did not itself effect a reduction of such wages, but gave to the Arbitration Court authority to investigate the facts of each case, and to amend the relevant awards or agreements by a reduction of rates of wages. The general result of the authority so conferred has been to effect a 10-percent. reduction.

In addition to the reduction of salaries effected by Part I, authority is given to retire officers from the several public services-that is, in addition to the Public Service proper, the Railway service and the Education service before in ordinary course they would have been entitled or allowed to retire, provision being made in such cases for the grant of a pension at a reduced rate to be actuarially computed.

Immigration Restriction.-The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act (1931, No. 2) is a temporary measure, due to expire on the 31st December, 1933. It, also, has reference to the present economic position, and empowers the Governor-General in Council to make regulations prohibiting the landing in New Zealand of persons of any specified nationality or race, or of any specified class or occupation; the regulations may be made applicable to British subjects or other persons to whom Part I of the Immigration Restriction Act, 1920, does not apply.

Relief of Mortgagors.-The Mortgagors Relief Act (1931, No. 3) and the Mortgagors Relief Amendment Act (1931, No. 47) are for the purpose of protecting mortgagors in the possession of their property, notwithstanding default in payment of principal or interest. The legislation is generally on the lines of the several Mortgages Extension Acts passed during and after the war, with the essential difference that in the former legislation a mortgagee, before proceeding to exercise his powers of sale or other powers in the event of the mortgagor's default, was required to obtain the leave of the Supreme Court so to do; under the present legislation the procedure is reversed, and a mortgagor who wishes to obtain relief must apply to the Court within a limited time for protection. Under the principal Act (1931, No. 3) the authority of the Court in the matter of granting relief was limited, in effect, to a postponement of the mortgagee's powers, the Court being directed at the same time to take into consideration the probability of the mortgagor's recovery from his financial difficulties in the event of reasonable time being granted. In the case of farm lands, this amount of protection proved insufficient, and by the amending Act (1931, No. 47) the Court was empowered, in addition,—

  1. To postpone (for not more than two years) the due dates of payment of principal or interest:

  2. To reduce the rate of interest chargeable under a mortgage:

  3. To remit, in whole or part, arrears of interest.

With a view to encouraging voluntary readjustments as between mortgagees and mortgagors authority is given for the establishment of such number of Commissions as may be required, to inquire into the circumstances of particular cases, and to make recommendations to the parties for voluntary adjustments of their respective rights and obligations. Though the statutory title of these Commissions is “Mortgagors' Liabilities Adjustment Commissions,” they have in fact no executive powers, their sole function being to make inquiries, either at the request of the Court or of the parties to a mortgage, and to make recommendations to the Court or to the parties, as the case may require. It is anticipated that the existence of such Commissions (which will consist of men with knowledge of farming operations and of farmers' accountancy) will be to encourage voluntary adjustments to such an extent that the exercise by the Court of the statutory powers of reduction, postponement, and remission will be found unnecessary, save in exceptional cases.

GovernmentRailways.-The unsatisfactory financial position of the Government railways, due largely to the substitution of motor-transport for transport by rail, has led to frequent changes of policy during the last few years. The Government Railways Amendment Act (1931, No. 4) provides again for a Government Railways Board, but does not displace the General Manager; the purpose of the present Act is to remove the Railway service fro. Ministerial control, and the General Manager is now under the direction of the Board, and both the Board and the General Manager are freed from the Minister. As a result of the Act a reconstruction of the Administrative Branchof the Department has taken place; the former General Manager has resigned his position as such, and has been appointed as Chairman of the Board.

Finance.-The Finance Act (1931, No. 5) was passed during the emergency session (on 28th April), its principal purpose being to make certain further provisions (complementary to those in the Finance Act, No. 1) for the reduction of governmental expenditure. Among other economies are included the abolition of Junior and Senior National Scholarships under the Education Act, and the substitution of a system of bursaries of reduced value.

Hawke'sBan Earthquake.-Three Acts of 1931 deal with the effects of the series of earthquakes that occurred with disastrous result in the Hawke's Bay District, in the month of February, 1931. In the emergency session the Hawke's Bay Earthquake Act (1931, No. 6) was passed; in the ordinary session an amendment of the Land Transfer Act was passed providing for the reconstitution of the Land Transfer Register for the district, the original register having been destroyed by fire following the earthquake; in that session there were also passed the Hawke's Bay Earthquake Relief Funds Act, 1931, which gave to the Public Trustee and a Control Committee the administration of the several funds raised for the relief of sufferers from the effects of the earthquake. The Hawke's Bay Earthquake Act did two principal things. In the first place, it established a special Court of Record (culled the Hawke's Bay Adjustment Court), consisting of a Judge of the Supreme Court and two nominated members, with power (1) to make declaratory orders as to existing rights and obligations, where the evidence of those rights and obligations had been destroyed; and (2) to make orders for the relief from their legal obligation of persons who had suffered financial loss as the result of the earthquake.

In the second place, the Act made provision for setting up a Committee of five persons, to be known as the Hawke's Bay Rehabilitation Committee, whose function is to consider applications for financial assistance made by persons who have suffered loss or damage by reason of the earthquake, and to make recommendations in respect of such applications to the Minister of Finance, who is given authority to grant relief accordingly, out of moneys derived from the Reserve Fund Account. The other Acts referred to above are dealt with m more detail in their appropriate numerical order.

Unemployment.-The progressive increase of unemployment in New Zealand in the years 1930 and 1931 has necessitated a considerable amount of further legislation. For convenience they are here grouped together.

The Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment) Extension Act (1931, No. 8) extended for a further period of twelve months-that is, until 31st July, 1932-the authority conferred on local authorities by the Act of 1920 to borrow moneys for expenditure on works undertaken in relief of unemployment, without the necessity of first taking a poll of ratepayers on a proposal that moneys be borrowed for the purpose of carrying out the works in contemplation.

The Unemployment Amendment Act (1931, No. 9) extensively amends the Unemployment Act, 1930. By that Act an annual levy of 30s. was imposed on all adult male residents in New Zealand as a nucleus of an Unemployment Fund. Expenditure from the Unemployment Fund was to he subsidized by an equal amount, from the Consolidated Fund. The policy of the 1930 Act was that the fund should be expended in ways calculated to stimulate employment and, in particular, that the fund should not be applied in the form of sustenance allowance. The policy of providing work, and not sustenance allowance, bus been adhered to, but the financial provision made proved hopelessly inadequate for its purpose. In the amending Act the special taxation for the purposes of the fund has been altered, so as to provide as follows:—

  1. For a general levy of 20s. a year on adult male residents (in lieu of the original levy of 30s.).

  2. A tax on all wages and salaries (whether earned by men or women) at the rate of 3d. in the pound. This item is collected at the source, before payment is made.

  3. A tax of 3d. in the pound on all other income (collected quarterly, after declaration made as to amount) payable by all adult males who receive any such income, and by all women whose annual incomes are in excess of £250.

For the administration of the fund the Unemployment Hoard established under the Act of 1930 has been reconstituted, and the fund is now administered by an appointed Board of three members, together with the Minister in Charge, and the Commissioner of Unemployment, who is an officer of the Public Service. The policy of the present Board is to apply the available moneys, so far as possible, in productive works, and special authority is given in Part II of the Finance Act, No. 4 (1931, No. 44) for the employment of men on privately-owned property, in such productive works as clearing, draining, irrigation, and reclamation. It is to be noted that the Unemployment Board is not in any case an employer, but the fund is applied by way of grants or loans to employers.

Rent Restriction.— The Rent Restriction Extension Act (1931, No. 11) extends until the 31st August, 1932, the duration of the rent restriction Acts originally passed during the war. Special provision is also made in this Act for the application of the Acts in question to rented dwellinghouses in areas affected by the Hawke's Bay earthquake of February, 1931, that would not in the ordinary course be within the scope of legislation. In this special case, us in the genera) application of the rent restriction legislation, the legislation does not apply to any dwellinghouse unless and until it is applied by a Stipendiary Magistrate on the application of the tenant.

Rates Interest.— of The Local Authorities Loans (Rates of Interest) Act (1931, No. 12) restricts the rate of interest that may be paid by local authorities and public bodies on future loans. The general effect is to reduce rates of interest by one-half of 1 per cent., but not below 5 per cent.

Reprint Statutes.— of The Reprint of Statutes Act (1931, No. 13) has been passed in anticipation of the publication by the Government Printer, in collaboration with the law-publishing company of Butterworth and Co., of a classified and annotated reprint of the Public General Acts of New Zealand. The proposed work does not involve a re-enactment of the law, but is, what its name purports, a “reprint,” with amendments incorporated in their appropriate places and with the omission of repealed or spent enactments. The Reprint of Statutes Act makes provision that, on a certificate being given by the Attorney-General as to the accuracy of the work, all Courts shall regard the reprint as a correct statement of the law, unless and until the contrary is proved by the production of the official volume of statutes.

Licensing Poll Postponement. As a measure of economy, and with the concurrence of the two principal organizations representing public opinion “for” and “against” the liquor traffic, it was decided to forgo the taking of a licensing poll at the general election of 1931, and effect is given to this decision by the Licensing Amendment Act (1931. No. 1:1).

Defence.-As a measure of economy a reduction has been effected in the administration of the Defence Forces by a reduction in the prescribed training of the Territorial Force constituted under the Defence Act, 1909. The Defence Amendment Act (1931, No. 17) makes provision consequential on such reduction of training, for retention in the Territorial Force of the service of a nucleus of trained men after an age when under other circumstances they would be transferred to the Reserve. This is effected by extending the age for transfer to the Reserve from twenty-five years to thirty-five years.

National Provident Fund.-The National Provident Fund Amendment Act (1931, No. 18) removes from the principal Act certain difficulties of administration created by a general reduction in the rates of wages or salaries of employees in respect of whom any local authority or other employer is a contributor to the fund in accordance with an approved superannuation scheme.

Taxation (Land and Income).-The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act (1931, No. 20) amends the law as to the assessment of tax, and the Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act (1931, No. 21) fixes the rates of land-tax and of income-tax for the financial year 1931-32.

By the first-mentioned Act the following substantial alterations of the law are made:—

  1. The general exemption from income-tax is reduced from £300 £260; this exemption disappears with an income of £800, being reduced at the rate of £1 for every £3 of income between £260 and £560; and at the rate of £1 for every 30s. of income above £560:

  2. Section four increases the liability of farmers to pay income-tax:

  3. Section six provides that certain classes of non-assessable income, though not made assessable, shall be taken into account for the purpose of determining the rate of tax payable on the taxable balance of the assessable income. Included in the non-assessable income herein referred to is income derived by a taxpayer from tax-free Government debentures.

The Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act (1931, No. 21) very considerably increases the rates of income-tax for the year, but (in furtherance of the Government's policy to assist primary producers) reduces the rate of land-tax.

Companies (labour Shares).-The Companies Empowering Amendment Act (1931, No. 23) amends the Companies Empowering Act, 1924, which authorized the issue of so-called “labour shares.”

“Labour shares have no nominal value, and they are not part of the company's capital. Whatever benefits they confer on their holders are voluntarily conferred by the company's memorandum or articles of association. These benefits may be a defined share in the assets of the company, or a voice in its management, or both such advantages.

The effects of the amending Act are: (1) To enable a company to issue labour shares without the necessity of altering its memorandum of association; and (2) to repeal section 4 of the principal Act which required that the Court of Arbitration should inquire into the merits of any scheme for the issue of labour shares. This section was inserted in the original Act, in its Committee stage, the intention apparently being to safeguard the interest of workers, the fact being overlooked that the issue of labour shares is not an alternative to any other benefits that workers may be entitled to claim, but is something over and above any other rights. The only effect of requiring the reference of a scheme to the Court of Arbitration was to discourage companies from taking steps for the issue of labour shares.

Stamp Duties.-The Stamp Duties Amendment Act (1931, No. 25) imposes taxation, by way of stamp duties, on—

  1. Tickets in authorized raffles (at the rate of 10 per cent, of the nominal value); and

  2. Passenger-tickets issued in New Zealand for passages to places beyond New Zealand (at the rate of 5 per cent, of the amount of the passage-money).

Air Navigation.-The Air Navigation Act (1931, No. 26) repeals the Aviation Act, 1918, and makes provision, on the lines of the Air Navigation Act, 1920 (Imperial), for the purpose of enabling the New Zealand Government to comply with the requirements of the Convention relating to Aerial Navigation, signed at Paris on the 13th October, 1919 (to which convention the New Zealand Government is a party).

Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act. (1931, No. 27).-This Act (the details of which are very technical) authorizes the making of a new Land Transfer Register for the Hawke's Bay Land Registration District, in replacement of the original register which was destroyed by fire following the series of earthquakes that occurred in that district on the 3rd February, 1931. The purpose of the Act is to enable the Registrar to compile a register from the best evidence available. The Act deals separately with the following matters:—

  1. Provisions applicable where outstanding duplicates of instruments are extant:

  2. Provisions applicable where registered instruments and outstanding duplicates have been destroyed:

  3. The issue of interim certificates of title. (Interim certificates are not conclusive evidence of title until the expiration of six years from date of Issue):

  4. Leasehold interests in Crown lands

  5. Other interests in land:

  6. Native freehold lands.

For purposes of the compilation of the new register, the Registrar is given extensive powers of requiring the production of documents and of summoning persons to give evidence before him.

Trading-coupons.The Trading-coupons Act (1931, No. 28) is a restrictive measure intended to check the custom that has grown up in connection with certain businesses of making so called “gifts” to customers on production of coupons evidencing the purchase of goods of a certain value. The complaint made against this method of trading is that it tends to destroy the legitimate business of persons who deal in goods of the classes from which the “gifts” are usually selected. The Act now under consideration provides that after the 30th April, 1932, trading coupons shall be redeemable unconditionally for money and not otherwise. Restrictions are also imposed upon the classes of persons concerned in the manufacture, distribution, or sale of goods by whom trading coupons may lawfully be redeemed.

Earthquake Belief Funds.-The Hawke's Bay Earthquake Relief Funds Act (1931, No. 29) makes provision for the administration and control of moneys raised by private subscription or otherwise for the relief of distress amongst persons injuriously affected by the series of earthquakes that occurred in the Hawke's Bay District on the 3rd February, 1931. The legislation is generally on the lines of legislation passed during the war for the control and administration of war funds. The relief funds are vested in a “Central Committee,” which is incorporated for the purpose; and the Audit Office is required to audit the accounts of the Committee as if the funds were moneys belonging to the Government of New Zealand.

Customs.-The Customs Acts Amendment Act (1931, No. 30) imposes further duties of Customs and of excise. Part I relates to Customs duties on imported goods; Part II to excise duty on beer manufactured in New Zealand; and Part III to excise duty on tobacco manufactured in New Zealand. The depreciation of currency and variations in the rates of depreciation in different countries have necessitated the enactment of certain special provisions which, however, can be understood only by consideration in relation to their context.

Native Lands.-The Native Land Act (1931, No. 31) and the Native Purposes Act (1931, No. 32) are consolidations, with amendments, of existing law. The Native Land Act, 1909, is the basis of the present consolidation. Since 1909 amending legislation has been passed each year, until the matter of consolidation became again urgent, many changes having been made in the details of the law, but the foundations then laid remain the foundations of the law to-day.

Chattel Securities.— The Chattels Transfer Amendment Act (1931, No. 34) makes two important amendments of the Chattels Transfer Act of 1924. The purpose of section 2 can be best explained by a quotation from the explanatory memorandum attached to the Bill on its introduction:—

“By section 57 of the Chattels Transfer Act, 1924, provision is made for what are there referred to as customary hire-purchase agreements, in relation to chattels of the several descriptions mentioned in the Seventh Schedule thereto. The chattels referred to are all of kinds that are commonly bought on the hire-purchase system. For the purpose of financing hire-purchase transactions, a usage of trade has developed, by which the price of the chattel is paid to the manufacturer or dealer by a finance corporation established for that purpose, and the hire-purchase agreement is then made between the conditional purchaser and the finance corporation. It has recently been decided by the Court of Appeal that such corporations are not “dealers” within the meaning of section 57 of the Chattels Transfer Act, and that their agreements, although of precisely the same character as ordinary hire purchase agreements, are not entitled to the benefits conferred by that section. The chief such benefit is that the agreements in question do not require to be registered as bills of sale or other instruments. The purpose of clause 2 of this Bill is to establish as law what, prior to the decision of the Court of Appeal above referred to, was understood to be the legal position.”

Clause 3 was added to the Bill, while in Committee, on representations made by the Chambers of Commerce. Under the usual hire purchase agreement the vendor or bailor is entitled to resume possession of the chattel, the subject matter of the agreement, in the event of default being made at any time before the completion of the purchase. The effect of section 3 is to confer on the Assignee in bankruptcy the right, in the event of the bankruptcy of the purchaser, to pay off the balance of the purchase money outstanding, and then to take possession of the chattel for the benefit of the creditors.

Transport.-*The Transport Licensing Act (1931, No. 38) is the first Act passed in New Zealand designed to deal comprehensively with all commercial motor transport services for the carriage of passengers and goods. The Bill as originally introduced also contained a special part providing for the licensing of commercial aircraft services, but that part was subsequently dropped.

The main object of the Act is the licensing of “passenger services” and “goods services.”

Part I of the Act provides for the constitution of transport districts and Licensing Authorities and a Transport Appeal board. Four districts are actually constituted by the Act itself, comprising the four main centres of population-Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin-and the rest of New Zealand is to be divided into districts by Order in Council.

For each district there is to be a District Licensing Authority which, except in the case of the four centres, is to consist of three persons appointed by the Minister of Transport for a term not exceeding three years. No person financially interested in commercial motor transport and no officer or servant of any public authority carrying on any passenger service or any railway or tramway service is eligible for appointment. With regard to the four centres the Auckland Transport Board and the City Councils of Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin are the respective district authorities.

There is also to be a Central Licensing Authority, consisting of three persons appointed by the Minister.

Each District Authority deals with services operated solely within its district. The Central Authority deals with services operating in two or more districts.

The Transport Appeal board consists of three persons to be appointed by the Governor General one on the recommendation of the Minister as Chairman, one from persons nominated by the Executive Committees of the Municipal and Counties Associations, and one from persons nominated by owners or associations of owners of services.

Part II deals in detail with passenger-services and passenger-service vehicles. No passenger-service may be carried on except under license, and no such license is to be granted unless the Licensing Authority is satisfied that the service is necessary or desirable both in the public interest and to meet the needs of the district or districts within which it is to operate.

A licensed service can be carried on only by means of passenger service vehicles within the meaning of the Act, and no passenger service vehicle can be used in connection with any such service unless there is in force in respect of such vehicle a certificate of fitness. The granting of certificates of fitness is not a function of Licensing Authorities, but of the Commissioner of Transport.

There is a right of appeal against decisions of Licensing Authorities specified in section 43 of the Act.

Part III deals with goods-services, but whereas all passenger-services must be licensed, goods-services require to be licensed only when operating within “controlled areas” declared by Order in Council. A controlled area may be a district or districts, or any part or parts of a district or districts, or any route or routes, or part or parts thereof. Provision is made for applying, with such modifications as the Governor-General in Council thinks fit, the provisions of Part II of the Act to controlled areas.

Part IV makes provision for notices of accidents to be given to the Commissioner by telegraph and for the holding of inquiries, by direction of the Minister, into causes of accidents.

*Contributed by Mr. J.W. Heenan, LL.B., First Assistant Law Draftsman [condensed].

Part V contains general provisions. Offences are triable summarily, but only on the information of the Commissioner or any person appointed by him or a Metropolitan Authority, or a member of the Police Force.

All statutory authorities for the Crown or any local authority or any public body to establish passenger and goods services are to be read subject to this Act.

The Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926, is repealed.

Broadcasting. —Until the present time, broadcasting in New Zealand has been left largely to private enterprise, the principal business being carried on by a commercial company, under license from the Minister of Telegraphs, issued pursuant to Part I of the Post and Telegraph Act, 1928 (relating to wireless telegraphy). The purpose of the Broadcasting Act (1931, No. 39) is to put broadcasting under the control of a Broadcasting Board of three members, whose functions and powers will closely resemble those of the B.B.C. in England. The Board will derive its authority from a license or licenses issued by the Minister of Telegraphs in accordance with the Post and Telegraph Act, but will in other respects be independent of governmental control. The Board (which has been appointed and assumes control on the 1st January, 1932) is a Board of businessmen, but provision is made in the Act for the appointment of an Advisory Council which will presumably be constituted of men and women actively interested in the subject-matter of broadcast programmes.

Crown Lands.-The Land Laws Amendment Act (1931, No. 40) contains amendments of the law relating to Crown and other lands. The main provisions of the amending Act are for the purpose of affording to Crown tenants relief from undue hardship during the prevailing economic depression. Inter alia, provision is made for the temporary extension of leases of small grazing-runs and of certain other classes of leases and licenses, the purpose being to postpone the commencement of a new term (with a revalued rental) until normal conditions have been somewhat restored. For the purpose of assisting Land Boards in the administration of these and other provisions in the law for the relief of Crown tenants, provision is made for the appointment of such number of local advisory committees as may be found necessary or convenient.

Finance.-The Finance Act No. 4 (1931, No. 44) contains divers provisions and is divided into Parts, as follows:—

Part I. —Public revenues and loans:

Part II. —Amendments of the Unemployment Act:

Part III. —Amendments of the Education Act:

Part IV. —Amendments of the Acts governing the several contributory superannuation funds established respectively for teachers, railway servants, and other public servants:

Part V. —Provisions as to local authorities and kindred bodies:

Part VI. —Miscellaneous.

The provisions relating to unemployment have been already adverted. In the provisions relating to education, authority is conferred on Education Boards to terminate the employment of married women teachers.

Barristers and Solicitors.-The Law Practitioners Act (1931, No. 46) is a consolidation, without substantial alteration, of the law relating to the examination, admission, and professional conduct of barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court of New Zealand. Included in it are the provisions as to the establishment and administration of the Solicitors' Fidelity Guarantee Fund established under an Act passed in 1929.

Chapter 44. SECTION XLIV.—DEPENDENCIES

INTRODUCTORY.

ON page 1 of this book the islands comprising the Dominion of New Zealand are divided into three groups, viz.: —

Islands forming the Dominion proper for statistical and general practical purposes.

Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847.

Annexed islands.

Only the first of these groups has been covered by the preceding sections of this book. The present section deals briefly with the second and third groups, and also with the mandated territories of Western Samoa and Nauru, the Ross Dependency, and the Tokelau or Union Group.

OUTLYING ISLANDS.

The outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries as proclaimed in 1847 are —

Three Kings IslandsAntipodes Islands.
Auckland Islands.Bounty Islands.
Campbell Island.Snares Islands.

The THREE KINGS ISLANDS (so named by Tasman on account of his having discovered them on the anniversary of the Feast of the Epiphany) are a group of uninhabited islets extending about seven miles in an east-north-east direction, and situated about thirty-eight miles west-north-west of Cape Maria van Diemen, at the northern extremity of the North Island. It was here that the s.s. “Elingamite” was wrecked on the 9th November, 1902, with heavy loss of life.

The AUCKLAND ISLANDS were discovered on the 18th August, 1806, by Captain Abraham Bristow, in the ship “Ocean.” They lie about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their accepted position being given as latitude 50° 32' south and longitude 166° 13' east. They have several good harbours. The largest of the islands is about twenty-seven miles long by about fifteen miles broad, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000 ft. above the sea.

CAMPBELL ISLAND, which lies about 150 miles south-east of the Auckland Islands, was discovered in 1810 by Frederick Hazelburgh, master of the brig “Perseverance,” owned by Mr. Robert Campbell, of Sydney. It is mountainous, and of a circumference of about thirty miles. There are several good harbours.

The ANTIPODES ISLANDS are an isolated group, consisting of several detached rocky islands lying nearly north and south over a space of four to five miles; accepted position, 49° 41' 15 south, and longitude 178° 43' east.

The BOUNTY ISLANDS, a little cluster of islets, thirteen in number, and without verdure, were discovered in 1788 by Captain Bligh, R.N., of H.M.S. “Bounty”; position verified by observation, 47° 43' south, longitude 179° 0' east.

The SNAKES ISLANDS are situated about fifty-six miles to the south-west of Stewart Island, and comprise six islets of a total area of about 600 acres.

None of the outlying islands are at present inhabited

KERMADEC ISLANDS.

The KERMADEC ISLANDS, four in number, with some outlying islets, rank as “annexed islands,” having been annexed to New Zealand by Proclamation dated the 21st July, 1887. The islands are situated between the parallels of 29° 10' and 31° 30' south latitude, and between the meridians of 177° 45' and 179° west longitude. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland, and lies a little more than half-way to Tonga, but 100 miles to the eastward of the direct steam route to that place. It is 300 miles eastward of the steam route to Fiji, and 150 miles westward of that from Auckland to Rarotonga. Macaulay Island (named after the father of Lord Macaulay) and Curtis Islands were discovered in May, 1788, by Lieutenant Watts, in the “Penrhyn,” a transport ship. The remainder of the group was discovered in 1793 by Rear-Admiral de Bruni, Chevalier d'Entrecasteaux.

The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to beseem The rainfall is plentiful but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than that of the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Esperance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723 ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere-except where destroyed by eruptions and on the steep cliffs-the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but are so difficult of approach as to be practically useless.

Several attempts have been made to settle on the islands, which are at present uninhabited.

COOK AND OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS ANNEXED IN 1901.

The COOK ISLANDS, with others included within the extended boundaries of the Dominion as from the 11th June, 1901, are as under: —

RAROTONGA (1,638 miles from Auckland), the most fertile and valuable of the Cook Group, is a magnificent island, rising to a height of 2,100 ft. It is clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation, and has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The two harbours are poor.

MANGAIA, the south-easternmost of the Cook Group, is of volcanic origin, and about eighteen miles in circumference. It produces large quantities of coconuts, bananas, oranges, limes, citrons, and other fruits.

ATIU resembles Mangaia in appearance and extent. It is a raised mass of coral, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts, where the ascent is gradual. On the highest point of the central ridge coconuts, bananas, oranges, and coffee grow with the utmost luxuriance; and the kumara, one of the most valuable of South Sea vegetables, yields large crops.

MAUKE (or Parry Island) is a low circular island about two miles across, lying to the north-east of Rarotonga. Like Mangaia and Atiu, it is surrounded by an unbroken fringing reef. Mauke is very fertile.

MITIARO is a low-lying island, from three to four miles long and one mile wide.

MANUAE. and TE AU-O-TU (Hervey Islands) are surrounded by a reef which is about 10£ miles in circumference.

TAKUTEA is a small coral island, about half a square mile in area, some 120 miles distant from Rarotonga.

AITUTAKI is probably the most fertile of all the islands forming the Lower Group. It is capable of exporting large quantities of tropical fruits and vegetables, but exports are restricted owing to irregular and infrequent shipping calls. The island is eighteen miles in circuit.

