THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1983


Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This publication was produced in the Information Services Division of the Department of Statistics.

Editor. S. M. Antill.

Graphics Designer: P. J. McGrath.

Proof Readers: I. L. Filipaina.

J. W. Hunt.

Photographs which appear in this Yearbook were taken by Ans Westra with the exception of page 5 (courtesy of Geological Survey, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research) and page 561 (courtesy of New Zealand Shipping Corporation).

FURTHER INFORMATION

Further sources of information, given at the end of each section or subsection, refer generally to official sources, especially Parliamentary papers, statistical reports, and other publications of Government departments. These can usually be consulted in the principal public libraries (Parliamentary papers, for example, are collected in annual volumes entitled Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives) or can be purchased from Government bookshops. Where difficulty is experienced in obtaining publications the responsible Government department or other organisation should be consulted.

Other publications giving fuller information on many of the subjects mentioned in the Yearbook may be found listed in the select bibliography of New Zealand books near the back of the Yearbook.

NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEARBOOK

CAT. NO. 01.001

ISSN 0078–0170

PRICE (N.Z.) $18.50 + p. & p.

Preface

The New Zealand Official Yearbook first appeared under that title in 1893. However between 1883 and 1893 there were similar publications with different names and in 1875 there was a first such publication with the title “The Official Handbook of New Zealand”, edited by Julius Vogel, c.m.g. This handbook, described as “a collection of papers by experienced colonists on the colony as a whole and on the several provinces” was intended “to give those who may think of making the colony their home or the theatre of business operations, an idea of New Zealand from a New Zealand point of view”. Different essays in the handbook described the provinces in considerable detail and there was a statistical section which discussed principally economic and trading conditions.

“New Zealand from a New Zealand point of view” is still valid as a general objective of the Official Yearbook. The present volume, like its predecessors, provides a statistical summary of the economy and the people of New Zealand augmented by a text aimed primarily at the non-specialist.

The task of assembling such a statistical description becomes more complex each year because of the growth of external influences on our trading patterns and our economy and because of the increasing diversity of our social and cultural life. The presentation of a brief but adequate portrait of New Zealand within the bounds of a single volume of modest size and price demands constant attention to changing life styles and the economy of New Zealand as well as to the needs of readers.

The 1983 Official Yearbook is published for the first time in a soft cover. This is part of our concern to keep the price of the Yearbook as low as possible. Half-tone photographs have been introduced throughout the book to illustrate the text, replacing the former photographic supplement. The Department will also be soliciting the views of the 1983 readers of the Yearbook on its text and presentation, as part of its own internal review of the Yearbook.

As always, every effort has been made to ensure that the information on the Official Yearbook is as full, clear, and up-to-date as limits of space and time allows. Nevertheless, a Yearbook which takes almost 12 months to produce cannot be completely up-to-date, especially in these days of rapid change and development. Each section includes at the end a brief reference to further sources of information. As far as the latest statistics are concerned, among the principal sources are the “Monthly Abstract of Statistics” and the many scores of “Information Service” releases put out annually by the Department of Statistics. With the Official Yearbook to provide background and historical perspective and the “Monthly Abstract” to supply the latest figures, the student of the New Zealand economy is well equipped.

The Yearbook owes much to the assistance and co-operation of other Government departments, producer boards, the Reserve Bank, and a considerable number of other official bodies, as well as to the compiling, editorial, and draughting sections of this department. I would like to express my appreciation to all the people involved, and especially to the staff of the Government Printing Office, without whose work there would be no Yearbook. The Editor, S. M. Antill, would also like to express her appreciation of the assistance and co-operation she has received.

J. H. DARWIN,

GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN.

Department of Statistics,

Wellington,

New Zealand.

September 1983.

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

– nil or zero… not applicable
.. figures not available not yet available—space left blank– amount too small to be expressed x revised

METRIC SYSTEM

The conversion of the system of weights and measures used in New Zealand to metric units was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

As far as possible, statistics in this issue have been convened to the metric system, but for various reasons, this has to be a gradual process extending over a number of years.

CONVERSION OF BRITISH (IMPERIAL) AND SI (METRIC) UNITS

Some relationships between common British units and common SI units are shown in the following table. Measures are rounded unless otherwise indicated.

* Measure is exact.
Length
    1 in.= 25.4 mm*
 = 2.54 cm*
    1 ft= 30.48 cm*
 = 0.3048 m*
    1 yd= 0.9144 m*
    1 mile= 1.6093 km
    1 mm= 0.0394 in.
    1 cm= 0.3947 in.
    1 dm= 3.9370 in.
    1 m= 39.3701 in.
 = 1.0936 yds
    1 km= 0.6214 miles
Area
    1 sq ft= 0.0929 m2
 = 929.030 cm2
    1 sq yd= 0.8361 m2
1 acre= 0.4046 hectare (ha)
1 sq mile= 2.5900 km2
 = 258.9988 ha
    1 m2= 10.7639 sq ft
 = 1.1960 sq yds
    1 da= 0.2471 acres
    1 ha= 2.4710 acres
    1 km2= 247.105 acres
 = 0.3861 sq miles
Volume
    1 cu in.= 16.3871 cm3
    1 cu ft= 0.0283 m3
    1 cu yd= 0.7646 m3
    1 cm3= 0.0610 cu in.
    1 m3= 35.3148 cu ft
 = 1.3080 cu yds
Capacity
    1 pt= 0.5683 litres (1)
    1 qt= 1.1365 1
    1 gal= 4.5461 1
    1 litre= 1.7598 pts
 = 0.8799 qts
 = 0.2200 gal
Weight
    1 oz= 28.3495 grams (g)
    1 lb= 0.4536 kilograms (kg)
    1 cwt= 50.8024 kg
    1 long ton= 1 016.0469 kg
 = 1.0160 tonnes (t)
    1 g= 0.0353 oz
    1 kg= 2.2046 lb
    1 t= 2 204.623 lb
 = 0.9842 long tons
 = 1.1023 short tonnes
Velocity
    1 mile per hour (mph)1.609 kilometres per hour (km/hr)
    1 kilometre per hour (km/h)0.621 miles per hour (mph)
Pressure
    1 pound per sq in. (psi)6.8948 kilopascals (kPa)
    1 kilopascal (kPa)0.1450 pounds per sq in. (psi)
    1 ton per sq in. (ton/in.2)15.444 megapascals (MPa)
    1 megapascal (MPa)0.0647 tons per sq in. (ton/in.2)
Temperature
    Degree Fahrenheit (°F)9×°C/5 + 32
    Degree Celsius(°C)5(°F-32)/9

LAND AND PEOPLE

Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Section 1; GEOGRAPHY

New Zealand is in the south-west section of the Pacific. To the west, beyond the Tasman Sea, is Australia, 1600 kilometres away. From its position on the rim of the Pacific basin, New Zealand is a little over 10 000 kilometres from San Francisco and Panama and a similar distance from Tokyo and Singapore. In area 26.9 million hectares, it is similar in size to the British Isles and Japan.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1600 kilometres east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres to the east of Lyttelton. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, including the minor islands, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island.

The Ross Dependency, some 2300 kilometres to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south. The land area of the Ross Dependency is estimated at 414 400 square kilometres.

The area of New Zealand can be classified as follows:

Areaof New Zealand
(1 April 1982)
North IslandArea in Square Kilometres
  Districts18 496x
  Counties93 078x
  Cities and boroughs3 100x
  Town districts8
  Chatham Islands963
  Adjacent Islands not included in a territorial local authority— 
     Three Kings7
     Little Barrier28
     Mayor14
     White4
     Other islands (Browns, Mokohinau, Motiti, Motuhora (Whale), etc.)16
Other offshore islands—Kermadec34x
          Total, North Island115 748x
South IslandArea in Square Kilometres
  Counties148 879x
  Districts318x
  Cities and boroughs604x
  Stewart Island1 746
  Adjacent islands not included in a territorial local authority (Solander, etc.)4
  Other offshore islands—
     Inhabited—Campbell106
     Uninhabited—Auckland (612 km2), Snares (2 km2), Antipodes (22 km2), Bounty (2 km2)638
        Total, South Island152 355x
        Total, North and South Islands268 103x
Ross Dependency (land area only)414 400
        Total, including Ross Dependency682 503x

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—An overall length of more than 1600 kilometres, and a width up to 450 kilometres combine to provide New Zealand with a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area.

The nature of the coastline has provided New Zealand with numerous sites for harbours although the size of shipping capable of using them varies with the locality. The development of the natural North Island harbours of Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, and Wellington and the dredging and breakwater constructions at the South Island harbours of Lyttelton, Timaru, Otago, and Bluff have produced ports suitable for overseas ships.

Strong ocean drifts and high seas along the west coast produce shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances although New Plymouth is one port which has been developed to take overseas shipping. While artificial harbours have been built on the east coast of the North Island at Gisborne and Napier, the large quantities of shingle brought down by the South Island rivers have strictly limited development in many South Island areas to small ports suitable for fishing and coastal shipping only.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 200 m contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (2518 m), Ruapehu (2797 m), Ngauruhoe (2290 m), and Tongariro (1968 m), they do not exceed an altitude of 1800 m. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 1200 m on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (3764 m), while 19 named peaks exceed 3000 m. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 2300 m or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 2740 m in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (metres)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu2797
Egmont2518
Ngauruhoe2290
Tongariro1968
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges
  Tapuaenuku2885x
  Alarm2877x
Southern Alps
  Cook3764
  Tasman3497x
  Dampier3440
  Silberhorn3279
  Lendenfeldt3201
  Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)3183
  Torres3163
  Teichelmann3160
  Sefton3157
  Malte Brun3155x
  Haast3138
  Elie de Beaumont3117x
  Douglas Peak3085x
  La Perouse3079
  Haidinger3066
  Minarets3055x
  Aspiring3027x
  Glacier Peak3007
  Hamilton2996x
  De la Beche2992
  Darwin2961
  Chudleigh2952
  Low2942
  Haeckel2941
  Aiguilles Rouges2911x
  Annan2911x
  Nazomi2911x
  Goldsmith2905
  Walter2903x
  Conway Peak2901
  Bristol Top2898
  Grey2893
  D'Archiac2865x
  Green2850x
  Hutton2834
  Ronald Adair2827
  Hochstetter Dome2822
  Barnicoat2819x
  Earnslaw2819x
  Nathan2804
  Sibbald2798
  Arrowsmith2795
  Spenser2794
  The Footstool2765
  Rudolf2755
  The Dwarf2751
Darran Range
  Tutoko2756

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 29 km and a width of 1 km. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (17 km), the Mueller (13 km), the Godley (13 km), and the Hooker (11 km), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 600 m. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 15 km and 13 km respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 200 m and 210 m.

The glaciers are fed by snow brought to the Southern Alps by the prevailing winds off the Tasman Sea. Total yearly snowfalls at the higher elevations (1800–2500 m) vary from 3 m to 6 m. The steeper West Coast glaciers have little moraine (rock debris) carried on their surfaces and have shown a marked terminal retreat in recent decades. The large glaciers on the eastern side of the Southern Alps are mantled with moraine and show some terminal retreat.

In the North Island there are 7 relatively small glaciers on the slopes of Mount Ruapehu compared with more than 360 in the Southern Alps. However, during the ski-ing season the Whakapapa Glaciers, near the Chateau Tongariro, are visited by several thousand people each week.

Rivers—New Zealand rivers, owing to the high relief of the country, are mostly swift-flowing and difficult to navigate. As sources of hydro-electric power the rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. The Waikato and the Rangitaiki in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (kilometres)
* Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern point of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.
NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
  Piako90
  Waihou (or Thames)175
  Rangitaiki193
  Whakatane105
  Waipaoa (from source, Mata River)121
  Waiapu (from source, Waipapa Stream)113
  Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)137
  Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)172
  Ngaruroro154
  Tukituki113
Flowing into Cook Strait—*
  Ruamahanga124
  Hutt56
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
  Otaki48
  Manawatu182
  Rangitikei241
  Turakina137
  Whangaehu161
  Wanganui290
  Waitotara108
  Patea143
  Waitara98
  Mokau158
  Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)425
  Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)132
  Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)72
SOUTH ISLAND
Flowing into Cook Strait
  Pelorus64
  Wairau169
  Awatere126
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
  Clarence209
  Conway48
  Waiau-uha (or Waiau)169
  Hurunui138
  Waipara64
  Ashley97
  Waimakariri161
  Selwyn95
  Rakaia145
  Ashburton90
  Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)121
  Opihi80
  Pareora56
  Waihao64
  Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)209
  Kakanui64
  Shag72
  Taieri288
  Clutha (from source, Makarora River)322
Flowing into Foveaux Strait
  Mataura240
  Oreti203
  Aparima (Jacobs River)113
  Waiau (from source, Clinton River)217
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
  Hollyford76
  Cascade64
  Arawhata68
  Haast64
  Karangarua37
  Cook32
  Waiho (from source, Callery River)32
  Whataroa51
  Wanganui56
  Waitaha40
  Hokitika64
  Arahura56
  Taramakau80
  Grey121
  Buller (from source, Travers River)177
  Mokihinui56
  Karamea80
  Heaphy35
  Aorere (from source, Spee River)72
  Takaka (from source, Cobb River)72
  Motueka108
  Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)48

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of rivers to the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the early economic development of the country.

Many rivers are valuable for recreational activities such as swimming, canoeing, rafting, jet boating, tramping, camping, and picnicking, and with the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, rivers now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while some of the larger ones of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, have their own particular beauty. As reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the rivers and streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, Manapouri, Ohau, Monowai, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. In 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. It lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and covers 75 sq km in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 30 km in length and the Ahuriri Arm 18 km in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength in KilometresGreatest Breadth in KilometresArea in Square KilometresDrainage Area in Square KilometresApproximate Volume of Discharge in Cubic Metres per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Metres (Range in Brackets)*Greatest Depth in Metres
* The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.
  NORTH ISLAND
    Natural
Taupo40.227.46063 289130357 (1.5)159
Rotorua12.09.780526..280 (0.6)26
Rotoiti16.14.83464224279 (0.6)70
Tarawera11.28.9361868299 (0.6)87
Rotoaira4.82.81612933564 (0.9)..
Waikaremoana19.39.75434718614(13.7)256
Wairarapa19.36.4803 201..820
Rotoehu4.83.2844..295 (1.2)..
Rotoma5.23.61231..316(1.8)..
Okataina6.44.81065..310 (2.7)..
Okareka2.42.0321..354(1.2)..
Rotomahana6.42.8970..340 (6.7)..
Rerewhakaitu4.02.88....439(1.2)..
Tikitapu1.61.21....416..
Rotokakahi4.01.65281396..
    Artificial
Matahina....3..70....
Otamangakau....2..14613..
Moawhango....4..12853..
Ohakuri33.80.4134 791155287..
Atiamuri6.40.425 128158252..
Whakamaru21.70.875 581176226..
Maraetai7.20.856 190195188..
Waipapa9.70.426 475207127..
Arapuni16.10.896 876211111 (0.6)..
Karapiro24.10.487 45922654..
Whakamarino0.80.4136918274..
   SOUTH ISLAND
    Natural
Rotoiti8.92.81018412616 (1.8)76
Rotoroa14.53.22337627446 (1.5)152
Brunner8.98.939414 85109
Kaniere9.72.01628..131197
Coleridge17.73.236559..510207
Sumner9.72.414337......
Tekapo17.75.6881 42479713 (12.0)189
Pukaki15.38.01691 355132534 (15.8)..
Ohau17.74.8611 19180524 (4.8)..
Hawea30.68.01411 38963348 (20.0)392
Wanaka45.14.81932 575188280 (3.8)..
Wakatipu77.24.82933 067155312 (2.7)378
Te Anau61.29.73443 302267205 (4.0)276
Manapouri28.98.01424 623401181 (6.4)443
Monowai19.31.63124114196 (4.0)..
Hauroko35.42.47158331156 (1.8)..
Poteriteri28.92.4474143029..
Waihola6.42.085 698..(Tidal)16
Ellesmere22.512.91811 930..(Tidal)2
    Artificial
Cobb4.80.42695811 (15.2)96
Waitaki4.80.869 774327232..
Aviemore10.84.1299 701327269..
Roxburgh32.20.4615 857486133..
Mahinerangi14.51.6213117391..
Benmore—
  Ahuriri Arm18.54.4758 532319362..
  Main Arm29.8

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. This is a region where volcanoes are active and where the Earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata. Earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata have in many places been tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over the New Zealand area many times and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale). Their age is revealed by the Molluscan shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain, as well as by various radioactive techniques.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. They were formed at depth in the Earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the “roots” of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of metres thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed by the action of heat and pressure on the thick sediments (up to tens of thousands of metres) deposited in huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines), which continued to sink as the deposits accumulated. When these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of an intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE
Eras PeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary10 thousand
Pleistocene2 million
PlioceneTertiary11 "
Miocene25 "
Oligocene38 "
Eocene60 "
Paleocene70 "
MesozoicCretaceous 135 "
Jurassic 180 "
Triassic 225 "
PaleozoicPermian 270 "
Carboniferous 350 "
Devonian 400 "
Silurian 440 "
Ordovician 500 "
Cambrian 600 "

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks. This suggests that a large land mass existed nearby at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period—an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of the late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous land mass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by high temperatures and the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country, embracing roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary era, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine white foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: “The pattern of folds, welts, and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic … the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds. … We can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago … A kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on …”. The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of the South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain-building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the Earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the Earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of metres. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each less than a few metres. The blocks adjacent to “transcurrent” faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements built, carving detailed landscape patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and the deposition of the debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, spits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them in the lower parts of the valleys as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation and later melting of the land ice, affecting the erosion or deposition of the rivers and thus being responsible for the formation of the many prominent river terraces in this country.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island. Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, also achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8000 cu km of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition. The largest is Pirongia, some 900 m high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria it; late Pleistocene and Holocene times; and many small scoria cones can be seen in the locality. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—An earthquake occurs when energy is suddenly released from a volume of rock within the Earth's outer layers, and is radiated outwards in the form of elastic waves that can be felt at places near the origin, and detected by sensitive instruments at greater distances. Earthquakes are most common in certain geographically limited regions, one of which includes New Zealand. Within these disturbed zones, young fold mountains, oceanic trenches, volcanoes, anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field, and active geological faulting are also usual, and like the earthquakes have their ultimate cause in the internal processes incidental to the major structural development of the Earth, and as yet imperfectly understood.

The seismically active zones define the margins of a system of stable blocks or plates which are not completely inactive, but experience large earthquakes only infrequently, and are thought to be the primary units of the Earth's crust. Two of these units, the Pacific and Indian Plates, abut in the vicinity of New Zealand, forming a triple junction with a third, the Antarctic Plate, south of Macquarie Island. As a result of thermally generated convective movements in the deeper levels of the earth, relative displacement of the plates is occurring and this provides the continuing source of the energy that is intermittently released as earthquakes.

Instrumental records have shown that at the time of an earthquake large shearing movements take place at the source. It seems probable that all major earthquakes are the result of the breakage of rock under strain, but other factors such as the presence or absence of liquid in the pores and fractures of the rock are also of primary importance in determining the time and place at which a shock occurs.

In large shallow earthquakes a rupture may appear at the surface, forming or renewing movement on a geological fault. In regions where the majority of earthquakes are very shallow, such as California, there is a tendency for the earthquake origins to cluster near geological fault traces, but in regions where there is deeper activity, such as New Zealand, this is not so. For example, there is little activity near the Alpine Fault, which stretches for some 500 km from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti, and is considered one of the world's largest and most active faults. Conversely, instances of fault movement that have not been accompanied by earthquakes are known. Practical assessments of earthquake risk must therefore be based upon the statistics of known earthquake distribution and the broader geological setting of the origins.

New Zealand Seismicity—Compared with some other parts of the Pacific margin, such as Japan, Chile, and the Philippines, the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate. It may be roughly compared with that prevailing in California. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on the average about once a year, one of magnitude 7 or above once in ten years, and one of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century, but in historic times only one shock (the south-west Wairarapa earthquake in 1855) is known to have reached this magnitude.

Other natural disasters and accidents are together responsible for more casualties than earthquakes, the most serious seismic disasters in New Zealand having been the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 in which 256 deaths occurred, and the Buller earthquake of 1929 in which there were 17. The total resulting from all other shocks since 1840 is less than 15 deaths. The last earthquake to cause deaths occurred at Inangahua in 1968, when 3 people died.

Regarded broadly, the zone of seismicity within which New Zealand lies extends continuously from the triple junction south of Macquarie Island to Samoa. When looked at more closely, breaks in continuity and changes in the character of the activity become apparent. There are changes in direction, in the positional relationship of the deeper and shallower activity, and in its association with the other geophysical and geological features of the region.

Within New Zealand itself, at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region, which is the larger, covers the whole of the North Island apart from the Northland peninsula, and the South Island north of a line passing roughly between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes Southern Westland, Western Southland, and Western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main Islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the Earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 km. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and now and in the past they have been widely scattered throughout the country. In historically recent times, the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions have been significantly more active than the rest of New Zealand, but neither the Central Seismic Region that lies between them nor the Northland peninsula has been free from damaging shocks. The details of the present pattern are not necessarily unchanging, and could alter significantly after the occurrence of a major earthquake. Because of this, because of the broader geophysical setting, and because of the distance to which the effects of a large earthquake extend, it would be highly imprudent to treat any part of New Zealand as free from the risk of serious earthquake damage.

Many active regions of the Earth have only shallow earthquakes, but in others shocks have been known to occur at depths as great as 700 km below the surface. It is thought that these deep shocks originate within the edges of crustal plates that have been drawn down or thrust beneath their neighbours. Such deep events are common in both the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions of New Zealand, but their relative positions with respect to the shallow activity and to other geophysical features are rough mirror images. This is believed to indicate that in the North Island, the edge of the Pacific Plate lies below that of the Indian Plate, while in the south of the South Island the Pacific Plate is uppermost and the Indian Plate has been thrust beneath it.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic Region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 km at the northern end, and decreases smoothly to a depth of about 200 km before the southern boundary of the region is reached. Along the whole of the system, there is also a decrease in maximum depth from west to east. In northern Taranaki, near the western limit of this activity, a small isolated group of shocks at a depth of about 600 km has also been recorded. In the Central Seismic Region only shallow shocks are known.

The maximum depth of the earthquakes in the Fiordland Region appears to be only about 160 km Here, the deep activity is more concentrated than in the north, lying close to Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri.

Both earthquakes and volcanoes are found in geophysically disturbed regions, but although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions, large ones are rare. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, all of similar magnitude, and very numerous. These events are known as “earthquake swarms”. Although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result. There is not often a simultaneous volcanic outbreak, but swarms are rare in non-volcanic regions. In New Zealand they have occurred in the volcanic zone that includes Mt. Ruapehu and White Island, in the Coromandel Peninsula, in parts of Northland, and near Mt. Egmont.

Seismological Observatory—Each year the Seismological Observatory, Wellington, a section of the Geophysics Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, publishes the analyses of hundreds of earthquakes originating in the New Zealand region, using data obtained from its own network of recording stations, and from stations in other countries. The instrumental data are supplemented by information about felt effects, supplied by a large number of voluntary observers, who complete a standard questionnaire.

The network of recording stations controlled by the Observatory is now one of the world's largest and most extended, covering the main islands of New Zealand, a large part of the south-west Pacific, and the Ross Dependency. The 34 permanent stations now operating are:

Afiamalu, Apia (Western Samoa); Nadi (Fiji); Niue; Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Great Barrier, Auckland, White Island, East Cape, Karapiro, Whakatane, Gisborne, Wairakei, Tuai, Tarata, Taradale, Mangahao, Castlepoint, Cobb River, Wellington, Kaikoura, Kaimata, Cashmere, Chatham Islands, Milford Sound, Oamaru, Roxburgh, Borland Lodge, Oban, Campbell Island, Scott Base (Antarctica).

At Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Wellington, and Scott Base the equipment includes instruments of internationally standardised pattern designed to record both local and distant activity. At the other stations, many of which record more than one component of the ground motion, the instruments are primarily intended for the study of shocks within about 1000 km. At Wellington there is also a modern Seismic Research Observatory with digital recording, one of only 12 of its kind in the world. Scott Base and several of the island stations provide preliminary readings by radio, but all final analyses are made at the Observatory in Wellington.

Two networks of more closely-spaced stations, connected to central recorders by radio links or land lines, provide for detailed studies of small earthquakes in particular regions. One, for general research purposes, is centred on Wellington, and the other, near Lake Pukaki in the South Island, is primarily intended to monitor any change in earthquake activity associated with the development of a hydroelectric power scheme. These networks also provide valuable readings of New Zealand and overseas earthquakes. Portable equipment is available for more intensive study of aftershock sequences, earthquake swarms, and micro-earthquakes, and for other research projects. In association with the observatory the Geophysical Survey of DSIR operates 3 seismographs in the Tongariro National Park, N.Z. Geological Survey and the University of Auckland operate an instrument at Waimangu, and the University of Otago has further instruments in Dunedin. In addition, the Physics and Engineering Laboratory of the DSIR maintains a network of strong-motion recorders intended to provide data on large shocks for engineering purposes.

The information collected and published by the Observatory covers all significant earthquakes in the New Zealand region. It is made freely available to the public and the press, as well as to seismologists, engineers, and other specialists. In addition, a very large number of distant earthquakes are recorded, and readings of these, as well as of the local activity, are regularly sent to international agencies and to overseas seismologists who have a need for them. The Observatory itself carries out a vigorous programme of research into problems of seismicity and earthquake mechanism, and into the structure and constitution of the Earth's crust and its deep interior.

EARTHQUAKES DURING 1982—No earthquake within New Zealand in 1982 reached magnitude 6, but there were a number over magnitude 5. The largest of these was the magnitude 5.8 shock on September 3, which occurred some 50 km deep beneath the city of Hastings. This is rather deeper than is common on the East Coast of the North Island, and it is because of this depth that there was not more damage. More than 400 claims, all minor, were received by the Earthquake and War Damage Commission. A lot of shops lost stock off shelves, and there was some superficial damage to some buildings.

On March 3 an earthquake of magnitude 5 put out the power to the city of Gisborne. Another of similar magnitude occurred near Masterton on February 6, and was felt from Wanganui to Hawke's Bay and Wellington.

In October a swarm of earthquakes occurred just to the south of Wanganui. The largest was of magnitude 5.2, on October 14, and two others reached 5.0. Portable recording equipment was installed within the first two days of the swarm, and records of more than two hundred small earthquakes were obtained. About a dozen of these were large enough to be felt, and the analysis of the sequence has provided clues about the physical mechanism of earth rupture which was taking place.

Public attention was also aroused in May when a swarm of very small earthquakes occurred near Rotorua. As is usual in the thermal and volcanic area, these earthquakes were very shallow, with focal depth probably less than five kilometres, and so were felt quite strongly, although the largest was only of magnitude 2.5.