NIUE (or Savage Island), lying about 300 miles to the cast of Tonga, is a coral island, thirty-six miles in circumference, rising to a height of 200 ft. It is fertile and has the usual tropical productions. Niue is second in importance to Rarotonga, and has a separate Administration.

PALMERSTON is an atoll lying about 450 miles east of Niue and about 220 miles from the nearest island of the Cook Group (Aitutaki), and is remarkable as the “San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Sea. It has no harbour. The soil is fairly fertile.

SUWARROW lies about 500 miles east of Apia, the capital of Western Samoa. It is a coral atoll, of a triangular form, fifty miles in circumference, the reef having an average width of half a mile across, enclosing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The island is out of the track of hurricanes, but is at present uninhabited, although visited periodically.

PUKAPUKA (Danger): Next to the 10th parallel, but rather north of the latitude of the Navigators and east of them, are a number of small atolls. Of these, the nearest to the Samoan Group-about 500 miles-is Danger Island, bearing north-west of Suwarrow about 250 miles.

NASSAU is a fine island of about 360 acres, and lies about 45 miles to the south-east of Pukapuka or Danger Island. The area under cultivation (well-planted coconuts) is about 300 acres.

RAKAUANOA is an atoll, three miles in length and of equal breadth.

MANIHIKI, lying about 400 miles eastward of Danger Island, is an atoll, about thirty miles in circumference, valuable from the extent of the coconut-groves. The interior lagoon contains a vast deposit of pearl-shell.

PENRHYN (Tongareva) lies about 300 miles north-east of Manihiki. It is one of the most famous pearl-islands in the Pacific, and there is a lagoon (with two entrances) capable of being made into a harbour fit for a large number of vessels. The island grows large quantities of coconuts.

Constitution and Laws.

Government is by Island Councils consisting of ex officio, elected, or nominated members. Generally, European officials and Arikis or Native chiefs are Councillors ex officio, and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General or for a fixed period not exceeding five years. Women are eligible both as members and as electors of Island Councils. The Cook Islands Amendment Act, 1921, provided for the election of a European member of the Island Council' of Rarotonga as a representative of the European population.

Each Council is empowered to make laws for the good government of the island, with the proviso that such laws must not be repugnant to Acts of the New Zealand Parliament or regulations made thereunder. The maximum penalties imposed by the Ordinance of an Island Council must not exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine of £50. The Council has no power to deal with Customs duties, to borrow money, to establish Courts of Justice, or to appropriate expenditure of revenue other than that raised under authority of their Ordinance. No Ordinance has effect until it has received the assent of the Resident Commissioner or the Governor-General. The Governor-General may, by notice in the Gazette, disallow any Ordinance within one year after the Commissioner has given his assent.

Laws are enforced through the High Court, which has all jurisdiction, civil or criminal, necessary for the administration of justice. The Chief Judge resides at Rarotonga, a second at Niue. A Commissioner may, with some exceptions, exercise the full powers and functions of a Judge. A judgment obtained in a civil proceeding in the High Court may be enforced in the Supreme Court of New Zealand. From any decision in the former Court an appeal lies to the Supreme Court in the Dominion.

The manufacture or importation of intoxicating liquor is prohibited absolutely, except for medicinal, sacramental, or industrial purposes.

Population.

At the census of the 20th April, 1926, the islands had a population of 13,877, (males 7,047, females 6,830), all but 187 males and 126 females being Natives.

Island.Population 1926 Census.Island.Population 1926 Census.
Aitutaki1.431Palmerston97
Atiu933PenrhynPenrhyn
Mangaia1,249Pukapuka526
Manihiki416Rakahanga327
Manuae and Te Au-o-Tu23Rarotonga3,936
Mauke511Suwarrow..
Mitiaro238  
Niue3.795Total13,877

The estimated population of the islands at 31st March, 1932, was 15,247. Each of the five censuses taken since 1906 has shown a small but consistent increase. A system of compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages is in force in the islands. The latest available figures are given in the “Vital Statistics” section of this book.

Education.

In 1916 education in the Cook Islands was placed under the control of the Minister for the Cook Islands, and Government schools in charge of certificated European teachers from New Zealand have since that date been established on all the principal islands of the Lower Cook Group.

Including seven subsidized mission schools in the northern islands (with 285 pupils) there are now 18 schools under the jurisdiction of the Administration in the Cook Islands and the northern islands, with a total of 2,139 pupils on the rolls in 1931. In addition there is a Catholic mission school at Rarotonga, with a roll of 154 pupils.

A technical school has been established at Avarua (Rarotonga), with classes in agriculture, drawing, and woodwork, and an advanced class in carpentry. In most of the schools classes for simple cookery and for mat and basket weaving are held. Agriculture and wood-work are also taught in all schools.

A training college and normal school for Native teachers were established at Avarua early in 1927. Classes for Native teachers are also conducted by the European headmasters of Government schools. In 1930 a special class was established at the Normal School, Avarua, to enable the most promising pupils from all Cook Islands schools to reach proficiency standard without the necessity of going to New Zealand.

In Niuo there are two Government schools where agriculture, handicraft, domestic art, and wood-work form part of the curriculum. The average roll number of these two schools was 257 in 1931.

Radio Communication.

Radio communication with New Zealand is maintained by the station at Rarotonga. Subsidiary stations have been established at the islands of Atiu, Aitutaki, Mangaia, Mauke, and Niue.

Revenue and Expenditure.

Including grants totalling £17,464 from the New Zealand Government, the revenue of the Cook Islands Administration in 1931-32 was £42,894, other principal items being: Customs duties,£10,423; copra export duty, £1,619; fruit-inspection fees, &c., £2,715; wireless telegraph, £899; and stamp-sales, £1,332. The total expenditure was £40,582.

Revenue of the Niuo Island Administration was £12,012, the principal item in this case also being grants from the New Zealand Government (£4,169). Customs duties brought in £1,573, copra export duty £92, sale of fruit-cases £1,345, and landing and shipping charges £540. Expenditure aggregated £12,798.

Trade.

The figures for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Exports.Imports.
Cook Islands.Niue.Total.Cook Islands.Niue.Total.
 ££££££
1922135,76615,122150,888116,72615,418132,144
1923118,71013,227131,937131,59018,388149,978
1924154,55414,603169,157138,20216,798155,000
1925151,93917,42917,42917,42918,74718,747
1926138,58817,655156,243134,47317,563152,036
1927138,35714,350152,707116,60614,006130,612
1928133,05120,938153,989117,63918,637136,276
1929124,48622,206146,692106,83519,107125,942
1930109,43815,877125,315103,46818,630122,098
193179,9457,19187,13669,26011,5078O,767

As might naturally be expected, moat of the trade of the Group is with New Zealand. The United States has stepped into the second position in recent years. The figures for 1931 are—

Country.Exports.Imports.
From Cook Islands.From Niue.Total.Into Cook Islands.Into Niue.Total.
 ££££££
New Zealand66,9325,18672,11849,2238,95858,181
United States8,232..8,2327,5341457,679
United Kingdom3,963..3,9636,8149617,775
Western Samoa7322521,0349694703
Australia23..233,4716784,149
Canada......48039519
Other British countries..171741412426
Other British countries1311241,315201,335
Destination unknown..1,7251,725......
Total79,9457,19187,13669,26011,50780,767

The principal exports are fruit and copra, other items being fancy baskets from Niue and pearl-shell from some of the northern islands. With a view to improving the marketing of fruit (principally in New Zealand), the grading and packing of all fruit for export are now done under the control and supervision of inspectors in district packing-sheds erected by the Native growers. The export of fruit from Niue was hampered until recently by the difficulty and irregularity of communication with New Zealand, but the provision of a Government vessel has been reflected in increased exports of bananas.

Exports of principal items during 1931 were-Quantity.Value.
Copra1,750 tons13,946
Oranges81,035 cases28,155
Bananas54,47229,643
Tomatoes34,75010,856
Fruit-juice530 packages848
Pearls..1,300
Fancy baskets8-1 doz480
Coconuts1,141400

WESTERN SAMOA.

The Native race inhabiting Samoa is of typical Polynesian character, with straight hair, brown colouring, good physique, and mild and hospitable disposition.

The first known visit of Europeans to the islands was that of a Dutch expedition, under Jacob Roggeveen, in its voyage around the world in 1721-22. In 1768 De Bougainville called at the islands, and in 1787 La Perouse, who named them “Navigators Islands,” a name by which they are still occasionally called. The first British vessel to pay a visit was H.M.S. “Pandora,” in 1790. Missionaries, who were to play an important part in the development of the country, made their advent in the person of two members of the London Missionary Society, arriving at Savai'i in 1830.

The first formal recognition of “whites” took place some eight years later, when Captain Bethune, of the British Navy, concluded a commercial treaty with the Native chiefs, by which harbour dues were to be paid and security to European interests guaranteed in return. Next year (1839) Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, in command of a United States exploring expedition, completed a similar treaty.

Three great nations were to have control of the destinies of the Samoans. Great Britain appointed a Consular Agent in 1847, the United States a Commercial Agent in 1853, and Germany her first representative in 1861.

In 1869 one of the frequent internecine wars of the Natives broke out, a war that was to have far-reaching consequences, for the foreign authorities took for the first time direct measures to ensure peace. The trouble arose over rival claimants to the Native chieftainship, and continued, despite several patched-up truces, for some years.

At a conference in Berlin in 1889, an Act was signed by the representatives of the three States, guaranteeing the neutrality and independence of the islands. This arrangement lasted until 1898, when, on the death of King Malietoa Laupepa, disturbances again arose over the succession. In accordance with the recommendation of a joint Commission the kingship was abolished. The Anglo-German agreement of the 14th November, 1899, accepted by the United States in January, 1900, gave to Germany ail rights over Western Samoa, and to the United States, Tutuila and the other islands of Eastern Samoa.

On the outbreak of war in 1914 between the United Kingdom and Germany a New Zealand Expeditionary Force took possession of Western Samoa, landing at Apia on the 29th August, and remained in occupation until the establishment of Civil government under the aegis of the Dominion.

The islands are now administered under mandate of the League of Nations, the Administrator being appointed by the Governor-General of New Zealand and responsible to the Minister of External Affairs. There is a Legislative Council, consisting of not less than four nor more than six official members appointed by the Governor-General, and four unofficial members, two of whom are Europeans elected by the European residents, the remaining two being Native Samoans, appointed by the Governor-General. The Administrator, acting with the advice and consent of this Council, is empowered to make Ordinances for the peace, order, and good government of the Territory, subject to disallowance by' the Governor-General. A High Court is established, and the Supreme Court of New Zealand is given jurisdiction over Western Samoa.

Under the present system of administration the mandated territory has progressed steadily, particularly in the realms of health, production, and commerce.

Normally, the Samoan Natives are to a large extent granted domestic self-government, the Fono of Faipules (Native Parliament, leading chiefs representing every district), who are appointed by the Administrator (the present holder of the office being Brigadier-General H. E. Hart, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., V. D.), meeting twice yearly to consider matters affecting the welfare of the Samoan people, and submitting recommendations thereon to the Administrator.

Geographical.

Western Samoa includes the Islands of Upolu, Savai'i, Apolima, and Manono, together with several small islet, lying between the 13th and 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st and 173rd degrees of longitude west of Greenwich.

The principal islands are Savai'i and Upolu. Savai'i is the larger of the two, with a length of 48 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 703 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of over 4,000 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures about 430 square miles in area. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains the port and capital of Apia. Rainfall is plentiful throughout the Group.

Population.

At the 1st April, 1932, the estimated population of Western Samoa was 46,150, made up as follows:—

  Males. Females. Total.
Native Samoan population 21,640 21,096 42,736
European and half-caste population 1,438 1,109 2,547
Chinese labourers (and dependants) 738 8 746
6 Melanesian and Polynesian labourers (and dependants) 120 1 121
Totals 23,936 22,214 46,150

The following figures of the recorded movement of the population relate to the twelve months ended the 31st December, 1931:—

 Births.DeathsMarriages.ImmigrationEmigration.
Native Samoans1,372587146736893
Europeans and half-castes491326483451
Chinese labourers..6..209404
Melanesian and Polynesian indentured labourers..2....5
Totals1,4216081721,4281,753

Health and Hospitals.

The Samoa Health Ordinance, 1921, is on the fines of the New Zealand Health Act, 1920, but remodelled to suit local conditions. A Government hospital is maintained at Apia, district hospitals have been established at Tuasivi and Safotu (Savai'i) and Aleipata (Upolu), and there are eight dispensaries in out-districts and at mission-stations. Several dispensaries formerly maintained have been closed on account of the shortage of trained Native nurses.

Of the more important tropical diseases only three are prevalent in Western Samoa viz, uncinariasis (or hookworm disease), framboesia, and filariasis.

Every effort has been made to stamp out these diseases, particularly hookworm and yaws, and systematic campaigns to this end have been in progress since 1923. These have resulted in a marked improvement in the general health of the Natives.

The sanitation of Apia has been considerably improved in recent years.

The reticulation of Apia with a high-pressure water-supply system has been completed. Water has been piped into several villages from springs in the hills. In other villages where this is not possible large reinforced-concrete tanks are erected to receive the rain-water from church buildings.

Education.

Education in Samoa has until recent years been almost entirely in the hands of the missions. Formerly higher education was not attempted except for the training of pastors, whose duty included that of teaching in the village schools connected with their respective churches. But latterly higher education in the English language has, been carried out by the Administration schools at Ifi Ifi, Malifa, Vaipouli, and Avele, by the London Missionary Society at Papauta, by the Methodist Mission at Faleula, and by the Marist Brothers and Sisters at Apia. These schools are frequently inspected by one of the Senior Inspectors of the New Zealand Education Department.

A count taken in 1932 showed that. 14,892 children wore attending the various Government and mission schools. The great bulk of the pupils are at village mission schools, where the instruction is in the hands of Native pastors. Second-grade or district schools, where the Government and the missions co-operate, the teachers being paid by the Government, number 36, with an aggregate roll number of 2,754 at 31st March, 1932. The Government schools had an average attendance of 800 during the year ended 31st March, 1932.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The revenue for the financial year ended 31st March, 1932, was £109,040, of which Customs and marine contributed £68,41!), other principal items being-Fees and charges (Court, hospital, A c.). £11,338; and post-office and wireless-telegraphy receipts, £9,201. Native taxes, which showed a total of £17,849 in 1926-27, yielded only £2,406 in 1927-28, £6,343 in 1928-29,£2,238 in 1929-30, £1,837 in 1930-31, and £1,429 in 1931-32. No subsidy from the New Zealand Government was received in 1931-32. The expenditure for the year totalled £128,936. The figures of revenue and expenditure for each of the last five years are—

Year Ended 31st MarchRevenueExpenditure
 ££
1928126,038143,422
1929141,904130,455
1930151,416131,280
1931151,385140,288
1932109,040128,936

The cost of the Samoa Military Police and Constabulary during 1928-29 and 1929-30 was borne by the New Zealand Government, and is not included in the figures given above for those years. The figures of expenditure are also exclusive of expenditure out of loan account. The public debt of the Territory at 31st March, 1932, was £171.200, inclusive of £6,000 repaid in May, 1932. The money has been provided by the New Zealand Government, £25,000 of that expended on public works being donated as a gift free of charge, and the balance (£165,200 at 31st March, 1932, exclusive of the temporary loan of £6,000 repaid in May) being on loan at 5 per cent, and repayable in thirty years. A payment of approximately 1 3/5 per cent, is made annually to sinking fund, which at 31st March, 1932, amounted to £21,447.

Trade

The exports and imports of Western Samoa for each of the last ten years are—

YearExportsImportsYearExportsImports
 ££ ££
1922365,610282,9391927335,978304,369
1923288,774268,8811928422,175326,553
1924361,418274,8031929293,938288,849
1925379,388345,9891930284,515275,355
1926320,783324,9401931194,447164,950

The principal item of export is copra, exports of which in 1931 totalled 11,002 tons, of a value of £109,220. Up to about 1923 the bulk of the copra went to the United States, but, with the exception of 3,242 tons, the whole export in 1931 went to the United Kingdom and the Continent of Europe, the exact destination not being known in respect of 6,629 tons, of a value of £64,299. Cocoa-beans of a value of £35,284, representing 620 tons, bananas,£39,022, (85,225 cases), and rubber, £1,140 (41 tons), constituted the only other items of any importance.

Of the exports in 1931, £185,424 was the produce of Western Samoa, the remaining £9,023 being re-exports. Of the total of£121,125 for which definite information was available, £59,507 went to the United States and £39,635 to New Zealand. The imports in 1931 came principally from New Zealand (£56,450), Australia (£35,468), the United States (£23,805), and the United Kingdom (£29,286).

The decline in trade in 1931 was due to the world-wide depression, and especially the low price of copra.

In addition to a scale of import duties, there are export duties, of which the chief are: Copra (£1 10s. per ton from 6th May, 1929-formerly £1 per ton), cocoa-beans (£2 per ton), rubber (Id. per lb.), and beche-de-mer (Ad. per lb.). The net import duty collected in 1931 was £24,823, export duties collected totalling£18,233.

Vessels entered inwards at the Port of Apia during 1931 numbered 138 (all steam-vessels), and represented an aggregate tonnage of 113,006. The tonnage of cargo brought by these vessels was 10,366, while cargo entered outwards totalled 20,222 tons.

NAURU.

Barely one-third of a degree south of the Equator, and lying 166° 56' east of Greenwich, is the little phosphate island known as Nauru or Pleasant Island. Prior to the world-wide conflagration of 1914-19 this rich though little-known island was a German possession. It was surrendered to H.M.A.S. “Melbourne” on the 9th September, 1914, and was included with the German New Guinea possessions in the capitulation of Herbertshohe. The island was garrisoned with Australian troops on the 6th November, 1914, and a Civil administration was established on the 1st January, 1915. A mandate for the administration of the island was conferred by the Allied and Associated Powers upon the British Empire, to come into operation at the same date as the Treaty of Peace with Germany. The mandate is held jointly by the Imperial Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

An agreement between the three parties to the mandate was drawn up and completed on the 2nd July, 1919. The administrative control of the island is vested in an Administrator, whose term of appointment is five years.

Under the concession granted by the German Government to the Jaluit Gesellschaft, and transferred by that company to the Pacific Phosphate Company, the rights of which were purchased by the Governments of Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand for £3,500,000 (including the company's interests in the nearby Ocean Island), and vested by these Governments in the British Phosphate Commission, the Commission holds the exclusive right to work the phosphate-deposits on the island. The Natives are paid £40 per acre (prior to 1st July, 1927, this was £20) for all phosphate-bearing lands, with an annual rental of £3 per acre for all non-phosphate lands leased, and are compensated for trees destroyed. A royalty of 7½d. per ton of phosphate shipped is paid, 4d. going to the Native landowner, l½d. being used by the Administrator solely for the benefit of the Nauruan people, and the remaining 2d. hold in trust by the Administrator for the benefit of the landowner.

The yearly production of phosphates was for the five years ended the 30th June, 1925, to be allocated between the three Governments in the following proportions, which coincide with the proportion of capital supplied by each towards the undertaking: Great Britain, 42 per cont.; Australia, 42 per cent.; New Zealand, 16 per cent. Any portion of its share not required by any Government may be disposed of either to the other Governments pro rata, or, if they do not require it, to other countries. The partner countries receive interest at 6 per cent, on their capital invested, and redemption of capital within fifty years is provided for by a sinking fund. At the end of the first quinquennial period the allocation of phosphates was to have boon readjusted on the basis of actual requirements, similar readjustments to be made every five years in future. The re-allocation was, however, deferred at the instance of Great Britain, which has hitherto taken very little of its quota, being at present able to obtain phosphates to better advantage from North African sources of supply. The total shipments, with deliveries to New Zealand, during each of the last five years have been as follows: —

Year ended 30th June,Total Shipments.Shipments to New Zealand.
Quantity.Per Cent, of Total.
 Tons.Tons. 
1928501,915124,27024.75
1998576,590142,19524.66
1930504,173127,10025.21
1931385,977122,93031.85
1932431,540146,27033.89
Totals to 30th June, 19325,347,5351,142,15521.36

At the present time the Commonwealth and Dominion take practically the whole output, leaving very little for export to other countries.

Nauru, which is encircled by a road ten miles long, has an area of only 5,396 acres. The island is surrounded by a wide reef. Near the coast is a belt of flat land, covered with coconut-trees, and behind this rises higher land covering about throe-quarters of the total area, and enclosing a lagoon of almost fresh water. This higher country consists of a mass of phosphate of great richness.

At the 1st April, 1932, there were 1,475 Native inhabitants, who speak a language akin to that of the Gilbert-Islanders. In addition there were 4 Natives of other Pacific Islands, and 696 Chinese, who have been introduced for the working of the phosphate-deposits. Europeans numbered 141, the total population being thus 2,316.

Imports during 1930 were valued at £143,416, consisting almost entirely of food-supplies and of machinery for the working of the phosphate.

Nauru possesses wireless communication.

Revenue and expenditure of the Nauru Administration for each of the last five years available are—

Year.RevenueExpenditure
 ££
192616,42413,963
192717,04117,242
192819,90318,207
192919,93617,859
193018,99215,532

The New Zealand Government has received from the British Phosphate Commission an annual contribution of £35,849 (£36,075 in 1931-32) towards interest on and amortization of loan-money raised to meet the Dominion's share of the purchase-money of the Pacific Phosphate Company's rights. The utilization of the contributions during the last five years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st MarchInterestSinking Fund.Loan Redemption.*
*From sinking fund
 £££
192826,6959,1549,430
192926,1069,743..
193025,8579,99220,120
193124,91710,9329,430
193224,47711,59811,600

The indebtedness of the New Zealand Government on account of Nauru and Ocean Islands, originally £600,000, had been reduced to £479,400 at 31st March, 1932.

ROSS DEPENDENCY.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude, were proclaimed a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, under the name of the Ross Dependency. The dependency was placed under the jurisdiction of the Governor-General of New Zealand. There is no permanent population, and the only industry engaged in is whaling.

Regulations dated the 24th October, 1929, which supersede those of 1st November, 1926, prohibit the carrying-on of whaling operations within the boundaries of the Ross Dependency without a license, the annual fee payable for which is £200, in addition to which the Government receives a royalty of 2s. 6d.. per barrel (40 gallons) of oil in excess of 20,000 barrels taken under each license. The owner or master of a vessel engaged in whaling or used as a floating whale-factory is liable to a fine not exceeding £1,000 for each day on which operations are carried on without a license. A penalty not exceeding £100 per day is provided for in cases of non-compliance with the terms of the license granted in respect of any vessel used for whaling or as a floating factory and a similar penalty for failure to equip a floating factory in accordance with the requirements of the regulations or to convert a whale into commercial products within 48 hours after delivery at the factory. Provision is made for the arrest on warrant of any vessel in respect of which an offence against the regulations is committed.

The regulations apply, of course, only to territorial waters, and operations are carried on outside territorial waters by unlicensed expeditions.

The whale-oil taken by licensed expeditions in each of the nine seasons during which the system of licensing has been in operation is as follows:—

SeasonBarrels*SeasonBarrels*
*Of 40 imperial gallons
1923-2417,7911928-29122,000
1924-2532,1651929-30169,190
1925-2637,7001930-31272,500
1926-2770,3001931-32Nil
1927-28124,000  

The figures shown for 1930-31 relate to the two licensed factory-ships and their chasers which were operating during the season. In addition one factory-ship licensed by the Norwegian Government, but without a New Zealand license, took approximately 105,000 barrels of oil outside of territorial waters, and the total yield during the nine years since the HOPS Dependency came under New Zealand jurisdiction is set down as 1,280,146 barrels of oil.

TOKELAU OR UNION GROUP.

The latest addition to New Zealand's dependencies is the Tokelau or Union Group, which consists of three islands, or groups of islets (Atafu, Nukunono, and Fakaofo), of a total area of 2,550 acres. They are situated between 8° and 10° of south latitude and between 171° and 173° of west longitude, and are distant about 270 miles from Apia, Samoa, which has since 1923 been the port of entry for the group.

These islands were ceded to Great Britain in 1916, from which year up to 1925 they formed part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. They were transferred to the jurisdiction of New Zealand as from the llth February, 1926, and are now administered by the Administrator of Western Samoa on behalf of the New Zealand Government.

The population of the islands at the census of 1926 was 1,033. An estimate by the Samoan Administration in August, 1931, gives a total of 1,048, the figures for the three islands being-Atafu, 357; Nukunono, 221; Fakaofo, 470

Education is entirely in the hands of the missions, which maintain Native teachers in the islands.

The Natives are Polynesians, and the language is allied to that of Samoa. The islanders are ruled by their own chiefs with the assistance of Native Councils.

The only exportable product of the islands is 4copra. The total amount of copra available for export in a normal year is estimated to he 365 tons-viz., 65 from Atafu, 210 from Nukunono, and 90 from Fakaofo.