Deeper earthquakes under South Taranaki on August 8, October 12 and October 30 all reached magnitude 5, as did one to the west of Lake Wanaka and 150 km deep. These were of little consequence in terms of hazard, but are important scientifically. On June 16 an earthquake of magnitude 5 occurred 100 km off the Wairarapa coast, and was followed in the succeeding weeks by many small aftershocks. Of interest also was the small earthquake (magnitude 4.2) which occurred to the south of Dunedin, just offshore, on June 23. This area is not highly seismic but earthquakes do occur there from time to time. It is possible that this shock was associated with the Akatore fault which is the subject of a current study by University of Otago geologists.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The New Zealand Meteorological Service maintains networks of meteorological stations within New Zealand, on its outlying islands, at Scott Base and, by arrangement, in the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Niue, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. The weather observations are transmitted regularly to Wellington for international exchange, for the preparation of weather forecasts and special warnings, for compiling climatological statistics, and for providing a general weather information service for Government departments, industry, and the general public. All weather observations are preserved in the Meteorological Archives, Wellington. The Meteorological Service also has a programme of atmospheric research.

Observations recorded at a few selected stations in 1982 are summarised in tables which follow but for further detailed climatological statistics reference should be made to the annual publications of the New Zealand Meteorological Service; Miscellaneous Publications No. 109 Meteorological Observations, and No. 110 Rainfall Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette. Special reports are published from time to time to supplement the regular data publications.

Most weather data are now held in computer-accessible data files, and several kinds of output are available to provide an alternative means of dissemination of information to the printed publications.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands of New Zealand lie just south of the subtropical mean high pressure belt and penetrate into the hemispheric westerly airstream which is usually strongest in the New Zealand region between 50°S and 55°S. The daily weather patterns are dominated by eastward-moving anticyclones and troughs of low pressure whose frequencies and intensities vary substantially. The troughs normally have a north-west to south-east orientation and are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A typical weather sequence commences with a low-pressure trough approaching from the west. Freshening north-westerly winds prevail with increasing cloud, followed by rain for a period during which winds may reach gale force. The passage of the trough, with its associated cold front, is accompanied by a change to cold south-westerly or southerly winds and showery weather, occasionally with some hail and thunder. The barometer then rises with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. Winds moderate and fair weather prevails for a few days as the anticyclone moves across the country.

While the sequence just described is very common the situation is frequently much more complex. The troughs are very unstable systems where depressions readily form. Some of these develop into vigorous storms that may pass over New Zealand at any time of the year. Occasionally in summer a cyclonic storm of tropical origin accompanied by gales and heavy rain passes over or near New Zealand, affecting mainly northern and eastern districts of the North Island. The anticyclones vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their centres, on the average, follow a track across the North Island but individual centres may pass either north or south of the country, the more northerly tracks being favoured in spring and the southerly tracks in autumn and winter. At times when little development occurs within the troughs the anticyclones follow each other at intervals of about 6–7 days.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original characters after their long ocean passages. Since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the ocean, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 130 km from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons although in individual months easterlies may predominate. In the North Island winds generally decrease for a period in the summer or early autumn. However, in the South Island, July and August are the least windy months. Important modifications to the wind pattern are caused by mountain ranges and by the heating or cooling contrasts between land and sea. The north-westerly föhn wind in eastern areas of both islands gives rise to a characteristic weather type. The blocking effect of the mountain ranges decreases wind strength on the upwind side but increases it in the mountain passes and in Cook and Foveaux Straits and about the Manawatu Gorge. Sea breezes are frequent and in many parts of New Zealand are almost certainly coupled with the mountain winds. North of Taranaki the general air flow is from the south-west and there is a noticeable reduction of windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These figures were all obtained by the use of anemographs at airports.

StationAverage Number of Days with Gusts ReachingYears of Data
63 km/h or more96 km/h or more
Nov-AprMay OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia2039590.82.33.126
Whangarei1021310.40.81.226
Auckland2136570.91.72.618
Tauranga1523380.50.71.222
Rotorua1119300.50.40.915
Hamilton9132200.60.68
Gisborne2127480.40.91.329
New Plymouth3149801.44.45.826
Napier2027470.80.81.627
Wanganui3541762.23.96.126
Palmerston North2622481.10.81.918
Wellington839017313.319.232.521
Nelson2014340.50.30.830
Blenheim2315380.70.51.230
Westport1522370.81.52.326
Hokitika1820380.81.62.426
Christchurch3123541.51.32.829
Timaru1714310.90.81.727
Dunedin3335682.53.25.724
Gore2920490.900.95
Invercargill55461015.95.711.626

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 300 mm in a small area of Central Otago to over 8000 mm in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 600 and 1500 mm, a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 600 mm are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges. These include most of central and north Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 700–1000 mm a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 mm. Over a considerable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 2500 mm a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest-covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 130 rain days (days with at least 1.0 mm of rain) a year except to the east of the ranges where there are in places fewer than 110 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 mm generally have about 80 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn, when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 mm which occurred at Rapid Creek, Hokitika Catchment, where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 mm. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in northeastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 80 mm are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (MILLIMETRES) (1941–70)
StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Kaitaia Airport799484119152157150165122112102941430
Kerikeri76124112142178178183196142114991041648
Dargaville6684791041321501321379710984791253
Auckland (Albert Park)6494861141271351371429410784841268
Tauranga Air port8484114114137132137137107114841041348
Rotorua991141171171501501421371271221041321511
Taupo8194769110912211710984102841121199
Hamilton (Ruakura)718184991121321171179710791891197
Taumarunui8999841091321521351241171371241301432
New Plymouth Airport1071021021171631681631471121351171321565
Masterton (Waingawa)645876711021071029174746976964
Gisborne Airport74619191109112112117747158641034
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1501401681802111881982261501501471522060
Napier515866618489798151534364780
Wanganui696461748691817658816989899
Palmerston North84697474869991846989791041002
Wellington (Kelburn)8184949713213514012410211284861271
Westport Airport1551681571912011881831701701832011852152
Hokitika Airport2312512392342722292412362392572772342940
Milford Sound5315696305264834193784245385466385546236
Nelson Airport7474818911279919476817474999
Blenheim514351537658666153534851664
Hanmer Forest8681919911799104114899789991165
Lake Coleridge616158767971817974767671863
Christchurch514658588456585346464656658
Lake Tekapo514348535348534856515151606
Timaru585858484836413841485869601
Dunedin (Musselburgh)746176747166564648587171772
Queenstown746676717966646176767664849
Alexandra463838282820151520283330339
Gore766976797679564853698179841
Invercargill Airport897994104911076966748694891042

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about 5 days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°c in the far north to 12°c about Cook Strait, then to 9°c in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 2°c per 300 m. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°c on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 42°c, which has been recorded in three places: Jordan (Marlborough), Christchurch, and Rangiora (Canterbury); and –19°c at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 8°c. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 9°–10°c. Further inland it exceeds 11°c in places, reaching a maximum of 14°c in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these “katabatic” drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (1.3 m above the ground) has registered below 0°c only once in 65 years, yet up the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the coldest winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as –12°c are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2500 m on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 m even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 2000 m in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 m of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 m, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain below 1000 m for extended periods.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
 percent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne85578769
Ohakea Airport87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch83578870
Hokitika94768770
Invercargill87689077

Very low humidity—from 30 percent down to about 5 percent—occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry “Canterbury Nor'-wester” is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 30°c. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest places are near Blenheim, the Nelson-Motueka area, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2350 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1800 hours. Southland and coastal Otago, where sunshine drops sharply to about 1700 hours a year, lie on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours a year. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations has been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

StationSummerWinter
 percent
Auckland5447
Hamilton5443
New Plymouth5446
Napier5650
Wellington5341
Nelson5957
Hokitika4645
Christchurch4746
Dunedin4042
Invercargill4135

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAltitude (metres)Annual AveragesAir Temperatures (Degrees Celsius.)
Rain Days (1.0mm or More)Rain Days (5.0mm or More)Bright Sunshine (Hrs)Days of Screen Frost (min. air temp, less than 0°C)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
Kaitaia Airport80138722 138015.52415158282
Kerikeri73135722 014115.12515136290
Dargaville20147722 011314.6231514729–2
Auckland (Albert Park)49140672 140015.42314168273
Tauranga Airport4118642 285814.2241414529–2
Hamilton (Ruakura)40131722 0541713.2231312329–3
Rotorua307123681 9332512.5231212329–3
Gisborne Airport4113552 224614.0241413432–2
Taupo376123662 0683911.8231111229–4
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)643164100..611.120911328–1
Taumarunui171140831 7243912.9241312231–5
New Plymouth (Airport)27142832 102013.12113135260
Napier292432 262614.1241314432–2
Wanganui22117592 092413.5221214529–1
Palmerston North34127621 8261513.0221213428–3
Masterton (Waingawa)114123572 0072912.2241211231–4
Wellington (Kelburn)126124682 014012.52011136261
Nelson Airport296542 4034111.9221212128–3
Blenheim484392 4703612.6231212232–4
Westport Airport21691111 937112.11912124250
Hanmer Forest387115651 9238510.12299–232–9
Hokitika Airport391681181 8832511.3191111326–2
Lake Coleridge3649852..7010.121910–131–7
Christchurch785371 9853711.7221112132–4
Timaru1781331 8103911.0211011032–4
Milford Sound3183145..2710.318910225–3
Queenstown32993501 9315310.122810–130–5
Alexandra14164202 0478110.623711–232–8
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2119481 695810.9191011330–2
Gore72137601 6984010.12199031–5
Invercargill Airport0157691 627489.61899028–5

Notes: (1) Averages of sunshine 1941–70; mean temperature, mean daily maximum and mean daily minimum 1941–70; other temperature data, rain days, and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

(3) At Hanmer, Queenstown, and Alexandra the possible sunshine is considerably reduced by hills or mountains, by amounts varying from ¾ hour per day at Alexandra to 1½ hours per day at Hanmer and 3¼ hours per day at Queenstown. The reductions in actual sunshine are less than this—mainly between half and three-fifths of the above amounts.

THE WEATHER DURING 1982

From February to April and in June and July, pressures were high in the south of New Zealand, with light winds prevailing. However in January and May, and during the last 3 months of the year, pressures were low to the south. Strong westerlies predominated in these months, particularly in November and December.

Rainfall was below normal for the North Island and in the north and east of the South Island. Some northern and eastern areas of both Islands, and central areas of the North Island, had only 70 percent of normal rainfall. Many stations in these areas had their driest year on record and among those with new records for lowest annual rainfall were Kaitaia, Auckland Airport, Whakatane, Kinleith, and Waiouru. Drought conditions affected the Canterbury Plains and North Otago between January and September, with large areas in those regions recording only 50 percent to 60 percent of normal rainfall for the period. Southern and western areas of the South Island were wetter than usual, with Milford Sound having its wettest year on record.

For most of the country mean temperatures were 0.5°C below average. The Cook Strait area and eastern areas of the South Island had temperatures between normal and 0.5°C above normal.

Sunshine totals were normal or above normal for most of the country this year. Stations on the east of the South Island were particularly sunny, with Kaikoura, Christchurch, Ashburton, and Timaru establishing new record annual sunshine totals.

Monthly Weather Summaries

January was wet, cloudy, and cool in the south and west of the South Island, but warm and sunny for the rest of the country. Westerly winds were most frequent and pressures were slightly lower than usual. The North Island, and north and east of the South Island were dry, many areas having less than half their January rainfall. However the south and west of the South Island were very wet, and exceptionally heavy rain during the 21st–22nd caused flooding and slips at Otira. Otira recorded 906 mm of rain for the month, making this the wettest January since 1931, while Milford Sound with 1500 mm, had its wettest January on record. Temperatures were close to 1°C above normal everywhere except for Westland, Fiordland, and coastal areas of Southland and Otago which were about 0.5°C cooler than average. Southern areas also had less sun than usual, with all other areas having average or above average sunshine.

February was warm and dry. North-easterly winds were frequent in the North and north-westerlies in the South, while pressures were generally slightly above average. There was little rain during the first 18 days of the month, and as many areas had little significant rain since late December, drought conditions developed locally. Farmers reported shortages of feed and began feeding out winter reserves early. Temperatures were about 1°C above average, and accentuated the effects of the low rainfall. Consequently there were many scrub and bush fires this month. Sunshine totals were close to normal everywhere.

March was cool with average rainfall in the North Island, and mild and dry in the South Island. Winds were lighter than usual, with more north-easterlies in the South and south-easterlies in the North. Pressures were high, especially to the south and east. It was wetter than usual in central and some eastern areas of the North Island, Fiordland and Southland and dry elsewhere, with much of Central and South Canterbury having less than 25 percent normal rainfall. The dry weather continued to cause stock feeding problems for farmers. South Westland and Fiordland had heavy rainfalls between the 9th and 12th, with stations in the area recording between 450 mm and 650 mm of rain over the 4 days. Flood damage to telephone and powerlines, roads and bridges was extensive and severe. Temperatures were about 0.5°C below average in the North Island and between 1° and 2°C above average in the South Island. Apart from eastern areas of the North Island and Southland sunshine hours were higher than usual.

April was mainly cool and dry. It was less windy than normal with a high frequency of easterly winds. The tropical Cyclone Bernie, caused damage estimated at $1 million to kiwifruit crops in the Bay of Plenty between the 8th and 10th. Other crops and forestry plantations in eastern and central areas were also seriously affected. Apart from those areas of the North Island affected by Cyclone Bernie and some eastern areas of the South Island, rainfall was below normal. Horowhenua, Manawatu, Blenheim and Central Otago were particularly dry. Temperatures were cool, being between 1°C and 2°C below average in most areas. Record lowest mean monthly temperatures for April were recorded in such diverse places as Dunedin, Timaru, Waingawa and Rotorua. However, sunshine totals were higher than usual for much of the country.

May was mild and sunny. Winds were stronger than usual in the south, but lighter than usual in the north. Pressures were higher than average to the north, but low to the south. Most of the North Island, and the north and east of the South Island were very dry, with some eastern areas of both Islands recording less than 20 percent of normal rainfall. Feed shortages in the east of the South Island became critical and drought conditions became well established. Pasture growth in southern and eastern areas of the North Island was also poor. In contrast southern and western areas of the South Island had about twice their normal rainfall. Temperatures were up to 2°C above average for most areas, except central and eastern areas of the North Island, which were between normal and 1°C cooler than usual. Sunshine hours were normal or above normal except in Southland and South Westland. Eastern areas were particularly sunny with several stations recording their highest May sunshine totals on record.

June was generally dry, cool and less windy than usual. Pressures to the south were unusually high, consequently light easterly winds were frequent this month. Apart from central New Zealand, rainfall was below normal for the month, and drought conditions continued in eastern South Island areas. Mean temperatures in the North Island were between normal and 1°C below normal. In the South Island temperatures were close to normal except in Central Otago and inland Southland. Freezing fog covered the Mackenzie Basin on the 15th and 16th, while Alexandra registered maximum temperatures below freezing for 4 days between the 18th and 21st. Western areas had more sunshine than usual, while eastern and central New Zealand had less. Both Wellington and Alexandra had their lowest sunshine totals on record.

July was cool, dry, and sunny. South-westerlies prevailed in the south and north-easterlies in the north, where winds were lighter than normal. Rainfall was below average everywhere except in Northland and Southland. The dry conditions in Canterbury and northern Otago continued, with many stations having less than 15 mm of rain this month. The drought became severe in many areas. Mean temperatures were between normal and 1°C below average for the North Island and up to 2°C below average in the South Island. Heavy snow fell to low levels in Otago and Southland on the 14th, closing many roads. It was a sunny month, with the whole country having average or above average sunshine hours. The west of the North Island and south and east of the South Island were particularly sunny, with July sunshine records established at Wellington and Timaru.

August was also a dry, sunny month. South-westerly winds prevailed and winds were lighter than usual in the north but stronger than usual in the south. Pressures were higher than normal everywhere, but especially in the north. The dry, sunny weather was excellent for lambing, but there was no easing of the drought conditions in the east of the South Island. Most of the North Island had less than half normal rainfall, and parts of Northland and eastern areas had less than 20 percent normal rainfall. The south and west of the South Island were wetter than usual. It was a little cooler than normal in the north of the North Island, but milder than usual elsewhere, with parts of Canterbury up to 2°C warmer than usual. August was also sunny, with several stations in the east recording record August sunshine totals.

September was generally dry with average temperatures. Winds were lighter than usual, especially in the north where there were fewer south-westerlies than usual. However there were more south-westerlies than usual in the south. Pressures were slightly higher than normal, especially in eastern areas. A tornado near New Plymouth on the 19th caused some damage locally. Dry conditions continued and the only areas to have more rainfall than usual this month were North Westland, Nelson, Blenheim, Northland, Taranaki, Gisborne and Wellington. Many eastern areas of the South Island again had only 25 percent-50 percent of normal rainfall and wind erosion of dry topsoil became a problem in some of the areas suffering from drought. Mean temperatures were very close to normal for the month. There was less sunshine than usual in the North Island, and north and east of the South Island, while eastern and southern areas of the South Island had more sun than usual.

October was cool. South-westerlies were frequent in the north and many parts of the country had gale force winds this month. Pressures were very low, especially in eastern areas. Rainfall was below normal to normal everywhere except the south and east of the South Island. Many parts of Canterbury and Otago had between 2 and 4 times their normal rainfall, easing the drought and causing farmers to report reasonable grass growth. Temperatures were 1°C to 2°C below average over the whole country, with many widely separated stations establishing record low mean temperatures for October. Unseasonably heavy snow and gale force winds between the 23rd and 25th closed roads in both Islands and disrupted many Labour Weekend activities. Sunshine totals were close to normal for the month in most areas.

November was mild and windy. North-westerlies predominated to the south and South-westerlies to the north and gales were frequent. Pressures were high in the north and low in the south. The North Island and north of the South Island had below or close to normal rainfall, while the south and west of the South Island had more rainfall than usual. Apart from South Westland, Southland and Fiordland temperatures were above normal. In many eastern areas mean temperatures were 2°C to 3°C above average due to the frequent foehn effects induced by the high incidence of strong westerly winds this month. Napier had its highest mean temperature for November since recording began in 1870, and several other eastern stations also established new records. Sunshine hours were mostly average or above average in northern and eastern areas, and below average in areas to the south and west.

December was cool and dry in northern and eastern areas of the North Island and north of the South Island, and cold and wet elsewhere. Winds from a westerly quarter were most frequent in both the north and south this month, with pressures higher than usual to the north and low to the south. Rainfall was highly variable. Some areas on the east coast of the North Island had only 20 percent of normal rainfall while some stations in the south-west of the North Island had over 200 percent of their usual rainfall. Floods affected the south of the North Island between the 11th and 13th, and two people drowned when their car was swept away in floodwaters near Pauatahanui. There was further flooding in South Wairarapa on the 26th. Nelson, Marlborough, and Kaikoura were the only areas in the South Island to have less rain than usual this month. Temperatures were cool. Mean temperatures in the south of the North Island and south and west of the South Island were 1°C to 2°C below average, and between normal and 1°C below average elsewhere. Eastern districts had more sun than usual, while western areas had average or below average sunshine.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1982—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1982 were made at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e. 2100 hours Greenwich mean time, except during January, February, November, and December, when they were made at 0900 hours N.Z. daylight time (2000 G.M.T.).

StationRainfall (mm)Rain Days (1.0 mm or more)Bright Sunshine (hours)Screen Frost Days*Air Temperature (Degrees Celsius)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MaximumExtremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
* Minimum air temperatures less than 0.0°C.
Whangarei125612721050625.614.75.330.6–2.0
Albert Park, Auckland90410821400015.424.414.016.27.029.02.4
Tauranga Airport8428622880314.024.113.414.24.528.2–1.2
Rotorua10479622082812.223.311.112.32.330.2–4.2
Taupo8679519954611.322.810.611.11.031.4–4.7
Ruakura, Hamilton96710721193312.923.712.812.12.529.7–5.6
Taumarunui113913516664612.324.212.311.30.632.5–5.6
New Plymouth Airport118712322330513.122.013.113.44.728.6–1.1
Waingawa, Masterton8591352212.223.611.311.21.932.5–3.0
Gisborne Airport93110922340713.825.613.213.63.732.4–1.6
Onepoto, Waikaremoana16881501121.98.411.02.4–1.3
Napier5978221381225.713.114.43.7–3.0
Palmerston North DSIR87010217411012.721.812.013.24.033.0–2.6
Kelburn, Wellington92510821180012.420.711.013.45.330.11.3
Wanganui73410321240322.112.714.13.6–1.6
Hokitika Airport262416518821911.118.411.710.82.026.0–2.2
Milford Sound8471182469.517.47.39.3–0.624.0–3.5
Nelson Airport7107626193112.022.511.711.80.430.1–3.8
Blenheim4527024783512.824.712.712.61.334.3–4.2
Hanmer Forest963104191010510.223.39.09.6–2.834.0–7.0
Lake Coleridge7411008110.321.98.59.9–3.232.1–6.6
Christchurch4647622783912.023.910.911.80.437.0–3.2
Lake Tekapo670801138.421.64.48.6–5.230.0–10.0
Timaru4616521603411.121.110.111.50.236.6–3.4
Musselburgh, Dunedin82012616791011.018.49.510.82.929.7–2.4
Queenstown10409818825910.021.57.19.7–2.031.2–5.8
Alexandra3797020698410.622.96.810.2–2.733.4–5.7
Gore11551571718379.418.18.09.10.127.0–5.5
Invercargill Airport13151721575479.517.49.29.0–0.126.1–7.2

For 1982 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand Standard Time were: Auckland, 1017.5; Kelburn, Wellington, 1015.0; Nelson Airport, 1015.4; Hokitika Airport, 1015.3; Christchurch, 1013.1; and Dunedin Airport, 1012.0.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the geography and climate of New Zealand will be found in the following publications.

New Zealand Atlas—Government Printer.

Encyclopaedia of New Zealand—Government Printer.

New Zealand Gazette—Government Printer.

New Zealand Seismological Report—Geophysics Division, DSIR.

Rainfall Observations—New Zealand Meteorological Service.

Meteorological Observations—New Zealand Meteorological Service.

Chapter 2. Section 2; GOVERNMENT

2 A—HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The early history of the people of New Zealand and the coming of the Maoris is shrouded in myth and based on orally-transmitted traditions. It is difficult to establish the period when the voyages of the Polynesian people to New Zealand began. Tradition has it that the first voyager to visit New Zealand was Kupe in about 950 A.D., and according to some Maori tribes it was he who named the land Aotearoa ("land of the long white cloud"). Finding no other inhabitants Kupe returned to Hawaiki, the legendary homeland of the Maori. Following his return there were various waves of migration to New Zealand, and the names of the canoes and of their captains and crews are still remembered by the Maori and are important features of their history and genealogy.

Linguistic and other evidence indicate that Hawaiki was situated in Eastern Polynesia, which makes their voyages impressive and bears testimony to the sophistication of their vessels and navigation.

From the people of each canoe arose tribal groupings claiming common descent and symbolic unity. About 10 major tribes evolved, divided into many subtribes. All tribes can claim their ancestry back to members of one or more of the canoes, and many of the more familiar canoes such as Aotea, Te Arawa, Tainui, and Takitimu have become synonymous today with tribal groupings and territories.

The Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island and the population was organised into descent groups of different scale-tribes (iwi), subtribes (hapū), and extended families (whānau). The main themes in this society were mana (prestige), tapu (sacredness) and utu (the principle of equal return, often expressed in revenge).

The bases of Maori society have changed profoundly from the original subsistence economy in pre-European contact times.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing, and now forms 9 percent of the New Zealand population.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north he came into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain (then Lieutenant) James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages.

First European Settlements—Whaling stations sprang up along the New Zealand coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident at Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty.

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and the pacification of warring tribes.

Early Constitutional Developments—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs, this policy being designed by the Colonial Office, strongly influenced by missionary opinion, to safeguard the well-being of the native people. Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both Islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty over the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and over the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of Native Affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers, and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisers in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the growing hostilities between Pakeha and Maori. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the “self-reliant policy” whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

Colonisation—The first body of immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main sturdy resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

The guiding genius of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors or men of wealth for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10 000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3801 in Wellington, 2895 in Auckland, 2500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 263 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125 000 (as against 55 000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200 000 with men from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain under the Vogel policy of assisted immigration and public works development.

War Over Land—After the death of Hobson in 1842, subsequent governors, through lack of funds and weak administration, found themselves unable to protect the small and helpless settlements from threatening Maori aggression engendered by strong feelings on land ownership. The response of the Colonial Office was to appoint Captain George Grey as Governor and to provide him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers' needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the census revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led McLean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris, and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers' government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. The war had died down by 1870 and during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister some measure of reconciliation began. However, although a substantial portion of the confiscated land was subsequently purchased or returned, land transactions remained a source of bitterness and potential hostility between Maori and settler.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally and began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500 000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established that degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British market, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and large emigration but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained Premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was on social justice.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new fanning class in which the “cow-cockie” was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey introduced measures to strengthen the primary producer, of which the extension of rural credit was typical.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War. 1914–1918, broke out, leading to a Coalition Government and an Imperial Commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydroelectric schemes and highways.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A Coalition Government was formed in 1931 to meet the crisis. Partly as a result of measures taken by this government and partly as a result of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935. The election of a Labour Government, under the leadership of Michael Savage, in 1935 led to changes in administrative policy and a renewed emphasis on social problems.

War and Post-war—The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were met with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

At the 1949 election the Labour Government was defeated after holding office since 1936. It was succeeded by a National Government, under the leadership of Sidney Holland.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk. Following Kirk's untimely death in 1974 W. E. Rowling became Prime Minister. At the 1975 election there was a dramatic reversal of the position 3 years earlier, and the National Party under Robert Muldoon was returned to power with a substantial majority. The new Government faced growing economic difficulties and rising unemployment as a result of economic recession overseas, steep rises in oil prices, and the loss or shrinkage of traditional markets for agricultural products. At the 1978 election and again in 1981 the National Party retained power with greatly reduced majorities.

Later Constitutional Developments—In 1907, in recognition of an emerging sense of nationality and an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, New Zealand had been given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony.

A further step in the evolution of New Zealand into full nationhood came in 1947, when New Zealand belatedly adopted the Statute of Westminster, which had been passed by the United Kingdom Parliament in 1931. The draft of this statute had been submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. Its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries.

Some surviving doubts concerning the authority of the New Zealand Parliament over the Constitution were resolved when, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, the United Kingdom Parliament passed a Constitution Amendment Act authorising the New Zealand Parliament to amend any of the provisions of the Constitution Act of 1852.

In 1950 the Prime Minister, Sidney Holland, initiated a constitutional change when the Legislative Council, the “second house” of the General Assembly, was abolished on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function.

The present Constitution and recent developments are dealt with later in this section under the heading, “The Constitution of New Zealand”.

DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS—The emergence of a distinctive and independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually regarded as dating from 1935, following the election of a Labour Government under Michael Savage.

The contrast between the policies followed in the 1920s and those adopted under the Savage Government from the close of 1935 is most clearly illustrated by the New Zealand attitude to the League of Nations. From the foundation of the League following the Peace Conference at Versailles, Massey and those who followed took the view that the League was no place for a loyal Dominion to voice views that contradicted Imperial policy. With the coming to power of the Savage Labour Government there re-emerged a willingness to take an independent line that had lain largely dormant since the death of Seddon. New Zealand spoke strongly for the principle of collective security and collective police action on a succession of issues (Abyssinia, Spain, China) at a time when the United Kingdom and other powers were following a policy which would later be described as appeasement.