Chapter 45. SECTION XLV.—STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

POPULATION AND MIGRATION (INCLUDING MAORIS).
Year.Estimated Population.Estimated Mean Population.Overseas ArrivalsOverseas Departures.
At 31st December.At 31st March.Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March.
1881545,007532,244536,984523,4499,6888,072
1882561,804549,047553,406540,89710,9457,456
1883584,974565,655573,389557,85119,2159,186
1884608,401591,797596,688579,22620,02110,700
1885619,323613,200613,802602,49916,19911,695
1886631,355620,565624,275615,81916,10115,037
1887645,330635,347638,343627,95613,68912,712
1888649,349646,914647,340641,13113,60622,781
1889688,021652,128653,685649,52115,39215,178
1890667,477664,853662,749658,49115,02816,810
1891676,051668,594671,776666,72414,43117,629
1892692,420679,405684,239674,04218,12213,104
1893714,258698,182703,342688,82426,13515,723
1894728,121718,740721,190708,46125,23722,984
1895740,699731,468734,410725,10421,86220,967
1896754,016743,376746,288737,42217,23615,764
1897768,910757,503761,463749,37018,59215,840
1898783,317771,568776,114764,53618,85516,159
1899796,359786,530789,838779,04918,50616,619
1900808,132798,471802,246792,50118,07416,243
1901830,800815,862821,111808,81125,08618,564
1902851,072833,139840,936824,50130,29322,301
1903875,648857,993863,360845,56630,88319,608
1904900,682882,100888,165870,04732,63222,277
1905925,605908,116913,144895,10832,68523,383
1906956,457933,114943,325920,61539,23326,385
1907977,215961,598966,836949,65036,10830,378
19081,008,373985,320992,794973,45944,97030,709
19091,030,6571,016,0631,019,5151,000,69238,65033,931
19101,050,4101,035,2121,040,5341,025,63835,76932,361
19111,075,2501,056,1991,063,8871,045,70641,38937,189
19121,102,4711,081,3441,088,8611,069,82844,66035,733
19131,134,5061,111,5891,118,4881,096,46744,58830,369
19141,145,8381,139,6681,140,1721,125,62837,64632,506
19151,152,6381,150,3861,149,2381,145,02725,55122,476
19161,150,3391,150,2501,149,2251,150,31821,79921,163
19171,147,4481,150,9381,148,8931,149,22515,64913,869
19181,158,1491,154,5591,152,7981,152,74811,90611,660
19191,227,1811,178,4061,192,6651,166,48220,93119,877
19201,257,6111,236,9151,242,3961,207,66044,06232,924
19211,292,7171,267,4981,276,0521,252,20641,88228,559
19221,318,8841,301,2511,305,1261,285,71135,23328,389
19231,343,0211,325,3011,328,1931,311,38136,48829,668
19241,370,4031,347,8531,352,6181,334,02939,81530,593
19251,401,2301,379,4871,384,4281,359,99541,84629,172
19261,429,5551,409,8121,413,7001,392,07345,68533,825
19271,450,0901,437,9801,438,8141,420,76238,67636,248
19281,466,9521,453,5171,455,7341,443,32335,47835,035
19291,485,5641,470,6541,472,9251,459,98334,43931,643
19301,506,0871,488,5951,492,3761,477,49432,55928,321
19311,521,8881,510,9401,513,4161,497,73220,22521,634
1932..1,524,633..1,517,103....
VITAL STATISTICS.
Year.NumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean PopulationDeaths under per 1,000 Births.
Births.Marriages.Deaths.Deaths under 1 Year.Births.Marriages.Deaths.
188118,7323,2775,4911,73137.956.6411.1392.41
188219,0093,6005,7011,67837.327.0711.1988.27
188319,2023,6126,0611,99536.286.8211.45103.90
188419,8463,8005,7401,57335.916.8710.3979.26
188519,6933,8136,0811,75634.356.6510.6189.17
188619,2993,4886,1351,89933.155.9910.5498.40
188719,1353,5636,1371,79532.095.9710.2993.81
188818,9023,6175,7081,33631.225.979.4370.68
188918,4573,6325,7721,45630.175.949.4478.89
189018,2783,7975,9941,43829.446.129.6678.67
189118,2733,8056,5181,66729.016.0410.3591.23
189217,8764,0026,4591,59427.836.2310.0689.17
189318,1874,1156,7671,60027.506.2210.2387.97
189418,5284,1786,9181,50727.286.1510.1981.34
189518,5464,1106,8631,63726.785.949.9188.27
189618,6124,8436,4321,43926.336.859.1077.32
189718,7374,9286,5951,35425.966.839.1472.26
189818,9555,0917,2441,51025.746.919.8479.66
189918,8355,4617,6801,80625.127.2810.2495.89
190019,5465,8607,2001,46925.607.679.4375.16
190120,4916,0957,6341,56326.347.839.8171.40
190220,6556,3948,3751,71225.898.0110.5082.89
190321,8296,7488,5281,77026.618.2310.4081.03
190422,7666,9838,0871,61626.948.269.5770.98
190523,6827,2008,0611,59927.228.289.2767.52
190624,2527,5928,3391,50627.088.489.3162.10
190725,0948,19210,0662,22827.308.9110.9588.79
190825,9408,3399,0431,76127.458.829.5767.89
190926,5248,0948,9591,63427.298.339.2261.60
191025,9848,2369,6391,76026.178.309.7167.73
191126,3548,8259,5341,48425.978.709.3956.31
191227,5089,1499,2141,40926.488.8188751.22
191327,9358,81310,1191,65326.148.259.4759.17
191428,3389,28010,1481,45625.998.519.3151.38
191527,85010,0289,9651,39425.339.129.0650.05
191628,5098,21310,5961,44625.947.479.6450.70
191728.2396,41710,5281,36025.695.849.5848.16
191825,8606,22716,3641,25223.445.6514.8448.41
191924.4839,51910,8081,10821.428.339.4645.26
192029,92112,17512,1091,51325.0910.2110.1550.57
192128,56710,63510.6821,36623.348.698.7347.82
192229,0069,55610,9771,21523.177.638.7741.89
192327,96710,07011,5111,22521.947.909.0343.80
192428.01410,25910,7671,12721.577.908.2940.23
192528,15310,41911,0261,12521.177.848.2939.96
192628,47310,68011,8191,13221.057.908.7439.76
192727,88110,47811,6131,08020.297.628.4538.74
192827,20010,53711,81198419.567.588.4936.18
192926,74710,96712,31491219.017.788.7534.10
193026,79711,07512,19992418.807.778.5634.48
193126,6229,81712,04785618.426.798.3432.15

Education.

YearNumber of Scholars receivingUniversity Students.
Primary Education atSecondary Education at
Public SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsNative Village Schools.Secondary* (Including Endowed) SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsTechnical* High SchoolsRegistered Private Schools
*Combined secondary and technical high schools, instituted in 1931, included with secondary schools.
188183,5879,9872,0101,819   239
188287,17910,0022,0241,899......279
188392,47611,2551,9232,384......361
188497,23812,2032,2262,642......419
1885102,40711,9892,1612,656......442
1886106,32812,4972,3462,358......490
1887110,91913,4172,6312,242......588
1888112,68513,8932,5122,120......662
1889115,45613,5162,4622,147......588
1890117,91213,6912,2592,117......596
1891119,52314,1762,2312,205......705
1892112,62014,4672,1332,262......695
1893124,69014,9312,1342,251......680
1894127,30014,6492,4182,454......680
1895129,85614,7042,6752,525......742
1896131,03713,9792,8622,614......677
1897132,19714,5242,8642,709......653
1898131,62114,8572,9722,706......667
1899131,31515,3083,0652,723......766
1900130,72415,6023,1092,792......805
1901131,35115,3973,2732,899662....783
1902132,26215,6673,7423,0721,479....864
1903133,56815,6873,6933,7222,096....862
1904135,47516,4453,7454,0381,330....971
1905137,62316,7383,8634,0602,872....1,153
1906139,30217,2174,1744,2702,594....1,332
1907141,21618,1744,1834,1962,452....1,325
1908147,57516,2444,2174,3272,142699..1,634
1909152,60517,9894,1214,8561,891846..1,846
1910156,59419,0524,2805,1761,9161,253..1,862
1911161,90419,9674,5575,4651,7771,3418311,900
1912166,55320,3504,6945,8311,8151,5268832,228
1913172,51921,2514,6476,1541,8371,6645452,318
1914178,87122,2475,0726,4181,8961,8398502,257
1915183,63122,4775,1916,4882,1021,9559922,039
1916186,35023,6355,1327,0522,1182,1052,0041,985
1917188,75425,6855,1737,5902,1802,3471,2061,977
1918193,34526,3715,0648,3842,2832,7471,3662,226
1919194,58620,9775,1989,0682,1592,9261,4973,060
1920198,46022,1935,5089,9162,1572,7661,4393,822
1921205,95523,9245,82210,0302,1763,3491,6344,123
1922211,08124,8616,16110,7362,6064,2021,9983,958
1923212,46026,0106,18611,6192,8185,0542,1344,202
1924213,76825,9336,38612,5143,1365,1322,5114,442
1925215,06325,9336,38612,5143,1365,1322,5114,442
1926219,01726,7786,59113,6513,2995,7002,7944,653
1927221,15727,3586,62014,1903,5815,7032,9324,878
1928219,95026,5966,67115,0383,8806,0613,4304,802
1929219,19926,9776,97915,4984,0006,1143,6984,623
1930219,23526,4517,07016,1494,2406,9533,8254,801
1931218,68926,7267,50316,3444,9447,3973,7774,869

Justice.

YearSummary Convictions In Magistrates' Courts.Total Convictions and Sentences in Superior Courts.Total Distinct Persons sentenced in Superior Courts.Prisoners In Gaol at end of Year (undergoing Sentence).
Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
188114,07926.222700.502350.4464111.76
188216,57329.952650.482190.4057810.28
188316,94429.552580.452310.405679.69
188417,96830.112870.482410.405609.20
188517,80429.002660.432360.385318.57
188616,70526.763060.492860.465588.84
188715,55724.373860.603470.546339.81
188814,47222.363080.482650.416059.32
188914,08221.542760.422280.356116.29
189014,12821.322700.412770.347177.75
189113,34919.872830.422210.334947.31
189213,58319.852410.351950.294336.25
189313,71019.493040.432720.394636.48
189412,93417.933710.513240.454836.63
189513,38318.224070.553590.495317.17
189614,48119.403550.483110.424936.54
189715,32520.133660.483150.416238.10
189816,99121.893910.503860.505336.80
189917,58622.274050.513830.485086.38
190019,24223.994270.533910.495276.52
190120,72425.243610.443540.436618.39
190222,45526.703490.423390.406027.45
190325,18629.173980.463800.446888.26
190425,67228.905270.595190.587017.78
190525.37127.784490.494330.477608.21
190627,67029.334450.474330.468338.71
190730,90131.964900.514810.507918.09
190830,85231.085430.555320.548158.08
190931,15130.555520.545440.538778.51
191032,43531.174950.484940.478438.01
191133,02931.054530.434270.408027.46
191236,19133.244800.444280.398217.45
191339,68535.484460.404090.378347.35
191441,72336.595220.464830.429818.56
191539,67534.525090.444410.389418.16
191635,45930.854480.394010.358347.25
191734,18929.766230.543770.339548.31
191829,25225.376320.553550.311,0058.68
191932,69227.418080.684610.398526.94
192035,51728.591,0110.814590.379967.92
192137,12429.081,4751.166160.481,0448.08
192234,51326.441,4171.096010.461,0528.32
192337,10427.941,6631.256250.471,1418.50
192439,59429.271,3881.035550.411,1978.85
192544,01731.791,4651.065110.371,2879.17
192646,20532.681,5621.105690.401,3889.79
192745,93031.921,7301,215690.401,48310.23
192845,13930.781,3680.944780.331,4359.78
192946,30931.441,3450.914730.321,3429.11
193047,24731.661,5241.025380.361,5239.94
193142,09227.821,6241.076000.401,61410.66

Agriculture.

Season.Wheat for ThreshingOats for Threshing
Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.
*Yield probably overstated for these four seasons, due to total being obtained by applying ascertained averages to areas returned by farmers as sown for threshing. Areas returned in these years as intended for threshing would appear, in many cases, to have been eventually utilized for other purposes.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1881-82365,7158,297,89022.69243,3876,924,84828.45
1882-83390,81810,270,59126.28319,85810,520,42832.89
1883-84377,7069,827,13626.02262,9549,231,33935.11
1884-85270,0436,866,77725.43354,79412,360,44934.84
1885-86173,8914,242,2S524.40329,4888,603,70226.11
1886-87253,0256,297,63824.89387,22811,973,29530.92
1887-88357,3599,424,05926.37336,47410,512,11931.24
1888-89362,1538,770,24624.22367,22510,977,06529.89
1889-90335,8618,448,50625.15426,07113,673,58432.10
1890-91301,4605,723,61018.99346,2249,947,03628.73
1891-92402,27310,257,73825.50323,50811,009,02034.03
1892-93381,2458,378,21721.98326,5319,893,98930.30
1893-94242,7374,891,69520.15376,64612,153,06832.27
1894-95148,5753,613,03724.32351,85210,221,39329.05
1895-96245,4416,843,76827.88364,7S812.263,54033.62
1896-97258,6085,926,52322.92372,59711,232,80330.15
1897-98315,8015,670,01717.95354,8199,738,39127.44
1898-99399,03413,073,41632.76417,32016,511,38839.56
1899-1900269,7498,581,89831.81398,24316,325,83240.99
1900-1206,4656,527,15431.61449,53419,085,83742.45
1901-2163,4624,046,58924.76405,924405,92437.06
1902-3194,3557,457,91538.37483,65921,766,70845.00
1903-4230,3467,891,65434.26409,39015,107,23738.57
1904-5258,0159,123,67335.36342,18914,553,61142.53
1905-6222,1836,798,93430.60354,29112,707,98235.86
1906-7206,1855,605,25227.18351,92911,201,78931.83
1907-8193,0315,567,13928.843S6.88515,021,86138.82
1908-9252,3918,772,79034.75406,90818,906,78846.46
1909-10311,0008,661,10028.00377,00013,804,00037.00
1910-11322,1678,290,22125.73302,82710,118,91733.41
1911-12215,5287,261,13833.69403,66819,662,668*48.71
1912-13189,8695,179,62627.28386,78613,583,924*35.12
1913-14166,7745,231,70031.37361,74114,740,946*40.75
1914-15229,6006,644,33628.94287,56111,436,301*39.77
1915-16329,2077,108,30021.59212,6887,653,20835.98
1910-17217,7435,051,22723.19177,5245,371,43630.29
1917-18280,9786,807,53624.23156,2024,942,75931.64
1918-19208,0306,567,62931.57172,6866,8S4,60939.87
1919-20139,6114,559,93432.66179,8006,967,86238.75
1920-21219,9856,872,26231.24147,5595,225,11535.41
1921-22352,91810,565,27529.94170,6556,752,66339.56
1922-23275,7758,395,02330.44143,0905,688,15739.75
1923-24173,8644,174,53724.0163,8421,964,51130.77
1924-25166,9645.447,75832.62147,3875.707,17438.72
1925-26151,6734,617,04130.44102,4854,115,60640.14
1926-27220,0837,952,44236.13117,3264,997,53542.58
1927-28260,9879,541,44436.5688,2233,852,68743.66
1928-29255,3128,832,86434.6073,1013,065,11341.93
1929-30235,9427,239,55030.6867,7223,002,28844.33
1930-31249,0147,579,15330.4487,1523,376,60938.74
1931-32268,7566,582,69824.4968,6902,818.15241.03
LIVE-STOCK.
Year.Horses.Total Cattle.Dairy CowsSheep.Pigs.Goats.
* Not enumerated.
1882***12,408,106**
1883***13,306,329**
1884***13,978,520**
1885***14,546,801**
1886187,382853,358*15,174,203277,90110,220
1887***15,155,626**
1888***15,042,198**
1889***15,423,328**
1890***16,116,113**
1891211,040788,919*17,865,423222,5539,055
1892***18,570,752**
1893***19,380,369**
1894*885,305*20,230.820**
1895*964,034257,14019,826,604**
1896237,4181,047,901276,21719,138.493239,778*
1897249,8131,138,067300,21919,687,954209,834*
1898252,8341,209,165324,48519,673,725186,027*
1899258,1151,203,024333,53619,348,506193,512*
1900261,9311,222,139355,25619,355,195249,751*
1901266,2451,256,680372,41620,233,099250,975*
1902279,6721,361,784381,49220,342,727224,024*
1903286,9551,460,003428,77318,954,553193,740*
1904298,7141,593,547408,12518,280,806220,591*
1905314,3221,736,850498,24119,130,875255,320*
1906326,5371,810,936517,72020,108,471249,727*
1907342,6081,851,750543,92720,983,772242,273*
1908352,8321,816,299541,36322,449,053241,128*
1909363,2591,773,320536,62923,480,707245,092*
1910***24,209,620**
1911404,2842,020,171633,73323,996,126348,754*
1912***23,750,153**
1913***24,191,810**
1914***24,798,763**
1915***24,901,421**
1916371,3312,417,491750,32324.788,150297,50117,601
1917373,6002,575,230777,43925,270,386283,77018,235
1918378,0502,869,465793,21226,538,302258,69417,730
1919363,1883,035,478826,13525,828,554235,34710,924
1920346,4073,101,945893,45423,919,970266,82914,534
1921337,2593,139,2231,004,66623,285,031349,89217,367
1922332,1053,323,2231,137,05522,222,259384,33317,480
1923330,8183,480,6941,248,64323,081,439400,88917,071
1924330,4303,563,4971,312,58823,775,776414,27118,196
1925326,8303,503,7441,323,43224,547,955440,11518,975
1926314,8673,452.4861,303,85624,904,993472,53421,761
1927303,7133,257,7291,303,22525,649,016520,14326,099
1928307,1603,273,7691,352,39827,133,810586,89824,251
1929298,9863,445,7901,371,06329,051,382556,73234,226
1930297,1953,770,2231,441,41030,841,287487,79339,127
1931295,7434,080,5251,601,63329,792,516476,194*
1932280,9944,072,3831,702,07028,691,788513,416*
TRADE.
Year.Imports.Exports.Total TradeRate per Head of Mean Population (including Maoris).
Imports.Exports.Total Trade.
* In terms of New Zealand currency: vide p. 205.
 ££££s.d.£s.d.£s.d
18817,457,0456,060,86613,517,9111317911592536
18828,609,2706,658,00815,267,27815112120727119
18837,974,0387,095,99915,070,0371318212762658
18847,663,8887,091,66714,755,5551216111117924148
18857,479,9216,819,93914,299,8601239112223511
18866,759,0136,672,79113,431,804101661013921103
18876,245,5156,866,16913,111,684915810152201010
18885,941,9007,767,32513,709,22593712002137
18896,308,8639,341,86415,650,727913014510231810
18906,260,5259,811,72016,072,2459811141612450
18916,503,8499,566,39716,070,24691381441023186
18926,943,0569,534,85116,477,90710211131882417
18936,911,5158,985,36415,896,87991671215622121
18946,788,0209,231,04716,019,067983121602243
18956,400,1298,550,22414,950,35381441112102072
18967,137,3209,321,10510,458,4259113129102211
18978,055,22310,016,99318,072,21610117133123148
18988,230,60010,517,95518,748,55510121131112432
18998,739,63311,938,33520,677,968111415242638
190010,640,09613,246,16123,892,25713551610329158
190111,817,91512,881,42424,699,3391477151393014
190211,326,72313,644,97724,971,70013951646291311
190312,788,67515,010,37827,799,0531416317793240
190413,291,69414,748,34828,040,042141941612131115
190512,828,85715,655,94728,484,80414101721131311
190615,211,40318,095,13733,300,540162019383562
190717,302,86120,068,95737,371,8181717112015238131
190817,471,28410,317,49433,788,7781712016893409
190915,674,71919,661,99635,336,7151570195934133
191017,051,58322,180,20939,231,7921679210437141
191119,545,87919,028,49038,574,3091875171793652
191220,976,57421,770,58142,747,15519541919113953
191322,288,30222,986,72245,275,02419187201104097
191421,856,09626,261,44748,117,543193523084241
191521,728,83431,748,91253,477,746181822712646108
191620,339,28333,280,93759,620,220221852819451179
191720,919,26531,587,54752,506,81218422791145141
191824,234,00728,516,18852,750,19521052414945152
191930,671,09853,970,07584,641,77325144455070194
192061,595,82840,441,946108,037,77449117377780192
192142,942,44344,828,82787,771,27033129352368150
192235,012,56142,720,24977,738,810261663214959113
192343,378,49345,967,10589,345,65832132341226754
192448,527,60352,612,711101,140,3143517638171074154
192552,456,40755,262,272107,718,6793717103918477162
192649,889,56345,275,57595,165,1383551032066764
192744,782,94648,490,35493,279,30031203314164167
192844,886,26656,188,481101,074,74731311391070411
192948,797,97755,579,063104,377,04033273714870173
193043,025,91444,940,69289,685,000*281673023*60111
193124,812,95835,153,02861,760,000*107112347*40102

Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Wool.Frozen Meat.Tallow.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 lb.£Cwt.£Cwt.£
185159,415,9402,909,76083,155120,611....
185265,322,7073,118,55415,24419,339108,780165,938
188368,149,4303,014,21187,975118,328141,185233,557
185481,139,0283,267,527254,069345,090150,770234,829
188586,507,4313,205,275290,473373,857138,600176,962
188690,853,7443,072,971340,055427,193129,700119,019
188788,824,3823,321,074402,107455,870154,720147,233
188883,225,7333,115,008552,298628,800136,460124,950
1889102,227,3543,970,375050,822783,374159,020159,460
1890102,817,0774,150,599898,8941,087,617173,300162,471
1891106,187,1144,129,6861,000,3071,194,724175,580173,257
1892118,180,9124,313,307869,6001,033,377165,220165,513
1893109,719,6843,774,738903,8361,085,167170,060183,588
1894144,295,1544,827,0161,025,2431,194,545199,400204,499
1895110,015,1703,662,1311,134,0971,202,711263,560260,999
1896129,151,6244,391,8481,103,3621,251,993222,540208,821
1897135,835,1174,443,1441,407,9211,566,286310,200259,904
1898149,385,8154,645,8041,551,7731,698,750347,160302,141
1899147,169,4974,324,6271,805,8272,088,856338,620311,649
1900140,706,4864,749,1961,844,8312,123,881367,780368,473
1901140,820,0793,699,1031,857,5472,253,262335,360351,710
1902160,419,0233,354,5632,138,5572,718,763424,060550,131
1903155,128,3814,041,2742,378,6503,197,043396,940517,871
1904144,647,3764,673,8261,912,9792,793,599322,480357,974
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,690,6842,694,432318,942347,888
1906154,384,5686,765,6552,025,5072,877,031378,400455,026
1907171,635,5957,657,2782,354,8083,420,664414,880560,965
1908102,518,4815,332,7812,120,3033,188,515372,520481,335
1909189,683,7036,305,8882,572,6043,001,093484,160648,452
1910204,368,9578,308,4102,654,1903,850,777520,180756,841
1911169,424,8116,491,7072,250,5653,503,400413,120607,257
1912188,361,7907,105,4832,573,2383,909,569470,900684,739
1913180,533,0368,057,6202,578,6934,449,933454,860663,088
1914220,472,8989,318,1143,229,9695,863,062490,300694,348
1915190,570,11410,387,8753,591,2607,794,395535,260780,828
1916185,506,85912,380,0743,326,0457,271,318449,440785,339
1917178,274,48012,175,3662,446,9455,982,404251,980553,016
1918108,724,5757,527,2662,036,9044,957,576328,420847,618
1919274,240,61319,559,5373,822,6839,628,292937,4802,680,006
1920162,327,17611,863,8274,629,28211,673,696540,8201,748,773
1921158,714,8285,221,4794,322,75411,104,345554,240807,298
1922321,533,21511,882,4633,518,0048,387,401529,900750,574
1923217,500,09110,904,6583,043,9109,012,627504,860785,668
1924206,189,91115,267,5443,213,5749,499,877479,760799,230
1925205,720,85617,739,7363,414,20511,174,567500,760895,061
1926213,154,39911,830,1903,034,3568,656,213422,560741,045
1927220,500,72012,961,7443,364,9059,104,621477,500714,441
1928226,804,54416,679,0983,793,82810,309,662514,960804,271
1929234,955,97815,359,2063,336,2009,883,277416,640693,614
1930197,239,6147,664,3624,036,63910,937,382492,560683,571
1931211,718,8685,515,3764,138,8068,892,555465,280413,080

Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Butter.Cheese.Gold.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Cwt.£Cwt.£Cwt.£
18812,4268,4963,0566,112250,683996,867
188211,26452,0883,55310,130230,893921,664
18838,80942,0202,5196,892222,899892,445
188415,70060,59310,34225,074246,392988,953
188524,923102,38715,24535,742222,732890,056
188623,175105,53716,42945,657235,578939,648
188717,01854,92123,91354,562187,938747,878
188829,995118,25236,68278,918229,608914,309
188937,955146,84026,55867,105197,492785,490
189034,816122,70140,45184,986187,641751,360
189139,430150,25839,77086,675251,1611,007,172
189253,930227,16241,49391,042237,393951,963
189358,149254,64546,20199,626227,502915,921
189460,771251,28055,655115,203221,614887,865
189557,964227,00176,743150,909293,4931,162,181
189671,353281,71671,372130,166263,6941,041,428
189799,002402,60577,683150,517251,647980,204
189890,801403,69068,711135,776280,1751,080,691
1899136,086571,79969,440141,818389,5701,513,180
1900172,583740,620102,849229,111373,6141,439,602
1901201,591832,406104,294238,685455,5581,753,784
1902253,9981,205,80274,746163,539507,8521,951,426
1903285,1061,318,06774,780194,998533,3142,037,832
1904314,3601,380,40084,520185,486520,3231,987,501
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,171520,4852,093,936
1906320,2251,560,235131,206341,002563,8432,270,904
1907328,4411,615,345230,833662,355508,2102,027,490
1908229,9711,171,182280,798783,419506,3812,004,799
1909321,1081,639,380400,6071,105,390506,3712,006,900
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,373478,2861,896,318
1911302,3871,576,917439,1741,192,057454,8371,815,251
1912378,1172,088,809577,0701,680,393343,1631,345,131
1913372,2582,061,651611,6631,770,297376,1611,459,499
1914434,0672,338,576863,7762,564,125227,954895,367
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,211422,8251,694,553
1916358,6322,632,293949,4163,514,310292,6201,199,212
1917254,3972,031,551885,7433,949,251218,624903,888
1918431,0233,402,223883,4304,087,27811,98742,391
1919345,8183,080,1281,572,3117,790,990320,2071,334,405
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0500,160,840212,973883,748
1921898,47811,109,5301,368,7868,199,183149,595612,168
19221,120,2009,041,5541,161,1964,686,850131,848540,182
19231,250,14010,689,2001,441,4606,870,397169,512698,583
19241,269,45511,641,6681,594,4867,023,297133,631551,788
19251,245,32410,240,1321,376,7545,800,808114,696472,364
19261,168,0408,695,1881,461,5485,939,359125,777516,207
19271,455,53910,915,2331,492,7925,582,546130,171534,639
19281,449,57011,302,6671,567,2720,693,951118,722489,584
19291,653,80713,228,0271,779,0937,017,463119,379480,212
19301,884,23711,854,0561,812,9816,438,438133,749550,078
19311,988,56610,649,5271,636,3474,461,293140,970581,032

Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Kauri-gum.Phormium Fibre.Timber (sawn and hewn).
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Tons.£Tons.£Sup. ft.£
18815,460253,7781,30820,28513,180,28065,119
18825,533260,3692,04041,95510,486,90194,493
18836,518336,6062,01336,76123,783,521124,898
18846,393342,1511,52523,47524,767,156128,924
18855,876299,7621,06316,3128,439,013141,355
18864,920257,6531,11215,92229,349,789127,905
18876,790362,4341,57825,09430,919,464127,108
18888,482380,9334,04275,26943,474,434177,877
18897,519329,59017,084361,18242,568,600176,608
18907,438378,56321,158381,78942,098,863181,089
18918,388437,05615,809281,51442,824,365182,431
18928,705517,67812,793214,54222,860,55187,581
18938,317510,77612,587219,37526,718,046101,082
18948,338404,5674,67766,25631,901,415116,116
18957,425418,7661,80621,04038,297,905141,892
18967,126431,3232,96832,98534,984,414133,511
18976,641398,0102,76930,67439,326,396154,169
18989,905586,7674,85074,55640,721,632104,723
189911,116607,91910,371184,41150,425,741190,749
190010,159622,29315,906332,18257,517,085232,174
19017,541446,11410,171195,72871,822,369294,699
19027,430450,22320,852534,03149,251,549208,005
19039,357631,10222,652595,68457,097,990240,713
19049,203501,81720,936710,28160,326,992254,021
190510,883561,44427,877696,46775,370,130318,895
19009,154522,48627,779776,10675,528,899304,941
19078,708579,88828,547832,06872,154,417311,862
19085,530372,79817,403396,28884,554,414375,235
19098,250552,69814,318306,97371,599,318337,740
19108,693465,04420,645448,41481,940,062407,658
19117,587395,70717,366300,20986,309,570439,353
19127,908401,30518,641376,26494,454,491490,508
19138,780549,10628,092721,92463,469,105319,055
19148,473497,44419,702455,21483,342,949422,804
19154,575279,13323,220571,02170,797,161383,883
19165,456339,88227,6741,001,72571,503,154381,488
19174,594291,91723,5161,197,39671,338,174408,121
19182,419157,31325,1671,387,76374,932,815556,309
19194,128255,81222,347866,93049,726,670439,935
19206,481556,75018,949647,54569,664,014697,608
19213,901367,1979,643293,77545,902,627503,785
19226,391563,2709,727265,08044,186,848479,447
19236,598596,22210,612284,89747,570,490473,752
19245,261443,57612,982388,88742,928,726472,120
19255,370414,90110,408516,46649,204,676573,882
19264,877332,76517,238526,31140,465,221475,627
19274,674278,63216,189473,22137,147,798425,453
19284,394240,13912,932352,15234,970,773376,967
19294,937207,61012,317340,58839,102,831439,342
19303,818189,6358,009198,21320,076,131300,582
19313,058128,0951,78430,93017,532,304172,633

INDEBTEDNESS OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.
As at 31st March,Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Gross Indebtedness per Head of Population.Amount of Sinking Fund accrued.Net Indebtedness.Net Indebtedness per Head Population.
*In 1925-26 the sinking funds accrued were, with certain exceptions, transferred to the Public Debt Redemption Fund.
 ££s.d.£££s.d.
188228,479,111511751,163,51827,315,59349150
188329,445,011511931,305,52328,139,48849132
188431,071,582521011,434,94929,636,6335017
188532,195,422521011,531,88430,663,5385001
188633,880,7225411111,617,16632,263,556511910
188735,741,05356511,427,19934,314,4545402
188838,758,437561651,344,42735,414,010541410
188938,375,0505816111,390,91536,984,13556143
189038,667,95058321,386,18037,281,7645610
189138,830,35058171,487,04237,343,30855171
189238,713,068501961,037,86237,675,2065590
189339,257,84056471,113,77038,144,07054128
189439,826,4155583951,92438,874,4915419
189540,386,9645543751,93239,635,0325439
189643,050,78057183778,89142,271,88956174
189744,366,61858115814,29443,552,32457911
189844,963,4245856881,90344,081,5215728
189940,938,00659137857,27946,080,72758119
190047,874,45259192944,37546,930,07758156
190149,591,245601581,033,49418,557,75159104
190252,966,447631161,128,81651,837,6316245
190355,899,01965301,357,73954,541,28063114
190457,522,21565431,500,68756,021,52863102
190559,912,000651971,650,71858,261,2826433
190662,191,040661301,661,51960,529,52164174
190764,179,0406614102,042,06862,136,97264124
190860,453,897678111,208,36165,185,5306632
190970,938,534691041,479,22469,459,3106873
191074,890,615726101,503,22573,387,420701710
191181,078,122761531,754,48679,323,6367520
191284,353,91378032,160,60382,193,3107603
191390,060,76381052,603,64287,457,12178137
191499,730,427871023,063,99291,689,835SO91
1915100,059,910861973,178,05596,644,4558403
1916109,637,39795043,679,964105,957,4339224
1917129,836,1051121024,263,590125,572,51510921
1918150,840,05513012114,971,605145,868,450126610
1919176,076,260149855,951,056170,125,20414475
1920201,170,7551621297,257,564193,913,191156155
1921206,324,3191621578,708,072197,561,222155174
1922219,054,38516861010,655,394208,241,12116008
1923218,953,3241654211,879,256207,024,04815642
1924221,616,3611648512,974,028208,595,743154153
1925227,814,64716521113,462,839214,287,12815569
1926238,855,478169862,274,262*236,581,216167103
1927245,850,8891701952,443,540243,407,34916955
1928251,396,2521721922,635,766248,740,73617127
1929264,191,98317912102,150,561256,652,371174104
1930267,383,3431791252,331,423265,051,92017811
1931276,033,35818213102,313,673273,715,71018131
1932281,942,8001841862,435,117279,507,68318307
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE GENERAL GOVERNMENT
Year ended 31st March,Consolidated Fund.Public Works Fund.
Receipts.Payments.ReceiptsPayments.
From Taxation.From other Sources.Total.Total.
 ££££££
18821,890,6791,866,8143,757,4933,675,79715,211826,790
18831,956,5571,960,6033,917,1603,824,7361,004,898897,037
18841,957,0801,914,1873,871,2673,924,005945,7761,409,589
18851,815,6742,139,5143,955,1884,101,3182,504,1131,336,727
18862,016,7302,080,2664,096,9964,282,901198,8671,475,386
18871,882,0501,946,4123,828,4624,310,8751,499,5001,333,484
18881,876,2351,815,4443,721,6794,212,474500,000966,159
18892,031,6582,341,3574,373,0154,226,1121,503,000613,939
18902,090,4052,176,7144,267,1194,256,92183,142482,464
18912,173,9852,322,0434,496,0284,369,5664,262334,756
18922,179,7392,248,7914,423,5304,417,843216,533391,501
18932,339,5112,330,0404,669,5514,324,990215,765462,506
18942,353,2502,339,2134,692,4634,455,116418,323406,797
18952,300,3502,147,5494,447,8994,352,185353,000504,486
18962,335,7602,220,2554,550,0154,370,481162,272575,087
18972,521,9112,276,7974,798,7084,509,981540,275601,343
18982,678,5762,400,6545,079,2304,602,372759,673865,543
18992,707,0992,551,1295,258,2284,858,511935,691916,327
19002,891,1202,808,4925,699,6185,140,1271,062,116993,223
19013,042,8902,864,0265,906,9165,479,7041,401,7881,309,021
19023,113,0793,039,7606,152,8395,914,9152,364,7962,143,252
19033,277,9643,169,4716,447,4356,214,0191,398,9501,514,445
19043,649,6013,480,5167,130,1176,434,2811,875,6141,796,841
19053,754,3793,592,8187,347,1976,635,9021,908,6831,354,158
19063,841,5903,803,5027,650,0987,122,3401,555,7681,811,819
19074,204,5554,214,4018,478,9567,774,9201,918,0812,168,894
19084,645,7544,418,2359,063,9898,213,9651,846,0542,109,882
19094,377,7614,623,4249,001,1858,785,5133,628,2703,363,895
19104,180,5165,058,4019,238,9178,990,9222,093,6972,216,397
19114,837,3225,459,95110,297,2739,343,1063,396,6482,058,691
19125,290,5905,764,57111,061,16110,340,3681,256,4562,340,380
19135,606,8296,127,44211,734,27111,082,0383,300,7292,548,918
19145,918,0346,311,62712,229,66111,825,8643,478,7512,760,798
19155,880,8116,571,13412,451,94512,379,8032,224,4912,737,364
19167,206,9607,240,56414,507,53012,943,1073,187,1542,583,212
191710,549,6547,805,54018,355,19414,058,7701,105,8371,775,513
191812,340,8537,805,36920,206,22215,120,2881,091,1951,401,837
191913,801,6438,550,72922,352,37218,673,5991,240,6801,387,661
192016,251,7699,829,57126,081,34023,781,5242,243,3892,232,815
192122,184,41412,076,54734,260,96128,068,7305,012,1563,658,240
192216,370,51611,756,49128,127,00728,466,8389,792,9166,875,636
192315,594,28811,985,15527,579,44326,263,7603,968,5654,729,679
192416,416,87011,543,50027,960,37026,148,0054,275,9144,658,272
192516,172,30612,470,69428,643,00027,399,2004,833,2805,432,069
192616,978,4967,747,26624,725,76223,570,0835,956,8785,874,313
192716,899,5568,043,55124,943,10724,355,9655,931,1705,505,897
192816,848,7548,275,22625,123,98024,944,9055,464,2255,212,032
192917,832,0335,767,64323,599,67624,176,9289,028,9945,696,161
193019,471,1315,878,73025,349,86125,200,8822,339,3586,237,585
193118,597,4564,471,47523,068,93124,708,0427,356,0506,547,883
193216,188,1716,531,56222,719,73324,860,5525,179,8984,895,861
NOTE: Commencing with 1925-26 railway revenue and expenditure, and with 1928-29 post and telegraph revenue and expenditure, were removed from the transaction of the Consolidated Fund. Revenue of the Consolidated Fund, however, now includes interest in respect of railway and post and telegraph capital liability, while the expenditure for the years 1925-26 to 1928-29 covers payment to the Working Railways Account in respect of losses on non-paying branch lines and isolated sections. In 1931-32, also, post and telegraph net profits were paid into the Consolidated Fund. Unemployment taxation receipts (commencing 1930-31) are not paid into the Consolidated Fund.
LOCAL BODIES.
Year ended 31st March,Receipts.PaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness.
Revenue.Other Receipts.Total.
From Rates.From other Sources.
 ££££££
1881249,087814,142889,7051,952,9341,871,7523,039,807
1882297,328694,052419,6081,411,5881,637,3373,277,584
1883327,128600,450311,4661,239,0441,397,8633,510,046
1884398,659744,527331,9941,475,1801,499,1174,039,769
1885401,393841,895430,5611,673,8491,653,7064,430,309
1886410,639882,618514,7281,807,9851,644,7065,086,044
1887434,237790,063992,6332,216,9331,885,0015,825,683
1888433,832795,067511,5941,740,4931,819,7876,015,354
1889445,929676,428316,1391,438,4961,560,6056,164,901
1890460,303707,725206,6881,374,7161,470,5406,316,716
1891463,581662,765236,9021,363,2481,381,3206,427,473
1892488,824693,296214,1241,396,2441,400,4676,550,183
1893508,157709,676340,5381,558,3711,482,5486,750,698
1894551,412681,831623,0381,856,2811,589,1247,253,072
1895581,868683,857328,7981,594,5231,584,5187,422,306
1890592,903738,146269,1451,600,1941,627,0797,547,511
1897598,526765,047246,9191,610,4921,636,7167,675,814
1898644,552790,602304,6451,739,7991,733,0167,783,445
1899685,769820,727385,3681,891,8641,778,5747,995,400
1900714,151848,032372,0281,934,2111,960,0738,149,272
1901734,023919,831825,0392,478,8932,250,5728,785,303
1902800,4711,019,024775,4322,594,9272,528,0929,245,364
1903846,7161,053,582966,0872,866,3852,867,5069,886,676
1904950,1501,206,0691,142,5953,298,8143,230,71210,756,062
19051,019,4311,255,2221,350,6313,625,2843,497,32112,056,736
19061,151,2191,392,1481,326,5973,869,9643,601,50612,873,165
19071,233,0491,579,3911,227,4734,039,9133,897,51513,903,153
19081,356,2571,750,6651,410,9944,517,9164,491,11314,931,351
19091,390,6981,934,1221,440,7464,765,5664,800,71115,920,757
19101,526,3171,934,0342,362,1715,822,5224,898,48217,809,917
19111,592,6012,171,7251,776,9585,541,2845,360,26119,104,571
19121,677,8772,298,9342,425,2586,402,0696,074,37220,763,486
19131,799,2992,531,6862,383,1236,714,1086,537,76922,183,427
19142,005,6382,719,1122,411,5757,136,3256,796,31423,773,429
19152,140,0862,861,2972,595,7067,597,0896,806,56724,538,721
19162,355,1552,967,6452,469,2757,792,0756,920,73626,045,312
19172,534,5393,243,9421,411,4227,189,9036,758,59326,799,586
19182,674,5413,283,7491,250,0477,208,3377,103,07327,653,681
19192,939,6063,452,071942,7807,334,4577,320,27728,074,950
19203,144,2134,480,5823,329,00310,959,79810,883,58630,187,942
19213,549,5905,336,3743,429,66212,315,62612,761,69032,104,957
19223,779,8956,074,7825,486,91215,341,58915,091,87536,745,089
19234,277,7816,243,9517,399,67417,921,40615,695,50743,191,184
19244,445,6276,704,1445,685,10719,834,87816,520,95040,537,833
19254,668,8847,512,0807,613,39919,794,36319,422,83353,353,466
19265,039,6458,333,9217,505,70220,879,26820,915,64559,419,754
19275,311,2608,954,6856,680,17620,946,12121,747,55764,012,247
19285,615,6729,786,2715,667,65121,069,59422,423,16766,404,172
19295,844,4959,583,5766,042,00721,470,07821,300,02469,294,619
19306,010,98710,746,7315,495,42722,253,14522,061,08871,207,539
19315,637,25410,627,3914,432,95620,697,60122,174,52472,686,036
LOCAL BODIES.-LOAN INDEBTEDNESS.
As at 31st March,Counties.Boroughs.Harbour Boards.Electric-power Districts.Other.Total
NOTE.—Loans from Government—i.e., Inscribed Debt and Advances from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board—have not been included.
 ££££££
1881..1,844,0071,195,800....3,039,807
1882..1,940,6841,336,900....3,277,584
18837,8001,958,5461,508,900..64,8003,540,046
18848,1102,107,3001,575,200..271,7203,962,330
18857,8002,156,4551,872,100..276,8684,313,223
18863,5102,257,7752,414,945..275,2804,951,510
18878,7002,452,5852,887,700..271,7625,620,747
188814,2822,527,3533,006,900..264,2685,812,803
188923,5232,534,5563,057,118..276,8535,892,050
18908,5052,541,4533,155,600..272,5015,978,059
18918,0102,540,3903,226,000..268,2936,042,693
18929,6602,539,4453,276,300..256,5296,081,934
189311,6602,567,0953,369,410..255,7046,203,869
189411,0102,738,1843,610,450..255,1806,614,824
189510,5102,757,3953,652,350..265,2556,685,510
189610,5102,777,4953,686,959..262,6146,737,578
189710,5102,817,3783,703,561..261,9496,793,398
189811,7102,834,3063,723,380..264,9656,834,361
189910,5002,881,5673,804,187..267,0006,963,254
19006,9002,939,0253,845,881..265,5447,057,350
19016,7143,251,8174,035,331..269,2077,563,069
19026,7143,435,8844,123,631..273,4667,839,695
19036,6143,655,4364,256,481..298,6658,217,196
19046,2144,226,80014,308,851..357,0458,898,910
19057,8004,863,9864,382,551..763,90510,018,242
190615,2285,314,1734,554,151..834,49910,718,051
190731,6785,920,3054,676,551..987,51411,616,048
190837,1386,540,0714,877,676..1,077,44912,532,334
190956,5347,016,9265,052,845..1,177,31713,303,622
191076,8777,687,2095,788,400..1,385,19914,937,685
191199,0388,159,9866,001,650..1,466,93915,727,613
1912122,4188,507,4866,235,978..1,724,99516,590,877
1913121,9119,084,2056,371,636..1,905,58017,483,332
1914183,93610,083,8106,608,700..2,047,03618,923,482
1915247,69410,206,3536,869,500..2,121,92819,445,475
1916265,09111,086,7197,014,390..2,387,96820,754,168
1917286,67911,606,4857,151,743..2,387,86021,432,767
1918421,21412,150,3847,268,993..2,419,94622,260,537
1919537,41512,365,9587,301,143..2,469,19622,673,712
1920752,17613,944,5077,377,142..2,534,46824,608,293
19211,046,37814,575,8257,528,288147,7502,888,71926,186,960
19221,328,29716,282,9608,110,9111,480,0003,064,03630,266,204
19231,802,63319,501,9888,437,9873,052,3003,284,47436,079,382
19241,870,07819,819,4979,020,1884,740,8653,659,37239,110,000
19252,332,46123,483,0579,600,2036,514,7573,790,31645,720,794
19263,054,13125,607,4399,845,7668,745,7554,473,80651,726,897
19273,658,23827,662,02710,113,44110,113,4004,865,65356,412,759
19283,882,47129,277,77210,335,69910,175,3645,277,72258,949,028
192914,044,66629,973,85710,636,36811,986,7075,362,18862,003,786
19304,242,99229,307,00610,326,34612,636,3517,539,32664,052,021
19314,373,78629,966,12710,378,50913,011,5297,962,65565,692,606
BANKS OF ISSUE (AVERAGE OF FOUR QUARTERS).
Year.Assets.Liabilities.
AdvancesCoin and Bullion.Total (including Notes in Items).Notes in Circulation.Deposits.Total (including other Items).
 ££££££
188111,888,6692,045,91514,863,645916,2699,069,37710,083,188
188214,265,5671,900,20317,162,234971,3868,945,34610,015,273
188314,821,7801,881,67517,794,761968,5208,659,4779,706,700
188414,947,0912,023,08818,442,139971,9039,643,21410,691,599
188515,470,2752,101,78418,811,567968,48110,083,29611,130,244
188615,834,8772,177,54419,041,827943,07510,579,71111,603,194
188715,310,0502,342,05218,799,847896,51711,031,61411,995,495
188815,041,8972,319,32518,709,444873,04511,155,77812,108,353
188914,272,4812,217,83317,652,915879,44011,528,42412,486,717
189013,996,0862,536,52917,735,259903,01012,368,61013,356,598
189111,448,7452,405,09916,814,518937,30912,796,09813,820,458
189212,128,0652,450,71217,558,168959,94313,587,06214,623,335
189312,088,3032,627,36718,255,534973,89414,433,77715,489,633
189411,897,7402,896,56217,746,421901,52613,927,21714,930,791
189511,600,0803,310,94318,159,781897,91913,544,41514,491,627
189610,972,2263,308,39216,900,199946,36614,490,82715,520,431
189710,020,6403,093,29517,270,7711,009,03814,290,51215,380,248
189810,564,2662,791,08117,013,4041,070,13314,143,22915,299,058
189910,954,4352,675,36117,190,4331,163,75914,591,22315,834,858
190011,343,4112,739,19717,314,5351,299,82515,570,61016,964,582
190112,148,3352,996,34518,422,2741,361,35516,034,84817,490,035
190212,747,7733,201,82418,999,1801,375,78817,231,76818,701,063
190313,435,9933,608,94119,913,5461,450,20719,011,11420,563,879
190414,651,1983,896,19520,893,0961,468,16119,074,96020,643,359
190515,496,3954,006,10821,770,5251,468,97720,545,60122,144,166
190616,649,3294,593,95423,829,9331,574,25422,422,24324,143,008
190718,514,0454,836,71826,584,2391,644,64523,517,11125,334,348
190821,172,8084,840,94229,098,5071,615,10921,821,75323,611,903
190919,078,0324,947,09626,937,2651,577,55821,906,62123,728,326
191018,439,9995,035,76426,398,9271,626,09424,968,76126,742,081
191121,259,7275,195,33329,433,6141,677,84226,765,12228,625,803
191222,907,6565,338,29531,196,4001,714,66725,622,08327,508,348
191322,902,2985,204,26630,708,9321,674,33325,733,18727,591,099
191424,250,2465,712,75132,502,3121,998,38827,640,50729,808,349
191523,638,9706,781,00633,209,4832,846,27531,433,65334,448,270
191024,911,7007,393,91737,015,4864,049,52937,757,91741,977,619
191728,847,7498,072,27944,979,6155,410,95742,930,71348,541,961
191831,711,3508,085,96148,570,1266,266,76845,562,93952,048,732
191931,717,7208,017,15948,615,2097,087,54550,489,44457,861,393
192038,241,9327,728,94256,111,4337,890,41859,405,34107,818,469
192150,607,5417,660,53268,701,2827,569,31949,397,41158,808,439
192244,768,1787,822,56261,779,5707,019,22045,913,39453,868,834
192343,322,2427,900,59459,641,2356,593,06849,039,43256,204,292
192444,559,6617,816,14561,325,8656,587,54649,502,49957,131,235
192545,298,9557,722,91762,128,8086,775,47052,207,20260,219,697
192649,149,2607,797,31965,765,2976,730,42150,135,11458,008,161
192750,032,2037,874,97166,626,6766,510,01848,294,09656,321,397
192846,179,4637,511,83362,819,4856,374,04353,799,22161,850,595
192949,278,1947,051,39165,475,5296,433,91157,609,74665,232,866
193053,657,3976,798,55669,748,0716,255,71756,425,01463,984,419
193152,419,5276,917,89768,557,1205,782,35453,645,61861,463,034
POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.
Year.Number of Depositors at end of Year,Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest Credited to Depositors.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors.

*Fifteen months, 1st January, 1920, to 31st, March, 1921.

† Year ended 31st March following

‡ Excess of withdrawals over deposits

  £££££
188151,0081,189,012902,195286,81742,2051,232,788
188257,5171,325,8521,142,599183,25354,9101,470,951
188361,9361,178,4741,295,720-117,24656,0471,409,752
188465,7171,227,9101,195,93131,97957,3821,499,112
188569,9571,341,0011,264,30576,69662,2281,638,036
188674,8711,248,4051,336,287-87,88265,8251,615,979
188779,7241,312,1511,182,409129,74267,3641,813,085
188884,4881,544,7471,387,471157,27678,0802,048,442
188990,7451,515,2821,457,08158,20184,8102,191,452
189097,2081,658,5431,500,437158,10692,3192,441,876
1891104,4671,842,9881,693,515149,473104,0992,695,448
1892112,5281,878,2701,821,34956,921111,3022,863,671
1893122,0842,386,0902,122,522263,568114,7603,241,998
1894129,4232,252,8622,268,624-15,762114,6433,340,880
1895137,6832,794,5072,369,333425,174129,4903,895,543
1896147,7582,881,1532,591,559289,594126,4984,311,635
1897159,3313,187,2192,891,169296,050137,2404,744,925
1898169,9683,279,6113,194,89484,717128,1294,957,771
1899183,0463,644,9803,417,299227,681134,9185,320,371
1900197,4084,170,4293,827,416343,013146,1695,809,552
1901212,4364,611,4564,230,193381,263159,1986,350,013
1902227,4655,069,6194,708,772360,847172,9266,883,787
1903243,6755,661,5935,343,828317,765187,1307,388,682
1904259,1645,836,5405,664,770171,770200,9307,761,382
1905276,0666,625,7445,984,185641,559259,0818,662,023
1906298,7467,907,1556,907,1041,000,051291,1929,953,266
1907319,7739,351,6648,125,1231,226,541343,42411,523,231
1908342,0779,674,0759,417,820256,255379,80812,159,294
1909359,7149,611,1209,499,320111,800395,80412,666,898
1910380,58510,708,9399,695,5151,013,424424,66814,104,990
1911405,56611,627,30810,662,046965,322472,87515,543,187
1912432,19911,725,18311,449,711275,472511,59916,330,257
1913453,59411,286,70211,041,454245,248555,90817,131,414
1914483,26211,904,32310,603,0181,301,305615,31019,048,029
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1916538,07215,576,40812,957,4202,618,988817,85625,603,209
1917506,35117,106,52914,461,1692,645,360947,82129,196,390
1918590,20518,101,10514,938,8423,162,2631,059,47233,418,125
1919630,78329,758,44725,962,3773,796,0701,178,93538,393,130
1920*664,81944,302,85241,162,4863,140,3661,818,53543,352,031
1921678,93029,125,99730,236,231-110,2341,599,90743,841,704
1922690,79026,682,42727,769,263-1,086,8361,605,52544,360,393
1923710,15729,598,37229,510,32188,0511,649,97646,098,421
1924735,14829,582,89730,413,609-830,7121,680,92040,948,628
1925758,15531,833,62232,602,506768,8841,731,57847,911,322
1926783,82729,456,38330,149,629-693,2461,767,42648,985,502
1927804,72527,611,06630,584,997-973,9311,747,15647,758,726
1928828,29627,252,38128,111,940-859,5591,745,05048,644,217
1929852,75728,561,85429,575,994-1,014,1401,806,41449,436,491
1930878,04324,531,56928,063,338-3,531,7691,763,82547,668,547
1931877,09019,463,98525,188,081-6,024,0961,611,04843,255,499
POSTAL
Year.Letters posted and delivered.Newspapers posted and delivered.Money-orders issued.Postal Notes issued.‡Postal Revenue.‡
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.

*Received and despatched.

†Counted once only.

‡Year ended 31st March following.

    £ ££
188125,557,931*12,248,043*135,556452,182....156,579
188230,525,579*13,313,099*148,162499,368....168,325
188333,588,408*13,030,563*172,556541,133....172,665
188435,257,846*14,093,742*186,052572,666....188,772
188535,829,855*14,233,878*188,622581,39516,4426,771197,456
188638,084,592*14,324,047*155,680547,75592,54637,019206,029
188739,377,774*15,381,323*159,579555,744122,25546,973213,355
188840,398,020*16,202,849*162,387555,996149,87955,785212,247
188942,301,233*16,721,016*172,076589,545175,02364,244222,978
189043,917,200*17,912,734*176,427602,077189,91568,395229,867
189147,612,864*18,501,912*195,239651,990220,68377,808245,395
189250,610,742*18,557,565*199,438694,847247,90286,176252,494
189352,085,449*19,556,030*210,957750,929285,38999,073253,457
189452,168,336*19,271,590*222,678776,783319,368110,142254,800
189529,586,94912,675,973243,497812,604349,627120,957242,615
189630,442,05313,216,521269,566902,160376,796126,448262,482
189733,030,09514,261,345293,659970,831409,866131,643272,163
189835,654,94715,095,487318,3701,029,241431,449137,085304,947
189938,484,37115,717,388344,6641,118,808461,447144,631325,301
190039,898,47917,045,715369,8341,214,853490,506151,180316,858
190152,567,56018,973,632405,9671,286,508556,316169,527281,097
190257,714,63118,517,276367,2071,277,059616,264187,709302,604
190361,687,45719,696,434396,3121,416,225707,044215,275343,207
190466,501,43421,500,744407,7831,476,887785,347244,719383,243
190571,116,26123,626,362417,4411,541,712875,324270,300410,967
190679,084,56623,716,431439,0201,686,231981,642307,323438,729
1907159,680,65438,862,863441,4871,773,5911,092,631340,436478,388
1908175,440,11141,358,913488,0842,050,6841,222,280383,472544,642
1909186,926,33742,561,641538,7402,307,5931,414,752441,099566,990
1910196,768,96842,305,554569,6572,457,5231,666,959517,315603,150
1911205,450,62743,801,719607,7642,759,3931,821,566566,650613,252
1912214,184,11943,460,016666,4253,231,3501,970,643627,443644,637
1913223,961,20043,572,759690,7453,357,7742,238,842711,518695,136
1914233,901,32043,779,983691,5183,427,5052,314,327714,683698,898
1915242,547,85941,311,535664,8603,471,8182,370,079712,753858,583
1916242,121,36141,807,999669,3553,607,0872,286,463685,708964,793
1917245,796,94540,366,792642,6833,476,6452,166,597628,920976,027
1918242,527,36935,476,212638,5003,649,3712,091,051610,591983,585
1919247,143,18335,498,263690,2914,604,0592,197,520646,4111,068,489
1920259,743,23437,859,247699,6745,276,7762,280,219691,2011,352,677
1921253,767,13138,680,982669,3834,850,8202,377,622723,2541,499,304
1922239,997,08135,635,219659,9434,278,5292,434,506730,2321,378,421
1923252,021,95938,138,697684,9794,390,1592,652,777786,1461,146,588
1924272,311,92541,602,497731,5114,692,9292,846,333840,5591,257,942
1925294,630,76044,717,406766,6894,977,2303,040,722902,1191,320,277
1926298,617,08945,364,274793,1105,033,1273,329,638965,2701,400,886
1927297,478,29447,089,652803,5354,995,0903,614,2171,015,2131,439,587
1928298,548,36448,257,194807,8854,977,5223,575,9841,057,6241,441,794
1929309,162,10348,658,470835,3585,187,5533,816,6351,123,4461,498,684
1930313,148,05847,644,098833,5055,069,6293,907,2881,128,8071,582,550
1931263,633,95239,454,971714,4783,993,0352,884,654952,4441,744,553
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS.
Year ended 31st March.,Miles Open for Traffic.Capital Cost of Open Lines.Train-mileage.Passengers carried, excluding Season-ticket Holders.Goods and Live-stock.Revenue.Expenditure.