Despite these differences there was no suggestion that New Zealand was departing from its historically close association with Britain. The course it would follow in the event of war was never in doubt. When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms which reflected New Zealand's sovereignty as well as its ties with Britain:

"Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear beside Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we are one and all a band of brothers, and we march forward with a union of hearts and wills to a common destiny."

The Second World War—The Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world. The New Zealand Government established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and made a beginning in stationing its own diplomatic representatives in countries where New Zealand's interests made their presence necessary. In particular, New Zealand sought to foster good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increase the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

Woven into post-war policy was the traditional New Zealand belief in the principles of collective security and international justice, which the United Nations was pledged to support. There was also the belief that the international community should give high priority to the welfare and political advancement of dependent peoples and to the elimination of poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

There have been several periods of expansion in the establishment of New Zealand posts overseas. Aside from the three posts set up during the Second World War (Washington, Ottawa, Canberra) to maintain consultations with our closest allies, the first main period of expansion came in the 1950s as a consequence of the recognition that our security was closely bound up with that of South-east Asia. Following the signature of the ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in 1952, and the Manila Treaty in 1954, diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of Asian countries. By the end of the 1950s five New Zealand posts had been set up in Asia and the substance of our bilateral relations had broadened considerably.

A second period of expansion in the 1960s led to the setting up of a number of diplomatic posts in Western Europe in response to the need to defend New Zealand's essential economic and political interests as Britain negotiated its terms of entry into the European Economic Community. At the same time a more gradual expansion was under way in the Pacific. As island states became independent and as the extent of New Zealand's economic and political relations in the South Pacific increased, a number of South Pacific posts were opened. A fourth phase, still under way, is closely related to New Zealand's search for new trading opportunities as the degree of dependence on traditional markets gradually declines. The diversification both in the range of goods exported and in markets led to the strengthening of posts in certain areas—particularly in Asia and the Pacific—and the opening of posts in the Middle East, Latin America, and China, in addition to the reopening of the post in the Soviet Union. An extensive network of multiple accreditations has allowed New Zealand's overseas representatives to cover several countries from the one base.

While New Zealand's overseas relations continue to grow, economic stringencies have meant a careful reappraisal of overseas representation. Several posts (Port of Spain, Toronto, New Delhi) have been closed during 1982. However the planned opening of a new post in Mexico is indicative of a continuing responsiveness to the development of New Zealand's overseas interests. As at November 1982, New Zealand had 44 posts overseas, details of which are given in the Official Section of this Yearbook.

Commonwealth—As a member of the Commonwealth, New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 46 other countries in a wide variety of activities, both governmental and non-governmental. The value to New Zealand of its Commonwealth links is derived not only from the practical benefits of what the Commonwealth does, but also from the heterogeneous composition of the association. Its 47 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. The Pacific region is now well represented in the Commonwealth: Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Kiribati, and Vanuatu are full members, along with Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru and Tuvalu have special membership status. The Cook Islands and Niue are not eligible for full membership because of their continuing constitutional association with New Zealand. They cannot therefore attend Commonwealth heads of government meetings, but they are entitled to participate in Commonwealth meetings dealing with those subjects for which their governments are responsible.

The belief of member countries in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965 to be the main agency for multilateral communication among Commonwealth governments. The Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and coordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, financed by voluntary contributions to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

Besides contributing to the budget of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, New Zealand provides financial support to a number of other intergovernmental Commonwealth organisations which promote co-operation in specific areas. New Zealand also contributes to the Commonwealth Foundation, which was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links in the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

Western Europe—New Zealand has a great deal in common with the countries of Western Europe in terms of historical experience (notably immigration links), democratic political systems, shared values, and related life styles. Nowadays the community's importance as a market for agricultural exports tends to emphasise the economic aspects of the relationship; the European Community is New Zealand's largest export market and trading partner.

Nevertheless the range of bilateral contacts between New Zealand and the individual countries of Western Europe in all fields is steadily expanding. The benefits of exchanges and co-operation with Western Europe generally, and the European Economic Community in particular, have come to assume greater significance in the wider international setting of New Zealand's political and economic objectives.

In terms of the New Zealand/Community relationship, they reflect above all a fundamental appreciation on New Zealand's part of the progress achieved to date by the community's members (currently comprising 10 states, and shortly to become 12, following the accession of Spain and Portugal) in co-ordinating and co-operating in the conduct of their mutual affairs.

So far this has been predominantly in the economic sphere (the EEC now constitutes the world's largest trade grouping). But the community also has steadily expanded its interests in broadening and making more effective co-operation at the political level. New Zealand, like other countries with already well-established ties to individual community members, will be following developments in European political co-operation closely.

The community of broad interests between New Zealand and Western Europe is further underlined by New Zealand's participation in such multilateral co-operative and consultative organisations as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Energy Agency (IEA).

Altogether in Western European circles there is now appreciably greater attention to New Zealand's region of the world (encompassing South-east Asia, the South Pacific, and Antarctica).

Soviet Union and Eastern Europe—Relations and trade with the countries of Eastern Europe have been developed in recent years, and this has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand's diplomatic representation in the area. New Zealand's Ambassador in Vienna is accredited to five East European countries (Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic); and the Ambassador in Rome is accredited to Yugoslavia. Relations with the U.S.S.R. have been adversely affected by the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979 and Soviet attitudes to developments in Poland, but the Soviet Union has become a major market for New Zealand's exports.

Middle East—Involvement in the Middle East has increased markedly within the past decade. For more than 30 years New Zealand has watched the Arab-Israeli conflict with concern, if from a distance. Recognising the implications for world peace this country has contributed personnel to United Nations truce observation teams. Early in 1982 it also supplied a small contingent to the Sinai peace keeping force. New Zealand has consistently upheld Israel's right to exist and, equally consistently, the rights of the Palestinian people to self-determination.

Since 1973, when Middle East members of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) emerged as a major economic force in the world, the area has increasingly assumed a direct and immediate importance for this country. Most of our oil imports come from the countries around the Persian Gulf. The growing wealth of the region, stemming largely from substantial increases in the price of oil, has created new markets for New Zealand exports, including manufactured goods as well as agricultural products, considerably aiding the diversification efforts being made for such key commodities as lamb and dairy products. In 1982 the region absorbed a considerable amount of New Zealand's total sheepmeat exports. The Middle East, moreover, represents a significant source of investment finance.

New Zealand in recent years has made continuing efforts to broaden its range of contacts with Middle Eastern countries. At the same time, those countries have themselves taken a closer interest in New Zealand and the South Pacific and have expanded their diplomatic representation in the area. Egypt and Israel have embassies in Wellington, while Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Libya have cross-accreditation from Canberra. New Zealand established resident missions in Iran and Iraq in 1975, and in 1977 established a consulate-general in Bahrain, with commercial responsibilities in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf emirates, and the Yemens. The pattern of representation is rounded out by the cross-accreditation of the ambassador in Rome to Egypt and to Saudi Arabia.

Closer relations between New Zealand and the Middle East have been marked by a growing appreciation of each other's concerns. This has been fostered by visits in both directions by ministers, officials, and businessmen. Also, a growing number of tourists, students, and sports teams are coming to New Zealand, a trend that is expected to continue.

Africa—Contacts with African countries have been mainly within the Commonwealth and the United Nations. It is in these settings that the major political and economic issues relating to the emergence to independence and the subsequent development of African countries have been presented. These forums have also been where New Zealand has joined with the international community in opposing South Africa's policy of apartheid or racial separation.

New Zealand does not have resident diplomatic or consular representation in Africa. The New Zealand Ambassador in Athens is cross-accredited as High Commissioner to Tanzania and Kenya. The High Commissioner in London is accredited to Nigeria.

New Zealand's policy on sporting contacts with South Africa continues to be the subject of considerable international attention. The Government joined with other Commonwealth governments in June 1977 in a statement, commonly known as the Gleneagles Agreement, which condemns apartheid (especially apartheid in sport) and pledges each Government to do all it can to discourage sporting contacts with South Africa or any other country where sports are organised on the basis of race. Gleneagles also seeks the support of individuals and sports organisations in the pursuit of this objective. In October 1982 the Commonwealth Games Federation adopted into its constitution a Code of Conduct which expressly sets out the responsibilities of Commonwealth sportsmen and sporting bodies under Gleneagles and provides for exclusion from participation in future Commonwealth Games of those who do not meet those responsibilities.

In a variety of ways, New Zealand has contributed to the economic and social development of African countries—with bilateral assistance and by contributions to Commonwealth and other multilateral programmes. Support for political development has also been given, most notably in contributions during 1980 to Commonwealth monitoring forces and observer teams in both Zimbabwe and Uganda.

New Zealand's total trade with African countries amounts to only a modest percentage of its global trade, but there has been growth in the volume of both exports and imports. Trade surveys have been undertaken in East, North, and West Africa to identify commercial opportunities. The major New Zealand exports are milk powder, tallow, butter, fish, and wool. The main imports from Africa are cocoa, coffee, sisal, vegetable oil, tanner extract, and tobacco.

Asia—During the last 25 years there has been a considerable expansion in New Zealand's relations with countries in Asia. New Zealand has a direct interest in the maintenance of peace and the growth of prosperity in the area. It enjoys a close relationship with Japan, the Republic of Korea, and with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN): Indonesia. Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Since the establishment of relations with the People's Republic of China in 1972, New Zealand's contacts with China have been increasing.

Trade with Asia is becoming more and more important to New Zealand. Private initiative, with Government assistance, has been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic and commercial relationships. A pattern of regular economic consultations with our main trading partners has been developed; bilateral economic agreements have been concluded.

New Zealand's growing interests and involvement in Asia are reflected in the changing pattern of its diplomatic representation. Prior to 1955, when New Zealand opened a post in Singapore, it had only one diplomatic mission in the region, in Tokyo. Representation has now been established in all five of the ASEAN countries, and in Peking, Hong Kong, and Seoul. Several of these missions are also accredited to other Asian capitals. The network thus created enables New Zealand to assess external events in the light of this country's own interests and needs, and to work directly with other countries in areas of common concern. New Zealand has also developed its political contacts with countries of the area in other important ways. Exchanges of visits by heads of state and government ministers and parliamentarians have increased, and the development of regular bilateral consultations has also been encouraged.

New Zealand has placed particular emphasis on supporting regional organisations for co-operation and consultation in both the political and economic fields. It is one of a group of nations closely associated with ASEAN, which it sees as a force for stability and economic development in South-East Asia. It has initiated a number of joint projects with ASEAN for development and trade co-operation. Recent developments in Indochina have had major implications for the stability of the region and have been of particular concern to New Zealand. The massive outflow of refugees from Viet Nam and Kampuchea, and the political uncertainties stemming from the continued presence in Kampuchea of Vietnamese forces have together posed difficult problems for the countries of the region. New Zealand has consulted closely with the ASEAN countries over these developments.

The degree of cultural interchange between New Zealand and the countries of Asia has increased steadily. Where once New Zealanders looked largely to Britain for cultural inspiration and experience, now their horizons have broadened. Increased contacts with Asia have brought with them an awareness of what the cultural background of the countries there can offer New Zealand. Professional bodies, sporting associations, cultural groups, and universities today have links with similar organisations in Asia, as well as with more traditional partners such as Britain and Australia. The development of civil air links, and the concurrent growth of tourism, have also helped to bring a wider range of contacts.

Nowhere within the Pacific Basin has New Zealand's adaptation to changed circumstances been more complete than in its relationship with Japan. Today that association is one of the most important that New Zealand has and it is friendly and rewarding for both sides. Its elements are varied—trade, fishing, and a growing range of cultural, educational, sporting, and personal ties. In many ways, the conditions for a developing trading relationship are ideal, for the two countries are located in different hemispheres, their economies are complementary, and each has in abundance some things that the other needs. New Zealand continues to seek improved conditions of access for certain important commodities, including dairy products, and on both sides there are expectations of continued and expanding trade and of closer involvement together in other settings. Meanwhile, the steady growth in the extent and cordiality of New Zealand's relations with the People's Republic of China further illustrates New Zealanders' changing perceptions of Asia. China is now our second largest market there and is important to New Zealand as a major power with a leading role in Asia.

South Pacific—New Zealand has a long history of interest and involvement in the South Pacific. In the latter part of the 19th century Prime Minister Richard Seddon harboured ambitions of a South Pacific empire controlled by New Zealand, and as a result of pressure from Seddon the administration of the Cook Islands and Niue, which were British colonial possessions, was handed over to New Zealand in 1901. The number of New Zealand Pacific dependencies increased when, following the establishment of the League of Nations, Western Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand troops at the outbreak of the First World War, became a mandated territory under the administration of New Zealand. In 1925 the Tokelau Islands (now known as Tokelau) then part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, were ceded by the United Kingdom to New Zealand.

Despite its geographical situation, the acquisition of overseas dependencies in the South Pacific, and the ethnic kinship of the Maori and the Polynesian peoples, New Zealand's present identity as a South Pacific country was slow in developing for a number of reasons. Culturally, New Zealand has been closer to Western Europe than to the Pacific. For many years almost all of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom. Politically, New Zealand's outlook was oriented towards Europe and, more recently, South-east Asia. Also the Pacific Islands were, and in some cases still are, administered by other countries.

But during the 1960s there was a dramatic emergence of new nations in the South Pacific. New Zealand led this development with moves in its own territories.

In Western Samoa, which had become a United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, political and constitutional development was carried forward in accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people. This culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. The Cook Islands voted under United Nations supervision in 1965 to become a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand. Niue achieved a similar status in an act of self-determination in 1974. Under their respective constitutions the Cook Islands and Niue governments have full legislative and executive competence over all their affairs. The constitutional relationship provides for the exercise by New Zealand of certain responsibilities for the defence and external relations of the Cook Islands and Niue (in the former case, in consultation with the Cook Islands Prime Minister). This does not confer upon the New Zealand Government any rights of control: the Cook Islands and Niue governments retain legislative and executive powers in these fields as in all other matters.

The relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand was elaborated in the 1973 Exchange of Letters between the then New Zealand Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. Norman Kirk, and the Premier of the Cook Islands, Sir Albert Henry. The Prime Minister's letter described the relationship as “one of partnership, freely entered into and freely maintained”. The central features of the partnership are common citizenship and the same head of state. The Cook Islands can at any time amend its constitution to end the “free association” status in favour of complete independence. These points apply equally to the relationship with Niue (though the Cook Islands now has its own Queen's Representative).

The Cook Islands and Niue not only have full constitutional capacity to conduct their own external relations and to enter directly into international arrangements and agreements, but they also in fact directly conduct certain aspects of their external relations. Their capacity to do so is limited only by the extent to which the governments of other states will accord them recognition and deal with them. In practice, the Cook Islands and Niue have participated on an equal basis with sovereign states in the South Pacific. They are members of the South Pacific Forum, the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC), the South Pacific Commission, and the Forum Fisheries Agency. They have associate membership of ESCAP, and the Cook Islands has joined the Asian Development Bank. The Cook Islands has recently signed on a bilateral basis with the United States a maritime boundary delimitation treaty and it has applied to accede to the Lome Convention.

Tokelau is still included within the boundaries of New Zealand and is administered under the authority of the Tokelau Act 1948 and its amendments. Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens.

In accordance with United Nations resolutions on non-self-governing territories, New Zealand has committed itself to assisting Tokelau towards a greater degree of self-government and economic self-sufficiency. New Zealand has stated that it will be guided by the wishes of the Tokelauan people regarding political developments in the territory and the pace at which greater self-determination is introduced. The Tokelau Amendment Act 1982 was passed at the request of the General Fono, Tokelau's traditional decision-making body, imposing a community services levy on salaries, wages and honoraria paid by the Tokelau Administration.

The developments in New Zealand's territories are part of a wider pattern of political evolution in the region. In 1968 Nauru became; an independent republic; in 1970 Fiji became independent; and in the same year Tonga rejoined the Commonwealth. In 1975 Papua New Guinea became fully independent after being self-governing since December 1973. In 1978 the Solomon Islands and Tuvalu (formerly the Ellice Islands) became independent. Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands) attained independence in 1979, and Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides) in 1980.

It is natural that New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours should have become very closely associated. One important reason has been the movement of Pacific peoples into New Zealand. Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens and move freely back and forth. New Zealand's historical association with Western Samoa, which is reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed in August 1962, and its close association with the Kingdom of Tonga, have resulted in a flow of immigrants and visitors from both countries. In 1982 a protocol was added to the Treaty of Friendship on the subject of citizenship.

New Zealand has also played an active role in building up regional co-operation in the South Pacific. A major step in this direction was the creation of the South Pacific Forum, which now comprises the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, and Vanuatu, together with Australia, and New Zealand. The Federated States of Micronesia, has observer status. The first session comprising 5 of the present island members (Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, and the Cook Islands), as well as Australia and New Zealand, met at the invitation of New Zealand, at Wellington in August 1971. Since then meetings have been held in Canberra (Australia), Suva (Fiji), Apia (Western Samoa), Rarotonga (Cook Islands), Nuku'alofa (Tonga), Nauru, Port Moresby (Papua New Guinea), Niue, Honiara (Solomon Islands), Tarawa (Kiribati), Vila (Vanuatu), and Rotorua (New Zealand).

The South Pacific Forum provides the opportunity for the leaders of the South Pacific states to discuss common problems, exchange views, consider priorities, and plan programmes for mutual and regional benefit. The topics considered include such matters as regional trade, shipping, civil aviation, telecommunications, education, the law of the sea, fishing, disaster relief, and nuclear testing.

At the Canberra session of the South Pacific Forum in 1972 members agreed to establish the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) to deal with trade and related matters. The main purpose of the SPEC is to advise Forum members on ways of promoting regional trade and free trade among Island members and to encourage collaboration in areas such as regional transport which will assist the economic development of the Island members. The headquarters of the SPEC are in Suva, Fiji.

At the Niue session of the South Pacific Forum in 1978 members agreed to set up the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, which is an organisation designed to facilitate the rational utilisation and conservation of the region's marine resources. The headquarters of the Agency are in Honiara, Solomon Islands.

Recognising that the development of the South Pacific island countries was largely dependent on the existence of regular and reliable shipping services, the governments of the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, and Western Samoa established the Pacific Forum Line (PFL) in 1977. Subsequently the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and Kiribati joined the Pacific Forum Line while both Australia and Niue, although not shareholders, have made financial contributions to it.

The Pacific Forum Line presently charters three vessels, the Forum New Zealand, the Forum Samoa and the Fua Kavenga, owned respectively by New Zealand, Western Samoa, and Tonga. The headquarters of the line are in Apia.

The Pacific Forum Line has incurred substantial financial losses since it began operations in 1978. Together with other governments in the region, New Zealand has made additional contributions to help the line overcome its financial difficulties. Under an agreement negotiated with the European Investment Bank and endorsed by the 1982 Forum, measures have been taken to put the line on a sound financial basis. New Zealand agreed to contribute half the US$12.6 million required from Forum members. New Zealand and Australia also agreed to fund jointly a new feeder service to Kiribati and Tuvalu managed by the PFL.

The South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA), which provides that Australia and New Zealand will grant duty-free and unrestricted access on a non-reciprocal basis for most of the products exported by the Forum island countries, was signed at the 1980 Forum. The agreement has since been ratified by New Zealand and a number of other Forum countries and entered into force for these countries on 1 January 1981. SPARTECA also includes provisions relating to economic, commercial, and technical co-operation, aimed at enhancing the export capabilities of the Forum island countries. A Regional Committee on Trade has been set up under the agreement to review its operation regularly.

The South Pacific Commission, created in 1947 by the Canberra Agreement of which New Zealand is a signatory, is the other major regional body. Representatives from 27 governments and territorial administrations from within the South Pacific Commission comprise the South Pacific Conference. The Conference which meets annually decides the work programme of the commission. Since its establishment the commission, which is primarily a technical assistance organisation has accomplished much in promoting the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples as well as in helping to build a sense of regional identity. The commission's annual budget (which in 1983 will total approximately $4.5 million) is financed for the most part from proportional contributions by participating governments—Australia, the Cook Islands, Fiji, France, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Western Samoa. Other member governments contribute on a voluntary basis.

The United Nations and its specialised agencies are also an important source of technical assistance in the South Pacific. The independent countries of the region are members of various UN bodies, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has offices in Fiji and Western Samoa.

Australia—New Zealand's most comprehensive bilateral relationship is with Australia. Geographical proximity and shared foreign policy and defence interests reinforced the important historical, cultural, and Commonwealth ties between the two nations that have given rise to this unusually close and mutually beneficial relationship. New Zealand established a diplomatic office in Australia in 1943, very early in its diplomatic history, and in 1944 the Canberra Pact was signed. This paved the way for a tradition of joint consultation and co-operation that reflects the interdependence of the two nations' interests and the goodwill and friendship of their peoples.

In matters of foreign policy, in defence and in the economic field, the degree of co-operation also reflects the importance of each country to the other and a need for continuing close working contacts. Regular and increasingly frequent ministerial and official meetings have taken place, with a minimum of formality, to cover almost the entire range of government activity. Moreover, the two countries are bound together by innumerable personal contacts, widespread family ties, and by institutionalised links in business, finance, education, the professions, and in nearly all fields of national activity. A significant ingredient in the relationship which facilitates these contacts is the free movement of people between the two countries under the trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement.

New Zealand and Australia share a common foreign policy objective in acting to promote stability and development in the South Pacific and South-east Asian regions in their immediate vicinity, as well as a more general interest in co-ordinating their positions on major international political and economic questions of current concern, in the United Nations, the Commonwealth, GATT, and elsewhere. In the economic context, Australia is a major trading partner for New Zealand, Australia's largest single market for manufactured exports. Trade has significantly expanded and the two economies have become increasingly related under the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), dating from 1965–66. In the defence field, the former ANZAC partners continue to co-operate closely, both in relation to training programmes and exercises and the provision of equipment and other supplies, and in terms of the broader issues of defence policy, especially in their common membership of ANZUS.

In 1978 the Deputy Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. B. E. Talboys, paid an extensive visit to Australia. During the visit, Mr Talboys and the Prime Minister of Australia made a joint press statement (the Nareen Declaration) which underlined the determination of both governments to co-operate and consult closely in many fields. The Nareen Declaration also provided for the establishment of an Australia - New Zealand Foundation in both countries to promote the bilateral relationship publicly.

The foundation was set up in 1978. It has an annual budget of $60,000 and has sponsored, as part of its work, studies on closer economic relations between Australia and New Zealand, a workshop on trans-Tasman migration, and a number of other research projects and publications as well as cultural exchanges between Australia and New Zealand.

In March 1980 the Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon and the Australian Prime Minister the Rt. Hon. Malcolm Fraser, issued a joint communique announcing a set of agreed principles on which the two countries intended their future economic co-operation to be based and according to which the bilateral relationship could be strengthened. This announcement set in train over two years of intensive negotiations on the detail of a new set of arrangements for closer economic relations (CER) between the two countries. On 14 December 1982 the two governments recorded an understanding on the framework of a new treaty to replace NAFTA. The terms of the new agreement, which applied from 1 January 1983, will eventually result in all goods produced in either country being traded between the two countries free of duties and import restrictions. The agreement also contains provisions permitting the development of co-operation in a range of fields to bring about a closer economic relationship.

Americas: United States—Continuing and close contact with the United States is an essential part of New Zealand's foreign policy. The United States remains New Zealand's principal security guarantor, is a major trading partner, and has an important influence on the New Zealand way of life. The two countries share a common English-speaking heritage and a friendship of long standing, both in peace and war.

Since the opening in Washington in 1941 of New Zealand's second diplomatic mission, close consultations have been held with the United States on many bilateral questions and international issues of common interest. Basic similarities in political philosophy and social and economic processes have encouraged the development of close governmental relations, which have been supported by increasing contacts, both official and non-official, across a broad range of activities.

This comprehensive bilateral relationship finds expression in political, strategic, economic, and cultural fields. Under ANZUS New Zealand looks to the United States for assistance in the maintenance of its national and regional security. In turn, where national interests coincide, New Zealand is able to offer the United States active support for constructive international and regional diplomatic efforts. On the economic side, the United States is one of New Zealand's major trading partners. For some products, notably beef, it is this country's largest export market. Regular intergovernmental consultations are held to review the trading relationship. Programmes for scientific and technical co-operation, and academic and cultural exchanges, serve to maintain an awareness of New Zealand in the United States and to promote a vigorous and beneficial interchange of ideas and experience.

Canada—With a common British heritage and long association through the Commonwealth, New Zealand and Canada have traditionally enjoyed a close and easy relationship. Since New Zealand established diplomatic representation in Canada in 1942, the association has been marked by ministerial and official exchanges in many fields in which the two countries' shared democratic traditions and similar attitudes have provided a strong basis for bilateral consultation and co-operation. Similarly, in the international field, and particularly in Commonwealth and United Nations contexts, New Zealand and Canada have a sound record of co-operation. New Zealand's particular interest and involvement in the South Pacific and Canada's in the Caribbean, have provided a basis for the exchange of experience, and both countries take a close interest in developments within the Pacific Basin.

The new trade and economic co-operation agreement concluded in September 1981 provides the basic framework upon which trade and economic relations between the two countries will be developed in future. The 1981 agreement retains the Customs tariff rates currently applying to goods traded between the two countries and, in addition, makes provision for regular consultations with the objective of encouraging a further expansion of trade and economic and technological co-operation. Canada remains one of New Zealand's important trading partners, being at present the second largest market for New Zealand beef and veal.

Caribbean and Latin America—Relations with the Caribbean centre on mutual Commonwealth interests and a useful export trade, largely in dairy products and meat. Since 1974 the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa has been cross-accredited to Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Barbados, and Guyana. New Zealand has given technical assistance to these four Commonwealth countries and to the multilateral Caribbean Development Bank under a modest aid programme. Resident representation, a trade commission, in Trinidad and Tobago, was established in 1958, but closed early in 1982 because of the decline in the proportion of New Zealand's exports going to the Caribbean.

Latin America is a region of increasing importance for New Zealand. Relations with the region, limited in the past by geographical orientation and linguistic and cultural differences, developed rapidly in the 1970s. In 1972 the New Zealand Government opened diplomatic missions in Chile and Peru, primarily to support an expanding trade in dairy products with these countries. By cross-accreditation, diplomatic relations have since been established with Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. The official visit to Mexico in 1980 by the Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, and a high-level economic mission has led to a rapid expansion of economic and political relations with that country. A resident diplomatic mission will be opened in Mexico City in 1983.

Trade in dairy products, meat, and agricultural technology from New Zealand to Latin America has increased steadily, the principal trading partners in these commodities being Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela. Agriculture is the main field of co-operation. New Zealand maintained a modest but successful pasture and livestock development project (until its completion in mid 1982) under its aid programme in the highlands of Peru. Other interests shared with Latin American countries include Antarctica, the law of the sea, and alternative and renewable sources of energy.

UNITED NATIONS—New Zealand was a founder member of the United Nations, and since the organisation's inception on 24 October 1945 successive governments of this country have strongly supported the development of the UN as a major instrument for maintaining peace and security, for developing friendly relations among countries, for promoting international co-operation aimed at solving economic and social problems, and for ensuring respect for human rights. As a consequence, New Zealand has played an active and prominent role in the UN system.

With the expanding work within the UN's six main organs (the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and the International Court of Justice), the increase in UN related bodies, and the growth in the range and complexity of functions undertaken by the specialised agencies, New Zealand has had to adopt a more selective approach, concentrating its efforts on areas where it can play a useful and productive role and where matters of particular relevance are involved.

General Assembly—The New Zealand delegation to the 37th session of the General Assembly, held from 21 September to late December 1982, was led by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. The session discussions centred on recent events concerning the Middle East, Afghanistan, Kampuchea, global economic issues, Namibia, apartheid, refugees, arms control and disarmament, and human rights. In these areas New Zealand sought to make constructive contributions in either supporting, co-sponsoring or speaking in favour of resolutions which would help to remove international tension, establish economic and political justice for the deprived, and provide humanitarian relief or development assistance to the needy. New Zealand's bid for a seat on the Security Council was unsuccessful. However New Zealand was elected for a 3-year term on the Economic and Social Council.

In addition, New Zealand, as outlined below, took an active part in discussions on a wide range of international issues in other UN forums.

Arms Control, Disarmament, Peacekeeping—When the Inhumane Weapons Convention opened for signature in New York on 10 April 1981, New Zealand was among the countries which signed. It also took part in the United Nations Second Special Session on Disarmament which was held in New York in May and June 1982. At the 36th session of the General Assembly, New Zealand had already co-sponsored a number of resolutions dealing with arms control and disarmament, including a resolution calling for the implementation of a comprehensive nuclear test ban. The need for progress in this area of arms control and the responsibility of the nuclear powers to resume their negotiations remain as pressing as ever.

Support also continued for UN peacekeeping operations: four New Zealand officers currently serve in the Middle East with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation; and New Zealand's financial contribution to UN peacekeeping operations in 1982 was in the order of $918,000.

International Economic and Development Activity—During 1982 North-South issues remained a feature of almost all aspects of international economic activity. While at times the focus lay outside the direct ambit of the United Nations (e.g. the economic summits in Versailles and the Commonwealth Finance Minister's meeting in Ottawa), the United Nations system nevertheless continued to evince an ongoing concern for these matters. On development issues, New Zealand continued to stress the special requirements of the South Pacific Island countries, many of which are not represented at the United Nations. It also welcomed increased assistance to the South Pacific from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), to which the Government contributed $1.45 million in 1982.

International Legal Issues—The third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea held three sessions in 1982, and New Zealand continued its active involvement in this important international concern. On 30 April, at the conclusion of the first session in New York, the conference formally adopted the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea together with certain related Resolutions. The conference completed work on the convention in September at its second session in New York by approving, as a whole, technical changes recommended during the past 2 years by its Drafting Committee. It also adopted by consensus its draft Final Act. The concluding session of the conference, for the signing of the Final Act and the opening for signature of the convention, was held in Montego Bay in Jamaica in December and New Zealand signed the convention at that time.

Humanitarian Issues—A continuing concern in international measures to find solutions to the problem of the rapidly expanding numbers of refugees led to New Zealand's working closely with the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in resettling Indochinese refugees. In 1982 the Government made a regular annual contribution of $100,000 to the UNHCR, and in addition provided $100,000 for refugee relief in Kampuchea, attended the International Conference on Assistance to Refugees in Africa, gave $200,000 to UNHCR for African refugee relief, and contributed $50,000 to UNHCR for Afghan refugees in Pakistan. The Government also made a $120,000 voluntary contribution to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). In addition, part of the $700,000 annual contribution made by this country to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) goes towards refugee relief.

New Zealand also continues to be concerned to ensure that measures taken within the UN to eliminate discrimination against women are fully implemented. In this regard, New Zealand participates fully in the activities of the UN Decade for Women and gives full support to those practical aspects of the Programme of Action for the Second Half of the Decade established at the mid-Decade Conference in Copenhagen in July 1980. Three contributions, each of $10,000, have been made to a voluntary fund established by the UN to finance programmes and projects benefiting women in developing countries.

Specialised Agencies—The UN system encompasses 15 specialised and intergovernmental agencies which have been independently established with their own intergovernmental organs, secretariats, and budgets. The advantage of membership of these agencies is participation in the co-ordination and standardisation of international systems to handle and advance technical, financial, and development matters. New Zealand is a member of all fifteen, and its contributions to the individual agencies are generally based on the scale of assessments used by the UN organisation.

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)—As an agricultural nation and founding member, New Zealand has taken a particularly active part in the FAO work to promote international food security. New Zealand in 1981 was elected for the fifth time as an FAO Council member. The country's assessed contribution for 1982 was $783,633.

General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)—New Zealand is a founder member of GATT, which is the only multilateral instrument that lays down agreed rules for international trade. As such, it comprises a contractual balance of trade rules and obligations. The latest round of GATT multilateral trade negotiations (the “Tokyo Round” 1973–79) resisted in a number of agreements on the reduction of tariff barriers and non-tariff trade restrictions.

The GATT framework remains a cornerstone of New Zealand's trading policy despite an imbalance in its treatment of agricultural trade. At the GATT Ministerial Meeting held in 1982 (the first GATT meeting at this level in 9 years), New Zealand pressed for a review of agricultural trade practices. While no major breakthrough was achieved at the meeting, agreement was reached on a major work programme on trade in agriculture. A committee has been established to undertake this programme and New Zealand will be actively participating in its work.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)—New Zealand has been a member of the IAEA since 1957 and, although not a member of the Board of Governors, has customarily attended the annual conference of the Agency in Vienna in September. The great value in membership of this Agency is in the information provided by the IAEA on a range of peaceful uses of nuclear energy, including the use of isotopes in agriculture and industry. In 1982 the New Zealand contribution to the Agency budget was $278,395.

Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO)—New Zealand makes a regular contribution to IMCO, which establishes international standards for maritime activities. Our 1982 assessment was $10,621.

International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)—Established in 1944, ICAO promotes international discussion of civil aviation questions, particularly in the safety, technical, economic, and regulatory fields. Through its membership of the organisation New Zealand has been able to join with other small countries in expressing its views on current aviation issues and, in this regard, is regularly represented at ICAO's regional and international meetings.

International Labour Organisation (ILO)—New Zealand supports the ILO's concern to protect the basic dignities and rights of the wage earners and also the organisation's endeavours on a bipartite basis to frame international conventions to improve working and living conditions. New Zealand is a member of the working group for restructuring the ILO. In 1982 its assessed contribution was $418,496.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)—Membership of the ITU enables New Zealand to work to promote the most rational and efficient operation of worldwide telecommunications services. New Zealand's assessed contribution for 1982 was $330,000.

Universal Postal Union (UPU)—As an island nation in the South Pacific, New Zealand's membership of the UPU is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country. New Zealand's 1982 assessed contribution was $235,700.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)—New Zealand continues to be closely involved with the work of UNESCO. In addition, it is represented on the Executive Board and also has a Permanent Delegate, based at the New Zealand Embassy in Paris. In 1982 New Zealand's assessed contribution was $748,097.

World Health Organisation (WHO)—New Zealand takes an active part in the work of WHO. New Zealand's assessed contribution for 1982 was $762,411.

World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)—The WMO provides a network for exchanging information on international weather systems. In 1982 New Zealand's assessed contribution was $96,400.

International Banking and Finance Agencies under the aegis of the UN—Membership of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, also referred to as the “World Bank”), the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation enables New Zealand to participate in efforts to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of less developed countries. In the year ended 31 March 1982 New Zealand contributed $2.75 million to the International Development Association, the “soft loan” arm of the IBRD. Membership of these international financial agencies also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to financial information and to varied sources of funding for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes.

This country is also a member of one of the regional development banks of the UN—the Asian Development Bank—which fosters economic growth and co-operation in the Asia-Pacific region.

Contributions to UN—Contributions are based on capacity to pay, and New Zealand's assessed contribution rate for the 1980–82 biennium of 0.27 percent, under a LIN budget of $1,247,793,200, required the country to pay $2,336,389 as its 1982 membership cost.

Contributions to the certain bodies established by the UN are on a voluntary basis. New Zealand's contributions for the year 1981–82 are shown in the subsection dealing with multilateral aid on a later page of this section. Along with many other countries New Zealand has been concerned about the rapidly rising operating and programme costs of the UN, its bodies, and the specialised and intergovernmental agencies. Accordingly, in the UN's Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary) and at the general meetings of the specialised agencies, New Zealand has sought to promote trim and efficient financial management through supporting or proposing the introduction of better budgeting techniques, the elimination of defunct programmes, applying savings made elsewhere to more effective programmes, and restraining the introduction of new institutions to an absolute minimum.

NEW ZEALAND'S AID AND OTHER RESOURCES FLOWS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES— During 1981–82 Official Development Assistance (ODA) amounted to $70.2 million, a 13 percent increase on the previous year's figure of $62.3 million. Bilateral and regional assistance totalled $49.8 million, with $10,8 million going to multilateral agencies.

The following is a summary of 1981–82 ODA expenditure:

Vote: Foreign Affairs$(000)
  Bilateral—
    Country47,672
    Other2,167
  Multilateral10,878
  South Pacific shipping6,549
 67,266
Vote: Transport
  Pacific civil aviation and meteorological services701
Vote: Permanent Legislative Authority 
  Asian Development Bank: World Bank capital contribution2,250
      Total70,217

Almost all of New Zealand's ODA is administered by the External Aid Division of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Geographic distribution of the 1981–82 assistance to developing countries followed the pattern of previous years, with over two-thirds going to bilateral and regional programmes in the South Pacific. The ASEAN group of countries (Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines) was the second region of bilateral aid concentration. The total programme involves the skills and experience of hundreds of New Zealanders, together with capital and technical back-up from New Zealand.

Government assistance to voluntary agencies in 1981–82 amounted to $366,240. This comprised the annual grant to Volunteer Service Abroad (VSA) and disbursements under the Voluntary Agency Support Scheme (VASS). Under VASS the Government provides a subsidy for approved projects undertaken by New Zealand non-governmental agencies in developing countries.

The total transfer of resources from New Zealand to developing countries in the calendar year 1981, as reported to the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD in Paris, was estimated (with some margin of allowance for unconfirmed data) at $104.4 million. This figure included private export credits and direct investment by New Zealand interests ($19.26 million) and transfers by New Zealand voluntary agencies ($7.85 million).

Bilateral ODA 1981–82—Under its bilateral (government-to-government) aid programmes, New Zealand responds to the development priorities established by the developing countries themselves, mainly in the South Pacific and South-east Asia. Project aid is the main form of assistance. Hundreds of projects are involved, and New Zealand inputs of expertise and/or material and capital resources are often committed for several years on end.

The main purpose of New Zealand's bilateral assistance is to help promote the economic and social development of the recipient countries by expanding their capabilities to raise the living standards of their peoples. Emphasis is placed on productive sector development such as livestock and pasture improvement programmes, assistance with crops, and the development of forestry, fisheries, and energy resources. Adviser's assignments vary from a few weeks to several years. In 1981–82 the bilateral aid programme had about 90 long-term (2 years or more) advisers in the field, and several hundred on short-term assignments. The transfer of New Zealand expertise to developing countries is supplemented by the provision of bilateral aid study and training awards. In 1981–82 there were about 650 students in New Zealand and about 200 at “third country” institutions. The training is linked with specific requirements in the recipient countries. Bilateral assistance is complemented in the South Pacific and South-east Asia by programmes promoting regional development co-operation, particularly in the fields of forestry, education, livestock improvement, transport, communications, and trade promotion. Bilateral assistance also includes emergency and distress relief.

The following country breakdown of bilateral ODA in 1981–82 shows the direction and scope of New Zealand assistance:

BILATERAL OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE 1981–82
PacificNZ$
* This figure covers study and training programmes and awards other than those incorporated in the individual Pacific and Asian country disbursements shown under Bilateral Aid.
  Cook Islands8,358,328
  Fiji3,999,867
  Kiribati249,925
  Niue4,880,496
  Papua New Guinea2,395,864
  Solomon Islands656,699
  Tokelau1,881,930
  Tonga2,662,794
  Tuvalu354,554
  Vanuatu698,101
  Western Samoa4,467,410
  Regional3,747,596
  Head of Mission Fund137,380
  Administration116,228
        Total Pacific34,607,172
South and South-east Asia
  ASEAN
  Indonesia7,269,676
  Malaysia229,698
  Philippines1,379,846
  Singapore121,317
  Thailand1,427,024
  Regional572,990
  Head of Mission Fund24,068
        Subtotal11,024,619
Other Asian
  Bangladesh122,587
  Burma570
  India258,111
  Korea (South)14,384
  Laos5,055
  Nepal114,999
  Pakistan21,320
  Sri Lanka41,800
  Regional600,836
  Head of Mission Fund42,544
        Subtotal1,222,206
        Administration30,018
        Total Asia12,276,843
Africa and Middle EastNZ$
  Malawi1,515
  Tanzania261,161
  Zimbabwe972
  Regional3,203
  Head of Mission Fund8,614
  Administration114,551
        Total Africa and Middle East390,016
Latin America
  Peru357,996
  Head of Mission Fund4,986
  Administration10,737
        Total Latin America373,719
Caribbean
  Jamaica9,314
  Regional14,460
  Administration..
        Total Caribbean23,774
Other bilateral programmes
  Study and training awards*1,070,641
  Emergency and distress relief669,299
  Voluntary agencies366,240
  Information52,276
  Unallocated administration8,965
        Total other2,167,421
        Total bilateral aid49,838,945

Multilateral ODA 1981–82—The multilateral programme enables New Zealand to make a contribution to development work which would usually be beyond the scope of the bilateral aid programme, either in terms of the scale of the projects or in their ability to help countries beyond the regions of concentration of the bilateral aid effort.

Multilateral disbursements in 1981–82 amounted to $10.8 million. To a large extent the pattern of disbursement to United Nations, Commonwealth, South Pacific, and international development finance institutions and agencies followed that of the previous year.

MULTILATERAL ODA 1981–82
United Nations institutionsNZ$
  United Nations Development Programme1,450,000
  United Nations Disaster Relief Office10,000
  World Food Programme800,000
  United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)700,000
  United Nations Fund for Population Activities350,000
  United Nations Relief and Works Agency120,000
  United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)100,000
  United Nations Education Training Programme for Southern Africa16,000
  United Nations Trust Fund for Southern Africa8,000
  United Nations Trust Fund for Namibia5,000
            Total United Nations3,559,000
Commonwealth programmes
  Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation750,000
      Commonwealth Youth Programme70,000
  Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau49,024
  Zimbabwe Students Trust Fund17,000
              Total Commonwealth886,024
South Pacific institutions
  South Pacific Commission619,316
  South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation309,400
  Regional Fisheries Agency176,634
        Total South Pacific1,105,350
Development finance institutions
  International Fund for Agricultural Development400,000
  International Development Association (IDA)—4th Replenishment797,000
  International Development Association (IDA)—5th Replenishment1,610,000
  International Development Association (IDA)—6th Replenishment343,000
  Asian Development Bank (ADB)—Asian Development Fund1,000,000
  Asian Development Bank (ADB)—Technical Assistance Special Fund (TASF)75,000
  Caribbean Development Bank100,000
  International Monetary Fund (IMF)—Oil subsidy account300,000
            Total development finance4,625,000
Other contributions 
  International Rice Research Institute25,000
  International Planned Parenthood Fund250,000
  International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)50,000
  Miscellaneous multilateral/regional institutions27,554
  Refugee relief350,000
            Total other702,554
            Total multilateral aid10,877,928

2 B—CONSTITUTION AND PARLIAMENT

THE CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: Introduction—The history of the present constitution dates back to the declaration of British sovereignty in 1840. By the Treaty of Waitangi, 50 Maori chiefs ceded their sovereignty to the British Crown in exchange for guarantees contained in the Treaty. Territory not included in the Treaty was claimed on the ground of discovery. The constitution is wholly Anglo-Saxon in its origin and takes no account of Maori custom and usage.

Since its signing the Treaty has remained a contentious issue. Maori grievances focus on the following points: the full implications of the Treaty were not explained at the time; Maori translation of the Treaty was in parts misleading and its promises have not been honoured.

From 1840 until the grant of responsible government in 1856 the colony was subject to gubernatorial rule. Attempts to persuade the Imperial government to establish representative institutions bore fruit in 1846 with the enactment of a Constitution Act (never fully implemented) superseded by a further Constitution Act in 1852 which created a bicameral General Assembly with limited powers and 6 provinces each with its own executive and unicameral legislature or provincial council. The system of government was unitary however—the General Assembly could legislate in areas in which the provinces had jurisdiction and could amend or annul provincial ordinances.

The 1852 Act constituted the governor as part of the General Assembly with the power to summon, prorogue, and dissolve it and to assent or refuse the assent to legislation passed by it. But the actual form of the executive government was omitted from the Act and left to the will of the governors and the Colonial Office. The appointment and tenure of the judges, and matters normally contained in a constitutional document were left to be decided by ordinary legislation.

Amendments to the 1852 Act stemming from political development reflect New Zealand's transition from colonial to fully-independent status within the period 1840–1973. Contemporary concern about the constitution centres on the operation of, and the balance between, the legislature and the executive rather than in the broader context of the merits of monarchy or republic.

The Constitution—The constitution is not a single written instrument granted to, or by, the people but a miscellany of statutory and customary law welded together and given coherence by the operation and observance of formal unwritten rules known as the conventions. The constitutional framework is erected on, and maintained by, the ordinary law as opposed to a supreme or basic law such as that found in most jurisdictions.

Certain statutes and statute-derived law have important constitutional significance. Among the more important are:

Constitution Act 1852—creation of Parliament;

Bill of Rights 1688;

Habeas Corpus Act 1679;

Electoral Act 1956—election of members of Parliament;

Legislature Act 1908—declaration of powers, privileges of Parliament;

Economic Stabilisation Act 1948—wide-ranging powers of the Government to affect socioeconomic activity;

Public Safety Conservation Act 1932—states of emergency, powers of executive;

Letters Patent and Instructions 1917–1919—exercise of prerogative powers by Governor-General.

Such laws exist by force of the ordinary legislative process because of the basic canon of the legislative primacy of Parliament—the legal capacity of the legislature to make and unmake laws and the self-imposed collateral incapacity of any court or forum to impeach the validity of the legislature's exercise of that power when expressed as an Act of Parliament.

Although not as important in New Zealand as they are in the United Kingdom, the personal, i.e., prerogative powers of the Crown, almost all of which are exercisable by the Governor-General, remain part of constitutional law. A prerogative power may be abrogated only by statute.

On the foregoing basis, it is open to Parliament to change or abolish the constitutional framework on which it rests its primacy, and for a later Parliament to reverse that change, one aspect of the rule being that one Parliament cannot bind its successors. Consequently five provisions of the Electoral Act, which can be changed only by a vote of 75 percent of the members of Parliament, are entrenched in a political, rather than a strict legal, sense. The section which entrenches them could not act as a bar to the repeal of itself by simple majority, and thereafter the repeal or amendment of one or more of the five sections, also by simple majority.

On paper, major changes to the constitutional framework could be effected with comparative ease and speed, but constitutional history shows that those changes which have been made reflected shifts in social or political attitudes already evident.

PARLIAMENT AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES—The Constitution Act created a bicameral General Assembly empowered to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of New Zealand. Legislative competence was restricted, e.g., laws enacted were not to be repugnant to those of England; laws did not have extra-territorial effect; certain laws needed the Sovereign's assent; and all were subject to Royal disallowance. It was only with the passage of the Constitution Amendment Act 1947 (U.K.) and the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 (N.Z.) that the New Zealand Parliament obtained plenary legislative power, any residual doubts on the matter having been removed by a further amendment to the 1852 Act in 1973.

Until 1950, Parliament consisted of the Governor-General, the Legislative Council, and the House of Representatives. Despite repeated proposals for reform the council remained an appointive chamber, and the decline in its capacity as a curb on the lower House and the Government was accelerated by the partisan nature of the appointments made. Each ministry sought to ensure that its supporters were in a majority. The council's demise was assured when the National Party, which had campaigned for abolition, was returned as the Government in the 1949 General Election. The necessary legislation was passed by both Houses and the council ceased to exist on 1 January 1951. Although it was intended that the council should be replaced by an elected second chamber nothing has so far come of the idea.

Parliament now consists of the Governor-General (the Queen when resident in New Zealand), and the 92-member House of Representatives. The role of the Governor-General, as part of the General Assembly, is purely formal and for all practical purposes “Parliament” is synonymous with “House of Representatives”.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Governor-General. Although the reasons for this provision are historic, it is also used by governments to defeat legislation brought forward by individual members which ministers are unwilling to support or adopt. On the other hand, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval.

Constitutional law includes the law and custom of Parliament, itself derived from a variety of sources. The Bill of Rights saves any proceeding in Parliament from being questioned in any forum, other than the House itself, and the Legislature Act 1908 provides that the powers, privileges, rights, and immunities of the House (and its committees and members) are those possessed by the British House of Commons on 1 January 1865. One aspect of the powers of the House is the ability to make rules for the conduct of its business. Most of these are contained in the Standing Orders although some are made on a sessional, and others on an ad hoc, basis. The traditional three readings given to a bill are part of Standing Orders, but it is open to the House to alter or suspend its rules at any time. The House has retained the right to punish breaches of its privileges, whether by members or citizens, from which there is no appeal (although the courts could be asked to decide whether the privilege claimed is one recognised by law).

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in his office by the Governor-General.

The House meets, as Parliament, in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening (the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne read by the Governor-General) and a closing prorogation by proclamation. Unless the House, by resolution made under the authority of the Legislature Act (1977 Amendment), carries forward business to the next session, all business before the House on prorogation lapses. Parliament is dissolved by the Governor-General or expires by efflux of time after 3 years.

Because control of the House's business lies with the Government, many of the rules and customs of the House are designed to ensure that members of the House are given a full opportunity to debate any aspect of a government's proposals. Control of the debates and the conduct of members is vested in the Speaker, whose rulings are binding unless overturned by the House.

Detailed scrutiny of legislation and facets of executive activity, e.g., expenditure of public money, is carried out by select committees consisting of a small number of members, usually 7, which report their findings and recommendations to the House. Since 1980, all government bills stand referred to a select committee unless certified by the Speaker as “money bills”. The change was recommended by the Standing Orders Committee (see Parliamentary paper I. 14, 1979). This is intended to enable the public and interested bodies to make submissions, in the expectation that better laws will result.

In the context of the party system, it is unlikely that the Opposition would be in a position to bring down a government by means of a no-confidence vote—there is no instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the history of the New Zealand Parliament. Since 1928 the strength of the parties, especially that of the National and Labour Parties, is so great that many of the rules and customs of the House are based on there being two parties only in the House. The presence of third party members, as at present, has raised a number of problems in relation to speaking times, membership of select committees, and so forth.

Because of the growth of a largely two-party system and the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics. Caucus committees of both the National and Labour Parties travel around the country frequently, investigating issues of interest or concern to them. Although the existence of the caucuses and their committees is not recognised by the law, indirect recognition has been given, e.g., travelling allowances are payable to members when travelling as members of a caucus committee.

In the exercise of their functions and powers, the Speaker and the Chairman of Committees are assisted by permanent officials, headed by the Clerk of the House, charged with the administration of the House and the provision of advice on parliamentary law and custom.

The procedure for fixing the salaries and allowances of members and ministers was changed in 1977. Responsibility now rests with the Higher Salaries Commission established by the Act of the same name.

The following table lists the salaries payable from 10 November 1981.

OfficeYearly Rate of Salary Payable On and After 10 November 1981
Members of the Executive   $
Prime Minister79,717
Deputy Prime Minister62,146
Each Minister of the Crown holding a portfolio or portfolios (other than the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime Minister)55,115
Each Minister of the Crown without portfolio44,572
Each Parliamentary Under-Secretary42,814
Officers of the House of Representatives
Speaker of the House of Representatives51,161
Chairman of Committees of the House of Representatives44,134
Leader and Deputy of the Official Opposition   $
Leader of the Official Opposition55,115
Deputy Leader of the Official Opposition42,814
Whips
Chief Government Whip39,300
Chief Opposition Whip39,300
Junior Government Whip36,655
Junior Opposition Whip36,665
Members of the House of Representatives
Each member of the House of Representatives to whom the foregoing provisions of this Schedule do not apply32,271

The following allowances are also paid:

OfficeYearly Rate of Expenses Allowance
    $
Prime Minister14,000
Deputy Prime Minister6,000
Each Minister of the Crown holding a portfolio or portfolios (other than the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime Minister)5,750
Each Minister of the Crown without portfolio4,500
Each Parliamentary Under-Secretary4,500
Minister of Foreign Affairs (Additional)5,000
Speaker2,500
(Additional allowance as Speaker; plus electorate allowance abated by one-third of the appropriate rate, and day allowance)4,600
Chairman of Committees2,500
(Additional allowance as Chairman plus electorate allowance abated by one-third of the appropriate rate, and day allowance)2,700
Leader of the Opposition5,750
(Plus house and travelling allowances) 
Deputy Leader of the Opposition2,500
(Plus additional allowance as Deputy and electorate, night, and day allowances at appropriate rates)2,250
Members2,500
(Plus electorate, day, and night allowances at appropriate rates) 

The rate at which an electorate allowance is paid depends on the nature of each member's electorate, e.g., urban, rural, or semi-rural, and ranges from $4,500 to $9,250.

A day allowance of $12 is payable where indicated for each day on which a member attends a sitting of Parliament or a committee, and a night allowance of $26 for each night a member requires overnight accommodation away from home by reason of such attendance.

In addition to the foregoing allowances, a once-only setting up allowance is paid to members elected for the first time. The current rate is $350.

The Crown and the Governor-General—Constitutional law vests the executive power in the Crown, i.e., the Monarch acting through, or with the advice of, responsible ministers. Primarily because of political developments within the British Empire and, later, the Commonwealth, changes in the substantive law have left the constitutional position, but not the role, of the Monarch in some doubt. By virtue of the Royal Titles Act 1974, the present Monarch is styled “… Elizabeth the Second … Queen of New Zealand …” which, taken together with changes made to the Constitution Act in 1973, tend to suggest that the Queen of New Zealand is a separate legal entity from that of the United Kingdom, a suggestion which has found support in a 1976 Supreme Court decision. If such is the case, English or Imperial law which was thought to be part of New Zealand's law, e.g., the Regency Act 1937–53, may have ceased to be so.

Although not a viceroy, the Governor-General (appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister for a 5-year term) may lawfully exercise most of the Royal powers and functions, whether derived from the general law or statute. The 1917 Instructions, reinforced by a strong convention, require him to accept and act on the advice of his New Zealand ministers, although a reserve power retained by the instructions would enable him to reject advice if he believed that a government was intending to act improperly or unconstitutionally. Events in Australia in 1975 have demonstrated how controversial the use of the reserve powers can be, and it is likely that a Governor-General would seek a political, rather than a legal, solution.

As part of the General Assembly, the Governor-General summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament, and his assent to Bills passed by the House is necessary to transform them into Acts. As the Monarch's representative, he is the head of the Executive and his participation, albeit formal in nature, is required to give legal effect to decisions made by the Government or individual ministers.