*Equivalent tonnage of live-stock.

† From 1925-26, figures relate to railway operation only.

‡ Capital written down by £10,400,000.

  £ Tons.££ 
18821,3339,443,0002,502,8042,911,4771,460,145892,026523,099
18831,37110,478,9972,785,6853,283,3781,590,989953,347592,821
18841,40411,251,6332,841,7453,272,6441,726,471961,304655,990
18851,47911,810,1942,882,4223,232,8861,778,1401,045,712690,026
18861,61312,472,8143,020,5503,362,2661,856,7331,047,418690,340
18871,72113,017,5673,008,9493,426,4031,783,524998,768699,072
18881,75313,352,9782,944,7863,451,8501,770,638994,843687,328
18891,77713,472,8372,796,0073,132,8031,954,126997,615647,045
18901,80913,899,9552,868,2033,376,4592,112,7341,095,569682,787
18911,84214,278,5862,894,7763,433,6292,134,0231,121,701700,703
18921,86914,656,6913,010,4893,555,7642,122,9871,115,432706,517
18931,88614,733,1203,002,1743,759,0442,258,2351,181,522732,142
18941,94815,137,0363,113,2313,972,7012,128,7091,172,792735,359
18951,99315,352,6133,221,6203,905,5782,123,3431,150,851732,160
18962,01415,425,5323,307,2264,162,4262,175,9431,183,041751,368
18972,01815,577,3923,409,2184,439,3872,401,1271,286,158789,054
18982,05515,993,9933,666,4834,672,2642,628,7461,376,008857,191
18992,09010,404,0763,968,7084,955,5532,744,4411,469,665929,737
19002,10416,703,8874,187,8935,468,2843,251,7161,623,8911,052,358
19012,21217,207,3284,620,9716,243,5933,461,3311,727,2361,127,848
19022,23518,170,7225,066,3607,350,1363,667,0391,874,5861,252,237
19032,29119,081,7355,443,3337,575,3903,918,2611,974,0381,343,415
19042,32820,692,9115,685,3998,306,3834,259,2172,180,6411,438,724
19052,37421,701,5726,107,0798,514,1124,185,4672,209,23l1,492,900
19062,40722,498,972,6,413,5738,826,3824,415,1662,349,7041,621,239
19072,45823,504,2726,755,4549,600,7864,824,5632,624,6001,812,482
19082,47424,365,6477,051,2749,756,7165,070,1762,761,9381,949,759
19092,67427,762,5927,458,23610,457,1445,135,4082,929,5262,114,815
19102,71728,513,4767,889,16611,141,1425,490,0183,249,7902,169,474
19112,75329,606,5468,141,07511,200,6135,863,6743,494,1822,303,272
19122,79830,506,0898,371,68711,891,1345,887,9083,676,5092,465,896
19132,85131,611,2209,016,22413,123,8796,246,1283,971,0022,705,609
19142,85432,355,0879,319,26813,355,8936,019,6334,043,3282,880,323
19152,94534,133,8259,383,42013,565,7726,453,4724,105,4572,920,455
19162,96034,857,8829,356,52214,201,5066,370,9454,548,3562,910,883
19172,96035,378,6649,146,33114,173,1156,239,1734,800,8102,920,864
19182,98336,001,4327,468,64611,408,1565,742,9684,087,7003,042,907
19192,98336,107,6817,477,58311,374,5215,611,7384,988,0323,308,575
19202,99636,390,1157,408,60812,760,8146,000,2795,752,4874,105,067
19213,00037,235,2549,303,39215,315,6406,487,2796,908,5315,636,601
19223,02139,309,0978,717,26514,262,4406,321,3516,643,5916,237,727
19233,02840,275,1618,346,73114,256,6106,618,5886,727,8025,502,497
19243,05341,399,4279,024,50313,836,3116,925,5176,984,2115,403,706
19253,08544,570,7469,083,62312,424,0127,033,4597,112,5245,545,416
19263,13847,608,67610,319,40711,813,4807,256,1427,589,2746,104,570
19273,10449,183,91610,723,86410,305,0657,308,4497,423,4726,158,283
19283,18051,187,37610,838,5949,299,1577,366,7627,343,8456,302,119
19293,28756,568,59811,113,4829,074,9937,622,6317,524,8646,374,579
19303,28757,787,67112,022,0438,498,4417,799,7027,473,9936,848,026
19313,32260,545,15411,281,8987,288,6746,966,3296,781,3886,406,143
19323,31551,424,88310,168,7206,528,4295,831,9205,788,9655,301,653
BANKRUPTCY.
Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amount realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amount paid in Dividends Claims.
* Not available
  ££££
18811,412717,381***
18821,333803,072***
18831,6561,320,943***
1884846801,150112,539481,22244,188
1885984297,306109,862332,88794,188
18861,089415,953128,370566,291102,966
18871,036311,745135,633503,759109,255
1888881252,32298,213571,74179,843
1889724441,874187,048755,16595,032
1890652262,733112,951381,124122,270
1891605141,97184,341302,71272,572
1892507122,05066,497238,95343,662
1893484111,48368,844404,27437,721
1894626187,78585,538310,07870,889
1895485133,60388,684239,56270,018
1896412115,45571,712256,87037,492
189741973,46640,942133,34545,015
189840790,06845,474285,15530,994
189938959,43534,269158,93230,084
190030477,68953,415141,80037,411
190122258,65849,78184,45230,358
190220561,60439,386110,99529,406
190320440,76723,76188,01917,818
190425780,09443,514125,39228,103
1905304100,81347,798146,33228,150
1906347106,37050,761192,92735,448
190735077,69859,849158,66342,459
1908406200,44707,018199,05947,800
1909471204,18771,351259,01744,110
1910393127,63479,100176,00147,796
191134488,59240,009133,51728,757
191231264,39839,965120,32526,825
1913343155,58242,735228,82925,813
1914391174,41064,153199,25133,910
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
1916304123,44156,416172,77429,223
1917265138,69663,645178,24427,405
191816450,35667,72988,60733,176
191914143,62754,66259,76724,980
192014544,02647,89777,75245,227
1921336362,60178,271558,50438,646
1922690344,801126,145834,35663,009
1923674308,073124,641668,92565,667
1924670279,602118,641703,99574.878
1925653235,37798,648471,62880,187
1926752236,915102,899585,68771,515
1927867331,363108,850679,47372,388
1928806236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,65591,180502,11254,759
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,011
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18703,185

Chapter 46. APPENDICES.

(a) LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

POPULATION:—MalesFemalesTotal.
Estimated (inclusive of Maoris but exclusive of residents of Cook and other Pacific islands) at 30th September, 1932778,673748,3941,527,067
MIGRATION:—Males.Females.Total.
Arrivals (excluding crews), ten months, 19327,2626,42713,689
Departures (excluding crews), ten months, 193210,0108,27418,284
VITAL STATISTICS:—Males.Females.Total.
Births, nine months, 19329,6769,07418,750
Deaths, nine months, 19324,9124,0989,010
Corresponding yearly rates per 1,000Births, 17.20;deaths, 8.26 
EXPORTS:—£  
Total for ten months, 1932....31,087,830
Total, New Zealand produce, ten months, 1932....29,281,697
Principal items (New Zealand produce)Quantity.Value. £ 
Buttercwt.1,595,6167,967,673
Cheesecwt.1,319,1913,668,880
Beef, frozencwt.411,548339,832
Lamb, whole carcasses, frozencwt.2,375,8285,728,735
Mutton, whole carcasses, frozencwt.1,295,4371,417,474
Pork, frozencwt.115,731226,390
Veal, frozencwt.75,83986,406
Sausage-casingslb.3,511,273250,526
Milk, driedlb.9,772,960161,042
Appleslb.60,424,328754,998
Hides, cattle and horsenumber253,031161,551
Sheep-skins, with woolnumber1,230,737110,923
Sheep-skins, without woolnumber11,265,989513,819
Woolbales626,2015,187,262
Phormium-fibretons2,67834,906
Grass-seedcwt.27,63374,522
Tallowtons22,67S411,818
Coaltons28,48047,332
Kauri-gumtons1,78953,665
Goldoz.166,367889,113
Timbersup. ft.22,957,500212,690
IMPORTS:—Value £  
Total for ten months, 1932....18,913,231
Principal imports—   
Raisins....209,449
Sugar....477,967
Tea....314,090
Whisky....222,711
Cigarettes....121,644
Tobacco....324,855
Hosiery....278,538
Apparel....897,032
Boots, shoes, and slippers....373,642
Drapery n.e.i.....234,475
Carpeting, matting, and oilcloth....184,154
Cotton piece-goods....1,193,003
Silk, satin, and velvet piece-goods....605,964
Woollen piece-goods....377,747
Motor-spirits n.e.i.....870,723
Crude residual oil....285,916

Coal

....94,894
Paints, colours, and varnishes....149,681
Iron and steel-Galvanized plate and sheet....142,905
Iron and steel-Tubes, pipes, and fitting....173,388
Hardware and metal manufactures n.e.i.....238,297
Electrical machinery and equipment....526,884
Telephones and accessories....218,767
Timber....67,603
Paper, printing....353,350
Paper, other....324,875
Books, papers, and music, printed....254,597
Fancy goods....103,097
Medicinal preparations n.e.i.....198,972
Phosphates....347,102
Motor-vehicles....387,707
Rubber-tires, &c., for motor-vehicles....481,802
SHIPPING, OVERSEAS:-Number.Tonnage. 
Inwards, ten months, 1932..4831,960,361
Outwards, ten months, 1932..4921,971,174
RAILWAYS:-£   
Operating revenue. 1st April to 15th October, 1932....2,671.119
Operating expenditure, 1st April to 15th October, 1932....2,611,025
AGRICULTURE:—   
Number of holdings, 1931-32....82,968
Total area occupied, 1931-32..acres42,728,749
Total area in cultivation, 1931-32..acres18,849,601
Total area under crop, 1931-32..acres1,959,689
Total area top-dressed, 1931-32..acres2,454,321
Principal crops, 1931-32-Acres.Yield.Yield Per Acre.
Wheat (for threshing)268,7566,582,69824.49
Oats (for threshing)68,6902,818,15241.03
Barley (for threshing)18,245537,39829.45
Maize (for threshing)5,965258,61243.35
Peas (for threshing)14,701309,38321.05
Linseed (for threshing)1,76512,7577.23
Tobacco1,72611,7736.82
Onions8747,097 tons8.12 tons
Potatoes23,786116,743 tons4.91 tons
Turnips and rape63,573  
Mangolds9,824  
Total, grain and pulse crops700,572  
For threshing378,781  
For hay, ensilage, &c.321,791  
Total, green and root crops721,375  
Total, grasses, clovers, and lucerne537,742  
Cut for seed73,582  
Cut for bay, ensilage, &c.464,160  
Areas sown or intended to be sown, season1932-33-Acres. 
Wheat....294,000
Oats....407,000
Barley....19,000
Potatoes....21,300
LIVE-STOCK, 1931-32:-Number.  
Horses....280,994
Dairy cows....1,702,070
Cattle (including dairy cows)....4,072,383
Sheep (at 30th April)....28,691,788
Sheep shorn....26,205,019
Lambs shorn....2,542,470
Lambs tailed....14,974,991
Pigs....513,416

MORTGAGES:-

Number.Amount. £ 
Registered, seven months ended October, 1932..8,9226,304,422
Discharged, seven months ended October, 1932..7,2755,436,027
LAND TRANSFERS:—   
Registrations, seven months ended October, 1932-Number.Consideration. £ 
Town and suburban properties..6,5513,021,297
Country properties..2,9994,558,139
Total..9,5507,579,436
PENSIONS:-Number.Annual Value. £ 
Old-age, October, 1932..33,8471,275,750
Widows', October, 1932..4,728312,166
Military (Maori War), October, 1932..1165,684
War, October, 1932..21,0611,214,167
Miners', October, 1932..90360,715
Epidemic, October, 1932..1044,215
Blind, October, 1932..38918,563
Family allowances, October, 1932..9,400130,268
BANKRUPTCY:—   
Persons, &c., adjudged bankrupt, ten months endedNorth island.south islandTotal.
October, 1932397149546
Deeds of assignment, ten months ended October,   
193213868206
STATE ADVANCES (LOANS AUTHORIZED):-NumberAmount. £ 
To settlers, six months ended September, 1932..229197,195
To workers, six months ended September, 1932..7865,465
ESTATES CERTIFIED FOR STAMP DUTY:-£  
Ten months ended October, 1932..4,30511,531,974
CONSOLIDATED FUND:-£  
Receipts, six months ended September, 1932....7,317,231
Expenditure, six months ended September, 1932....9,534,570
EXPORT PRICES:—   
General index number (base: 1909-13 == 1,000), October, 1932..900 
WHOLESALE PRICES:—   
General index number (base: 1909-13 == 1,000), September, 1932..1,302 
RETAIL PRICES, ALL GROUPS:—   
Dominion index number (base: 1926-30 ==1,000), October, 1932..823 
SHARE PRICES:—   
All Groups (base: 1926 == 1,000), October, 1932....745
WAGE RATES:—   
Dominion index number (base: Year, 1914 == 1,000), September quarter, 1932:—   
Nominal....1,397
Effective....1,069
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES:—   
Number reported during nine months ended September, 1932....17
Number of workers affected....8,297
Approximate loss in wages....£65,077
UNEMPLOYMENT:—   
Numbers on register, 12th November, 1932....53,464

(b) PRINCIPAL EVENTS.

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

1642. Discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769. Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1769. Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1788. Discovery of Macaulay and Curtis Islands (Kermadec Group), and of Bounty Islands.

1791. Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792. First sealing gang loft on New Zealand coast.

1793. Discovery of Raoul or Sunday Island (Kermadec Group). Visit of Lieutenant Governor King, of Norfolk Island, to Doubtless Bay.

1800. Discovery of Antipodes Islands.

1806. Discovery of Auckland Islands.

1807. Defeat of Hongi and the Ngapuhi Tribe.

1810. Discovery of Campbell Island.

1814. Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1818. Hongi's and Te Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.

1819-20. Raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson by Patuone, Nene, and To Rauparaha.

1820. Hongi's visit to England. Rev. S. Marsden travelled from Waitemata, via Kaipara, to Bay of Islands—the first white man to do so. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.

1821. Hongi's capture of Mauinaina and Te Totara Pas. Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki.

1822. Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.

1823. Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, to Hongi.

1823-28. Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1824. Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa to Pomare.

1825. First attempt at colonization, by an expedition under Captain Herd. Great defeat of Ngati-Whatau by Hongi.

1827. Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa. 1828. Death of Hongi.

1829. Brig “Hawes” captured by Maoris.

1830. Battles of Taumata-wiwi and Kororareka. Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury, to Te Rauparaha.

1831. Tory Channel whaling-station established. Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William IV. Capture of Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, by Waikato.

1832. Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa.

1833. Mr. Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834. Bishop Williams' first visit to East Cape. Battle near Otaki. Waimate Pa shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which II.M. troops employed in New Zealand.

1835. Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand.” Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1844. Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845. Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846. Arrival of first steam vessel (H.M.S. “Driver”) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Native hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Minister and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847. Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848. Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Severe earthquake at, Wellington. Otago founded.

1850. Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852. Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854. Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855. First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856. Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857. Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858. New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.

1859. Establishment of Marlborough Province.

1860. Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861. Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862. Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s.” White Swan,” with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863. Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus” on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Native affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand opened.

1864. Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including Battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. Gold discovered on west coast of South Island.

1865. Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Natives defeated at Wairoa.

1866. Further defeats of rebel Natives. Commencement of Panama steam mail-service. Cook Strait submarine telegraph-cable laid.

1867. Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868. Maori prisoners, under leadership of To Kooti, seized schooner “Rifleman” and c 'caped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans and were engaged in a series of fights with European forces and friendly Natives. Considerable fighting also with other rebel Natives.

1869. Continual.' m of fighting with rebels and of pursuit after Te Kooti. Termination of Panama mail-service. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870. Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail-service. Bounty Island taken possession of. Inauguration of Vogel public-works policy. Act. passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.

1871. Commencement of railway-construction under public-works policy.

1872. Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873. Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Company.

1874.In pursuance of immigration and public-works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants introduced. Westland Province established.

1875. Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

1876. New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877. Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education.

1879. Trouble with Parihaka Natives, under Te Whiti, and imprisonment of 180 of these. Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata Coal-mine explosion, whereby thirty-four lives lost.

1880. Release of Parihaka prisoners.

1881. Wreck of s.s. “Tararua,” with loss of 130 lives. Severe earthquakes in Wellington. Arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu.

1882. First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883. Amnesty to Maori political offenders proclaimed. Te Whiti and Tohu released. Direct steam communication inaugurated bet ween New Zealand and England.

1885. New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886. Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887. Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris. Australian Naval Defence Act passed, providing for additional naval force on the Australian Station.

1888. British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889. South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890. Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one man-one-vote principle.

1891. Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr. Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.

1892. Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure..

1893. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act pass a. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa,” with loss of 135 lives. First ascent of Mount Cook.

1895. Government assumed management of Midland Railway

1896. Brunner Mine explosion, causing sixty-seven deaths. Abolition of nonresidential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898. Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899. Labour Day instituted. New Zealand Contingent (the first of ten) sent to South Africa.

1900. Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to seventy-six.

1901. T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Universal penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902. Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. “Elingamite” with loss of forty-three lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London, at which New Zealand was represented by Right Hon. R. J. Seddon.

1903. Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1904. New Zealand rifle team competed at Bisley, and won Kolapore Cup.

1905. Workers” Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner.” “All Black” Rugby football team visited United Kingdom.

1906. Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Government Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

1907. New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908. Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington Manawatu Railway purchased by Government. American Fleet visited Auckland. New Zealand's subsidy to British Navy increased to £100,000 per annum. Second Ballot Act passed.

1909.S.s. “Penguin” wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of seventy-five lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910. Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener's visit to New Zealand to report and advise on defences. Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911. Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows” Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912. Foundation-stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913. Visit of Dominions Royal Commission. Visit of gift ship H.M.S. “New Zealand” to Dominion. Aeroplane presented to New Zealand as nucleus of proposed air fleet. Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.

1914. Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal-mine disaster, whereby forty-three lives lost.

1915. New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled.

1916. New Zealand Division transferred to western front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1916.S.s. “Wimmera” sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast. Otira Tunnel pierced. Great influenza epidemic, causing over five thousand deaths.

1919. Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P C., Prime Minister.

1920. Visit of H.R.II. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921. Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington, by Hon. Sir John Salmond.

1922. Meat-export trade placed under control of a Board.

1923. Opening of Arthur's Pass tunnel, Ross Dependency proclaimed and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General of New Zealand. Reintroduction of penny postage. Dairy-produce Export Control Act passed, and adopted by dairy producers.

1924.“All Black” Rugby football team visited Great Britain and Ireland. Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected between New Zealand and England. Motor-vehicles Act passed, providing for registration and annual licensing of motor-vehicles. Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act passed.

1925. Social Hygiene Regulations made, to provide means of coping with spread of venereal disease. Repayment of the Public Debt Act passed. New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin.

1926. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand. Webster claims against New Zealand finally rejected. Absolute control adopted by-Dairy-produce Control Board. Family Allowances Act passed.

1927. Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. New Zealand cricket team toured England. Summer Time Act passed. Limited control substituted for absolute control by Dairy-produce Control Board. Petrol-tax imposed.

1928. National Industrial Conference held. Loss of Moncrieff and Hood in attempt to fly across Tasman. Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman in monoplane “Southern Cross” “All Black” Rugby football team visited south Africa. Mandates Commission of League of Nations vindicated actions of Samoan administration. Compulsory insurance of motor-vehicles provided for by Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act. Commander Byrd's Antarctic Expedition arrived, en route for Ross Sea. Coates Ministry defeated, and succeeded by United Ministry under Right Hon. Sir J. G. Ward.

1929. Severe earthquakes at Arthur's Pass (March), in Rangitikei (May), and in Murchison-Karamea district (June), the last mentioned causing seventeen deaths. Report by three officers of New Zealand Government on Samoan finances, public service, &c. Daylight saving (half-hour) permanently adopted for summer months. Visit of English cricket team. Fatal clash between police and Mau at Apia.

1930. Five lives lost in blizzard on Tasman Glacier. Resignation of Sir Joseph Ward,

1931. First solo trans-Tasman flight. Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of at least 251 lives. New Zealand cricket team visits England. Special session of Parliament. Quinquennial population census and triennial licensing poll postponed. General reduction of 10 per cent, in wages and salaries. Railways transferred to control of Board. Unemployment reaches unprecedented levels, and legislation imposes a tax on wages, salary, and other income to augment Unemployment Fund. Resolution by Parliament approving draft Statute of Westminster. Penny postage discontinued. Coalition Government formed. Graduated land-tax replaced by income-tax. Mortgagors Relief Act and amendment thereto passed. M.V. Kotiti foundered with loss of 7 lives. Arrival of Wellington floating-dock.

1932. Principal broadcasting stations taken over by New Zealand Broadcasting Board. System of export-licenses operates for first six months of year. National Expenditure Commission appointed. Special session of Parliament. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act makes important changes in industrial legislation. Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act extends principles of relief. National Expenditure Adjustment Act makes reductions in o!d-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rent, interest rates, and other fixed charges. Arapuni electric-power works resume functioning. The historic Waitangi estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. Canadian Trade Agreement ratified. Penny postage reinstated. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference. Severe earthquakes at Wairoa and Gisborne. Stratford -Main Trunk railway opened.

(c) BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following list, by Mr. Johannes C. Andersen, F.N.Z. Inst. (Librarian of the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington), contains the names of some of the principal works dealing with New Zealand, Samoa, and the Cook Islands published during the last twenty years.

Considerations of space preclude the inclusion of a complete list and make it necessary in this issue to omit works which have not been published or republished since 1912. Earlier works are listed in the 1932 number of the Year-Book.

New Zealand.

1912. The Geology of New Zealand. By P. Marshall, D.Sc., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Wellington—Government Printer.

1913. New Zealand: its History, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. By S. Playne. London.

1913. Social Welfare in New Zealand. By H. H. Lusk. London.

1913. The Lore of the Whare Wananga. Third Volume of Memoirs of Polynesian Society. On Maori Religion, Myths, Cosmogony, &c. (Part 2, 1915.)

1914. The Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand. By J. Hight, Litt.D., and H. D. Bamford, LL.D. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1914. The Treaty of Waitangi. By T. Lindsay Buick. Wellington—S. and W. Mackay.

1914. Oxford Survey of the British Empire. Vol. 5. Australasian Territories. London.

1914. Early Rangitikei. By Sir James G. Wilson, Kt. Christchurch Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1914. Mutton Birds and Other Birds. By H. Guthrie—Smith. Christchurch Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1916. Jubilee History of South Canterbury. By Johannes C. Andersen. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1916. The “Socialism” of New Zealand. By R. H. Hutchinson. New York—New Review Publishing Association.

1917. A National History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Adjacent Islands. By R. P. Thomson. London.

1917. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. By Herbert L. Williams. Wellington— Government Printer.

1921. Maori and Pakeha: a History of New Zealand. By A. \V. Shrimpton, M.A., and A. E. Mulgan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd. (second edition, 1930).

1921. Hawaiki: the Whence of the Maori. By S. Percy Smith. Christchurch— Whitcombe and Tombs. (Ed. 1, 1898; ed. 2, 1004'; ed. 3, 1910.)

1921. The Hot Springs of New Zealand. By Arthur Stanley Herbert, M.'D. London— H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd.

1921. Tutira: the Story of a New Zealand Sheep-station. By H. Guthrie—Smith. London—Blackwood and Sons.

1922. The Naturalization of Animals and Plants in New Zealand. By Hon. George M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.N.Z. Inst., M.L.C. Cambridge University Press.

1922. The Geomorphology of New Zealand. By C. A. Cotton, D.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z. Inst. Wellington—Government Printer.

1922. Maori Myth and Religion. Spiritual and Mental Concepts of the Maori. Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori. Maori Division of Time. By Elsdon Best, F.N.Z. Inst. Dominion Museum Monographs 1—4. Wellington—Government Printer.

1922. The New Zealand Wars: a History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol. 1. 1845—04. By James Cowan. Wellington—Government Printer. Vol. 2, 1804—72, issued 1923.

1922. Medical Practice in Otago and Southland in the Early Days. By Robert Valpy Fulton, M.D. Edin. Dunedin—Otago Daily Times.

1923. The Waikato War, together with some Account of Te Kooti Rikirangi. By John Featon (new edition revised by Captain Mair). Auckland—Brett Printing and Publishing Co.

1923. The Animals of New Zealand. Fourth edition. By Captain F. W. Hutton and James Drummond. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs. (Ed. 1, 1904; ed. 2, 1905; ed. 3, 1909.)

1923. Polynesian Voyagers. Maori Schools of Learning. (Dominion Museum Bulletins No. 5 and G.) By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Printer.

1923. Cultivation of New Zealand Plants. By L. Cockayne. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1924. Dominion Civics. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1924. The Maori. By Elsdon Best. Published by the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. 2 vols. Wellington—H. Tombs.

1924. Maori Religion and Mythology. (Dominion Museum" Bulletin No. 10.) By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Printer.

1924. The Lone White Cloud (Aotearoa). By W. P. Reeves. Third edition (to which is added a sketch of recent events in New Zealand by C. J. Wray). London— Allen and Unwin. (First edition in 1898.)

1924. White Wings (on early shipping). By H. Brett. (Vol. 2, 1928.) Auckland— Brett Co.

1925. The Maori as He Was. By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Printer.

1925. Bird Life on Island and Shore. By H. Guthrie — Smith. Edinburgh — Win. Blackwood and Sons.

1925. Bibliography of Australasian Poetry and Verse. By P. Serle. Melbourne University Press.

1925. Fungous Diseases of Fruit—trees in New Zealand. By G. H. Cunningham. Auckland—New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation.

1925. The Maori Canoe. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 7.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Government Printer.