Sir David Stuart Beattie, assumed office as Governor-General on 6 November 1980. For further information on previous Governors-General refer to the 1982 Yearbook.

The Executive Government—The governance of New Zealand is executed by Ministers of the Crown in the name of, and on behalf of, the Monarch. The dual conventions that ministers are responsible to Parliament for their official acts and those of their officials and that the Government is responsible for its acts have been translated, indirectly, into statute. The Civil List Act 1979 provides that no person may be appointed or remain a minister or member of the Executive Council unless he is, concurrently, a member of Parliament.

Following a General Election, the leader of the party which has, or is most likely to secure, a majority of seats in the House is invited by the Governor-General to accept the office of Prime Minister and form a ministry. Although the selection process has varied between the two major parties, the respective leaders have final responsibility for the allocation of portfolios. Acting on the new Prime Minister's advice, the Governor-General appoints a number of members of Parliament as ministers with responsibility for one or more areas of government administration (portfolios), although in rare cases ministers are appointed without portfolio. In addition, a few members are appointed as parliamentary under-secretaries to assist ministers in specific areas. Under-secretaries are neither ministers nor members of the Executive Council.

The Executive Council, constituted under the 1917 Instructions, consists of the ministers, any two of whom together with the person presiding (normally the Governor-General) form a quorum. The council is the legal vehicle for the promulgation of a government's decisions which are intended to form part of the law. It is also one of the primary means whereby the Government tenders formal advice to the Governor-General.

The membership of the council at 15 June 1982, following a Cabinet shuffle, became 20.

Unlike the council, the Cabinet owes its existence solely to convention. Although both institutions have the same membership (the Governor-General is a member of neither), their respective functions differ markedly. It is the Cabinet which determines or approves a government's legislative and administrative proposals and policies and co-ordinates the work of ministers.

To facilitate this process, a number of Cabinet committees have been set up, consisting of ministers whose responsibilities are related to the subject matter covered by the committees. Present committees include those dealing with economic affairs, expenditure, communications, Government works, legislation and parliamentary questions, social affairs, state services, and transport. Each committee has power, within its terms of reference, to make decisions and some are supported by interdepartmental groups of officials.

One important feature of the Cabinet is the informality of its proceedings and their confidentiality, thus allowing for a consensus of views to emerge without the need, in most cases, to take a vote. Cabinet discussion and agreement ensures the Government's support in the House for a minister's legislative or other proposals and supports the convention of collective responsibility.

The Cabinet Office is responsible for the servicing and co-ordination of the Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning, as well as providing liaison and advice within the interdepartmental framework. The Secretary of the Cabinet is also Clerk of the Executive Council.

The Judiciary—New Zealand has inherited the strong British tradition of an independent judiciary seen as a bulwark against unnecessary intrusion by the State in the lives of citizens. One means of maintaining that tradition is to provide superior court judges with security of tenure. Accordingly, the law provides that High Court judges are appointed “… during good behaviour …” and are removable by the Governor-General in answer to an address from the House. Moreover, the salaries of High Court judges cannot be reduced while they remain in office. High Court judges must retire at the age of 68.

As from 1 April 1980 the name of the superior court of New Zealand, hitherto known as the Supreme Court, was changed to the High Court. At the same time, magistrates were renamed District Court Judges and their courts, District Courts. Appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Privy Council were not affected by the changes made.

District Court Judges are appointed, as with High Court judges, by the Governor-General on ministerial advice and are removable by him, without the need for an address from the House, for misbehaviour or inability. Although a District Court judge's security of tenure is not as entrenched as that of a High Court judge, nevertheless, the convention against arbitrary removal ensures his independence of action in the exercise of his judicial functions.

Judicial officers of specialist courts enjoy the tenure provisions of High Court judges or District Court judges depending on the ranking of their court within the judicial structure.

New Zealand courts apply the primacy of Parliament doctrine which, in the judicial context, means that a court will not question the validity of what purports to be an Act of Parliament. However, the doctrine has never prevented them from declaring legislation made by the Executive Council, under delegated authority from Parliament, outside the powers of the council or Governor-General, as the case may be, on the grounds that, in fact, no power to make that particular piece of subordinate legislation exists.

In the constitutional context, the growth and proliferation of tribunals and other administrative bodies as an answer to the complexities of modern administration, and the increasing regulation by successive governments of socio-economic affairs, has challenged the traditional, original, and supervisory jurisdictions of the High Court. In answer to parliamentary attempts to oust or restrict the Court's jurisdiction, the superior courts of many common law countries have dusted off hitherto unused writs and remedies and adapted them to meet modern demands.

The balance between the courts and the administrative agencies has been restored, partially, by the creation in 1968 of an Administrative Division of the Supreme Court (now the High Court) to hear appeals or review the law applied by these agencies, and the institution in 1972 of a simplified procedure to obtain judicial review. Conversely, New Zealand still lacks a coherent policy towards the role and ambit of the High Court's jurisdiction in the field of administrative law.

Because the High Court lacks the capacity to declare an Act unconstitutional or beyond the scope of Parliament's powers, the High Court judges have seen their supervisory jurisdiction over administrative acts as an important means of maintaining the balance of competing interests between the citizen and the State, and have taken steps to stem any erosion of that jurisdiction.

OMBUDSMEN—The position of Parliamentary Commissioner for Investigations (Ombudsman) was created in 1962. Until 1968 the principal function of the Ombudsman was to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations only. In 1968 his jurisdiction was extended to hospital boards and education boards and, under the Ombudsmen Act 1975, it was further extended to all other local authorities and to certain national boards and organisations. Under the 1975 Act, provision was made for the appointment of a chief ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, who could be permanent or temporary.

Complaints to the ombudsmen must be made in writing. Investigations are conducted in private, but an ombudsman can decide not to investigate where, for instance, the subject-matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject-matter of the complaint.

Where an ombudsman forms the opinion that a complaint can be sustained he is required in the case of a Government department or Government organisation to report that opinion and any recommendation that may be made to the department or organisation concerned and to make a copy of the report available to the responsible minister. In the case of a local organisation the ombudsman is required to report the opinion formed to that organisation and to make a copy of the report available to the mayor or chairman.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsmen during the latest available year is given in the following table.

Action on ComplaintYear Ended March 1981
Declined, no jurisdiction181
Declined or discontinued620
Sustained, recommendation made55
Sustained, no recommendation made97
Not sustained592
Abandoned before investigation182
Still under investigations as at 31 March394
Total number of complaints2,121

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956 and its amendments. Responsibility for the electoral process is shared between 4 Government departments. The Post Office maintains and prints electoral rolls and the Department of Justice is responsible for the conduct of the polls, electoral policy, and legislation. The Departments of Statistics and Lands and Survey provide geographical referencing material and mapping services. Following the population census (every 5 years) the boundaries of General (formerly known as European) electorates are revised, and new boundaries come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

To assist this revision, the Government Statistician is required to supply electoral population figures to the Surveyor-General.

The term “General electoral population” means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maori electoral population—a figure based on the number of adult New Zealand Maoris registered in Maori electoral districts adjusted to include children. A Maori is defined in the 1980 Amendment as “a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person”:

  2. Persons residing on board any ship;

  3. Temporary guests in any guest house, hotel, or motel;

  4. Temporary residents in any defence area;

  5. Patients or inmates in any hospital or institution;

  6. Persons detained in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of a Representation Commission to define new electoral districts. The commission comprises eight members. Five of these are official members; the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, the Director-General of the Post Office, and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (who is without voting rights). Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government and one to represent the Opposition. The eighth member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The number of General electorates is based on population under a formula that allocates 25 seats to the South Island. The general electoral population of the South Island is divided by 25, and the quota thus obtained for each South Island electorate is then divided into the North Island general electoral population to give the number of electorates in the North Island.

The number of Maori seats is fixed at four.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. The objections are published and a further 2 weeks is allowed for lodgment of counter objections. Both objections and counter objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision is reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

Franchise—Since September 1974, persons 18 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives. (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights and the qualifying age had been lowered to 20 years in 1969.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 18 years and must (a) be a New Zealand citizen or a permanent resident and, (b) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (c) except in special cases have resided continuously for 3 months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 3 months or more in any other electoral district. Maoris and persons of part-Maori descent may elect to be included on either the General or the Maori electoral roll but their options are renewable only at prescribed intervals.

Voting—Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election.

All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any member of the Armed Services aged 18 years or over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he or she last resided before leaving New Zealand.

A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc. Provision is also made for overseas voting.

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS
ParliamentPeriod of Session
Thirty-sixth12 March 1970–13 March 1970
1 April 1970–3 December 1970
25 February 1971–25 March 1971
9 June 1971–17 December 1971
8 June 1972–20 October 1972
Thirty-seventh15 February 1973–16 March 1973
5 June 1973–23 November 1973
4 February 1974–29 March 1974
28 May 1974–8 November 1974
25 March 1975–10 October 1975
Thirty-eighth23 June 1976–14 December 1976
28 February 1977–4 March 1977
19 May 1977–16 December 1977
11 May 1978–6 October 1978
Thirty-ninth17 May 1979–14 December 1979
15 May 1980–12 December 1980
20 May 1981–23 October 1981
Fortieth7 April 1982–17 December 1982
7 April 1983—

Summary of Parliamentary Proceedings—

 1979198019811982

* Hours.

† Minutes.

Sitting days11311985110
Hours of sitting after midnight21*:44†19*:38†4*:04†27*:43†
Public Bills introduced by Government11010573107
Public Bills referred to Select Committees66926286

Parliamentary Representation—Parliamentary representation of Maoris, Pacific Island Polynesians and women are shown in the following table. The ages of Members of Parliament are also compared with that of the total population.

 Percentage of Total Members of ParliamentPercentage of Population

* As at 31 March 1982.

† As at the 1981 Census

‡ As at 31 December 1981.

Maoris6.58.8*
Pacific Island Polynesians2.9†
Women8.750.3*
Age groups—
Under 30 years2.252.4‡
30–3921.713.9‡
40–4935.910.2‡
50–5925.09.5‡
60 years and over15.214.0‡

Legislation 1982—During the parliamentary session of 1982, 185 Public Acts were passed.

NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT

Governor-General of New Zealand—His Excellency the Hon. Sir David Stuart Beattie, g.c.m.g., g.c.v.o., q.c.

Official Secretary—James Brown.

The Ministry

Rt. Hon. R. D. MULDOON, c.h., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department, Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.

Rt. Hon. D. MacINTYRE, d.s.o., o.b.e., e.d., Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Fisheries, Minister in Charge of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

Rt. Hon. D. S. THOMSON, m.c., e.d., Minister of Defence, Minister of State, Minister of State Services, Leader of the House of Representatives, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. W. F. BIRCH, Minister of Energy, Minister of National Development, Minister of Regional Development.

Hon. J. B. BOLGER, Minister of Labour.

Hon. G. F. GAIR, Minister of Transport, Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Minister of Railways.

Hon. H. C. TEMPLETON, Minister of Trade and Industry.

Hon. W. E. COOPER, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Overseas Trade.

Hon. J. K. McLAY, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice.

Hon. V. S. YOUNG, Minister of Social Welfare, Minister in Charge of the Public Trust Office, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Hon. D. A. HIGHET, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Recreation and Sport, Minister of Civil Defence, Minister for the Arts.

Hon. M. L. WELLINGTON, Minister of Education.

Hon. M. B. R. COUCH, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister of Police.

Hon. A. G. MALCOLM, Minister of Health, Minister of Immigration.

Hon. Dr I. J. SHEARER, Minister for the Environment, Minister of Science and Technology, Minister of Broadcasting.

Hon. R. L. G. TALBOT, Postmaster-General, Minister of Tourism, Minister in Charge of Publicity.

Hon. J. H. ELWORTHY, Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. J. H. FALLOON, Minister of Statistics, Minister in Charge of the Inland Revenue Department, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies, Associate Minister of Finance.

Hon A. P. D. FRIEDLANDER, Minister of Works and Development, Minister of Housing.

Hon. K. R. ALLEN, Minister of Customs, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the State Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission, Associate Minister of Trade and Industry.

Executive Council—Membership of the Executive Council is identical with the Cabinet and comprises all the Ministers. The Clerk of the Executive Council is P. G. MILLEN, m.a.(OXON).

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries—G. W. F. THOMPSON, Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Internal Affairs, Local Government, Recreation and Sport, Civil Defence, and the Arts.

W. R. AUSTIN, Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Agriculture and Fisheries.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Prime Minister—Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, c.h.

Leader of the Opposition—D. R. Lange.

Speaker—Hon. Sir Richard Harrison, e.d.

Chairman of Committees—J. F. Luxton.

Clerk of the House—C. P. Littlejohn, ll.m.

NameYear of BirthPrevious OccupationElectoral District
* Government member.
Allen, Hon. K. R.*1931Company secretaryTauranga
Angus, D. A.*1938Freezing company stock buyerWallace
Arthur, Hon. Sir Basil, Bt.1929Timber workerTimaru
Austin, H. N.*1925FarmerBay of Islands
Austin, W. R.*1931FarmerAwarua
Banks, J. A.*1946RestaurateurWhangarei
Bassett, Dr M. E. R.1938LecturerTe Atatu
Batchelor, Mrs M. D.1927Trade union organiserAvon
Beetham, B. C.1936LecturerRangitikei
Bell, R.L.*1929Farm management consultantGisborne
Birch, Hon. W.F.*1934Consultant surveyor-engineerRangiriri
Bolger, Hon. J. B.*1935FarmerKing Country
Braybrooke, G. B.1935Sales managerNapier
Burdon, P. R.*1939Company directorFendalton
Burke, T. K.1942TeacherWest Coast
Butcher, D.J.1948Research officerHastings
Caygill, D. F.1948Barrister and solicitorSt. Albans
Clark, Helen1950LecturerMt. Albert
Colman, Hon. F. MacD.1925Secretary of Labour Party HeadquartersPencarrow
Connelly, Hon. M. A.1916AccountantYaldhurst
Cooper, Hon. W. E.*1933MotelierOtago
Couch, Hon. M. B.*1925Building contractorWairarapa
Cox, M. E. C*1939AccountantManawatu
Cullen, Dr M.1945LecturerSt. Kilda
de Cleene, T. A.1933Barrister and solicitorPalmerston North
Douglas, Hon. R. D.1937Company secretaryManurewa
East, P. C*1946Barrister and solicitorRotorua
Elworthy, Hon. J. H*1936Company directorWaitaki
Falloon, Hon. J. H.*1942Farm management consultantPahiatua
Friedlander, Hon. A. P. D.*1944Farm appraiserNew Plymouth
Gair, Hon. G. F.*1926Personal Assistant to General Manager, Air New ZealandNorth Shore
Gerbic, F. M.1932Industrial conciliatorOnehunga
Goff, P.1953LecturerRoskill
Gray, R. M.*1931FarmerClutha
Gregory, Dr B.1937Doctor of medicineNorthern Maori
Harrison, Hon. Sir Richard, e.d.*1921FarmerHawke's Bay
Hercus, Mrs A.1942Member of Commerce CommissionLyttelton
Highet, Hon. D. A.*1913AccountantRemuera
Hunt, Jonathan1938TeacherNew Lynn
Hunt, T. de V.*1931Electrical businessmanPakuranga
Isbey, E. E.1917WatersiderPapatoetoe
Jeffries, W. P.1945Barrister and solicitorHeretaunga
Jones, D. M. J.*1944Barrister and solicitorHelensville
Jones, N. P. H., q.s.m.*1923TeacherInvercargill
Kidd, D. L.*1941Barrister and solicitorMarlborough
Kirk, N. J.1947PrinterSydenham
Knapp, G. T.1947BusinessmanEast Coast Bays
Lange, D. R.1942Barrister and solicitorMangere
Lee, G. E.*1935Company directorHauraki
Luxton, J. F.*1923FarmerMatamata
McClay, R. N.*1945TeacherTaupo
MacDonell, B. P.1935Bank clerkDunedin Central
MacIntyre, Rt. Hon. D., d.s.o., o.b.e., e.d.*1915FarmerEast Cape
McKinnon, D. C*1939Real estate agentAlbany
McLay, Hon. J. K.*1945BarristerBirkenhead
McLean, I.*1935FarmerTarawera
Malcolm, Hon. A. G.*1940Social workerEden
Marshall, C. R.1936Minister and teacherWanganui
Maxwell, R. K.1934TeacherWaitakere
Minogue, M. J.*1923Barrister and solicitorHamilton West
Moore, M. K.1949Freezing workerPapanui
Moyle, Hon. C. J.1929Teacher/FarmerHunua
Muldoon, Rt. Hon. R. D., C.H.*1921AccountantTamaki
Neilson, P.1954Civil servantMiramar
O'Flynn, F. D., q.c.1918Barrister and Queen's CounselIsland Bay
Palmer, G. W. R.1942LecturerChristchurch Central
Prebble, R. W.1948Barrister and solicitorAuckland Central
Quigley, Hon. D. F.*1932Barrister and solicitorRangiora
Richardson, Ruth*1950Legal adviser/FarmerSelwyn
Rodger, S. J.1940M.O.W.D. employeeDunedin North
Rowling, Rt. Hon. Sir Wallace, k.c.m.g.1927TeacherTasman
Shearer, Hon. Dr I. J.*1941Research scientistHamilton East
Shields, Mrs M.1941Research workerKapiti
Talbot, Hon. R. L. G.*1923FarmerAshburton
Tapsell, Dr P.1930Doctor of medicineEastern Maori
Templeton, Hon. H. C.*1929Civil servantOhariu
Terris, J. J.1939BroadcasterWestern Hutt
Thompson, G. W. F.*1940FarmerHorowhenua
Thomson, Rt. Hon. David, m.c., e.d.*1915FarmerTaranaki
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Hon. Mrs T. W. M.1932Political scientistSouthern Maori
Tizard, Hon. R. J.1924TeacherOtahuhu
Townshend, C. B.*1931FarmerKaimai
Upton, S. D.*1958Student/TeacherWaikato
Wall, Dr G. A.1920Doctor of MedicinePorirua
Waring, Marilyn*1952Research officerWaipa
Wellington, Hon. M. L. *1940TeacherPapakura
Wetere, K. T.1935FarmerWestern Maori
Wilde, Fran1948JournalistWellington Central
Wilkinson, Hon. P. I.*1934Barrister and solicitorKaipara
Woollaston, P. T. E.1944TeacherNelson
Young, T. R.1925General Superintendent of New Zealand AllianceEastern Hutt
Young, Hon. V.S.*1929FarmerWaitotara

Note: For further information on previous ministries, Prime Ministers and Governors-General, refer to the 1982 Yearbook.

2 C—LOCAL GOVERNMENT

General—The present system of local government in New Zealand has evolved since the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Until fairly recently it has consisted of a structure of territorial local authorities— counties, boroughs, and town districts—and a further structure of ad hoc authorities, such as harbour boards, pest destruction boards, and electric power boards. Major changes were made by the Local Government Act 1974, which provided for the introduction of regional government, and for the establishment of district councils (as a new form of territorial authority) and “communities” (below territorial authority level). The Local Government Act also extended the role of the Local Government Commission in the reorganisation of local government. The Local Government Act as originally enacted has, however, undergone modifications, as a result of amending legislation. As from 1 April 1980 the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 were repealed.

The Local Government Act contains all the provisions relating to the constitution of regional government (regional councils and united councils), territorial authorities (boroughs, counties, town districts, and districts), and communities. The Act also outlines all the provisions relating to the Local Government Commission.

Territorial Authorities—There are four kinds of territorial authorities in existence:

Boroughs—The Municipal Corporations Act 1876 provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs. Boroughs provide for the needs of concentrated populations and until 1978 there had to be a population of at least 1500, with an average density of population of at least one person per 4000m2, before they could be constituted. A borough containing a population of 20 000 or more may be proclaimed a city, but the corporation remains unaltered.

Counties—Counties were originally constituted by the Counties Act 1876. Generally counties are concerned with the needs of rural areas. Initially, there were 63 counties but with increasing settlement this number increased to 129 in 1920. Since then the number of counties has been reduced by mergers and at 31 March 1983 there were 90 counties.

Fiord County was abolished on 1 October 1981 and the area is now included in the adjoining district of Wallace County.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of territorial local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population. There were two types of town district—dependent and independent. On the enactment of the Local Government Act 1974, the four existing dependent town districts became community councils. Town districts do not form part of the county within which they are situated, nor are they subject to any county council control. Since 1 April 1978 no new town districts have been permitted.

District Councils—This form of territorial authority was introduced by the Local Government Act 1974 in recognition of the fact that nowadays many territorial authorities are neither “boroughs” nor “counties” in the sense that they are neither wholly urban nor wholly rural. District Councils may now be constituted either by Local Government Commission scheme or by a borough council or county council passing a special order to that effect. The Governor-General may proclaim a district under a district council to be a city if in his opinion it is predominantly urban and it has a population of not less than 20 000. As at 31 March 1983 there were 10 District Councils: Waitomo; Thames-Coromandel; Whakatane; Waipukurau; Waipawa; Hawera; Rangiora; Otorohanga; Rotorua and Waimairi. Except for Rangiora and Waimairi, all these districts comprise areas which at one time contained a separate county, borough, or city.

Communities—The Local Government Act provides for the establishment of “communities” within the districts of territorial local authorities. Since 1976 a community may be constituted, by Local Government Commission scheme or by special order of the territorial local authority, only in an urban area within the rural part of a territorial authority district that is predominantly urban in character, or in an urban area within a territorial authority district that is predominantly rural in character, or in the whole of the area of one or more off-shore islands forming part of a territorial authority district. This has brought the position nearer to that existing prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act, which superseded Parts III and IV of the Counties Amendment Act 1968 under which county towns and county boroughs were able to be constituted within counties.

Although not local authorities in the true sense, each community has either a “district community council” or a “community council” of not less than 5 nor more than 12 members, elected by residents and ratepayers for a 3-year term.

District Community Councils—By statute, except for certain reserved powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning, a district community council may exercise all the powers and functions of its parent territorial authority. A district community council may be established only in respect of a community having a population of not less than 1500. An additional feature of a district community is that it constitutes a riding of its parent territorial authority.

Community Councils—These derive most of their powers by delegation from their territorial authority, at its discretion. Once again, powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning cannot be delegated. In addition to exercising such powers as may be delegated to it by the territorial authority, the general purpose of a community council is to co-ordinate and express to the parent territorial authority the views of the community on any matter of concern to it, after consulting and obtaining the consent of the territorial authority to take appropriate action in the interests of the community, and to undertake, encourage, and co-ordinate activities for the general well-being of the residents of the community.

Regional Government—Apart from the Auckland Regional Authority, which was constituted by a local empowering Act in 1963, regional government exists by virtue of the Local Government Act.

As at 31 March 1983, there were 19 regions with a regional government structure. Seventeen of these regions have been constituted under united councils: Nelson Bays; West Coast; Wairarapa; Marlborough; Taranaki; Wanganui; Southland; Bay of Plenty; East Cape; Canterbury; Northland; Tongariro; Horowhenua; Thames Valley; Waikato; Clutha - Central Otago; and Manawatu. Wellington has a regional council and the Auckland Regional Authority is deemed to be a regional council.

Regional bodies possess their functions through several means. First, every united or regional council has two mandatory functions—regional planning (under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977) and civil defence. Besides these two mandatory functions, the Local Government Act provides, with qualifications in some cases, that a united or regional council may undertake functions relating to regional reserves, forestry, regional roading, and community services. The commission's regional scheme constituting a united or regional council may provide for the regional body to undertake the functions of any territorial authority or (where a special-purpose authority or the appropriate Minister concurs) a special-purpose authority. A united or regional council is empowered to undertake exclusively any new regional function which is not undertaken by any other local authority in the region; the commission, by scheme, can provide that that function may be one that other local authorities are not empowered to undertake under any other statute. A united or regional council may also enter into an agreement with a constituent authority to undertake any function of that authority where, in the opinion of either party, that function would be more effectively and economically undertaken by the regional body. Finally, united and regional councils may enter into agreements with the Crown whereby they may exercise any function or provide any service for or on behalf of the Crown.

The main differences between the two types of regional body are as follows:

United Councils—These are appointed by the constituent (territorial) authorities. To obtain finance they make levies on their constituent authorities. One of the constituent authorities is appointed as the administering authority of the united council, that is, to staff and service the united council. The united council concept is designed to meet requirements of those regions where the range of functions, or the nature of the responsibilities involved, do not justify the setting up of an organisation of the scale implicit in a directly elected regional council.

In addition, a united council must have the prior consent of the majority of territorial authorities in its region (having sufficient weighting in capital value, population, and area) before it can take on any new function.

Regional Councils—These are directly elected. They function as a completely separate organisation and exercise direct rating powers.

Special-purpose Authorities—Special-purpose authorities differ from territorial authorities in that each is charged with only one major function. The need for the most efficient and economic discharge of the major function being the prime consideration, their boundaries may either extend beyond or fall within those territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Only rarely do the boundaries coincide. Sometimes, as is the case with a number of pest destruction boards and hydatids control authorities, territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as, and perform the functions of, special-purpose authorities. The more important special-purpose authorities are those administering harbours, hospitals, and the retail distribution of electricity. Others are engaged in water supply, urban drainage and transport, soil conservation and rivers control, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, hydatids control, and land drainage.

Number of Local Authorities—Local authorities actively functioning at 31 March 1983 were as follows:

Territorial Authorities—County councils, 90; borough (including city) councils, 129; town councils, 3; district councils, 9.

Communities—Also within the framework of territorial local government, although not local authorities as such, were: district community councils, 15; community councils, 120.

Regional Authorities—United councils, 17; regional councils, 2.

Special-purpose Authorities—River boards (2 boards also have the powers of land-drainage boards), 6; land drainage boards (including 1 territorial authority), 26; urban drainage boards, 4; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 4; water supply board, 1; valley authority, 1; electric power boards (including 1 energy), 38; transport board, 1; harbour bridge authority, 1; independent harbour boards, 15; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 59; wallaby board, 1; nassella tussock boards, 2; plantation board, 1; forestry corporation, 1; crematorium board, 1; hospital boards, 29; town hall board of management, 1; museum trust boards, 3; and local railway board, 1. Borough and county councils also functioned as harbour boards in 8 cases, as county pest destruction boards in 37 cases, and as hydatids control authorities in 82 cases. In addition, there were 18 district roads councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1953. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMMISSION—To promote reform of the structure of local government a Local Government Commission was first established, as a quasi-judicial body, in 1946. The present Local Government Commission, constituted by the Local Government Amendment Act (No. 2) 1977, comprises a chairman appointed by the Minister of Local Government and two other members, one appointed by the Minister on the nomination of the New Zealand Counties Association and the other on the nomination of the Municipal Association of New Zealand. Where the commission is to consider a proposal affecting a local authority other than a territorial authority, it may request the Minister of Local Government to appoint a person having special knowledge of the functions undertaken by that local authority, to be a temporary member of the commission.

The commission undertakes investigations, prepares schemes, and makes recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any local authority will best provide for the needs and well-being of its residents and the continued development of the district; that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities; that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment; and that districts shall be of such a size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

The legislation sets out procedures to guide the commission, with emphasis being placed on consultation on proposals at an early stage, prior to formulating a provisional scheme. After the hearing of objections to a provisional scheme, the commission may draw up a final scheme. There are two distinct kinds of schemes which the commission may prepare and issue.

Regional Schemes—A principal task of the commission continues to be the preparation of regional schemes for the constitution of regions and regional bodies (united councils or regional councils) throughout New Zealand. The Minister of Local Government may refer a final regional scheme back to the commission for reconsideration of any of its provisions.

Reorganisation Scheme—Consideration of a proposal for a scheme for the union of local authority districts, the constitution or abolition of any district, the adjustment of boundaries, or a transfer of functions from one local authority to another, may be initiated by the commission itself or at the request of the Minister of Local Government or of any local authority. A new feature is provision for the appointment of conciliators by the commission to inquire into and negotiate on a proposal for a reorganisation scheme.

The Local Government Act as originally enacted brought most special-purpose authorities (other than hospital boards and education boards) within the jurisdiction of the commission. An amendment in 1976, however, removed the automatic jurisdiction of the commission in relation to special-purpose authorities so that it may now act only in those cases where the appropriate Minister or the special-purpose authorities concerned agree to their inclusion in a scheme.

GENERAL POWERS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Act under which they are constituted. As mentioned above, the Local Government Act is the main governing Act for territorial authorities, as it is for united, regional, district community, and community councils.

There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Other legislation applicable to territorial, regional, and various other types of local authority includes the Rating Act 1967, the Public Bodies Meetings Act 1962, the Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968, the Public Bodies Leases Act 1969, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Public Works Act 1981, the Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963, and the Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977.

For most harbour boards there is, in addition to the general Harbours Act, a special Act for each board which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, the Christchurch Transport Board, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

A local authority has no legislative powers beyond the authority to make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act, but it can promote legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government, it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts it must submit to Parliament a special Local Bill. Eight local Acts were passed in 1982.

Franchise—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, local elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. In a poll on any proposal relating to loans or rates, a ratepaying qualification is necessary.

Apart from a few special-purpose authorities, some of whose members are appointed by other local authorities or by Government, members of local authorities are elected triennially, any qualified elector being eligible to seek election. In general the franchise extends to all persons aged 18 years or over who are New Zealand citizens (or permanent residents as defined in the Electoral Act 1956), and who either possess a rating qualification or who possess a residential qualification in the district of the local authority concerned. The right to vote for members of land drainage and river boards is, however, restricted to those who possess rating qualifications. In the case of regional councils the right to vote is limited to those who reside in the region.

A person who is an alien (other than an enemy alien) may vote in local authority elections but is not capable of election or appointment as a member of any local authority.

Voting Procedures—Under the provisions of the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, any local authority may determine whether an election or poll is to be conducted by personal attendance at a polling booth or by way of postal vote. Where the franchise is to be exercised by personal attendance at a polling booth, the local authority may decide to conduct the election or poll over a period of not more than 11 consecutive days instead of confining voting to a single day.

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of local authorities is governed by the statutes constituting the various types of local authorities. Most special-purpose authorities pay their chairmen an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority. The maximum payable to mayors of boroughs and cities and county council chairmen varies according to the population of the local authority. The chairman and members of a united or regional council may also be paid such annual allowances as may from time to time be approved by the Minister of Local Government with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1977 provides for the making and enforcement of regional, district and maritime planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1978. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Books dealing with various aspects of the wide range of historical, constitutional, political, economic, and governmental matters touched on in this section will be found listed in the select bibliography of New Zealand books near the back of this Yearbook.

Parliamentary papers which may be found useful include the following:

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper A. 1).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Report of the Local Government Commission (Parl. paper G. 9).

Report of the Ombudsmen (Parl. paper A. 3).

Chapter 3. Section 3; POPULATION

3 A—GENERAL SUMMARY

By world standards, New Zealand's population is small—less than 3.2 million at the end of 1981. New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million late in 1973. Recent predictions are that the fourth million will not be reached until well into the twenty-first century.

Population has two sources of gain—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In the early years in New Zealand the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the Census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand-born to 49.8 percent overseas-born), and each succeeding census until 1951 recorded an increased proportion of New Zealand-born. Since 1951 (when the New Zealand-born made up 86 percent of the population) the proportion has fallen slightly, mainly because increased international travel and tourism have meant that at each census increased numbers of overseas-born tourists and travellers have been included in the population as enumerated on census date. At the 1981 Census, however, data based on the usually resident population (that is, the population excluding tourists and other visitors) showed that 85 percent had been born in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population. New Zealand's rate of natural increase has, until recently, been relatively high compared with other countries whose population is predominantly of European origin.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate with a low point of 8.63 per 1000 in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1000 in 1947 and 1961. In the 1960s the average rate was less than 14 per 1000, and the rate continued to fall throughout the 1970s, reflecting the continued fall in the birth rate, until it has now fallen below the previous low point recorded in 1935 (in 1981 the natural increase rate was 8.12). The fall in the birth rate in the sixties and seventies is a feature that New Zealand shared with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States.

The natural increase in recent years is shown in the following table. A series of vital statistics is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

PeriodMarch YearsDecember Years
Births*DeathsNatural IncreaseBirths*DeathsNatural Increase
* Excluding Section 14 birth registrations. These are “late” registrations. See Yearbook Section 4B Births.
 (thousand)
1946–1950239.588.0151.5244.588.1156 3
1951–1955258.193.1165.1263.294.2169.0
1956–1960294.6101.5193.1300.1102.9197.2
1961–1965319.4110.5208.9317.3112.1205.2
1966–1970306.0118.6187.4307.5120.2187.3
1971–1975308.6124.8183.9304.4124.8179.6
1976–1981319.2153.9165.3313.9152.3161.6
198250.025.124.950.025.524.4
        Total, 1946–19822 095.4815.51 280.12 100.9820.11 280.8

In the present century, migration has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during the two world wars and in times of economic difficulties. Gains and losses from external migration since the Second World War are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

PeriodMarch Years* Migration GainDecember Years Migration Gain

* March years ended in years listed.

† Excess of departures.

 (000)(000)
1946–195027.432.5
1951–195566.669.0
1956–196049.243.9
1961–196563.970.2
1966–19706.06.5
1971–1975107.8116.9
1976–1981–76.4†–125.5†
1982–5.2†–7.3†
Total, 1946–1982249.7220.8

In the past, most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands. In more recent times increasing numbers have come from the Pacific Islands, notably Western Samoa. In 1983 there was a gain in population from migration.

Figures of the net inflow or outflow from migration during recent years are shown in the following table and in more detail later in this section.

Year Ended MarchNet Inflow or Outflow* From
Total MigrationPermanent and Long-term Migration

* A minus sign indicates outflow.

† Provisional.

197529 64322 439
19766 5675 300
1977–13 727–19 072
1978–22 307–26 708
1979–26 906–40 200
1980–22 299–34 417
1981–15 328–24 825
1982–5 182–11 482
1983†15 8523 180

POPULATION STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration. All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand. Though Tokelau is constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons it is administered separately. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing but the inhabitants are New Zealand citizens.

The most recent Census of Population and Dwellings in New Zealand was taken on 24 March 1981. The next will be taken in 1986.

The figures in the table following are intercensal estimates and exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
 Years Ended 31 March
19781 575 900x1 584 300x3 160 200x4 800x0.2x3 143 500x
19791 571 900x1 586 300x3 158 200x–2 000x0.1x3 143 100x
19801 571 400x1 589 900x3 161 300x3 100x0.1x3 138 000x
19811 576 500x1 594 400x3 170 900x9 600x0.3x3 146 700x
19821 585 100x1 605 000x3 190 100x19 200x0.6x3 162 100x
 Years Ended 31 December
19781 575 900x1 589 300x3 165 200x–1 200x3 143 500x
19791 573 800x1 590 100x3 163 900x–1 300x3 137 800x
19801 581 500x1 594 900x3 176 400x12 500x0.4x3 144 000x
19811 588 200x1 607 600x3 195 800x19 400x0.6x3 157 200x
19821 604 8001 625 0003 229 80034 0001.13 182 900

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population is usually substantial in each intercensal period. Before the 1976–81 period, the lowest rates were those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, of 1936–45, which included World War II, and of 1966–71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns. However, the population increase of only 46 354 between the censuses of 1976 and 1981, covering years of net migration losses and low birth rates, represents a steep fall from any intercensal increase recorded during this century. It is the more significant because the increase of 266 752 during the previous intercensal period was the highest ever recorded in New Zealand.

Totals and increase rates from the five most recent censuses are shown below.

Census DatePopulation*Increase
IntercensalIntercensalAnnual Average
* Numbers of persons in New Zealand armed forces overseas are excluded.
 Number Percent 
18 April 19612 414 984240 92211.082.12
22 March 19662 676 919261 93510.852.11
23 March 19712 862 631185 7126.941.35
23 March 19763 129 383266 7529.321.80
24 March 19813 175 73746 3541.480.30

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1975–81, are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook, 1981.)

CountryAverage Annual Percentage Increase
Australia1.3
Canada1.1
Denmark0.2
France0.4
Germany, West
India2.2
Japan0.9
Netherlands0.7
New Zealand0.2
Sweden0.3
Switzerland–0.2
United Kingdom
United States1.0
U.S.S.R.0.8

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population up to 2016 is given by the detailed alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to an incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels. Also, difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change result from rapidly changing trends brought about by varying social, and especially economic, conditions.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

These national population projections incorporate alternative short-term assumptions involving changing annual levels of net immigration as described in the footnotes to the table.

Age-sex-specific projections, equivalent to those in the table below, are available on application to the Demographic Specialist Studies Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Christchurch.

At 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Population Assuming:*†
Long-term Net Annual Immigration of Zero and Short-term Migration Variant DesignatedLong-term Net Annual immigration of 5000 and Short-term Migration Variant Designated
LowMediumHighLowMediumHigh

* These projections have as base the estimated population at 31 March 1982. They incorporate the following assumptions:

(a) That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the “medium” variant. (See (†) below).

(b) That the 1982 (base) age-sex specific mortality rates decrease annually by 2 percent to 1986 and then by 1 percent to 1991 after which time they remain constant. (The base rates are the 1975–77 Life Table Mortality rates (total population) decreased by 10 percent).

† Three alternative fertility variants—-designated “low”, “medium”, and “high” have been derived in terms of age specific fertility rates. These rates are generally projected to decrease over the period 1983–1991, after which time they are assumed to remain constant. The “low”, “medium”, and “high” fertility variants give total fertility rates of 1.59, 1.85, and 2.11 from 1992 onwards. (These rates represent alternative average family sizes in the long-term.)

‡ (a) The “low” short-term migration variant assumes net immigration for the years ending 31 March as follows: 15 651 (1983-actual), 15 000 (1984), 10 000 (1985), and 5 000 (1986).

(b) The “medium” short-term migration variant assumes net immigration for the years ending 31 March as follows:

15 651 (1983-actual), 20 000 (1984), 15 000 (1985), 10 000 (1986), and 5 000 (1987).

(c) The “high” short-term migration variant assumes net immigration for the years ending 31 March as follows: 15 651 (1983-actual), 25 000 (1984), 20 000 (1985), 15 000 (1986), 10 000 (1987), and 5 000 (1988).

(thousand)
1982 (Base)3 1903 1903 1903 1903 1903 190
19833 2303 2303 2303 2303 2303 230
19843 2703 2743 2803 2703 2743 280
19853 3043 3143 2253 3043 3143 325
19863 3353 3503 3663 3353 3503 366
19913 4633 4853 5123 4893 5063 527
19963 5793 6033 6323 6333 6513 675
20013 6703 6953 7263 7543 7723 798
20063 7283 7543 7863 8443 8633 889
20113 7593 7863 8213 9083 9283 956
20163 7753 8033 8393 9593 9804 008

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in 3 parts as Volume 1, Location and Increase of Population, Part A. Population Size and Distribution, Part B. Population Density, and Pan C. Usually Resident Population of the Census of Population and Dwellings. In the case of the 1981 Census, prior to the publication of the subject-matter volumes a series of 10 Regional Statistics bulletins has been published, each giving final population, dwelling, and household statistics by population centre and subdivision for a major area of New Zealand.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands since 1901.

Census YearTotal PopulationPercentages
North IslandSouth IslandTotalNorth IslandSouth Island
1901431 471384 391815 86252.947.1
1911610 599447 7131 058 31257.742.3
1921791 918479 7501 271 66862.337.7
19361 018 038555 7741 573 81264.735.3
19451 146 315556 0151 702 33067.332.7
19561 497 364676 6982 174 06268.931.1
19661 893 326783 5932 676 91970.729.3
19712 051 363811 2682 862 63171.728.3
19762 268 393860 9903 129 38372.527.5
19812 322 989852 7483 175 73773.126.9

The 1981 Census revealed that the population of the North Island continues to increase at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island. At the 1981 Census the North Island population was 2 322 989, a 2.4 percent increase on the 1976 total of 2 268 393. At the same census the South Island total was 852 748, a decrease of 1.0 percent on the 1976 total of 860 990. However, between the 1976 and 1981 censuses, births in the South Island totalled over 65 000 and deaths over 38 000, giving a net natural increase of approximately 27 000. The fact that the total population decrease was over 8000 indicates a net migration outflow during the intercensal period of approximately 35 000, but the relative movements to and from overseas and the North Island are not yet available.

In the previous intercensal period (1971–76), there was a total net migration inflow of approximately 10 000. This was attributable to a substantial net gain from overseas, which offset a small loss to the North Island of almost 4000 persons aged 5 years and over.

Statistical Areas—In the following table are shown the areas and enumerated populations of the statistical areas at the most recent census and the estimated population at 31 March 1982.

Statistical Area*Area (Square Kilometres)Population Census 1981Estimated Population as at 31 March 1982

* Includes adjacent islands and land reclamations where appropriate.

† Includes Chatham Islands County.

‡ Includes Stewart Island County.

Northland12 653x114 295115 800
Central Auckland5 581x829 519839 500
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty36 882x491 304496 000
East Coast10 88548 57348 700
Hawke's Bay11 289x147 722148 400
Taranaki9 729x105 153105 300
Wellington27 766x586 423586 000
  Total, North Island114 785x2 322 9892 339 700
Marlborough10 210x36 02736 200
Nelson18 948x77 22377 600
Westland15 477x23 48923 300
Canterbury†43 346x424 280422 800
Otago36 873x183 559182 400
Southland‡28 464x108 170108 100
  Total, South Island153 318x852 748850 400
Total, New Zealand268 103x3 175 7373 190 100

Statistical Divisions and Urban Areas—Statistical divisions and urban areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. Statistical divisions were introduced in 1971. The basic criterion for a statistical division is a population of 75 000 or more within the area of economic and social interests of a heavily populated centre. Seven statistical divisions have been established, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington (including Hutt), Christchurch, and Dunedin. The division, like the urban area, does not have any administrative functions, but embraces areas of unified community, economic, and social interests. In addition to the central city or borough, urban areas include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. Minor adjustments of main urban area boundaries have been made because of the peripheral growth of population in some of the urban areas between 1976 and 1981.

For the 1981 Census, a new group of 14 secondary urban areas, with populations of over 10 000 but below 30 000, has been structured. The populations of the 7 statistical divisions and the 37 defined urban areas are as follows:

Statistical Division (S. Div) and Urban Area (U.A.)Population CensusPercentage Increase or Decrease 1976–81Estimated Population as at 31 March 1982
19761981
Auckland S. Div.—Statistical Divisions
Main U.A.—
  Northern Auckland137 421149 3218.7152 700
  Western Auckland108 139116 4077.6118 800
  Central Auckland289 125275 914–4.6274 300
  Southern Auckland208 101227 9169.5232 400
  Subtotal, Combined Auckland Main U.A.742 786769 5583.6778 200
Secondary U.A.—
  Pukekohe12 88913 2923.113 400
  Remainder S. Div.41 73146 66911.847 900
  Total797 406829 5194.0839 500
Hamilton S. Div.—
Main U.A.—
  Hamilton94 77797 9073.398 600
  Remainder S. Div.59 82962 3084.162 900
  Total154 606160 2153.6161 500
Napier-Hastings S. Div.—
Main U.A.—
  Napier50 16451 3302.351 600
  Hastings50 81452 5633.452 900
  Remainder S. Div.8 0328 1521.58 190
  Total109 010112 0452.8112 700
Palmerston North S. Div.—
Main U.A.—
  Palmerston North63 87366 6914.467 400
Secondary U.A.—
  Feilding11 64512 2034.812 400
  Remainder S. Div.13 20612 927–2.112 950
  Total88 72491 8213.592 700
Wellington S. Div.—
Main U.A.—
  Upper Hutt Valley35 58436 5252.636 800
  Lower Hutt Valley97 19494 732–2.594 400
  Porirua Basin55 69854 653–1.954 500
  Wellington138 938135 094–2.8134 300
  Subtotal, Combined Wellington Main U.A.327 414321 004–2.0320 000
Secondary U.A.—
  Kapiti18 91120 0836.220 300
  Remainder S. Div.3 3032 895–12.42 900
  Total349 628343 982–1.6343 200
Christchurch S. Div.—
Main U.A.—
  Christchurch295 296289 959–1.8289 400
  Remainder S. Div.30 41431 7614.432 700
  Total325 710321 720–1.2322 100
Dunedin S. Div.—
Main U.A.—
  Dunedin113 222107 445–5.1106 300
  Remainder S. Div.7 2046 588–8.66 490
  Total120 426114 033–5.3112 800
Urban Areas Not in Any Statistical Division
Main U.A.—
  Whangarei39 06940 2122.940 600
Tauranga48 15353 09710.354 300
  Rotorua46 67548 3143.548 900
  Gisborne31 79032 0620.932 100
  New Plymouth43 91444 0950.444 300
  Wanganui39 67939 595–0.239 600
  Nelson42 43343 1211.643 400
  Timaru29 95829 225–2.429 100
  Invercargill53 76253 8680.253 900
Secondary U.A.—
  Tokoroa19 48119 333–0.819 350
  Taupo14 67415 3564.615 550
  Whakatane14 28215 1596.115 350
  Hawera11 35111 344–0.111 300
  Levin18 21318 070–0.818 050
  Masterton21 00120 422–2.820 300
  Blenheim21 48122 1042.922 300
  Greymouth11 81111 604–1.811 550
  Ashburton15 35715 303–0.415 300
  Oamaru15 09514 664–2.914 550
  Gore12 10512 061–0.412 050
  Total, 23 Main Urban Areas2 113 7792 140 0461.22 150 600
  Total, 14 Secondary Urban Areas218 296220 9981.2221 800
  Total, 95 Minor Urban Areas283 900x291 800x2.8293 600
  Total, 7 Statistical Divisions1 945 5101 973 3351.41 984 600

Local Government Regions—The Local Government Act of 1974 provides for the constitution of these regions, the mandatory function of such being regional planning and civil defence. At the time of preparing this publication, 22 regions had been determined by the Local Government Commission. These cover every territorial local authority in New Zealand with the exception of Chatham Islands County. Extra-county islands and shipboard population are also excluded.

The populations in the following table are for the local government regions as they existed at 1 July 1981 and at 31 March 1982; they may be subject to modification as a result of objections lodged by various local body organisations.

Local Government RegionPopulation Census 1981Estimated Population as at 31 March 1982
Northland113 994115 500
Auckland827 980838 000
Thames Valley54 34354 700
Bay of Plenty172 480175 600
Waikato221 850222 900
Tongariro40 08940 200
East Cape53 29553 500
Hawke's Bay137 840138 500
Taranaki103 798103 900
Wanganui68 70268 500
Manawatu113 238114 100
Horowhenua49 29649 500
Wellington323 162322 200
Wairarapa39 68939 400
Nelson Bays65 93466 300
Marlborough37 55736 400
West Coast34 17834 000
Canterbury336 846337 400
Aorangi84 77284 100
Clutha-Central Otago45 40245 600
Coastal-North Otago138 164136 800
Southland107 905107 800
  Total, 22 Local Government Regions3 170 5143 184 900

Cities and Boroughs—The estimated populations and areas of cities and boroughs as at 31 March 1982 is shown in the following table.

City or BoroughEstimated Population as at 31 March 1982Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
  Kaitaia4 800695
  Kaikohe3 690544
  Whangarei (city)36 8004 913x
  Dargaville4 7801 133
  Helensville1 380532
  East Coast Bays (city)30 2001558
  Takapuna (city)65 6008 671x
  Devonport10 400445
  Northcote10 100540
  Birkenhead (city)21 8001 266
  Waitemata (city)89 50037 550
  Henderson6 620517
  Glen Eden9 610503
  New Lynn10 450564
  Auckland (city)144 4007 472
  Newmarket1 18074
  Mt. Albert (city)26 300983
  Mt. Eden18 100598
  Mt. Roskill33 5001 863x
  Onehunga15 200772x
  One Tree Hill11 000983
  Ellerslie5 380301
  Mt. Wellington19 4001 650
  Howick13 850621
  Otahuhu10 250574
  Papatoetoe (city)21 700907
  Manukau (city)163 70056 573x
  Papakura (city)22 7001 384
  Pukekohe.9 1501 405
  Waiuku3 700593
  Tuakau2 010442
  Huntly6 680930
  Cambridge8 7601 071
  Ngaruawahia4 450450
  Hamilton (city)91 8006 749
  Te Awamutu7 980713
  Taumarunui6 5401 815
  Paeroa3 680574
  Waihi3 550539
  Te Aroha3 3601 002x
  Morrinsville5 120476
  Matamata5 320533
  Putaruru4 200395
  Tokoroa18 7501 359
  Mt. Maunganui11 7001 946x
  Tauranga (city)37 9004 020
  Te Puke4 750532
  Taupo14 1503 384x
  Kawerau8 7502 174
  Murupara2 960287
  Gisborne (city)30 1002 628
  Wairoa5 430649
  Napier (city)48 6003 021
  Hastings (city)36 3001 949
  Havelock North8 540563
  Dannevirke5 670526
  Woodville1 660427
  Waitara6 040575
  New Plymouth (city)36 0002 380
  Inglewood2 860284
  Stratford5 540816
  Eltham2 420333x
  Patea1 920575
  Ohakune1 510841
  Raetihi1 260388
  Wanganui (city)37 0003 392
  Taihape2 560778
  Marton4 850573
  Feilding11 700855
  Foxton2 720306
  Palmerston N. (city)60 7004 302
  Levin14 6001 298
  Otaki4 320666
  Kapiti15 50017 428
  Upper Hutt (city)31 60048 428
  Lower Hutt (city)63 1008 968
  Petone7 9701 043
  Eastbourne4 5301 274x
  Porirua (city)40 9008 384x
  Tawa12 100696x
  Wellington (city)134 90026 336x
  Pahiatua2 600291
  Masterton18 6501 799
  Carterton3 970512
  Greytown1 760442
  Featherston2 420307
  Martinborough1 340443x
  Total, North Island cities and boroughs1 751 300310 051x
South Island—
  Picton3 200426
  Blenheim18 0501 770
  Nelson (city)33 5004 762
  Richmond6 9101 052
  Motueka4 7301 021
  Westport4 640308
  Runanga1 230487
  Greymouth8 0601 068
  Hokitika3 370273
  Rangiora6 480357
  Kaiapoi4 960434x
  Riccarton6 590339
  Christchurch (city)163 60010 635
  Lyttelton3 1501 036
  Ashburton14 1501 227x
  Geraldine2 140301
  Temuka3 780395
  Timaru (city)28 3002 342
  Waimate3 370312
  Oamaru12 9501 161
  Port Chalmers2 880410
  Dunedin (city)76 20015 685
  St. Kilda6 090249
  Green Island6 870781
  Mosgiel9 240787
  Milton2 200204
  Kaitangata1 070518
  Balclutha4 460509
  Tapanui1 060121
  Lawrence600249
  Roxburgh750208
  Naseby16076
  Alexandra4 390987
  Cromwell2 420740
  Arrowtown560134
  Queenstown3 400416
  Gore9 190946
  Mataura2 320515
  Winton2 040240
  Invercargill (city)49 5005 616
  Bluff2 670866
  Riverton1 460403
  Total, South Island cities and boroughs522 50060 366x
  Grand total, all cities and boroughs2 273 800370 417x
Note: Because of rounding, individual figures in this table do not always add to give the stated total.

Districts—A new concept in local government—the district—appeared in the 1976 Census statistics in the form of the Thames-Coromandel District, constituted on 1 October 1975 and amalgamating the former Thames and Coromandel Counties and Thames Borough. Similar amalgamations occurred between 23 March 1976 and 1 April 1979, resulting in the constitution of 8 further districts, the largest of which is Rotorua, formed from Rotorua City and Rotorua County.

DistrictEstimated Population as at 31 March 1982Approximate Area in Square Kilometres
Thames-Coromandel18 4502 212
Otorohanga9 3101 976
Waitomo10 8003 407x
Rotorua59 2002 708
Whakatane27 9004 308
Waipawa5 0601 354
Waipukurau7 9302 031
Hawera12 850500
  Total, North Island151 50018 496x
Rangiora5 500263
Waimairi71 000115
  Total, South Island76 500378
  Total, New Zealand227 90018 874x

Town Districts—The population of town districts—i.e., those contained in the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located.

DistrictEstimated Population as at 31 March 1982Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
  Hikurangi1 310389
  Manaia1 010206
  Waverley1 250202
  Total, town districts3 560797

Communities—The following table lists communities with estimated populations of 1000 or more as at 31 March 1982. The parent local authority is shown in parentheses. The populations of communities are included in the administrative county populations given in a later table.

CommunityEstimated Population as at 31 March 1982Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
  Kerikeri (Bay of Islands)1 470404
  Moerewa (Bay of Islands)1 48075
  Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)1 620229
  Paihia (Bay of Islands)1 790232
  Raglan (Raglan)1 430372
  Kihikihi (Waipa)1 350212
  Whitianga (Coromandel Div.)1 9902 467
  Whangamata (Thames Div.)1 600485
  Thames (Thames Div.)6 4301 653
  Waihi Beach (Ohinemuri)1 330209
  Katikati (Tauranga)1 760960
  Papamoa Beach (Tauranga)2 060313x
  Mangakino (Taupo)1 540261
  Edgecumbe (Whakatane Dist.)1 960172
  Ohope (Whakatane Dist.)1 760544
South Island
  Renwick (Marlborough)1 070175
  Kaikoura (Kaikoura)2 190611
  Woodend (Rangiora Dist.)1 010215
  Darfield (Malvern)1 170233
  Halswell (Paparua)4 830328
  Pleasant Point (Strathallan)1 120378
  Brighton (Silverpeaks)1 170183
  Fairfield (Silverpeaks)1 870143
  Ranfurly (Maniototo)1 000391
  Wanaka(Lake)1 160313
  Te Anau (Wallace)2 630395

District Communities—The following table lists the estimated populations of district communities as at 31 March 1982. The parent local authority is shown in parentheses. The populations of district communities are included in the administrative county populations given in the following table.