1925. Games and Pastimes of the Maori. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 8.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Maori Agriculture. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 9.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Land Legislation and Settlement in New Zealand. By W. R. Jourdain. Wellington—Lands and Survey Department.

1925. Manual of New Zealand Flora. Second edition. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.N.Z. Inst. Edited by W. R. B. Oliver. Wellington Government Printer. (First edition, 1906.)

1925. New Zealand Birds and how to identify them. By Mrs. P. Moncrief Auckland —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Short History of New Zealand. By J. B. Condliffe. Christchurch—L. M. Isitt.

1926. Geography of the Pacific. By Miss N. E. Goad. Wellington—New Zealand Book Depot.

1926. History of the Pacific. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington—New Zealand Book Depot.

1926. New Zealand: its Political Connection with Great Britain. Vol. 1. By J. I. Hetherington. Vol. 2, 1927. Dunedin—Coulls, Somerville, Wilkie, Ltd.

1926. Treasury of New Zealand Verse: New Edition of New Zealand Verse. By W. F. Alexander and A. E. Currie. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. New Zealand's First War. By T. Lindsay Buick. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Government Printer.

1926. Bird-song and New Zealand Song-birds. By J. C. Andersen. Christchurch— Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. Travel in New Zealand. 2 vols. By James Cowan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. The Insects of Australia and New Zealand. By R. J. Tillyard. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1926. Tales of the Angler's Eldorado, New Zealand. By Zane Grey. London — Hodder and Stoughton.

1926. England and New Zealand. By J. A. Harrop. London—Methuen and Co., Ltd.

1927. The Pa Maori. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 6.) Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1927. Plants of New Zealand. By II. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd. (First ed., 1906; seconded., 1907.)

1927. Colonization of New Zealand. By J. S. Marais. London Oxford University Press.

1927. New Zealand. By W. P. Reeves. Illustrations by F. and W. Wright. Second edition, with thirty—two illustrations. London — A. and C. Black. (First edition, 1908.)

1927. Place Names of Banks Peninsula. By J. C. Andersen. Published by the Board of Science and Art. Wellington—Government Printer.

1927. Maori String Figures. By J. C. Andersen. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research, Vol. 2. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn.

1927. The Evolution of Maori Clothing. By P. H. Buck. The Board of Maori: Ethnological Research. New Plymouth Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1927. Peoples and Problems of the Pacific. By J. Macmillan Brown. London T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd., Bouverie House, Fleet Street, E.C.

1927. Earliest New Zealand. The Journals and Correspondence of the Rev. John Butler. Compiled by R. J. Barton. Masterton Palamontain and Petherick.

1927. Rod-fishing in New Zealand Waters. By T. E. Donne, C.M.G. With illustrations and map. London—Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd.

1927. Natural History of Canterbury. Issued by the Philosophical Institute of Canter—bury (II. Speight, Arnold Wall, and R. M. Laing, Honorary Editors). Christ—church—Simpson and Williams, Ltd.

1927. New Zealand Plants and their Story. Third edition. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S. Wellington—Government Printer. (First ed., 1910 second ed., 1913.)

1927. Trees from Other Lands for Shelter and Timber in New Zealand Eucalypti. By J. H. Simmonds.. Illustrated with seventy-six botanic plates and twenty-eight scenic plates. Auckland The Brett Printing and Publishing Company.

1928. The Vegetation of New Zealand. Second edition. By Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S.F.N.Z. Inst. Leipzig—W. Engelmann. (First ed., 1921.)

1928. Cheerful Yesterdays. By the Hon. 0. T. J. Alpers. With a Preface by the Earl of Birkenhead, P.C. London—John Murray.

1928. New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. By H. H. Allan, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.N.Z. Inst. Auckland Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1928. A Pioneer Missionary among the Maoris, 1850-1879. Being Letters and Journals of Thomas Samuel Grace. Edited jointly by S. J. Brittan, O. F., C. W., and A. V. Grace. Palmerston North G. H. Bennett and Co., Ltd.

1928. The Amazing Career of Edward Gibbon Wakefield. By A. J. Harrop, M.A. (N.Z.), Ph.D. (Canterbury). With extracts from “A Letter from Sydney” (1829). London George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.

1928. Maori Artistry. By W. Page Rowe.. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. New Plymouth—Thomas Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1928. The Changing Maori. By Felix M. Keesing, M.A. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 4. New Plymouth—Thomas Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1928. Captain Hobson and the New Zealand Company:: A Study in Colonial Administration. By J. C. Beaglehole, M.A. Vol. 13, Nos. 1-3, October, 1927 — April. 1928, Smith College Studies in History, Northampton, Mass.— Department of History of Smith College.

1928. Myths and Legends of the Polynesians. By J. C. Andersen. London Harrap and Co. Ltd.

1928. The French at Akaroa. By T. Lindsay Buick, F.R. Hist.S. Wellington — Government Printer.

1928. Pioneering in Poverty Bay (N'.Z.). By Philip T. Kenway. London John Murray.

1928. The Butterflies and Moths of New Zealand. With fifty-two coloured plates. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z. Inst. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn, Ltd.

1928. Pulping and Paper—making Properties of selected New Zealand woods. By C. E. Curran and others. Wellington—Government Printer.

1929. Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori. By Raymond Firth, M.A. (New Zealand), Ph.D. (London). London—George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.

1929. Young New Zealand. By A. G. Butchers, M.A., M.Ed. (Melb.), LL.B. (N.Z.)— Part 2, Education in New Zealand, 1930.

1929. Early Wellington. Compiled by Louis E. Ward. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1929.Te Hekenga. Early Days in Horowhenua. Being the Reminiscences of Mr. Rod McDonald. Compiled and written by E. O'Donnell. Palmerston North— G. H. Bennett and Co., Ltd.

1929. Edward Gibbon Wakefield. By Irma O'Connor. London Selwyn and Blount.

1929. The New Zealand Nature Book. By W. Martin, B.Sc., F.R.G.S. Vol. 1, The Fauna, Vol. 2, The Flora. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1929. The Pioneer Explorers of New Zealand. By John Rawson Elder, M.A., D.Litt. (Abdn.). London and Glasgow—Blackie and Son, Ltd.

1929. A Great Colonizer: the Rev. Dr. Thomas Burns. By E. N. Merrington. Dunedin The Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Co., Ltd.

1929. Kohikohinga. Reminiscences and Reflections of “Ropata.” By Vernon Roberts Wellington Whitcombe and Tombs.

1930. New Zealand Birds. By W. R. B. Oliver, M.Sc., F.N.Z. Inst., C.F.A.O.U., R.A.O.U. Wellington—Fine Arts (N.Z.), Ltd.

1930. Pictures of Old New Zealand: the Partridge Collection of Maori Paintings by Gottfried Lindauer. Described by James Cowan. Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1930. New Zealand in the Making. By Professor J. B. Condlilfe, D.Sc. London— Allen and Unwin.

1930. Yesterdays in Maoriland: New Zealand in the Eighties. By Andreas Reischek. Translated and edited by H. E. L. Priday. London—Jonathan Cape. (A German edition published in 1924.)

1930. Legends of the Maori. By Sir Maui Pomare, K.B.E., C.M.G., M.D., M.P., and James Cowan. Wellington Fine Arts (N.Z.), Ltd.

1930. The Maori Yesterday and Today. By James Cowan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1930. Old New Zealand. By F. Maning (Pakeha Maori). Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs. (Earlier editions: 1863, Auckland—Creighton and Scales; also London Smith, Elder, and Co.; 1876, 1884, 1887, London—Bentley and Co.: 1000, London Macmillan; 1906, 1912, 1922, Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.)

1930. Early Days in Central Otago. By Robert Gilkison. Dunedin—Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Co., Ltd.

1930. New Zealand Memories. By Brenda Guthrie. London—John Lane.

1930. Tales of the Maori Coast. By James Cowan. New Ply—mouth—Thos. Avery and Sons.

1931. The Mystery of the Moa. By T. Lindsay Buick. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons.

1931. Maori and Education. By Patrick M. Jackson. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn. (A collection of essays by various New Zealand writers, including Elsdon Best, Bishop Williams, Professor Sutherland, and others).

1931. Industrial Situation in New Zealand. By Fortescue W. Rowley, I.S.O. Welling— ton—H. H. Tombs.

1931. Songs from the Forests of Tane. By T. Chamberlin Chamberlin. Wellington-Fine Arts Co.

1931. Illustrated and Priced Catalogue of the Stamps of New Zealand. By Verne, Collins and Co. Christchurch—Simpson and Williams.

1931. Pictures of Old New Zealand. By fames Cowan. Auckland Whitcombe and Tombs.

1931. New Zealand Ferns. By H. B. Dobbie. Wellington—Third ed., Whitcombe and Tombs. (First ed 1880; second ed., 1921)

1931. Old Coaching Days in Otago and Southland. By E. M. Lovell-Smith. Christchurch Lovell-Smith and Venner.

1931. Mining Laws of the British Empire, Vol. 10, New Zealand. London—Imperial Institute.

1931. The New Zealanders in England. By O. S. Hinz. London, Dent.

1932. Pasture Plants and Pastures of New Zealand. By F. W. Hilgendorf. Christchurch Whitcombe and Tombs.

1932. Legends and Mysteries of the Maori. By Chas. A. Wilson. London—Harrap.

1932. Pioneering Days of Southern Maoriland. By M. A. Rugby Pratt. London J. A. Sharp.

1932.Phormiun tenax. By E. H. Atkinson. Wellington—Government Printer.

1932. Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden. By J. R. Elder. Dunedin—Coulls, Somerville, and Co.

1932. Samuel Marsden. By S. M. Johnstone. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1932. Who's Who in New Zealand. By G. H. Scholefield. Ed. 3. (First ed., 190S; second ed., 1924.) Wellington—Rangatira Press.

Samoa.

1918. History of Samoa. By R. M. Watson. Wellington Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1918. Grammar and Vocabulary of the Samoan Language. By H. Neffgen. London Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co.

1925. Handbook of Western Samoa. New Zealand External Affairs Department. Wellington Government Printer.

1926. A New Samoan Grammar. By Spencer Churchward, M.A. Melbourne-Spectator Publishing Company Proprietary, Ltd.

1930. Samoa under the Sailing Gods. By N. A. Rowe. London—Putnam.

1931. Material Culture of Samoa. By Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr. P. H. Buck). Honolulu— Bishop Museum.

Cook Islands.

1916. Rarotongan Records. By Rev. W. W. Gill. (From the Journal of the Polynesian Society). New Plymouth.

1927. Material Culture of the Cook Islands. By Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr. P. H. Buck). Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 2. New Ply—mouth—Avery and Sons.

Ross Dependency.

No book has been written dealing exclusively with the Ross Dependency, but a list of books dealing with this region incidentally may be found in the 1929 number of the Year—Book. A recent book containing a good deal of information regarding the area is “Antarctica — a Treatise on the Southern Continent,” by J. Gordon Hayes: London—The Richards Press, 1928.

(d) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK.

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time In the Year-book of.
Year.Page.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.)1912809
“Britomart,” Mission of, at Akaroa in August, 184019271012
Building—stones1892194
Cancer in New Zealand—a statistical study1926889
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot Estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co—operative system of constructing public works1894234
Education system of New Zealand, the1925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1925835
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Forest&trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Gold—dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship “Amokura”1913942
Hanmer Thermal Springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. “New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Lakes of New Zealand193211
Land and income tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Live&stock production&A review based on standard values and units1929990
Local Government in New Zealand1925845
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &c.1907707
ancient, his clothing1908734
chant (tangi)1907711
colour-sense of the1905637
marriage customs1906638
mythology1900636
neolithic, the1902578
place—names1919736
religion1901530
sociology1903641
songs1908739
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland Railway, the1894386
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mortality rates, New Zealand1927995
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
District, the1899554
Its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand Contingents for South Africa1900449
International Exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress1894377
Rivers of New Zealand19326
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies —  
New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney Pageant, the1901527
Terman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1925823
Thermal-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
Topographical nomenclature of the Maori1919936
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zealand1919860
Waihi Gold-mining Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington-Manawatu Railway, the1895381
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
White Island, a day on1906637

INDEX

A.

Abattoirs, 324, 349, 350, 352.
Absolute Decrees in Divorce, 179.
Accident Funds, 281. 381.
Accident Insurance. 512-515.
State, 515
Accidents—.
Automobile, 122, 199.
Deaths from. 121, 181.
Industrial, 621-630.
Mining, 376, 381.
Railway, 122. 277, 621-629.
Time lost through, 626.
Tramway, 122.
Acclimatization of Fishes, 370.
Accommodation Licenses, 652.
Accounts, Public, 419
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 327-337.
Acreage of Holdings, 306.
Acts passed 1930 and 1931, 653-663.
Actuarial Valuation—
National Provident Fund, 472.
Superannuation Funds, 467, 469, 470.
Ad valorem Duties. 243, 250.
Added Value in Manufacturing, 391, 397
Adjacent Islands, Population of, 74.
Administration, 40-44.
Adoptions, 89.
Adult Suffrage, 43.
Adulteration of Food, 140.
Advances
Bank, 496, 689
Cold Storage, 458.
Development, 314.
Discharged Soldiers, 317.
Fishing Industry Promotion. 458.
Fruit-preserving Industry, 458.
Local Authorities, 457.
Repatriation, 458.
Rural, 454.
Settlers, 451.
Workers, 456.
Aerated-water Factories, 408.
Afforestation, 362-366.
After-lifetime, Average, 105.
Age, Mean—
At Death, 105.
At Marriage, 99.
In Industrial Accidents, 629.
Ages—
Of Divorced Persons. 180
Of Hospital Patients, 131.
Of Industries, 398.
Of Inmates of Benevolent Institutions. 154.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 157.
Of Issue left, 107.
Of Maoris dying, 124.
Of Maoris in Prison, 191.
Of Migrants, 62.
Of Mothers, 85, 88, 90.
Of New Zealand born convicted. 196.
Of Parents, 85, 88, 90.
Of Persons convicted of Drunkenness, 197.
Of Persons dying, 103.
Of Persons married, 98.
Of Prisoners, 191.
Of Public-school Pupils, 164.
Aggregation of Land, 312, 316.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 322-353, 679.
Value of, 649.
Agricultural Bursaries, 176.
Agricultural Colleges, 174.
Agricultural Machinery, 326, 411.
Agricultural Produce exported, 212. 215
Agriculture, 322-337, 679
Board of, 325.
Department of, 324.
Air Force, 202
Air Services, 202, 660.
Aitutaki Island, 665
Alcoholic Liquors—
Consumption of, 198. 650
Sale of, 652.
Ale brewed, 407.
Duty on, 245, 247.
Alienation of Land, 306, 312, 315, 319.
Aliens—
Immigration of, 62.
Naturalization of, 66.
Race, 63.
Status of, 66.
“All Groups” Index Numbers, 575.
Allocation of Public Debt, 442.
Allowances, Family, 465.
Allowances, Sustenance, 598.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 373
Amortization of Debt, 430, 444, 447.
Amusements-tax, 439.
Angora Goats, 338.
Animals, Domestic, 338-353, 680.
Annexed Islands, 1, 664-668.
Annual Value Rating-system, 474.
Annuities, 466, 507.
Ante-natal Clinics, 153.
Anthracite, 375.
Anti-dumping Legislation, 243.
Antipodes Islands, J, 34, 664.
Apia, 670.
Apiaries, Registration of, 353.
Apiculture, 353.
Apolima Island, 669
Appeal Court, 18S
Appellate Court, Native, 320.
Apples, 336.
Exported, 213-230.
Apprentices Act, 59S.
Appropriations, Expenditure under, 424.
Arapuni Power Scheme, 631.
Exported, 213-230.
Arbitration Court, 597.
Area—Of Indigenous Forests, 308, 354.
Of Land Holdings, 306, 540, 553.
Of New Zealand, 1, 305.
Under Crops, 327.
Under Cultivation, 30S.
Army, 201.
Arrested Persons convicted, 185.
Arrivals, 60, 675.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 706.
Art-union Tickets, Duty on, 438, 660.
Assessment of Land and Income Tax, 433,553, 563.
.
Of Land Holdings, 306, 540, 553.
Of New Zealand, 1, 305.
Under Crops, 327.
Under Cultivation, 30S.
Army, 201.
Of Land Holdings, 306, 540, 553.
Of New Zealand, 1, 305.
Under Crops, 327.
Under Cultivation, 30S.
Army, 201.
Asses and Mules, 338.
Assessable Income, 555-562.
Assessment Court, 486.
Assessment of Land and Income Tax, 433, 553, 563.
Assets—
Of Afforestation Companies, 364.
Of Bankrupts, 543, 546, 693.
Of Banks, 495, 689.
Of Building Societies, 530.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 517.
Of Friendly Societies, 526.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 509.
Of Local Bodies, 4S0, 549.
Of Manufacturing Industries, 394.
Of National Provident Fund, 472.
State, 54S.
Assigned Estates, 542-547.
Assisted Immigration. 64.
Associations, Industrial, 602.
Assurance, Life, 504-511.
Asylums, 156-159.
Benevolent and Orphan, 153.
Atafu Island, 2, 674.
Atiu Island, 665.
Atlantic Salmon, 371.
Auckland Islands, 1, 34, 664.
Audit of Expenditure, 419.
Australia and New Zealand—
Bank Deposits in, 49S.
Birth-rates of, 82.
Death-rates of, 106.
Debt of, 450.
Divorce-rates in, 181.
Illegitimacy-rates of, 88.
Live-stock in, 338.
Marriage-rates of, 95.
Public Debt of, 450.
Railway Revenue of, 276.
Reciprocity between, 250, 252.
Sheep in, 338.
Australia and New Zealand—continued.
Trade between, 208, 217-228, 233-241, 252.
Wheat Crop) of, 331.
Australia, Reciprocity with, 250, 252.
Automatic Telephones, 300. Automobile Accidents, 122, 199.
Automobiles, Registrations of, 294.
Aviation, 202.
Avifauna, 36.
Award Rates of Wages, 589, 597.

B.

Backward Children, 173.
Bacon produced, 352, 406, 650.
Balance of Trade, 205, 208, 499.
Balances of Accounts, 420.
Banking, 493-503.
Bank-notes, Issue of, 501.
Tax on, 438.
Bankruptcy, 542-547, 693.
Banks of Issue, 493-502, 689.
Banks, Savings—
Post Office, 502, 690.
Trustee, 503.
Barley, 328.
Barren Land, 306, 308.
Baths, Medicinal, 3.
Beans, 328.
Beds, Hospital, 150.
Beef consumed and exported, 349, 650.
Beer, Consumption of, 198, 650.
Beer Duty, 245, 247.
Beer produced, 407, 650.
Bees, 353.
Benefit Societies, 525.
Benevolent Asylums, 153.
Bertillon Classification of Diseases, 114.
Bibliography, 701.
Birds, Native, 36.
Birthplaces of Persons naturalized, 60.
Births, 78-92. 654, 676.
Biscuit-factories, -407.
Blind, Pensions for the, 464.
Blind, School for the, 174.
Board of School-children, 165.
Boatbuilding-works, 411.
Boats. Fishing, 369.
Boer War, 203.
Pensions, 464.
Boilers, Inspection of, 648.
Bonds, Afforestation, 363.
Boot and Shoe Factories, 409.
Boroughs, 43, 473-485, 688.
Capital and Unimproved Values. 491.
Population of, 71.
Borrowers from Building Societies, 529.
Borrowing-powers of Local Bodies, 474.
Borstal Institutions, 192.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1.
Bounty Islands, 1, 664.
Brass-foundries, 410.
Bread, Law re Sale of, 140.
Bread, Price of, 568, 570.
Breeding-ewes, 339.
Breeds of Cattle, 343.
Breeds of Sheep, 340.
Breweries, 407.
Brickworks, 410.
Brides and Grooms, 96.
Bridges, 296.
Brigades, Fire, 524.
British Nationality, 66.
British Postal Orders, 299.
British Preference, 242, 250.
British Sovereignty, 1, 40.
British Trade Representatives, 53.
Broadcasting, 302, 063.
Budgets, Household, 506.
Building and Construction. 413-418. 011.
Building Costs, 415.
Building Permits, 410.
Building Societies, 528-530.
Buildings, 415, 416.
Building-stones, 378.
Bullion, Exports of. 211-230.
Bullion Production, 373.
Bullion held by Banks. 495, 689.
Bulls, 343.
Bursaries, 170, 175.
Bush, Virgin, Area of, 308, 354.
Business Failures. 542-547.
Business Premises erected. 415. 4Hi.
Butt'.'—
Exported, 213-230, 346, 083.
Factories, 345, 400.
Grading of, 324, 344.
Production of, 345. 406.
Butterfat Yields, 345.
Butterflies, 38.
By-elections, 051.

C.

Cabinet, 41.
Members of, 47.
Cable Tramways, 286.
Cables, Ocean, 303.
Cadets. Senior, 201.
Calf-skins exported, 223.
Call, Deposits at, 497.
Campbell Island. 1, 34. 664.
Canada, Reciprocity with, 254.
Canadian Trade Commissioner, 53.
Cancer, 115, 117, 132.
Candle-factories, 408.
Capital—
Expenditure of Government, 426.
Invested in Electric -power Undertakings, 634, 639.
Invested in Factories, 396.
Invested in Railways, 272, 692.
Invested in Tramways, 285.
Of Banks of Issue, 493.
Of Joint-stock Companies, 645.
Capital Value of Land, 486-492.
Rating on, 474.
Cargo handled at Ports, 256.
Car-miles run by Trams, 281.
Carrots, 333.
Carry-over of Wheat, 330.
Cassiterite, 375.
Casualties in the War, 203.
Casualties, Shipping, 267.
Cattle, 338, 342, 680.
Causes of Death, 114.
Of Infants, 112.
Of Maoris, 124.
Causes of Fires, 522.
Causes of Industrial Accidents, 024.
Causes of Industrial Disputes, 017.
Causes of Insanity, 157.
Cement-works. 410.
Cemeteries. 142.
Census, 55.
Income Statistics, 505.
Unemployment Statistics, 003.
Central Reserve Bank. Proviso re, 501.
Cereals, 329.
Certificated Teachers, 106.
Certificates, Engine-drivers', 048.
Certificates, Marine Officers', 200.
Certificates of Naturalization, 00.
Certificates of Title. 309.
Chaff. 327, 332.
Chaffcutters, 326.
Charges before Magistrates, 182.
Charitable Aid, 148.
Charitable Institutions, 153.
Chatham Islands, 1.
Flora. 34.
Chattel Securities, 661.
Cheese—
Exported, 213-230, 346, 683.
Factories, 345, 400.
Grading of, 324. 344.
Produced, 345. 400.
Chemists, Registration of, 141.
Cheque-paying Banks, 493.
Chewings Fescue, 334. Child Welfare, 172.
Institutions, 173, 195.
Childbirth, Deaths in, 119.
Children adopted, 89.
Children born, Sexes of, 82.
Children, Dependent, Care of, 172.
Children under One Year, Deaths of, 108.
Children's Courts, 172, 194.
Children's Homes, 153, 173. Chinese, 63.
In Samoa, 670.
Chronological List of Events, 097.
Cinematograph Film-lure Tax, 440.
Cinnabar, 375.
Cities, Population of, 09, 71.
Civil Law Cases, 178.
Civil Marriages, 93, 100.
Dissolution of, 180.
Civil Service, 51.
Pensions, 465.
Superannuation, 406.
Claims, Insurance, 504-524.
Clearings, Bank, 498.
Climate, 18-28.
Clinics, Ante-natal, 153.
Clothing-factories, 408.
Clothing-prices, 574.
Clover-seeds, 333.
Exported, 215-227.
Club Charters, 652.
Coachbuilding-works, 411.
Coal exported, 213-220, 372.
Coal used in Factories, 388.
Coalition Ministry, 477.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 381.
Coal-mines Act, 377, 381, 595.
Coal-mining, 375.
Coastal Trade, 250.
Coastal Vessels registered, 260.
Coastwise Shipping, 264.
Cocksfoot, 334.
Coin held by Banks, 495, 689.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 300.
Cold-storage Advances, 458.
Coleridge, bake. Water-power, 031.
Colleges, University, 174.
Collieries, 370.
Colonization, 40.
Commerce, Overseas, 205-259, 081.
Commercial Failures, 542-547.
Committals for Sentence, 183, 180.
Companies, Joint-stock, 645.
In Manufacturing Industries, 396.
Companies, Taxation of, 435, 438, 550.
Compensation to Workers, 513, 596, 022.
Compulsory Education, 1(50.
Compulsory Insurance of Motor-vehicles, 514.
Compulsory Military Training, 202.
Compulsory Reductions in Interest, Rent, Wages, 533, 597, 656.
Compulsory Registration—
Of Electors, 43.
Of Land Titles, 309.
Under Unemployment Act, 59S, 053, 058.
Conciliation Councils, 597.
Condensed-milk Factories, 400.
Conditional Licenses, 052.
Confectionery-factories, 407.
Confinement— Deaths in, 119.
Maternity Hospital Cases, 152.
Conjugal Condition of Persons marrying, 90.
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 179.
Consent to Marriage, 93.
Conservation of Forests, 354.
Consolidated Fund, 422, 086.
Constabulary, 181.
Constitution, 40.
Of Cook Islands, 060.
Of Western Samoa, 009.
Construction and Building, 413-418.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 272, 092.
Construction of Roads, 287-294.
Consuls, Foreign, 53.
Consumption of—
Alcoholic Liquors, 198, 050.
Coal, 376, 388.
Electricity, 280, 410, 031.
Foodstuffs, 050.
Meat, 349, 350,
Consumption of—continued.
Timber, 359.
Wheat, 330.
Contagious Diseases, 136.
Conveyance of Children to School, 165.
Conveyancing, 309.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 186, 67S.
Convictions, Summary, 182, 078.
For Drunkenness, 197.
For Traffic Offences, 199.
Of Juveniles, 194.
Of Maoris, 190.
Of Persons arrested, 185.
Of Women, 195.
Cook and other Pacific Islands, 1, 665.
Bibliography, 705.
Births, 91.
Deaths, 127.
Exports to, 230.
Imports from, 241.
Marriages, 101.
Population, 75, 667.
Radio-stations, 301, 007.
Cook's Visits to New Zealand, 39.
Co-operative Dairy Companies, 345.
Co-operative Public Works, 595.
Copper, 374.
Cordial-factories, 408.
Corn Crops, Acreage and Yield of, 329.
Coroners' Inquests, 181, 054.
Correspondence Classes, 104.
Corriedale Sheep, 339, 340.
Cost of Living, 500-575.
Cost of Railway-construction, 272, 692.
Council, Executive, 41.
Members of, 47.
Council, Legislative, 41.
Members of, 49.
Counties, 44, 473-485, 088.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 490.
Population of, 70.
Country Lands, Mortgages on, 530, 540.
Country Quota, 42.
Coupons, Trading, 661.
courts— Appeal, 188.
Arbitration, 597.
Assessment, 486.
Bankruptcy, 542.
Children's, 172, 194,
Divorce, 179.
Magistrates', 178, 182.
Native Appellate, 320.
Native Land, 319.
Supreme, 178, 185.
Cow-testing, 324, 342.
Creameries. 344.
Cream-separators on Farms, 326.
Credit, Rural Intermediate, 455.
Creditors' Petitions, 542.
Credits-in-aid, 420.
Crematoria, 142.
Crime, Law and, 178-200, 678.
Criminal Cases, 182-188, 078.
Criminals, Habitual, 192.
Crops, 308, 327-337, 679.
Crown Lands, 312-318
Crown Tenants, 315
Cultivation, Area in. 308.
Curriculum, School. 161.
Curtis Islands, 605.
Customary Land, 319.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 242-254.
Cycle-works. 411.