District CommunityEstimated Population as at 31 March 1982Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
  Warkworth (Rodney)1 770577
  Wellsford (Rodney)1 620554
  Otorohanga (Otorohanga)2 570380x
  Ngongotaha (Rotorua District)2 480773
  Turangi (Taupo)5 420579
  Waipawa (Waipawa District)1 720692
  Bulls (Rangitikei)1 820405
  Ashhurst (Oroua)1 950173
  Waikanae (Horowhenua)4 9701 076
  Shannon (Horowhenua)1 420342
  Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hutt)6 2404 700
  Wainuiomata (Hutt)19 15026 614
  Total51 20036 865x
South Island
  Hornby (Paparua)8 120493
  Sockburn (Paparua)6 4101 300
  Total14 5501 793
  Total, District Communities65 70038 658x

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, districts, cities and boroughs, and town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 4470 persons as at 31 March 1982.

Counties—The following table gives the estimated population of individual counties as at 31 March 1982 together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “administrative counties” do not include boroughs or town districts, which are independent of county control, but include district communities and communities, which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Population as at 31 March 1982Approximate Area, in Square Kilometres
North Island—
  Mangonui8 6402 483
  Whangaroa2 270622
  Hokianga4 6901 588
  Bay of Islands19 4002 131
  Whangarei17 3502 675
  Hobson5 3401 929
  Otamatea6 4001 108
  Rodney37 5002 334
  Waiheke Is.3 780155
  Great Barrier Is.610285
  Franklin19 0501 419x
  Raglan9 8002 411
  Waikato16 8501 655
  Waipa16 0501 129
  Taumarunui6 0204 808
  Hauraki Plains5 150603
  Ohinemuri5 040624
  Piako10 3001 180x
  Matamata12 2502 541
  Tauranga22 4002 020
  Taupo13 5507 225x
  Opotiki7 3503 134x
  Waiapu4 7102 824
  Waikohu2 9702 647
  Cook8 4402 857
  Wairoa5 8204 111
  Hawke's Bay20 8004 838
  Dannevirke4 3602 211
  Woodville1 300404
  Clifton2 1801 176
  Taranaki12 500588
  Inglewood2 730521
  Stratford4 6002 157
  Egmont5 280622
  Eltham2 440512x
  Waimate West1 930215
  Patea2 3201 531
  Waimarino1 4702 147
  Waitotara2 9201 226
  Wanganui3 2801 189
  Rangitikei13 7004 549
  Kiwitea1 690930
  Pohangina860671
  Oroua5 520492
  Manawatu6 710692
  Kairanga6 400461
  Horowhenua15 0501 420
  Hutt27 000428
  Pahiatua2 110741
  Eketahuna1 910862
  Masterton4 1002 386
  Wairarapa South2 4601 140
  Featherston2 8302 471
  Total, North Island counties430 20093 078x
South Island—
  Marlborough11 55010 478
  Kaikoura3 5802 382
  Golden Bay4 2602 618
  Waimea16 9507 511
  Buller3 8305 035
  Inangahua2 1902 440
  Grey4 9803 957
  Westland5 65011 440
  Amuri3 1404 296
  Cheviot1 540875
  Hurunui6 6303 717
  Eyre3 290458x
  Oxford1 790814
  Malvern6 8305 046
  Paparua31 900445
  Heathcote8 79034
  Mt. Herbert1 070171
  Akaroa1 850437
  Chatham Islands760963
  Wairewa630438
  Ellesmere8 7601 200
  Ashburton10 7006 174
  Strathallan9 3602 676
  Mackenzie7 2807 456
  Waimate4 9903 558
  Waitaki8 7306 314
  Waihemo1 720880
  Silverpeaks12 1503 205
  Bruce3 2601 350
  Clutha5 6002 698
  Tuapeka3 8003 560
  Maniototo2 4603 477
  Vincent4 3207 620
  Lake5 11010 235
  Southland26 8009 577
  Wallace13 25016 307x
  Stewart Island5701 746
  Total, South Island counties250 100151 588x
  Grand total, all counties680 300244 666x

Non-administrative Population Centres—For the first time in 1979 population estimates were prepared for other non-administrative centres with total populations of 1000 or more. Populations of these centres are included in the figures for the parent local authority areas given previously. In the table which follows the populations at the 1981 Population Census are compared with the estimated populations as at 31 March 1982.

Non-administrativePopulation Census 1981Estimated Population as at 31 March 1982
North Island—
  Temple View (Waipa Co.)1 2321 260
  Te Kuiti (Waitomo Dist.)4 7954 790
  Rotorua (Rotorua Dist.)38 15738 300
  Ngongotaha (Rotorua Dist.)2 8813 050
  Whakatane (Whakatane Dist.)12 28612 450
  Opotiki (Opotiki Co.)3 3883 440
  Waipukurau (Waipukurau Dist.)3 6483 660
  Opunake (Egmont Co.)1 6371 660
  Hawera (Hawera Dist.)8 4008 370
  Waiouru (Rangitikei Co.)3 1543 100
  Linton Military Camp (Kairanga Co.)1 0721 040
  Total, North Island Centres80 65081 100
South Island—
  Hope (Waimea Co.)1 0491 040
  Reefton (Inangahua Co.)1 2001 180
  Burnham Military Camp (Malvern Co.)1 1591 720
  Lincoln (Ellesmere Co.)1 7691 780
  Twizel (Mackenzie Co.)4 1193 720
  Total, South Island Centres9 2969 440
  Total, Non-Administrative Centres89 94690 600

Urban Concentration of Population—The bulk of New Zealand's population is located in urban areas, where until 1976 the most rapid growth rates occurred. This was due largely to the development of both manufacturing and tertiary industries in urban areas, which provided employment for a growing labour force. Other factors, including better social, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities, served to attract persons to these areas, while the majority of immigrants tended to settle in the larger urban centres. These factors, combined with amalgamation of farms, centralisation of dairy factories, and increasing agricultural mechanisation (resulting in less labour required), had combined to produce a noticeable rural-urban drift. Urban concentration features are common to “developed” countries at advanced stages of economic development.

The 1981 Census figures show that many rural areas and a number of small and intermediate sized towns located outside urban areas are continuing to decline in population, although there are indications that the rate of urbanisation is stabilising. Horticultural and forestry developments in recent years have undoubtedly contributed to this situation. Thirty-eight counties recorded smaller populations than at the previous census in 1976, compared with 40 between 1971 and 1976. Of 54 small self-administrative towns (1000 to 4999 population) 25 had declined in population between 1976 and 1981 compared with 12 during the previous intercensal period. Ten intermediate towns (5000 to 9999 population) showed decreases in population compared with two at the previous census.

Of the 9500 rural gain recorded on 1981 boundaries between 1976 and 1981, over 5000 was within rural areas lying outside urban areas but within the 7 major population centres forming the statistical divisions, so indicating a continuation of the urban expansion that occurred between the 1971 and 1976 censuses. The major population increases in the rural components of statistical divisions between the 1976 and 1981 censuses were in the Auckland and Christchurch Statistical Divisions, which recorded gains of 3965 (12.06 percent) and 1350 (6.88 percent) respectively. With the exception of the Napier-Hastings Statistical Division, the rate of population increase in the rural components of all other statistical divisions slowed during the latest intercensal period (for example, the rural component of Hamilton Statistical Division recorded a growth rate of 4.60 percent for 1971–76 but of only 0.39 percent for 1976–81). Palmerston North and Dunedin Statistical Divisions, in fact, both recorded decreases during the latest intercensal period.

The following table shows intercensal population changes in the rural components of the 7 statistical divisions. The rural component within each statistical division is made up of county territory outside main and secondary urban areas, towns with populations of under 1000, and (where applicable) extra-county islands.

Statistical DivisionPopulation CensusIncrease or Decrease
197119761981NumberPercent
1971–761976–811971–761976–81
Auckland28 04032 87636 8414 8363 96517.2512.06
Hamilton25 78226 96727 0711 1851044.600.39
Napier-Hastings7 4957 6927 9981973062.633.98
Palmerston North11 14911 24111 08892–1530.83x–1.36
Wellington2 0002 4692 5684699923.454.01
Christchurch17 19219 61220 9622 4201 35014.086.88
Dunedin6 4847 0066 474522–5328.05–7.59
        Total, all statistical divisions98 142107 863113 0029 7215 1399.91x4.76

The following table shows the urban-rural distribution of the population. Urban population has been defined as that of the 37 defined urban areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, communities, district communities, and townships with populations of 1000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural
NumberPercentNumberPercent
Total Population
1926952 10267.93449 57232.07
19361 065 22867.89503 88532.11
19451 227 06972.22472 07627.78
19561 625 88774.94543 72725.06
19662 145 60180.30526 50719.70
19712 361 31482.64496 17117.36
19762 614 11983.65511 00416.35
19812 650 90483.59520 48716.41

In the process of urbanisation some centres have grown more quickly than others. There is a tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres and also a drift of population from the south to the north. Where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of the combined Auckland Urban Areas, the rate of growth has been very rapid.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities and service industries. These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island and compounded further by the general tendency for the large-scale manufacturing units to be located close to the biggest local markets.

In addition to the movement of population from the South Island to the North Island, shown on a long-term basis earlier in this section, there has also been a population drift northwards from the south of the North Island, which has intensified during the latest intercensal period. This is illustrated in the following table of the geographic distribution of population.

CensusNorth IslandSouth Island
Southern*NorthernTotal

* Comprises Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, and Wellington Statistical Areas.

† Comprises Northland, Central Auckland, South Auckland-Bay of Plenty, and East Coast Statistical Areas.

1971787 1311 264 2322 051 363811 268
1976843 7441 424 6492 268 393860 990
1981839 2981 483 6912 322 989852 748
Percentage of Total Population
197127.544.271.728.3
197627.045.572.527.5
198126.446.773.126.9

In the larger cities a notable feature of recent decades has been a movement of population from the central or “inner” areas to the perimeter or “outer” areas; residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. However, in recent years there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas, and more recently still, the petrol crisis has led to a greater desire for inner-city living.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Population of Centre (City, Borough, Town District, or Community)CensusCensus
1926196119711976198119261961197119761981
 Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
1 000– 2 49963454348577.53.02.42.42.8
2 500– 4 99923474039426.27.25.04.75.0
5 000– 9 99911343532315.99.68.87.46.9
10 000– 24 999122123252513.315.012.812.511.9
25 000 and over41222252624.132.544.650.451.0
        Total11315916316918157.067.373.677.477.6

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is outside urban communities, than in the North Island, the proportion at the 1981 Census of Population being 21.1 in the South Island against 14.8 percent in the North Island.

Males and Females—Statistics from the census of 24 March 1981 showed that females outnumbered males by 17 883 in the total population (excluding Armed Forces overseas), there being 1 578 927 males and 1 596 810 females. The changing sex distribution of the population, recorded at successive censuses, is given below.

CensusMalesFemalesFemales Per 1000 Males
1881293 973240 057817
1901429 108386 754901
1926719 642688 497957
1936799 091774 721970
1945832 909869 4211 044
19561 093 2111 080 851989
19661 343 7431 333 176992
19711 430 8561 431 7751 001
19761 562 0421 567 3411 003
19811 578 927x1 596 810x1 011x

The table excludes members of the N.Z. Armed Forces overseas at census date.

There are marked differences in the sex composition of the population of different parts of New Zealand. Females tend to outnumber males in urban areas and to be outnumbered in rural areas. One important reason is doubtless the generally better employment and educational opportunities for women and girls in the larger industrial and commercial centres.

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Density of population refers to the relationship between population numbers and land area, and is expressed in terms of numbers of persons per unit of area. It presents a useful tool for the analysis of population distribution providing it is borne in mind that the land area used is the gross area, and includes mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, forests, and barren country. In the case of cities and towns it includes parks, reserves, roads and streets, and the commercial and industrial districts.

The total area of New Zealand, including inland waters, is 268 808 square kilometres, giving an average population density at the 1981 Census of Population of 11.8 persons per square kilometre. This is low by international standards (for example, the United Kingdom has 229 persons per square kilometre, and the Netherlands, 344) but it must be remembered that in New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, and also large areas of rough hilly country which cannot be closely settled.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table shows the density of population in the 23 main and 14 secondary urban areas for the 1926, 1956, 1976, and 1981 Censuses of Population. Only 2 urban areas, those of Central Auckland and Wellington, have an overall concentration of population exceeding 10 persons per hectare, with respective densities of 18.9 and 12.5 persons per hectare.

Urban AreaArea In Hectares*Persons Per Hectare at Census
1976195619761981
* Excludes inland water areas.     
Main Urban Areas
Whangarei11 046x0.91.83.53.6
Northern Auckland26 4610.92.05.2x5.6
Western Auckland24 668x0.41.54.44.7
Central Auckland14 631x11.317.419.818.9
Southern Auckland35 8550.51.55.86.4
Combined Auckland U.A.101 615x2.13.97.37.6
Hamilton25 8510.71.8x3.73.8
Tauranga11 8840.41.74.1x4.5
Rotorua7 815x0.82.56.0x6.2x
Gisborne8 5921.82.73.73.7
Napier8 833x2.1x3.1x5.7x5.8x
Hastings14 033x1.12.2x3.63.7
New Plymouth10 640x1.62.74.1x4.1x
Wanganui10 131x2.63.2x3.93.9
Palmerston North17 641x1.22.33.63.8x
Upper Hutt5 419x0.73.1x6.6x6.7x
Lower Hutt13 495x1.65.27.27.0
Porirua Basin14 2740.21.23.93.8
Wellington10 8379.311.312.812.5
Combined Wellington U.A.44 025x3.0x5.17.47.3
Nelson14 2461.01.93.03.0
Christchurch50 796x2.44.0x5.8x5.7x
Timaru7 332x2.33.44.14.0
Dunedin18 418x4.85.4x6.15.8
Invercargill11 7411.93.1x4.64.6
        Total, 23 main urban areas374 639x2.03.5x5.65.7
Secondary Urban Areas
Pukekohe8 7820.51.01.51.5
Tokoroa4 2460.11.54.64.6
Taupo7 9310.10.41.9x1.9
Whakatane8 152x0.31.0x1.8x1.9x
Hawera11 674x0.7x0.81.01.0
Feilding4 5991.01.72.52.7x
Levin10 9140.40.91.71.7x
Kapiti5 8840.21.03.23.4
Masterton13 4680.71.11.61.5
Blenheim9 0920.91.52.42.4
Greymouth4 226x1.92.92.82.7
Ashburton7 5311.11.52.02.0
Oamaru5 1481.82.32.92.8
Gore7 2320.81.21.71.7
        Total, 14 secondary urban areas108 879x0.71.22.02.0

Density of population as recorded at the 1981 Census is shown by type of local authorities in the following table.

Perhaps the most interesting feature is that South Island towns are, on average, more densely populated than those of the North Island, although the North as a whole had a considerably higher ratio of population to area.

Type of Local AuthorityPersons Per Hectare
North IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
* Excluding district communities and communities.
Cities5.29.05.7
Boroughs7.28.17.4
Districts*0.08x0.20.08x
Counties*0.05x0.020.03
District communities1.38.21.7
Communities1.94.52.5
Town districts4.44.4

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1981

The series of tables on the following pages contain statistics from the 1981 Census of Population and Dwellings. The figures in the following tables have been rounded using simple random rounding, to base three, and because of the rounding procedures used, totals do not necessarily represent the exact sum of the component parts.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of usually-resident persons aged 15 years and over as returned at the Census of Population 1981 is summarised in the following tables.

Age Group (Years)Never MarriedMarriedSeparated*WidowedDivorcedTotalDe Facto Relationship

* Includes persons who are still married but permanently separated.

† Including persons not specifying status.

‡ Persons in this column are also included in one of the preceding formal marital status columns.

Males
15–19153 70888536618156 8162 517
20–2498 70629 0101 67166240137 42411 514
25–3450 445161 56811 5893305 391237 29716 404
35–4414 265146 6529 5078016 699180 9607 803
45–5411 331126 1416 6872 4936 021154 1583 873
55–649 462108 6903 8705 4904 656132 8671 455
65–745 91070 6051 8099 2852 41890 339369
75 and over2 64025 14056711 33160940 48584
  Total, 1981346 470668 68835 74529 79626 0551 130 34044 016
  Total, 1976313 875700 24417 02427 35515 0051 075 175
Females
15–19139 8335 028252339149 8176 765
20–2465 01054 1564 320198696132 21613 377
25–3428 710178 90215 7531 3178 124238 72214 079
35–448 571145 64110 7133 2348 946179 4426 276
45–546 501118 1526 1238 9136 705147 2822 403
55–647 69599 3213 36023 8805 199139 917786
65–748 31054 3331 52441 0553 036108 543201
75 and over7 24214 69136046 83398770 42551
  Total, 1981271 875670 22142 405125 46033 7081 166 36443 941
  Total, 1976240 781703 26421 842114 16420 1491 101 303

The percentage distribution aged 15 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status19761981
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

* Legally separated only.

† All permanent separations of married persons.

Never married29.221.931.323.8
Married65.263.960.458.6
Separated1.6*2.0*3.2†3.7†
Widowed2.510.42.711.0
Divorced1.41.82.42.9
        Total100.0100.0100.0100.0

HOUSEHOLDS—Statistics from the 1981 Census on the family composition of New Zealand households, compared to the 1976 Census, show fewer children per family; an increasing percentage of childless couples; a decline in two-parent family numbers; and a sharp rise in families with one parent. Overall the proportion of households made up of one or two persons only, has increased to form 48 percent of all households, a rise of 76 325 (19 percent) since 1976. There was a total of 1 003 113 private households living in permanent dwellings at the Census in 1981. The following table analyses the type of household by the number of occupants. A complete one-family-only household consists of a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age who are living at home.

Type of HouseholdTotal HouseholdsNumber of Members Per Household
1234567 or More
* Parent absent permanently (3 660 households) or temporarily (2 097 households).
 Number of Households
One-family-only
One-Family-only (Complete)555 561207 15096 339136 98976 62926 96711 484
One-family-only (Incomplete)
  Family with one parent absent (permanently)59 45129 91017 8057 5812 796894462
  Family with one parent absent (temporarily)11 1542 9584 4852 55682523490
  Family with children absent29 4996 6819 1987 4343 7951 419972
  Family with children and one parent* absent5 7572 6731 77980432410875
        Total, One-Family-Only661 422249 372129 606155 36484 36929 62213 083
Other family
  One family with other (non-family) persons78 53423 60718 73516 70410 4918 994
  Two or more families (with or without other persons)16 9863 4323 5043 5046 540
        Total, other family95 51423 60722 17020 20813 99815 534
Non-family        
  Two or more persons61 18843 63511 4274 1821 371399174
  One person184 992184 992
        Total, non-family246 180184 99243 63511 4274 1821 371399174
        Total Households1 003 113184 992293 007164 640181 707105 94544 01928 791

In the following table one-complete-family-only households at the 1981 Census are analysed by membership and the employment status of the head of the household.

Employment Status of HeadTotal HouseholdsHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children

* Includes heads working pan time (1 to 19 hours weekly).

† Child/short-term visitors.

 Number of Households
In full-time labour force—
  Self-employed—has employees40 9268 5657 35612 4118 4813 0181 095
  Self-employed—no employees48 08712 2888 44214 1188 9073 3061 029
  Salary or wage earner357 954101 53867 563104 36156 54119 4348 514
  Unemployed, seeking work6 3151 7311 4101 455873465378
  Relative assisting—unpaid5583271057227159
  Not specified (working 20 hrs. or more)1 1254022372341446648
  Total454 962124 85485 110132 65174 97326 30411 073
Not in full-time labour force*—
  Retired90 25277 7309 2822 331621174117
  Student97862114413848246
  Household duties4 5541 97486194247719899
  Other4 6051 845918891495264192
  Total100 39282 17011 2024 3021 641660411
Not defined†20412924331563
  Grand total555 561207 15096 339136 98976 62926 96711 484

The following table shows the composition of one-complete-family-only households in 1981 analysed by the age group of the head of the household.

Age Group of Head (Years)Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal Households
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
 Number of Households
Under 201 21555210527931 908
20–2417 8717 6174 1708461444230 690
25–4441 35839 88598 34058 26619 8607 566265 278
45–6477 59241 21432 88017 1156 8583 819179 478
65 and over69 1207 0681 491372995478 210
     Total207 15096 339136 98976 62926 96711 484555 561
Percentage of Age Group
Under 2063.728.95.51.40.50.2100.0
20–2458.224.813.62.80.50.1100.0
25–4415.615.037.122.07.52.9100.0
45–6443.223.018.39.53.82.1100.0
65 and over88.49.01.90.50.10.1100.0
All ages37.317.324.713.84.92.1100.0

Household Incomes—The first of the two tables following shows the incomes (excluding incomes from Social Security benefits) of one-complete-family-only households by composition of households.

Income of Household*Husband and wife withHusband and Wife OnlyTotal Households
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children

* Estimated income before Social Security benefits for the year ended 31 March 1981.

† Includes 207 households headed by short-term visitors or children.

      $ Number of Households
Nil16 4671 27591850425815919 584
      1– 1,99922 4941 2308013961537825 152
2,000– 4,99913 5511 7101 26360324610217 475
5,000– 9,99921 4539 1569 8435 1752 00483748 462
10,000– 13,99922 63815 82522 29611 7003 8731 45277 787
14,000– 19,99929 52319 74032 87717 1125 2621 815106 341
20,000– 24,99929 65513 49419 80310 5033 2731 21277 943
25,000– 39,99925 05315 72022 54212 7084 1851 62381 828
40,000– 59,9993 5823 0785 3583 8431 45854617 868
60,000 and over1 1881 0591 7131 3595071986 024
Not specified†21 54314 05519 57212 7265 7483 46277 103
Total207 15096 342136 98676 62926 97011 484555 561

The following table shows incomes (including income from Social Security benefits) of all households in permanent private dwellings by type of household.

Total Household Income (incl. Income from Social Security Benefits)Household TypeTotal Households
One Family Only CompleteOne Family Only IncompleteOther FamilyNon-FamilyOne Person
* Includes 534 households headed by short-term visitors or children.
      $ Number of Households
Nil6819931022942 0284 098
      1– 1,9992 9616 3156125224 72515 138
2,000– 4,9996 7839 7111 5242 19065 52985 737
5,000– 9,99977 32221 0156 2738 19044 046156 846
10,000– 13,99976 12212 3098 1997 54227 231131 409
14,000– 19,999118 69814 97914 30111 31916 950176 253
20,000– 24,99982 3029 01811 2899 2164 266116 094
25,000– 39,99988 21210 65919 8459 7772 547131 040
40,000– 59,99919 0082 7066 3512 04656730 678
60,000 and over6 3631 2602 15142028810 485
Not specified*77 10316 88724 8619 68116 809145 338
Total555 561105 85595 51461 188184 9921 003 113

People Living Alone—The following tables show persons living alone in 1981 by age, sex, and marital status.

Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedSeparated*DivorcedWidowedTotal

* Includes persons who are still married but permanently separated.

† Includes children, short-term visitors, and those of unspecified marital status.

Males Living Alone
Under 201 566931 614
20–245 81432121324126 519
25–4412 1802 3104 4282 47812321 951
45–648 4122 4933 8164 1163 12622 182
65 and over3 9122 0791 2091 64111 35520 301
Total31 8847 2219 6698 25914 61072 567
Females Living Alone
Under 201 36827961 473
20–243 70247124948124 605
25–446 8941 0891 7341 47330311 661
45–645 9012 2622 7604 48514 52930 054
65 and over7 5452 0161 1312 52951 28264 635
Total25 4135 8655 8838 53866 132112 425

GROUP-LIVING QUARTERS—The following table shows the number of inmates and total occupants of various types of group-living quarters at the time of the 1981 Census. In comparing the numbers of inmates with the total number of occupants (especially in the case of prisons and penal institutions) it should be borne in mind that only those staff who actually live in the group-living quarters are included in the table. Those occupying separate residences outside the group-living quarters will have been enumerated in their own homes, even though they may have been on duty in the boarding school, hospital, prison, or other group-living quarters on the night of the census.

Type of Group-living QuartersNumberNumber of Group-living Quarters By Number of InmatesTotal InmatesTotal Occupants Including Staff
Below 2020–99100 and Over
Hotels, motels, hostels, boardinghouses, and motor camps3 1622 4696335451 58556 151
Educational institutions3871561597522 65023 433
Welfare institutions (children's homes, etc.)7805671981213 74315 522
Medical institutions (hospitals, etc.)4562191716327 30327 960
Religious institutions2972702432 6433 186
Armed forces (including naval base and naval vessels)843930125 4606 747
Works and construction camps and police camps, etc.4382701501810 70411 199
Prisons and penal institutions512412122 8922 913
Seasonal workers' quarters1951989961 245
Vessels (excluding naval vessels)13813594983 258
Other institutions39933054155 9466 660
Total6 3934 6711 452264144 414158 280

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1971, 1976, and 1981 Censuses.

Religious ProfessionNumber of AdherentsPercentage
197119761981197119761981
* Associated Pentecostal Churches of New Zealand.
Anglican (Church of England)895 839915 202814 74031.329.225.7
Presbyterian583 701566 569523 22120.418.116.5
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)449 974478 530456 85815.715.314.4
Methodist182 727173 526148 5126.45.54.7
Christian n.o.d.33 18752 478101 9011.21.73.2
Baptist47 35049 44250 0431.71.61.6
Latter Day Saints (Mormon)29 78536 13037 6861.01.21.2
Ratana30 15635 08235 7811.11.11.1
Brethren25 76824 41424 3240.90.80.8
Agnostic9 48114 13624 2010.30.50.8
Atheist9 29114 28321 5280.30.50.7
Salvation Army19 37122 01920 4900.70.70.6
Protestant n.o.d.37 47533 30916 9891.31.10.5
Jehovah's Witness10 31813 39213 7400.40.40.4
Assemblies of God*3 5995 58112 5250.10.20.4
Seventh Day Adventist10 47711 95811 5200.40.40.4
Pentecostal*1 8594 8466 4080.10.20.2
Church of Christ8 9308 0876 3720.30.30.2
Ringatu5 6356 2306 1170.20.20.2
Hindu3 8455 2036 0780.10.20.2
Lutheran5 9306 2975 6760.20.20.2
Indigenous Pentecostal*128245 2950.2
Apostolic*2 3612 6934 5030.10.10.1
Congregational7 7046 6003 8250.30.20.1
Eastern Orthodox Catholic4 3194 1533 8130.20.10.1
Undenominational3 7094 2223 7200.10.10.1
Buddhist1 3702 3823 6930.10.1
Union Church1 1543 0453 3990.10.1
Hebrew Congregational3 8033 9213 3600.10.10.1
Spiritualist1 0151 7312 4180.10.1
Samoan Congregational85662 3100.1
Uncertain3531 0292 2530.1
Islam7791 4152 0040.1
Reformed Church of N.Z.1 6281 3581 9230.10.1
Christadelphian1 6671 6861 6980.10.10.1
Bahai3509811 452
All other religious professions19 66436 96136 4140.71.21.1
No religion (so returned) and not specified161 018140 591275 8325.64.58.7
Object to state247 019438 511473 1158.614.014.9
Total2 862 6313 129 3833 175 737100.0100.0100.0

The category “All other religious professions” includes also cases of facetious answers and those which were not specified in sufficient detail to allow precise classification. Figures under “Object to state” represent those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—In the following table the total population at the 1976 and 1981 Censuses of Population is shown by sex and age distribution.