D.

Dairy Industry, 344. Dairying Machinery, 320. 411.
Dairy-produce, 344. Export Control, 340.
Export of, 213-230, 345. Grading of, 324, 344.
Production of, 345, 406.
Retail Prices of, 569.
Danger Island, 1, 666
Dangerous Drugs, 141
Dates of Principal Events, 697.
Dead-births, 89, 113.
Deaf. School for the, 174. Death Duties, 436.
Due to Earthquakes, 17.
From Industrial Accidents, 623.
From Violence, 121, 181. In Hospitals, 130.
Mental Hospitals, 158.
Of Friendly Society Members, 526.
Debentures, Government, 441, 481.
Debenture-tax, 436.
Debtors' Petitions, 542.
Debt of Local Bodies, 450, 474, 481-485,
Debt, Public, 441-450, 685.
Debtors' Petitions, 542.
Deceased, Estates of, 550.
Decrees in Divorce, 179.
Deeds Registration, 309.
Defectives, Mental, 156.
Defence, 201-204.
Deferred-payment Lands, 313, 314, 315.
Deficits, 422. Degrees, University, 177.
Demography, 55-77.
Denominational Schools, 107.
Density of Population, 74.
Dental Treatment of School-children, 144
Dentists, Registration of, 138. Departments, Government, 51.
Dependencies, I, 004-074
Dependent Children, Care of, 172. Deposits, 494-503, 689.
By Insurance Companies, 504, 512, 510.
With Building Societies, 408, 528. With Trading Companies, 498.
W Depreciation Allowance, 435.
Designs, Registration of, 640.
Designs, Registration of, 640.
Destination— Of Emigrants, 62.
Diamond Drills, 380.
Diphtheria, 115, 125, 129, 133.
Diplomas. 177.
In Public Health, 138.
Discharged Mortgages, 534.
Discharged Soldiers—
Financial Assistance for, 317, 458, 056.
Land for, 317.
Pensions for, 462.
Discount Rates, 501.
Discovery of New Zealand, 39.
Diseases, Notification of, 128, 136.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 115.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 131.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 131.
Disputes, Industrial, 615-620.
Dissolution of Marriage, 179, 655.
Dissolution of Parliament, Dates of, 48
Distributing Stations, Electric-supply, 638, 641.
Distribution of— Deaths over Year, 103.
Marriages over Year, 96.
Population, 67-77.
Wealth, 548-554.
District High Schools, 16S.
District Nurses, 153.
Dividend Duty, 439.
Dividends, Bank, 493.
Dividends, Bankrupts', 543, 546, 093.
Divorce, 179, 055.
Divorced Persons re-marrying, 90.
Domestic-science Bursaries, 175.
Domicile of Debt, 444, 484.
Dominion of New Zealand, 1, 41.
Drainage Districts, 473-485.
Dredging, Gold, 373.
Drilling for Oil, 377.
Drills, Prospecting, 380.
Drowning Accidents, 121, 181.
Drugs, Sale of, 140.
Drunkenness, 197.
Ducks, 353.
Dumping, 243.
Dutiable Imports, 242, 248.
Duties— Customs and Excise, 242-254.
Death, 436.
On Lottery Tickets, 438, 660.
On Overseas Passenger-tickets, 438, 660.
Stamp, 438.
Dwellings, 415, 416, 451-458.
Soldiers', 318.
Workers', 456, 595.

E.

Early History, 39.
Earned Income, 559.
Reduced Tax on, 434, 559.
Earthquakes? 11.
Legislation re Relief, 658, 601.
Economic Pensions, 463.
Education, 160-177, (577.
In Cook Islands, (>67.
In Western Samoa. (>70.
Education Endowments, 313.
Education Gazette. 165.
Educational Association Workers', 170.
Effective Wages, 580.
Eggs, 353.
Elections. General, 651.
Electoral Districts, 42.
Electric—
Current, 410. 031-643.
Power Hoards. 473-485, 637, OSS.
Power in Building Industry, 414.
Power in Factories, 3S7.
Power on Farms, 326.
Railway. 268.
Telegraph, 299.
Tramways, 279-286.
Emigration, 00, 675.
Employees—
Afforestation Companies, 365.
Building and Construction, 414, 611.
Electric-supply, 034. 038.
Factory, 385, 402, OIL
Fishing Industry, 309.
Local Body, 614.
Mining, 373. 370. 379.
Postal. 303.
Public Works, 013.
Railway. 277.
Unions of, 599-002.
Wages of. 584-593.
Employers' Liability, 590, 022.
Insurance, 513.
Employment and Unemployment, 603-614.
Employment Bureaux. 004.
Enactments affecting Labour, 584-593.
Enactments of 1930"and 1931. 653-663
Endowments, Education, 313.
Endowments, National, 313. 354.
Engine-drivers' Certificates, 04S.
Engineering-works, 410.
Engines—
Employed in Factories, 387.
Employed on Farms, 326.
Inspection of, 647.
Railway, 209.
Ensilage, 322, 328, 333.
Entertainments-tax, 439.
Entrepot Trade, 227.
Entry, Ports of, 255.
Epidemic Pensions, 404.
Erection of Dwellings, 318, 415, 451-458, 595.
Estate Duty, 436.
Estates—
Acquired for Settlement, 316
Administered by Public Trust Office, 644.
Estates—
Assigned, 542-547.
Passed for Probate, 550.
Ewes, 339.
Examinations—
Chemists, 142.
Education Department, 170.
Engine-drivers. 048. Masseurs, 140.
Masters and Mates, 200.
Mining, 380.
Nurses. Midwives, and Maternity Nurses, 139.
Opticians, 139. Plumbers. 140.
University, 138, 177.
Excess-profits Tax, 433.
Exchange (April, 1932), 583.
Exchange, Effect on Trade Statistics, 205.
Exchange, Expenditure on, 42.
Exchange Pool, 209.
Exchanges, Telephone. 300.
Excise Duties,245, 247.
Taxation by means of. 247. 432.
Excursion Tickets. Railway, 271.
Execution, 181.
Executive Council. 41.
Members of. 47.
Exemptions from Taxation—
Income-tax, 435, 500.
Land-tax, 434, 553.
Ex-nuptial Births, 87.
Exotic Trees, Planting of. 303.
Expectation of Life. 105.
Expeditionary Forces. 203.
Expenditure—
Audit of, 419.
Education. 177.
Electric Power, G30, 640.
Farm. 580.
Hospital, 147.
Household. 500.
Local Body. 479. 687.
Main Highway. 202.
Mental Hospital. 159.
Naval Defence. 204.
Postal, 304.
Public, 419-430, 086.
Railway, 273, 692.
State Forests. 362.
Tramway, 284.
Experimental Farms, 324.
Explorers, 39.
Export Control—
Fruit. 336.
Honey,353.
Kauri-gum. 378.
Meat, 350.
Export Duties, 245, 671.
Export. Licenses, 209.
Export Prices, 228, 570. Of Ports, 256.
External Migration, 60,675.
External Trade. 205-259, 081.
Extra-marital Conceptions, 80.

F.

Factories, 382-412.
Accidents in, 621-030.
Act, 595.
Employees, 385,611
Dairy. 434,406
Fakfaou Island, 2,674 Fallow Land, 308.
Fallow Land, 308.
Family Allowances, 465.
Family Budgets, 566.
Farm Employees, Wages of. 584.
Farm Expenditure, 580.
Farm Holdings,306.
Farm Implements,326
Advances on, 452.
Manufacture of, 411.
Farmers— Advice for, 324.
Advice for, 324.
Financial Assistance to, 415—456.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 523.
Taxation of, 433.
Tree-planting by,366
Farming. 322-353.
Farming Lands, Mortgages on, 540, 553.
Fauna, 35-38.
Feeble-minded, Schools for, 173.
Fellmongering-works, 411.
Female Suffrage, 43.
Fern Lands, 308.
Fertilizer used, 337.
Fibre, Phormium. 335.
Exported, 213-230, 684.
Grading of, 324.
Fidelity-guarantee Insurance, 512.
Fidelity-guarantee, Solicitors, 663.
Film-hire Tax, 440.
Finance, Public, 419-458.
Finances of Local Bodies, 474—185.
Financial Assistance to Soldiers, 317, 458.
Fire Brigades, 524.
Fire Districts, 362, 473-485.
Fire Inquests, 181.
Fire Insurance, 516-524.
State, 524.
Losses, 520.
Fireblight, 337.
Fire-protection in Forests, 362.
Fires on vessels, 267.
First Births, 83. 86, 90.
First Offenders' Probation, 193.
Fish, 37, 367.
Exported, 215, 226, 368.
Fisheries, 367-371.
Fish-hatcheries, 370.
Fishing Industry Advances, 458.
Fishing-boats, 369.
Fixed Deposits, 497.
Flax (Phormium), 308, 335.
Exports, 213-230, 684.
Mills, 409.
Flocks—
Fowls, 352.
Sheep, 840.
Flora, 28-35.
Flotation of Loans, 441.
Flour, customs duty on 243.
Flour-mills, 407.
Flying, 202, 660.
Fodder Crops, 328, 332.
Fog. 24.
Food and Drugs, Sale of. 140.
Food. Retail Prices of, 567-575.
Foodstuffs, Consumption of, 650.
Forbes Ministry, 46.
Foreign Consuls, 53.
Foreign Immigrants, 62.
Foreign Vessels entered and cleared,261.
Foreigners naturalized,66.
Forestation Companies, 363.
Forest-produce exported, 212. 215, 360.
Forestry, 354-366.
Forwarding Trade, 227.
Foster-homes for Children, 173.
Foundries, 410.
Foveaux Strait Oysters, 370.
Fowls, 352.
Fowl-wheat, 331.
Fractions, Totalizator, 439.
Fowl-wheat, 331.
Fractions, Totalizator, 439.
Franchise, 43.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 242, 248.
Free Deposits, 497.
Free Secondary Education, 169.
Free University Education, 175.
Free Deposits, 497.
Freehold, Crown Land made. 315.
Freehold Tenure, 307, 312, 315.
Freezing-works, 406.
Freight—
Carried by Motor-transport, 295.
Carried by Trains, 270.
Train-mileage, 272.
Frequency Rates of Industrial Accidents, 621.
Freshwater Fisheries, 370.
Friendly Societies, 525-527.
Frozen Meat exported, 213-230, 349, 682.
Fruit Export Control, 336.
Fruit Industry, The, 336.
Fruit-preserving—
Advances, 458.
Factories, 407.
Fuel and Light, Retail Prices of, 574.
Funded Debt, 418.
Funds—
Coal-miners' Relief, 381.
Of Banks, 493.
Of Friendly Societies, 526.
Of Native Trust Office, 321.
Of Public Account, 419.
Of Public Trust Office, 644.
Funeral Funds, 527.
Furniture-making Works,412.

G.

Gales, 25.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 189, 678.
Gardens, Acreage in, 335.
Gas-lighting District, 473-485.
Gasworks, 409.
Gauge, Railway, 269.
Geese, 353.
General Assembly, 41.
General Elections, 651.
Generating Stations, 633. 041.
Geodetic Survey, 305.
Geological Survey, 8, 380.
Geology, 8.
Geysers, 3.
Gift Duty, 438.
Glaciers, 2.
Glasshouses, 336.
Goats. 338, 080.
Goitre-prevention. 143.
Gold exported, 211-230. 372, 083.
Duty on, 245.
Goldfields, Subsidized Roads on, 380.
Gold-mining, 373.
Gonorrhoea, 137.
Goods carried on Railways, 270, 002.
Government Departments, 51.
Government Insurance—
Accident, 515.
Fire, 524.
Life, 510.
Government Railways, 208-278, 057.
Superannuation Fund, 469.
Government Roads, 290.
Government, System of, 40.
Government Valuation of Land,480-192.
Governor General, 45.
Powers, Duties, 41.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 324, 344.
Of Fruit, 330.
Of Honey, 353.
Of Phormium-fibre, 324.
Of School-teachers, 161.
Graduated Land-tax, 434.
Grain Crops, 329.
Grain-mills, 407.
Granite, 378.
Grapes, 330.
Grass Lands, 308, 334.
Grass-seed, 333.
Certification of, 324.
Exported, 215-227.
Green Fodder, 332.
Greenstone, 378.
Groceries, Retail Prices of, 568.
Gross Indebtedness, 441, 685.
Grounds for Divorce, 179.
Growth of Population, 50, 79, 81, 675.
Gum, Kauri, 374.
Exported 213-230,372,684

H.

Habitual Criminals, 192.
Habitual Drunkards, 198.
Hail, 24.
Half-castes, 55, 75.
Ham and Bacon Curing, 400.
Harbour Boards, 473-485, 088.
Hardwood Trees, 357.
Hatcheries, Fish, 370.
Hawaiki, 39.
Hay, 327, 332.
Heads of Government Departments, 51.
Health Camps, 143.
Health Public, 130-144.
Herd-book Societies, 342.
Herd-testing, 324, 342.
Hervey Islands, 665.
Hides exported, 213-230.
High Commissioner's Office, 52.
High Schools. 168.
Technical. 171.
Higher Education. 174.
Highway Districts, 44, 289.
Highway Districts, 44, 289.
Hindus, 63.
History, 39, 697.
Hives of Bees, 353.
Hobson's Proclamation, 40.
Hogs, 352.
Holdings—
Occupied, 306.
Value of, 540, 553.
Home Separators, 326.
Homes, Benevolent, 153.
Home-science Bursaries, 175.
Homicide, 121, 181.
Honey, 353.
Export Control, 353.
Hops, 328.
Horahora Electric Supply, 631.
Horse-racing Taxation, 438.
Horses, 351, 680.
Horticultural Station, 324.
Horticulture, 330.
Hosiery-factories, 408.
Hospitals. 129-135, 145-153.
Maternity, 152.
Mental, 156-159.
Private, 151.
Private Mental, 159.
Public, 129-135, 145-153.
St. Helens, 152.
Hot Springs, 3.
Hotels, Licensed, 652.
Hour of Occurrence of Industrial Accidents, 629.
Hours of Labour. 592.
In Factories, 403.
House of Representatives, 42.
Members of. 49.
Household Budgets, 506.
House-rent. 533, 571, 596. Houses, 415. 416, 451-458, 595.
Soldiers, 318.
Husbands' Petitions in Divorce, 180.
Hydraulic Sluicing, 373.
Hydro-electric Power, 631-643.
Hygiene, 136.
Social, 137.

I.

Illegitimacy, 87.
Illegitimacy, 87.
Immigration, GO.
Assisted, 04.
Early immigration, 60.
Restriction, 65, 657
Implements, Farm. 326.
Advances on. 452.
Manufacture of. 411.
. Imports, 231-241, 681
Free and Dutiable. 242, 24, 8.
Of Ports, 255
Improved-farm Settlements, 313.
Improvements. Value of. 486-492.
Incapacity from Industrial Accidents, 621-630.
Incomes, 555-565.
Income-tax. 433. 555-565.
Increase in Population. 56. 79. 81. 675.
Indebtedness of Local Bodies. 450. 481 485. 687.
Indebtedness. Public,441-450,685
Index Numbers-
Birth-rates,80
Export prices,570
Farm Expenditure,580
House-rent,571-575
Marriage-rates,94
Population,77
production,649
prices, New Zealand Manufactures,392.
Ratio of customs Revenue to Imports,247
Retail prices,566-575.
Share Prices
Volume of Exports,228
Wages,584-592.
Wholesale Prices 576
Index of Morality,107.
Indians,63
Indigenous Forest,28-35,354-359.
Individualization of Native Land,319.
Industrial Accidents,621-630
Industrial Associations,602
Industrial conciliation and Arbitration, 597, 599.
Industrial Disputes,615-620.
Industrial Life Insurance,508
Industrial Unions,599-602.
Industries, Manufacturing,382-412
Infancy, Diseases of,111.
Infant Morality, 108, 676.
Maori,126
Infant-life Protection, 109, 174.
Infectious Diseases-
control of, in schools,144.
Hospital cases
Notification of, 128, 136
Injuries in Factories, c., 621-630
Inland Fisheries,370.
Inmates
of Benevolent and orphan Asylums 154.
Of Goals,189
Of Hospitals, 129, 150
Of Mental Hospitals,156.
Inquests, 181, 654
Insanity,156-159.
Insolvency,542-547,693.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools 142
Inspection of Machinery,647.
Instruction, public,160-177,677
Instruments, Registration of,309
Insurance,504-524
Intercensal Estimates, 55, 59,69.
Interest-
Credited by savings-banks, 502, 690
On Local bodies debt, 494, 659
On Mortgages,539.
On Public debt, 446
Payments Overseas, 209, 446,485
Recouped to Consolidated fund,421
Reduction of,533
Intermediate credit,455.
International payments, 209, 446,485.
Intoxicating Liquor-
Consumption Societies,528.
Sale of,652.
Investment Societies,528
Deposits with,498.
Investments, state, 443, 548
Investments, Totalizator,439.
Invisible Imports and Exports,209
Iodized Salts,144
Iron-foundries,410
Iron-ores,374.
Islands
Adjacent Population of,74
Administered on Mandate, 2, 668-67
Annexed, 1, 664-668
Outlying, 1, 664
Issue of bank-notes,501
Issue of Deceased Males
Issue, previous, of parents,85

J.

Jam-factories,407
Joint-stock banks,493
Joint-stock companies,645
In Manufacturing Industries,396
journal of Agriculture,324
journal, school,324
jubilee Institute for bind,174
Judicial Separation,179
Junior High Schools,168
Justice,178-200,678.
Juvenile offenders, 172, 194

K.

Kaingaroa Plantation,363
Kauri-gum,378
Exported, 213-230, 372, 648
Kermadec Islands 1,664
Flora, 34

L.

Labour Department Employment Bureaux,604
Labour Disputes,615-620
Labour, Hours of,592
In Factories
Labour Laws,594-598
Labour shares, 596, 660
Lake Coleridge Works,631
Lakes,8
Lamb consumed and exported,349
Lambs,339
Land and Income Tax, 433, 553,555.
Land Boards,312
Maori,320
Land Development,314
Land districts,473-485
Land drainage districts,473-485
Land for discharges soldiers,317
Land for settlements,316
Land, Government valuation of 486-92
Land Holdings,306
Mortgages on, 540, 553.
value of, 540, 553
Land, occupation of 305,308
Land offices,312
Land Purchase of, 316, 320
Land Tenure and settlements, 305, 321.
Land Transfer and Deeds Registration309
Land, valuation of,486-492
Lands open for selection,314
Lands -settlement Accounts,428
Land-settlements Finance Associations,317
Land-tax, 433, 553
Lapsed Insurance Policies, 506, 508
Latest statistical Information,694
Law and Crime,178-200
Laws, Education in,665
Lease, Renewable, 313, 315
Legal Education in,655
Legal-tender Notes,501
Legislation—
Affecting Labour,594-598.
Passed in 1930 and 1931,653-663
Legislative Council,41.
Members of,49
Legitimate Births, 80, 85
Legitimation Act,88
Legumes,329
Letters of Naturalization,66
Letters Patent,646
Letters posted, 297, 691
Letters-telegrams,299
Levies by Hospital Boards, 145, 149,479
Levy, unemployment, 440, 598, 653, 658
Liabilities-
Of Afforestation Companies,364
Of Bankrupts, 543, 546,693
Of Banks, 494, 689
Of Buildings Societies,530
Of Fire-insurance Companies,517
Of Life-insurance Companies,509
Of Local Bodies,480
Of National Provident Fund
Licensed Houses,652
Licensed by Local Bodies, 478, 652
Licenses, Export,209
Licenses, Motor-vehicle,294
Licensing,652
Poll,652
Life, Expectation of,105
Life-insurance,504-511
State,510
Life Table,105
Light, Fuel and, Retail Prices of,574
Lighthouses,266
Lignite,375
Lime and Cement Works,410
Limestone,378
Limonite,374
Lincoln Agricultural College,174
Linseed,328
Live-stock,338-353,680
Advances on,452
Carried on Railways,270
Loans-
Allocation of,442
By Building Societies,529.
Dates of Maturity of,445.
Domicile of, 444, 484
Of Local Bodies, 450, 481-485,688
Receipts from,444
Redemption of, 444, 447,484
Local Bodies, 43, 473-485,687
Advances to,457
Assets of, 480, 549
Debt of, 450, 474,481-485,659
Employees of,614
Levies on, by Hospital Boards, 145, 47
Superannuation,470
Taxation by, 440, 478
Tree-planting by,366
Local Government, 43, 473-485
Local option,652
Local Railway Districts,473-485
Local Taxation, 440, 478
Location if Debt, 444, 484
Location of New Zealand,1
Lockouts,615-620
Locomotives,269
Lodges, Friendly Society,525
London Prices-
Of Food, 570, 578
Of New Zealand Stock,445
Loss of Wages through Industrial Dispute 615
Loss of Work through Industrial Accidents,626
Loss from Fires,520
In Forest,362
Lottery-duty, 438, 660
Lucerne, 328, 332
Lunacy,156-159

M.

Macaulay Island,665
Machinery-
Accidents, 624
Factory, 387, 396
Farm
Inspection of, 647
Macquarie Island Flora, 34
Magistrates Courts-
Civil Cases, 178
Criminal Cases, 182, 678.
Magistrates, Superannuation of. 470.
Mails. 297.
Main Highways. 289-294.
Districts, 289.
Taxation, 432.
Maize, 328. 333.
Malt houses, 407.
Mammalia, 35.
Mandated Territories, 2, 068-673.
Mangahao Hydro-electric Scheme. 631.
Mangaia Island, 005.
Manganese-ore, 375.
Mangolds, 328. 333.
Manihiki Island, 1. 066.
Manono Island, 669.
Manuae Island, 605.
Manual Education, 164.
Manufacturing Production, 382-412.
Manures used for Top-dressing, 337.
Maori Land Boards, 320.
Maori War Pensions, 461.
Maoris, 39.
Births of. 78. 91.
Children attending Schools, 167.
Deaths of. 78. 124.
Farm, Holdings. 307.
Half-castes. 55, 75.
In Mental Hospitals. 159.
In Prisons, 191.
Infant Mortality of. 120.
Lands, 319-32L
Marriages of. 100.
Members of Parliament. 42, 50.
Offences by, 196.
Population, 75.
Schools for. 167.
Maps—
Epicentres of Earthquakes, 1931. 14.
Mean Annual Rainfall, 19.
New Zealand, General [End of Volume].
Marble, New Zealand. 378.
Marine Fish-hatchery, 370.
Marine Officers' Certificates, 206.
Market Gardens, 335.
Marriages, 79. 93-101, 670.
Dissolution of. 179. 655.
Masculinity, 58.
Of Children born, 82.
Of Children dying. 1 lo.
Of First-born, 83.
Of Hospital Patients, 131.
Of Illegitimate Infants, 84.
Of Persons dying, 103.
Of Public-school Children, 104.
Of Still-born Infants, 89.
Masseurs, Registration of, 140.
Massey Agricultural College, 174.
Materials used in Manufacture, 389, 415.
Mothers, Ages of. 85.
Illegitimate Cases, 88.
In Still-born Cases, 90.
Moths, 38.
Motive Power in Building Trades, 414.
Motive Power in Factories, 387.
Motor Accidents, 122, 199.
Motor Transport, 295.
Motor-omnibus Traffic, 280.
Motor-spirits Taxation, 244, 291. 432.
Motor-vehicles—
Accidents, 122, 199.
Duty on, 244, 254.
Insurance, 513, 514.
Registration of, 294.
Taxation 432.
Motor-vessels registered, 260.
Motor-works, 411.
Mountains. 2.
Mud Baths, 5.
Mules, 338.
Multiple Births, 84
Municipal Debt, 482.
Municipal Tramways, 279-286.
Mutton consumed and exported, 349.
Mutual Fire insurance 523.

N.

Nassau Island, 1, 666.
National Endowments, 313, 354.
National Expenditure Adjustment Act,533, 597.
Nassau Island, 1, 666.
National Income, 565.
National Prohibition, 652.
National Provident Fund, 470. 659.
National Scholarships, 170.
National Wealth, 552.
Nationality—
Of Migrants, 62.
Of Naturalized Persons, 66.
Of Vessels. 261.
Native Appellate Court, 320.
Native Grasses, 308, 334.
Native Land Court. 319.
Native Lands, 319-321.
Purchase of, 320.
Native Schools, 167.
Native Succession Duty, 437.
Native Trust Office, 321.
Native-land Purchase, 320.
Nativity Order. 83, 85, 90.
Natural Increase of Population, 57,81
Naturalization, 66.
Nauru Island, 2, 672.
Naval Defence, 203.
Naval Reserve, 204.
Navigators Islands, 2, 668-672.
Navy, 203.
Neo-natal Deaths, 110.
Nephrite, 378.
Net State Indebtedness, 449, 685.
New Zealand born, Offences by, 196.
“New Zealand,” H.M.S., 203.”
New Zealand Produce exported, 212-230,682
New Zealand University, 174.
Newspapers—
Posted. 297. 691.
Registered, 298.
Night Letter-telegrams, 299.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 179.
Nine Island, 1, 666.
No-license Issue, 652.
Nominal Wages, 585.
Nomination of Assisted Immigrants, 64.
Note-issue of Banks, 494, 501,' 689.
Tax on, 438.
Notification of Births, 78.
Notification of Diseases, 128, 136.
Nukunono Island, 2, 674
Nullity of Marriage, 179.
Nurseries and Plantations, 335, 363.
State, 363.
Nurses, Registration of, 139, 655.
Nurses, Retiring-allowances to 471
Nutrition classes 143

O.

Oats, 328, 332, 679.
Exported, 215, 216, 226.
Occupation of Land, 305, 308.
Occupation with Right of Purchase, 313,315
Occupations—
Of Bankrupts, 545, 547.
Of Taxpayers, 556.
Ocean Cables, 303.
Offences, 182-200.
Offenders Probation Act. 193.
Official Assignees, 542.
Official Representatives Abroad, 53.
Officiating Ministers, 100.
Oil, 377.
Old-age Pensions, 459.
Omnibus Traffic, 280, 294.
Onakaka Iron-ore, 374.
Onions, 328.
Opium, Prohibition of, 141.
Opossum-skins exported, 223.
Opticians, Registration of, 139.
Orchards, 336.
Orchard-tax, 337.
Origin of Immigrants, 62.
Origin of Imports, 233-241.
Origins of Earthquakes, 11.
Ornamental Stones, 378.
Orphan Asylums, 153.
Orphanhood, 107.
Otekaike Special School, 173.
Outlying Islands, 1, 664.
Out-patients. 151.
Overdraft Rites, 501.
Oversea Shipping, 261.
Oversea Trade, 205-259, 681.
Overseas Representatives, 53.
Overseas-passenger duty, 438, 660.
Overtime in Factories, 403.
Oyster-beds, 370.

P.

Pacific Cable,303
Pacific Islands, Annexed, 1, 664-668
Packet Licenses, 652.
Palmerston Island, 1, 066.
Parapara Iron-ore Deposit. 374.
Parcel-post, 297, 298.
Parents. Ages of, So, SS, 90.
Parliament. 41.
Members of. 49.
Parliamentary Elections, 42, 651.
Parliaments, Successive. 48.
Parry Island (Mauke). 665.
Party-line Telephones, 300.
Passenger Tickets. Duty on. 438, 660.
Passengers—
Motor-vehicle, 295.
Overseas, 60.
Railway, 270. 692.
Tramway, 281.
Passports. 64.
Pastoral Produce exported, 212-230.
Pastoral Production, 338-353.
Pasture Grasses, 334.
Pasture Grasses, 334.
Patients in Mental Hospitals. 156.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 129, 150.
Payments by, 150.
Peas, 328.
Export of. 215-224.
“Pelorus Jack,” 36.
Pelts, Export of. 213-230.
Penal Institutions, 189.
Penrhyn Island, 1. 666.
Pensions, 459-472.
Permanent Building Societies, 528.
Permanent Heads of Departments, 51.
Permanent Military Forces, 201.
Permission to enter New Zealand, 04.
Permits and Passports, 64.
Permits, Building, 416.
Petitions—
Bankruptcy. 543.
Divorce, 179.
Petroleum, 377.
Petrological Laboratory, 204.
Petrol-tax, 244, 291, 432.
Pharmacy. 141.
Phormium, 308, 335.
Fibre exported, 213-230, 684.
Fibre exported, 213-230, 684.
Mills, 409.
Phosphate Rock, 378.
From Nauru Island, 072.
Phthisis, 115, 116, 133, 136.
Miner's, 381, 461.
Physical Education, 165.
Physicians, Registration of, 138.
Physiography, 1-38.
Pickle-factories, 408.
Pig-iron Production, 374.
Pigs, 352, 680.
Pisciculture, 370.
Pisciculture, 370.
Pisciculture, 370.
State, 363.
Plant Research, 324, 361
Plane-glass Insurance,512
Platinum,375
Pleasant Island,672
Plumbers Registration,140
Plunket System, 109, 153
plural Births,84
Pneumoconiosis, pensions for,461
Police,181
Superannuation,466
Policies, Insurance,504-524
Polling-
At By-elections,651
At General Elections,651
At Licensing Polls,652
Poll-tax on Chinese, 04.
Population, 55-77, 075.
Of Cook Islands, 75, 007.
Of Western Samoa, 70, 670.
Pork consumed, 352, 650.
Portfolios of Ministers, 47.
Portobello Marine Fish-hatchery, 370.
Ports—
Of Entry, 255.
Of Registry, 260.
Shipping of, 204.
Trade of, 255-259.
Post Office Employees, 303.
Accidents to, 021-030.
Post Office Investment Certificates, 441.
Post-office Savings-bank, 502, 690.
Postal and Telegraphic, 297-305, 691.
Postal Notes, 299, 091.
Post-primary Education, 168.
Potatoes, 328, 332.
Pottery-works, 410.
Poultry, 352.
Pounamu, 378. !
Power Boards, 473, 637, 688.
Power, Electric, 410, 631-643.
In Factories, 387.
Used by Tramways, 280.
Power used by Builders, 414.
Power used on Farms, 326.
Pregnancy, Diseases, 119, 132.
Premiers, Successive, 45. |
Premium Income, 505-524.
Prevention of Crime Act, 192.
Previous Convictions of Prisoners, 191.
Previous Issue of Parents, 85.
Prices, 566-583.
Effect on Exports, 22S.
Effect on Farm Expenditure, 580.
Of Stock, 445.
Primage Duty, 243, 247.
Primary Schools, 160-1 OS.
Principal Events, 097.
Printing Establishments, 411.
Prisoners, 189, 07S.
New Zealand born, 190.
Prisons, JS9.
Prisons Board, 190, 192.
Private Assignments, 545.;
Private Hospitals, 151.;
Private Income, Aggregate, 505.
Private Mental Hospital, 159.
Private Radio-stations, 301.
Private Railways, 278.
Private Savings-banks, 503.
Private Schools, 167.
Private Wealth, 550.
Probate, Estates passed for, 550.
Probation, 193.
Probationer Teachers, 160.
Proclamation of British Sovereignty, 1, 40.
Production—
Agricultural and Pastoral, 322-353.
Dairy Industry, 344, 406.
Factory, 382-412.
Mineral, 372-381.
Timber, 359.
Value of, 648.
Production Districts, Exports of, 255.
Butter and Cheese, 345.
Productive Activity, 049.
Profit-sharing, 590.
Profits Tax, 433.
Prohibited Immigrants, 05.
Prohibition Issue, 052.
Prohibition Orders, 197.
Prorogation of Parliament, Dates of, 48.
Prospecting, State Aid to, 380.
Prospecting-drills, Government, 380.
Provident Fund, National, 470.
Provincial Districts, 43.
Fire Losses in, 521.
Industries in, 383-394.
Population of, 07.
Provisional State Forests, 354.
Public Debt, 441-450, 085.
Repayment of. 444, 447.
Public Finance, 419-458.
Public Health, 136-144.
Public Hospitals—
Admissions and Discharges, 129.
Diseases treated in, 131.
Finances, 145-150.
Public Instruction, 160-177, 677.
Public Reserves, 306, 313.
Public Schools, 103.
Public Service, 51.
Superannuation, 466.
Public Trust Office, 644.
Public Wealth, 548.
Public Works—
Accidents, 621-630.
Employees, 613.
Fund, 425, 680.
Railway Construction, 269.
Road Construction, 287.
Publicans' Licenses, 652.
Publications, 701.
Educational, 165.
Statistical [facing Page 1],
Puerperal Accidents and Diseases, 119,132.
Pukapuka Island, 1, 666.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis, 11;', 116, 133, 136.
Pulse Crops, 329.
Pumpkins, 333.
Punishments by Magistrates' Coutts, I81.
Punishments by Supreme Court, 1S9.
Pupils, School, 162-174.
Purchase of Dwellings, 318, 451-457.
Purchase of Land for Settlement, 316, 320.

Q.

Quackery-prevention, 141.
Quarries, 379.
Quartz-mining, 373.
Quicksilver-mining. 375.
Quinnat Salmon, 371.
Quinquennial Census, 55.
Quorum—
Executive Council, 41.
House of Representatives, 43.
Quota, Country, 42.
Quotations, New Zealand Stock, 445.

R.

Rabbit Districts, 473-485.
Rabbit-skins exported, 215-230.
Race Aliens, 63.
Racing, Tax on, 438.
Radio-broadcasting, 302, 603.
Radio-telegraph, 301.
Raffle-tickets, Duty on, 438. 660.
Railway Accidents, 122, 277, 621-630.
Railway Districts, 473-485.
Railways, 268-278, 657, 692.
Private, 278.
Private, 278.
Revenue and Expenditure, 273. 422.
Superannuation Fund, 469.
Rain Forests, 31. 354.
Rainfall, 18-28.
Rakahanga Island, I. 66(5.
Rams, 339.
Rarotonga Island. 665.
Rateable Value of Land, 4S9.
Rates collected by Local Bodies, 440, 470.
Rates of Interest—
On Local Bodies' Debt, 484, 485, 659.
On Mortgages. 539.
On Public Debt. 446.
Paid by Post Office Savings-bank, 502.
Reduction of, 533.
Rating by Local Bodies, 474.
On Unimproved Value, 475,
Reapers-and-binders, 326.
Receiving-homes, 173.
Recidivism, 191.
Reciprocal trade, 250-254.
Redemption of Loans, 444, 447, 484.
Reduction of Interest, 533.
Reduction of Pent, 533.
Reduction of Wages, 533, 597, 656.
Re-exports, 218. 227.
Reformative Detention, 192.
Registered Companies, 645.
Registered Mortgages, 531.
Registered Vessels, 260.
Registrars, Marriages before, 93, 100.
Registration—
Of Adopted Children, 89.
Of Apiaries, 353.
Of Applicants for Employment, 604.
Of Births, 78, 654.
Of Chemists, 141.
Of Companies, 645.
Of Dairies, 344.
Of Dairy Companies, 345.
Of Deaths. 102.
Of Deeds, 309.
Of Dentists,-138.
Of Designs, 046.
Of Electors, 43.
Of Friendly Societies, 525.
Of Industrial Unions, 599.
Of Marriages. 93.
Of Masseurs. 140.
Of Maternity Nurses, 139v
Of Medical Practitioners, 138.
Of Midwives, 139.
Of Mortgages, 531.
Of Motor-vehicles. 294.
Of Newspapers. 298.
Of Nurses and Midwives, 139, 655.
Of Opticians, 139.
Of Orchards, 337.
Of Patents, 646.
Of Pharmaceutical Chemists, 141.
Of Physicians. 13S.
Of Plumbers, 140.
Of Private Schools. 107.
Of Still-births. 78, 89.
Of Titles. 309.
Of Trade-marks. 646.
Of Trade-unions, 599.
Of Vessels, 260.
Under Unemployment Act, 598, 609,653, 658.
Registry, Ports of. 260.
Relief Fund, Coal-miner's, 381.
Relief, Mortgagors, 533-, 657.
Relief of Unemployed, 609.
Religious Denominations—
Marriages by Ministers of, 100.
Ministers on Marriage List, 100.
Renewable Leases, 313, 315.
Rent Reduction, 533.
Rent Restriction, 596, 654, 659.
Renters, Film, Taxation of, 440.
Rents, House, 533, 571, 590.
Repatriation Advances, 317, 458.
Repayment of Public Debt, 444, 447.
Representatives Abroad, 53.
Representatives, House of, 42.
Members of, 49.
Reprint of Statutes, 059.
Reproductive Expenditure, 443.
Reptiles, 37.
Research Scholarships, 175.
Reserve Bank, Proviso re, 501.
Reserve Funds of Banks,-493.
Reserves, Public, 300, 313.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights, 179.
Restriction, Immigration, 05, 657.
Retail Prices, 506-575.
Retardate Children, 173.
Revaluation of Soldier Properties, 318.
Revenue—
Customs, 245.
Electric-supply Undertakings, 635, 640.
Hospital, 147.
Local Body, 476, 687.
Main Highways, 292.
Postal, 3l>4, 691.
Public, 419-430, 686.
Railway, 273, 692.
State Forest, 362.
Tramway, 283.
Review of Legislation, 653-663.
Rhodes Scholarships, 175.
Richmond Special School, 173.
Rifle Clubs, 202.
River Districts, 473-485.
Rivers, 7.
Road Districts, 44, 473-485.
Roads, 287-296.
On Goldfields, Subsidized, 380.
Taxation, 432.
Rock Oysters, 370.
Rocks, 8.
Rolling-stock—
Railway, 269.
Tramway, 279.
Roman Catholic Schools, 167.
Root Crops. 308. 328, 333.
Ross Dependency, 2, 673, 706.
Rotorua Nursery, 363.
Rotorua Thermal Springs, 3.
Rural Advances, 454.
Rural Intermediate Credit, 455.
Rural Mail Deliveries, 297.
Rural Population, 42, 68.
Rural Security, Mortgages on, 536, 540.
Rye-grass, 334.

S.

Sailing-vessels registered, 260.
St. Helens Hospitals, 152.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 140.
Sainton, Acclimatization of, 371.
Samoa, 2, 668-672.
Bibliography ot, 705.
Births in, 91.
Deaths in, 127.
Marriages in, 101.
Naturalization, 60.
Population of, 70.
San Pablo Island, 000.
Sanatoria, 3, 151.
Sanitary Plumbing, 140.
Sanitation, 130.
Sauce-factories, 408.
Sausage-casings, Export of, 213-230.
Savage Island, i, 000.
Savai'i Island, 669.
Savings-banks, 502, 690.
Sawmills, 359, 409.
Scaffolding Accidents, 621-630.
Scheelite, 374.
Scholars, 162-174, 677.
Scholarships, 170. 175, 380.
School Committees. 160.
School Journal, 165.
School-children, 102-174, 077.
Dental Treatment for, 144.
Medical Inspection of, 142.
Schools, 100-174.
Medical Inspection of, 142.
Of -Mines, 380.
School-teachers, 100. 170.
Superannuation, 405).
Scrub Lands, 308.
Sea-fisheries, 367.
Seals, 30, 370.
Season Tickets, Railway, 271.
Secondary Education, 108.
Secondary Industries, 382—412.
Second-growth Land. 308.
Secular System of Education, 100.
Securities, Chattel, 061.
Securities, Mortgage, 530.
Seed-gardens, 335.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 333.
Certification of, 324.
Exported, 215-227.
Seismology, 11.
Selections of Land, 314.
Senior Cadets, 201.
Sentences on Criminals, 184, 188, 6?8.
Separate Rates, 474, 478.
Separation, Judicial, 179.
Separators, Cream. 320.
Sessions, Parliamentary, Successive, 48.
Settlement and Colonization, 40.
Settlement Conditions, Selections under. 314.
Settlement of Industrial Disputes, 619.
Settlement of Undeveloped Lands, 314.
Settlement Surveys, 305.
Settlements. Land for. 310.
Settlers, Advances to, 451.
Sex Proportions, 58.
Of Children born, 82.
Of Children dying, 109.
Of First-born. 83.
Of Hospital Patients, 131.
Of Illegitimate Infants, 84.
Of Persons dying. 103.
Of Public-school Children, 104.
Of School-teachers, 160.
Of Still-born Infants, 89.
Shares in Building Societies, 528.
Shares, Labour, 590, 660.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 326.
Sheep, 339, 080.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 213-230.
Sheet-metal Works, 410.
Shipbuilding-works, 411.
Shipping, 200-267.
Ships, Survey of, 200.
Shoe-factories, 409.
Short-time in Factories, 404.
Sick Funds, 381, 527.
Sickness, 128-135, 526.
Silver, 374.
Exported, 215, 225, 372.
Silviculture, 361.
Singapore Naval Base,204
Sinking Funds, 447.
Skins, Export of, 213-230.
Slaughter of Animals for Food, 349, 35 352.
Slaughterhouses, 324, 349, 350, 352.
Slot Telephones, 300.
Sluicing, 373.
Snares Islands, 1, 34, 004.
Snowfall, 24.
Soap-factories, 408.
Social Hygiene Regulations, 137.
Social Welfare, 148.
Softwood Trees, 355.
Soldiers, 201.
Acquisition of Land by, 317.
Dwellings, 318.
Financial Assistance to, 317, 458, 050.
Pensions, 402.
Settlement of. 317.
War Bursaries for Dependants, 170.
Solicitors Fidelity Guarantee, 003.
Source of Income, 550.
South Africa, Reciprocity with, 250, 252.
South African War, 203.
Pensions, 404.
Southern Alps, 2.
Sown Grasses, Extent of, 308, 327-335. Spas, 3.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 706.
Special Rates, 474, 478.
Special Schools, 172.
Specie, Movement of, 209.
Specific Duties, 243, 250.
Spirits, Consumption of, 198, 650.
Springs, Hot, 3.
Stakes, Tax on, 439.
Stamp Duties, 438.
Estates certified for, 550.
Standardized Birth-rates, 80.
Standardized Death-rates, 106, 117.
Standardized Marriage-rates, 94.
State Accident Insurance, 515.
State Advances, 451—458.
State Afforestation, 362.
State Aid to—
Afforestation, 306.
Cold Storage, 458.
Crown Tenants, 314,
Discharged Soldiers. 317, 458.
Fishing Industry, 458.
Fruit-preserving Industry, 458.
Housing, 458.
Immigrants, 64.
Kauri-gum Industry, 378.
Local Authorities, 457.
Mining, 379.
Settlers, 451.
Tree-planting, 306.
Unemployed, 598, 609, 653, 658.
Water-power Development, 631.
Workers, 456.
State Assets, 548.
State Coal-mines, 377.
State Finance, 419-458.
State Fire Insurance, 524.
State Forests, 354.
State Indebtedness, 441-150, 685.
State Instruction, 160-177
State Insurance—
Accident, 515
Fire, 524
Life, 510
State Maternity Hospitals, 512.
State Railways, 208-278, 657.
State Schools, 160.
State Water—power Supply, 631.
Statistical Information, Latest, 694.
Statistical Publications [facing page 1],
Statistical Summary, 675-693.
Status of Aliens, 60.
Statutes, Reprint of,659.
Steam-vessels registered, 20O.
Stewart Island, 1.
Oyster}, 370.
Still-births, 89, 113.
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts—
Civil Cases, 178.
Criminal Cases, 182, 678
Stock, Live, 338-353, 680.
Advances on, 452.
Carried on Railways, 270
Stock, Quotations for. 445.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 378.
Strandings of Vessels, 267.
Stratigraphy,9.
Streets, Length of, 287.
Strikes, 615-020
Stud Sheep, 339.
Students, University, 162, 174, 077.
Subdivision of Land, 316.
Submarine Cable, 303.
Subsidies, Main Highways, 291.
Subsidies to Hospital Boards, 145.
Subsidized Prospecting, 380
Subsidized Roads on Goldfields, 380
Succession Duty, 437.
Suffrage, 43.
Sugar, Duty on, 244.
Sugar-prices, 568.
Suicide, 122, 181.
Sulphur, 375.
Baths, 5.
Summons Cases, 182,678.
Summons Cases, 185.
Sumner School for Deaf, 174.
Sunday Island, 665
Sunshine, 24
Superannuation, 400—470
Supreme Court—
Civil Cases, 178.
Criminal Cases, 185, 678.
Surpluses, 422.
Surrenders, Life Insurance, 506, 508.
Surtax, 243. 247.
Preferential, 242, 250
Surveys, 305.
Geological, 380.
Of Ships, 206.
Sustenance Allowances, 598.
Suwarrow Island, 1, 666.
Sympathetic Strikes, 616-620.
Syphilis, 137.
Syrians, 64.

T.

Table Mortgages, 534.
State Advances, 452
Takutea Island. 665.
Tallow exported, 213-230, 682.
Tanneries, 411.
Taranaki Scholarships. 175.
Tariff, Customs, 242-254.
Tasman's Discovery of New Zealand, 39.
Tax, Land and Income, 433, 553-565.
Tax. Petrol. 244, 291, 432.
Taxation. 431-440, 686.
Customs, 245. 432.
Local, 440,478.
Unemployment, 440.
Taxpayers. Land and Income, 553-505. |
Te Au-o-Tu Island, 665.
Tea, Duty on, 243, 251.
Teachers, Public-school, 160, 170.
Superannuation Fund, 409.
Carried on Railways. 271
Technical Education, 171, 077.
Telegraph Services, 299.
Telephones, 300.
I Temperature, 21.
Tenants, Relief of, 533.;
Tenure of Occupied Lands, 307.
I Tenures under which Land selected. 312, 315, 317.
Terminating Building Societies, 528.
Territorial Forces, 201.
Thermal Regions, 3.
Three Kings Islands, 1, 004.
Threshing-machines, 326.
I Thunder, 24.
Tile-making, 410.
Timber—.
Carried on Railways. 271.
Duty, 245.
Export, 213-230, 360, 684.
Duty, 245.
Import Duty on, 244
Output, 359, 409.
Plantations, 363, 366.
Resources, 354.
Sales, 301.
Trees, 355-359.
Time lost—
In Factories, 404.
Through Industrial Accidents, 621-030.
Through Industrial Disputes, 615-620
Tin, 375.
Tinware-works, 410.
Tire-tax, 244, 433.
Title, Certificates of, issued, 310.
Titles, Compulsory Registration of, 309.
Tobacco, 337.
Duty on, 244.
Excise Duty on, 245, 247.
Tokelau Islands, 2, 674.
Toll Communications, 299.
Tolls by Local Bodies, 478.
Tomato-culture, 330.
Tongareva Island, 1, 000.
Ton-miles, Railway, 272.
Tonnage of Registered Vessels, 260.
Tonnage of Shipping, 260-265.
Tonnage of Trade, 250.
Tonnage Statistics, Port, 250.
Top-dressing, 15157.
Totalizator Taxation. 4:58.
Tourist Agents abroad, 53.
Tourists. 01.
Town Districts, 415, 473-485.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 492.
Population, 73.
Town Land, Mortgages on, 530. 540.
Townships, Population of, 73.
Tractors on Farms. 320.
Trade. 205-259. 681.
Balance of, 205, 208, 490.
Representatives, 53.
Trade-marks, 046.
Trade-unions. 595. 599-002.
Trading Accounts. 429.
Trading Companies' Deposits, 49S.
Trading Coupons. 661.
Traffic—
Accidents. 122, 198.
Motor, 295.
Offences. 198.
Railway, 270.
Tramway, 283.
Training of Defence Forces, 201.
Training of Teachers, 100.
Training-farm, 173.
Train-miles run, 270. 092.
Tramway District, 473-485.
Tramways, 279-286.
Transfer. Land. 309.
Transfers between Accounts, 421.
Transhipments, 258.
Transit Trade. 227.
Transport. 200-290. 001.
Board. 473.
Transport Licensing Act, 661.
Travelling Scholarships. 175.
Trawlers. 369.
Treat v of Waitangi. 40, 319.
Tree-planting. 362-360.
Trees, Indigenous, 28-35, 355-359.
Triennial Parliaments, 42.
Triplets, 84.
Tropical Diseases in Samoa, 07o.
Trout. Acclimatization of, 370.
Truck Act, 595.
Trustee, Native. 321.
Trustee, Public. 044.
Trustee Savings-banks, 503.
Tuberculosis. 115. 110, 133, 130.
Tungsten-ore. 374.
Tunnels. Railway, 208.
Turkeys, 353.
Turnips. 328, 333.
Tussock Land. 308. 335.
Twins and Triplets born. 84.

U.

Undergraduates, 174.
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion, 65.
Undeveloped Land. Settlement of, 314.
Undischarged Bankrupts, 542.
Unemployment, 003, 014.
Act, 598, 053, 058.
Taxation, 440.
Unimproved Occupied Land, 308.
Unimproved Value of Land, 480-492.
Holdings, 540, 553.
Land-tax assessed on, 431, 434.
Rating on, 475.
Union Islands, 2, 074.
Unions, Trade, 599-002.
United States Trade Commissioner, 53.
University Education, 174. 077.
Unpaid Totalizator Fractions. 430.
Unproductive Land. 306. 308.
Upolu Island, 669.
Urban Areas—
Fire Losses, 521.
Population, 69.
Urban Drainage Districts, 473-485.
Urban Drift. 68.
Urban Population, 68.
Urban Security, Mortgages on, 536, 540.

V.

Valuation of Land, 486-492.
Value added in Manufacturing. 301.
Value of Exports affected by Prices. 22S.
Value of Land Holdings, 540, 553.
Value of Production, 048.
Veal consumed and exported, 350.
Vegetation. 2-35.
Vehicles—
Motor, 294.
Railway-269.
Tramway. 279.
Venereal Diseases, Control of, 137.
Vessels—
Employed in Fishing Industry, 369.
Entered and cleared, 201.
Nationality of. 261.
Registered. 200.
Survey of. 260.
War, 203.
Village Settlements, 313.
Villages, Population of, 73.
Vinegar-factories, 408.
Vineyards, 336.
Violent Deaths, 121, 181.
Virgin Bush. Area of, 308, 354.
Visible Trade-balance, 205, 208, 499.
Visitors. 61.
Vital Statistics, 78-135, 676.
Viticulture. 336.
Volcanoes, 2, 10.
Voluntary Contribution to Hospitals, 145.
Voluntary Inmates of Mental Hospitals,157.
Voting—
At General Elections, 651.
At Licensing Polls, 652.
Qualifications, 43.

W.

Wages, 584-592.
Lost through Industrial Disputes, 6 1 5-?520.
Of Afforestation Employees, 305.
Of Building Employees, 414.
Of Electric-supply Employees, 034, 038.
Of Factory Employees, 380, 402.
Reduction of, 533, 597, 050.
Waikaremoana Power-supply-, 031.
Waikato Power-supply, 631.
Waipori Power-supply, 031.
Waitaki Power-supply. 031.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 40. 319.
Wakari Private Mental Hospital, 159.
War, 203.
Bursaries, 170.
Expenditure, 444.
Increases in Food-prices, 570.
Indebtedness, 442.
Pensions, 402.
Taxation. 433.
Warships, 203.
Water-power, 031-043.
Waterproof-material Factories, 408.
Waters, Mineral, 3.
Water-supply Districts 473-485.
Wealth, 548-554.
Weather, 18-28.
Weraroa Training-farm, 173.
Western Samoa, 2, 008-072.
Bibliography of,705.
Births in, 91.
Deaths in, 127.
Marriages in, 101.
Naturalization, 00.
Population of, 70
Wethers, 339.
Whales, 30.
Whaling, 30, 40, 370, 574.
Wheat, 328, 330, 079.
Duty on, 243.
Export of, 215, 210, 331.
White Island Sulphur, 375.
Wholesale Licenses, 052.
Wholesale Prices, 570.
Widows—
Left by Married Men, 108.
Pensions for, 401.
Re-marriages of, 90.
Wills administered l>v Public Trust Office, 044.
Wind, 25.
Wine, Consumption of, 198, 050.
Wine Licenses, 052.
Wine-makers' Licenses, (552.
Wire (Telegraph), Miles of, 299.
Wireless Broadcasting, 302. 0(53.
Wireless Telegraphy, 301.
Withdrawals from Savings-banks, 502, 690.
Wives' Petitions in Divorce, 180.
Women—
Deaths of, in Childbirth, 119.
Offences by, 195.
Suffrage for, 43.
Wages of, 588.
Working-hours of, 592.
Wool, 341.
Exported, 213-230, 341, 682.
Stocks of, 342.
Used at Local Mills, 341, 412.
Woollen-mills, 412.
Wool purchased by, 341.
Wool-presses on Farms, 32(5.
Wool-scouring Works, 411.
Workers, Advances to. 456.
Workers' Compensation, 596, 022.
Insurance, 513.
Workers' Dwellings, 450, 595.
Workers' Educational Association, 176.
Workers' Unions, 599-002.
Workers' Weekly Railway Tickets, 271.
Working Railways Account, 273, 422.
Working-days lost through Industrial Disputes. 615-020.
Working-hours, 592.
World's Cattle, 344.
World's Coal-production, 377.
World's Dairy-produce Production and Trade, 348.
World's Gold-production, 374.
World's Population. 70.
World's Sheep Flocks, 341.
Wrecks, 207.

Y.

Yaws, in Samoa, 670.
Yields of Crops, 327-337.

Z.

Zoology, 35-38.