Age (Years)1976 Census1981 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19761981
* Under 20 years.
0– 4151 086145 019296 105128 946123 687252 6339.58.0
5– 9159 187152 586311 773148 134141 933290 06710.09.1
10–14163 869156 458320 327156 126149 748305 87410.29.6
15–1794 94391 101186 04493 08788 758181 8485.95.7
18–1958 39256 301114 69364 39861 680126 0753.74.0
20–24131 644127 931259 575139 374133 947273 3248.38.6
25–29125 668123 472249 140120 558121 374241 9328.07.6
30–34100 84798 651199 498120 357119 700240 0606.47.6
35–3989 71787 380177 09797 02696 165193 1885.76.1
40–4477 89974 732152 63185 98684 528170 5144.95.4
45–4984 16178 717162 87875 94573 026148 9685.24.7
50–5478 16677 535155 70180 10076 161156 2645.0x4.9
55–5966 54770 639137 18674 29874 895149 1964.44.7
60–6460 92466 304127 22861 02068 583129 6034.14.1
65–6949 80556 643106 44853 34661 950115 2963.43.6
70–7433 82642 02975 85539 24649 50988 7522.42.8
75–7919 94230 13650 07823 82034 43458 2541.6x1.8
80–849 51118 42527 93611 32521 25232 5770.91.0
85–894 3479 49113 8384 17910 61414 7930.40.5
90 and over1 5613 7915 3521 6504 8696 5190.20.2
Total1 562 0421 567 3413 129 3831 578 9271 596 8103 175 737100.0100.0
Under 15 years474 142454 063928 205433 206415 368848 57429.726.7
15–64 years968 908952 7631 921 6711 012 149998 8172 010 97261.463.3
65 years and over118 992160 515279 507133 566182 628316 1918.910.0
Minors*627 477601 4651 228 942590 691565 8061 156 49739.336.4
Adults934 565965 8761 900 441988 2301 031 0072 019 24060.763.6

ETHNIC GROUPS—The following table shows the broad ethnic origins of the usually resident New Zealand population.

Ethnic GroupCensus
1976x1981

* Covers persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori, plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand, but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.

† Half or more of given descent group.

European2 672 9192 696 568
Maori*269 954279 084
Other origins†—
  Pacific Island Polynesian—
    Samoan27 74742 078
      Cook Island Maori18 54723 880
    Niuean5 6718 079
    Tongan3 8736900
    Tokelauan1 7092 274
    Other3 4245 613
    Subtotal, Pacific Island Polynesian60 97188 824
    Chinese14 23618 480
    Indian8 86111 244
    Fijian1 3241 833
    Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab740900
    Other ethnic groups5 5509 762
      Subtotal, others30 71142 219
      Not specified68 71036 609
      Total3 103 2653 143 307
Note—For further information on Pacific Island Polynesian population refer to Section 3C.  

COUNTRY OF BIRTH—Since 1945 the New Zealand-born population has remained in the range 84 to 86 percent of the total population including short-stay visitors to the country.

For 1976 and 1981, of the population usually resident in New Zealand who specified country of birth, the percentages born in New Zealand were 84.3 and 85.6 respectively.

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas and usually resident in New Zealand at the 1976 and 1981 censuses.

Years of Residence1976 Census1981 Census*
Number Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified Cases
* Specified overseas birthplaces totalled 450 939. An additional 13 314 cases of not specified birthplaces are included in the analysis by duration.
0–4133 51828.157 35413.3
5–959 05212.488 11920.4
10–1464 46713.651 83112.0
15–1948 69110.253 61912.4
20 and over169 79235.7180 56141.8
Not specified10 04032 766
Total485 560100.0464 253100.0

INTERNAL MIGRATION—At the 1981 Census of Population and Dwellings the questions on internal migration related to place of usual residence 1 year and 5 years prior to the census.

The following table (in percentages) gives a summary by statistical areas of the usually resident New Zealand population by their residence 5 years ago (i.e., at 1976 Census). In New Zealand, as a whole, 54.5 percent of the population were living at the same address as 5 years previously. The areas of greatest stability were the Westland Statistical Area with 59.6 percent unchanged, East Coast with 59.2 percent unchanged, and Southland with 58.3 percent unchanged.

Movement within statistical areas was greatest in South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, where 32.2 percent of the population had moved from their address of 5 years ago but had remained within the statistical area. Other statistical areas whose percentage was higher than the overall New Zealand figure of 30.7 percent were Wellington, which recorded 32.1 percent; Canterbury, 31.8 percent; and Central Auckland, 31.6 percent.

Persons who had shifted to a different statistical area between the 1976 and 1981 Censuses comprised 10.8 percent of the usually resident New Zealand population. Marlborough Statistical Area contained the highest proportion of persons who had shifted to the area from elsewhere in New Zealand (19.8 percent), followed by Northland (17.1 percent), Westland (16.5 percent), and Nelson (15.5 percent).

Persons whose address 5 years prior to the 1981 Census had been overseas, comprised 3.5 percent of the usually resident New Zealand population.

The highest proportion of these overseas migrants were located in the Central Auckland and Wellington Statistical Areas where 5.1 percent and 4.0 percent respectively of the usually resident population belonged to this category.

In arriving at the percentages in the following table, children under 5 years of age were, of course, excluded.

Usual Residence on Census Night 1981*Usual Residence 5 Years Prior to 1981 Census
Un-changedChanged But Within Statistical AreaElsewhere in New ZealandNew Zealand Residents No Fixed Abode or Not SpecifiedPacific IslandsUnited Kingdom and IrelandAustraliaOther Countries Including Not Specified OverseasTotal
* Excludes no fixed abode or not specified.
 Percentage
Northland54.425.517.10.40.30.61.00.7100.0
Central Auckland54.031.68.60.71.11.31.21.5100.0
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty52.132.212.60.50.20.70.90.8100.0
East Coast59.223.514.70.40.40.40.80.5100.0
Hawke's Bay56.827.513.20.30.20.60.80.6100.0
Taranaki56.629.411.20.20.20.80.80.7100.0
Wellington53.432.19.80.70.51.10.91.5100.0
        Total, North Island53.931.010.70.60.61.01.01.2100.0
Marlborough55.522.319.80.40.10.40.80.7100.0
Nelson55.326.015.50.40.30.61.00.9100.0
Westland59.621.916.50.60.10.30.60.4100.0
Canterbury55.631.89.10.50.20.70.91.1100.0
Otago57.129.210.90.30.20.70.80.8100.0
Southland58.329.59.90.30.30.40.80.5100.0
        Total, South Island56.329.710.80.40.20.60.90.9100.0
        Total, New Zealand54.530.710.80.60.50.91.01.1100.0

Statistics on residence 1 year ago, together with more detailed statistics on residence 5 years ago, will be found in the 1981 Census Volume 11, Internal Migration.

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the major areas and selected countries at mid-year 1981 are shown in the following table. (Source: U.N. Population and Vital Statistics Report). The U.N. report should be consulted for further information and greater detail.

Major Areas and CountriesAreaPopulation

* Includes Central America, the Caribbean, and Hawaii.

† World and major area figures are provisional totals for mid-1981.

 km2
Major Areas(000)million
    Africa30 319484
    America—North*24 249376
    America—South17 832246
    Asia27 5802 625
    Europe4 937485
    Oceania8 51023
    U.S.S.R.22 402268
    World total135 8304 508
Africa
    Algeria2 38219.6
    Angola1 2477.3
    Egypt1 00143.5
    Ethiopia1 22232.1
    Ghana23912.0
    Kenya58317.3
    Morocco44720.6
    Mozambique78310.7
    Nigeria92479.7
    South Africa1 22130.1
    Sudan2 50618.9
    Uganda23613.6
    Zaire2 345..
America, North
    Canada9 97624.2
    United States9 363229.8
America, South
    Argentine2 76728.1
    Brazil8 512121.5
    Chile75711.3
    Colombia1 13928.8
    Peru1 28518.3
    Venezuela91214.3
Asia
    Afghanistan64716.4
    China9 5971 007.7
    Hong Kong15.1
    India3 288676.2
    Indonesia1 904150.5
    Iran1 64839.3
    Iraq43513.5
    Israel213.9
    Japan372117.6
    Jordan983.4
    Korea—North12118.3
    Korea—South9838.7
    Lebanon102.7
    Malaysia33014.4
    Nepal14115.0
    Pakistan80484.6
    Philippines30049.5
    Saudi Arabia2 1509.3
    Singapore0.62.4
    Sri Lanka6614.9
    Syrian Arab Republic1859.3
    Thailand51447.5
    Turkey78145.4
Europe
    Austria847.5
    Belgium319.9
    Bulgaria1118.9
    Czechoslovakia12815.3
    Denmark435.1
    France54753.9
    Germany—East10816.7
    Germany—West24961.6
    Greece1329.7
    Hungary9310.7
    Ireland, Republic of703.4
    Italy30157.2
    Luxembourg30.4
    Netherlands4114.2
    Norway3244.1
    Poland31335.9
    Portugal929.9
    Romania23822.4
    Spain50537.6
    Sweden4508.3
    Switzerland416.4
    United Kingdom24455.8
    Yugoslavia, Republic of25622.5
Oceania
    Australia7 68714.9
    Fiji180.6
    New Caledonia190.1
    New Zealand2693.1
    Papua New Guinea4623.1

3 B—MAORI POPULATION

For statistical purposes, all persons of half or more Maori ancestry have, in the past, been defined as Maoris. This differs from the wider definition introduced in the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974. That Act states that “Maori” means a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person.

A total of 279 255 persons stated at the 1981 Census that they were of half or more Maori descent. This compares with 227 414 in 1971 and 270 035 in 1976. However, the 1976 figure included 65 582 persons who indicated that they were of Maori origin but did not specify degree of descent.

The following tables show the New Zealand Maori population during the present century on the basis of persons of half or more Maori origin. Members of the Armed Forces overseas are excluded.

Census YearNew Zealand Maori Population*Intercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase
* Prior to 1976 comprises persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori. In 1976 and 1981 this group plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.
 numberpercent
190145 5493 4368.161.59
190650 3094 76010.451.98
191152 7232 4144.800.96
191652 9972740.520.09
192156 9873 9907.531.62
192663 6706 68311.732.24
193682 32618 65629.302.62
194598 74416 41819.941.93
1951115 67616 93217.152.89
1956137 15121 47518.563.46
1961167 08629 93521.834.02
1966201 15934 07320.393.84
1971227 41426 25513.052.48
1976270 03542 62118.743.49
1981279 255x9 220x3.41x0.67x
YearNew Zealand Maori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumberPercent
Year Ended 31 March
1978134 400x133 100x267 500x4 800x1.8x264 700x
1979137 200x136 200x273 400x5 900x2.2x270 100x
1980138 700x137 900x276 600x3 200x1.2x274 800x
1981139 900x139 400x279 300x2 700x1.0x277 900x
1982141 600x141 000x282 600x3 300x1.2x280 600x
Year Ended 31 December
1978136 600x135 400x272 000x6 400x2.4x268 600x
1979138 400x137 300x275 700x3 700x1.3x274 000x
1980139 800x139 000x278 800x3 100x1.1x277 200x
1981141 200x140 500x281 700x2 900x1.0x279 800x

Census data on the New Zealand Maori population are presented in the following table using two classifications—those of half or more New Zealand Maori origin, and a wider category containing all persons of Maori descent irrespective of their degree of Maori origin.

Census YearHalf or More Maori OriginMaori Descendants
Total PopulationAverage Annual IncreaseProportion of Total PopulationTotal PopulationAverage Annual IncreaseProportion of Total Population
PercentPercent
1951 (17 April)115 6762.96.0134 8422.77.0
1961 (18 April)167 0863.76.9202 5354.28.4
1971 (23 March)227 4143.17.9290 5013.710.1
1981 (24 March)279 2522.18.8385 5242.912.1

Births, Deaths, Infant Mortality—For statistics comparing Maori and non-Maori rates of births, deaths, infant and perinatal mortality by cause, and life expectancy, refer to Section 4, Vital Statistics.

Geographical Distribution—The increasing urbanisation of the Maori population as younger Maoris seek better job opportunities in the cities and boroughs is a population trend of considerable sociological significance. At the 1926 Census the urban New Zealand Maori population totalled 9905 (15.6 percent). By the 1981 Census the comparable figure for usually resident Maoris was 219 174 (78.5 percent), the largest concentration being in the Central and Southern Auckland Urban Areas where a total of 49 821 were enumerated.

Urban population is defined as that of main, secondary, and minor urban areas.

Between 1971 and 1976 the proportion of Maori population in the North Island dropped from 93.9 percent to 92.8 percent, but the proportion rose again to 93.0 percent (259 590) in 1981.

The following table shows the usually resident Maori population at the 1981 Census by statistical area.

Statistical AreaN.Z. Maoris*
NumberPercent
* Persons of half or more Maori descent.
North Island—
    Northland22 3538.01
    Central Auckland68 63124.59
    South Auckland - Bay of Plenty79 71028.56
    East Coast14 8805.33
    Hawke's Bay21 1747.59
    Taranaki7 9922.86
    Wellington44 85316.07
    Total, North Island259 59093.02
South Island—
    Marlborough1 0350.37
    Nelson1 5930.57
    Westland5220.19
    Canterbury9 2523.32
    Otago2 7540.99
    Southland4 3411.56
    Total. South Island19 4916.98
    Total, New Zealand279 084100.00

Age Distribution—At the 1981 Census, 40 percent of the Maori population were under the age of 15 years, compared with only 25.4 percent of the non-Maori population. The youthfulness of the Maori population is further demonstrated by the fact that at the 1981 Census, over half (53 percent) of the Maori population were under 19 years of age, compared to 34.8 percent of the non-Maori population.

The median age or mid-point in the age distribution (age at which half the population are older and half are younger), for the Maori population was 18.3 years compared with a median age of 28.9 years for the non-Maori population.

For both Maori and non-Maori populations, the proportion in younger working ages (20–44 years) were similar. This age group in both cases represents just over one-third of the population. However the non-Maori population contains higher proportions in the older working ages (45–59 years). The contrast between the age distributions of the two populations is illustrated further in the older or retirement ages. Only 3.9 percent of Maoris are over 60 years of age compared with 15.0 percent of the non-Maori population.

In the following table figures of the Maori and non-Maori populations at the 1981 Census are given for a number of broad age groups.

Age Group (Years)Non-Maori PopulationMaori Population*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
NumberPercentageNumberPercentage
* Persons of half or more N.Z. Maori origin.
Under 15433 206415 368848 57426.756 73354 921111 65140.0
Under 18526 293504 1261 030 42232.468 03165 709133 73747.9
Under 20590 691565 8061 156 49736.475 31272 828148 13753.0
18 and over1 052 6281 092 6872 145 31567.671 87473 632145 50052.1
20 and over988 2301 031 0072 019 24063.664 59366 513131 10046.9
60 and over194 586251 211445 79414.05 2445 52610 7613.9
65 and over133 566182 628316 19110.03 1893 3156 4982.3
80 and over17 15436 73553 8891.73003696660.2
Total1 578 9271 596 8103 175 737100.0139 911139 344279 255100.0

Sex Ratio—The earliest reliable statistics on the Maori population show a high predominance of males. In 1881 there were 81.1 females per 100 males and the gap has progressively closed until in 1976, there were 98.9 females to every 100 males. At the 1981 Census there were 139 911 males and 139 344 females in the total Maori population, a difference of only 567, representing a sex ratio of 99.6 females to every 100 males.

Labour Force—The resident Maori full-time labour force grew by 14 497 (16.2 percent) between 1976 and 1981 to reach 104 181 (7.8 percent of the total full-time resident labour force who specified their ethnic origin) at the 1981 Census. Intercensal growth for the non-Maori labour force was due mainly to growth in the female workforce. In contrast the increase in the male workforce for the Maori labour force was greater than for the female workforce.

Full-rime Labour Force*19761981Intercensal Change
NumberPercent

* Usually resident.

† Includes cases where ethnic origin was not specified.

Maori
Male61 54569 8528 30713.5
Female28 13934 3296 19022.0
                Total89 684104 18114 49716.2
Non-Maori†
Male794 174806 75412 5801.6
Female375 244421 40746 16312.3
                Total1 169 4181 228 16158 7435.0

The number of wage and salary earners in the Maori labour force increased by 7.6 percent between 1976 and 1981. However the proportion of wage and salary earners within the Maori labour force dropped from 88.7 percent in 1976 to 82.1 percent in 1981, largely because of an increase in the number of unemployed.

The following table shows Maori labour force by employment status at the 1976 and 1981 Censuses. The most dramatic feature of the table is the increase of 8668 (146.3 percent) in the number of Maoris unemployed and seeking work. In comparison non-Maori unemployed increased by 19 606 to 45 660 (132.9 percent).

At the 1981 Census the unemployed represented 14.1 percent of the Maori labour force compared with 3.7 percent of the non-Maori labour force. Maoris, in fact, made up nearly a quarter (24.2 percent) of the total unemployed. Almost half (49 percent) of the unemployed Maori population were aged between 15 and 19 years, while a further 21.6 percent were aged 20–24 years.

Employment Status19761981
NumberPercentNumberPercent
* Seeking work.
Employer1 7091.91 5721.5
Self employed2 3012.62 1812.1
Wage and salary earner79 24788.785 24882.1
Relative assisting2070.22220.2
Unemployed*5 9246.614 59214.1
Not specified296..369..
            Total89 684100.0104 181100.0

Main Occupational Groups—The main occupational groups of Maoris differ from those of the total New Zealand labour force. Maoris are more predominant amongst the unemployed and semi- and unskilled occupations, than among the professional and skilled white collar occupations. The principal occupational groups for Maori males were labourers (12.2 percent of the Maori male labour force), food and beverage processors (11.3 percent), and transport equipment operators (8.6 percent). Farmers, machinery fitters/assemblers, and managers were the principal occupational groups for males in the total labour force.

The main occupational groups for Maori females in the full-time labour force were tailors, dressmakers and sewing machine operators (6.8 percent), clerical workers (6.3 percent), and agricultural and animal husbandry workers (6.2 percent). This compares with clerical workers, salespersons/shop assistants and stenographers/typists/punch machinists for females in the total labour force.

The following table gives main occupational groups of the Maori full-time labour force at the 1981 Census.

RankingOccupationNumber EngagedPercentage of Maori Labour ForcePercentage of Maoris in Total Labour Force
19761981
Males
21Labourers8 51712.222.2
12Food and beverage processors7 89911.319.8
33Transport equipment operators6 0368.616.0
54Agricultural and animal husbandry workers4 8997.012.5
45Material handlers and related equipment— Operators, dockers, and freight handlers4 5606.513.2
96Forestry workers2 8954.131.1
77Wood preparation workers and paper makers2 6133.727.7
68Bricklayers, carpenters, and other construction workers2 4873.66.1
89Machinery fitters, machine assemblers, and precision-instrument makers2 2023.24.3
1210Protective service workers1 8872.78.4
  Total full-time labour force69 852100.08.0
Females
11Tailors, dressmakers and sewers2 3316.812.3
22Clerical and related workers2 1606.33.4
63Agricultural and animal husbandry workers2 1216.213.4
44Labourers1 9235.623.0
35Cooks, waitresses, and bartenders1 8575.412.8
116Building caretakers and cleaners1 4554.219.3
57Housestaff and related housekeeping services1 4344.215.5
98Food and beverage processors1 3804.026.8
89Material handlers and related equipment— Operators, dockers, and freight handlers1 2693.716.7
710Salespersons, shop assistants and related workers1 1793.43.3
  Total full-time labour force34 329100.07.5

Income—The most common income group for Maori males in the full-time labour force at the 1981 Census was $10,000–$11,999, the same as for non-Maori males. For Maori females the most common income group, $8,000–$9,999 was also the same as for non-Maori females.

However excluding those with nil income, the median income (point at which half of the incomes are lower and half were higher) was $9,936 for Maori males ($11,975 for non-Maori males). Similarly the median income was lower for Maori females ($6,837) compared to non-Maoris ($7,762). While the income differential can be partly explained in terms of the younger age structure of the Maori workforce, it is also due to factors such as lower educational attainment and hence underrepresentation of Maoris in the higher-paid occupations

EDUCATION: Maori Education Foundation—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The capital resources of the foundation are $3,000,000. The principal purpose for which the Board of Trustees is empowered is to apply the income of the foundation to the educational and vocational training of Maoris. This includes the provision of grants to pre-school groups and the employment of a pre-school officer; sponsorship of the 2 annual speech contests; grants to secondary school pupils, and to students attending university or other tertiary institutions of similar status; the provision of scholarships and fellowships to students undertaking graduate and post-graduate study at New Zealand and overseas universities; and grants to students undertaking research or study which will be of ultimate benefit to the Maori people.

In the 1982 academic year a total of $880,000 was expended on grants. Of this, $40,000 was for preschool activities; $462,000 was for grants to secondary school pupils; $173,000 was for grants at undergraduate level; and $45,000 on grants at graduate and post-graduate level. In addition the Foundation made grants totalling $160,000 in support of the teaching and development of the Maori language.

Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation—In 1972 the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation was established to assist Pacific Island students who reside permanently in New Zealand. The aims and objectives of the foundation are similar in most respects to those of the Maori Education Foundation, and assistance is also given at all levels of education. In the 1982 academic year $30,000 was expended on grants and a total of 202 students were assisted.

School Qualifications—At the 1981 Census, School Certificate or equivalent was the highest qualification attained by 15.3 percent of the Maori population aged 15 years and over (22.1 percent for non-Maoris). For a further 3.7 percent of Maoris (18.5 percent for non-Maoris), University Entrance or equivalent was the highest school qualification held.

In the younger age groups, 26.1 percent of Maoris aged between 15 and 19 years had attained School Certificate or University Entrance as their highest school qualification. This compares with 60.1 percent of non-Maoris of that age. Maoris aged 15 years and over with no secondary school qualifications totalled 80.9 percent compared to 50.9 percent of the non-Maori population. In the age group with the highest level of unemployment (15–19 years) 73.8 percent of Maoris had no secondary school qualifications, compared to 39.8 percent of non-Maoris.

The following tables show years of attendance at secondary schools, school qualifications gained, and destinations of Maori school leavers at the end of 1981.

AttainmentYears of Attendance of School Leavers* During or at the End of
1st Year2nd Year3rd Year4th Year5th Year6th YearTotal
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFGrand
* Does not include deceased or students leaving to attend another secondary school.
University Scholarship        1   1 1
University Bursaries examination        62433 6543108
Higher School Certificate        816223510467171
University Entrance      6493115117185197215412
Sixth Form Certificate     11662291421492412332391723
Three or more School Certificate subjects    11810211613527222 263259522
Two School Certificate subjects    878111314431272 233252485
One School Certificate subject    14613814317213172 304327631
No attainment1441079337171 2821 1344485153946212 8482 5205 368
Total1441079337171 6331 4561 0501 28851148376234 3474 0748 421
Source: Department of Education.
Destination of Maori School Leavers19801981
* Requiring further part-time or directed education.
Further Full-time Education—
University215188
Teacher training—
    Attending university full-time2811
    Other (including kindergarten)6753
Technical institute466559
Other full-time education10649
Labour Force—
Technical or professional work*—
    Health services10277
    Technicians and other12490
Apprenticeships544479
Clerical, sales and related work926820
Production, service industries (including Armed Forces), agricultural and manual occupations2 1522 210
No occupation or unknown3 8663 885
    Total8 5968 421
Source: Department of Education.

Training Courses for Maori and Pacific Islanders—In 1982, 1097 Maori and Pacific Island school leavers attended employment-related training courses, compared to 1729 in 1981.

Training schemes are run in conjunction with technical institutes in Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Wellington, Petone, and Christchurch; community colleges in Whangarei, Rotorua, Napier, and Invercargill; and senior technical divisions in Tauranga, Gisborne, and Wanganui. Trainees and their parents enter into a training agreement and are paid a weekly training allowance. Time spent on trade courses is credited towards the normal apprenticeship which is completed with employers in the usual way.

Pre-apprentice Training—Pre-apprenticeship courses are offered in carpentry and joinery, coachbuilding, electrical wiring, hairdressing, meat retailing, fitting and turning, fitting and welding, metal trades, motor and diesel mechanics, painting and decorating and plumbing. All courses run for one technical-institute year except the carpentry and joinery course of 2 years, in which the second year is spent on building projects. Course training is credited towards the trainees apprenticeship time.

Non-trade Career Training—Non-trade career training is offered in general merchandising (two intakes of 6 months each), chef cooking and catering, hotel receptionist, office and clerical, secretarial and typing, engineering technician, and building technician, extending over one technical-institute year. There is also a 2-year Maori carving and language course. A special clerical and executive scheme to introduce suitable young Maoris and Pacific Islanders into the Public Service placed 230 in 1982, compared to 200 in 1981.

Agriculture, horticulture, and fisheries training are provided by:

  1. One-year courses at Telford Farm Training Institute, Balclutha (6 places each year) covering theoretical and practical aspects of farming and farm management;

  2. Joint ventures between the department and major commercial horticulture and fisheries undertakings in which trainees are placed with those enterprises for 1 year with guarantee of employment on completion of that training.

In addition to specific occupational courses, short-term basic work skills training is offered to young school leavers without qualifications. This training was started in 1979 in both urban and rural areas and has been since taken over to a considerable extent by the Departments of Education and Labour. Sponsorship by the Department of Maori Affairs is offered to students to study full time on specified 1-year courses at polytechnic, senior technical divisions, and community colleges.

Health—For figures on Maori admissions to psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals refer to Section 5A, Hospitals.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the Housing Corporation, financial assistance towards the building of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris and other Polynesians under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

The Department of Maori Affairs also arranges for construction of the houses in many cases. Finance through the department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefits, is similar to loans granted by the Housing Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for special interest concessions the finance is made available at an interest rate of 9 percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the Housing Corporation.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1982, the department has provided finance for 22 132 new houses and the purchase of 3083 existing houses. An additional 14 372 advances have been made for additions and repairs to houses and other buildings.

The following table gives 1981 Census data on tenure of permanent private dwellings of Maoris and non-Maoris.

Almost three quarters (72.9 percent) of permanent, private non-Maori dwellings were owned (with or without a mortgage), while less than half (45.3 percent) of Maori dwellings were owned.

TenurePermanent Private Dwellings
MaoriNon-Maori
 NumberPercentPercent
Owned—without mortgage7 71612.929.8
Owned—with mortgage19 38332.443.1
Rented—not from employer23 16638.820.0
Rented—from employer6 24310.43.5
Rented—undefined5130.90.2
Provided free—not with job1 2962.21.2
Provided free—with job1 4612.42.1
Not specified555....
Total60 330100.0100.0

The average number of occupants per Maori dwelling at the 1981 Census was 4.2 (4.6 at 1976 Census) which compares with 2.9 for non-Maori dwellings (3.1 at 1976 Census). A total of 4686 Maori dwellings (7.8 percent) had 8 or more occupants (0.8 percent for non-Maori dwellings).

Persons living alone, permanently or temporarily, comprised 8.9 percent of Maori dwellings, compared with 19.0 percent of non-Maori dwellings.

Amenities—The following table shows the ownership level at the 1981 Census and the intercensal increase of amenities for Maori and non-Maori households.

AmenityMaori HouseholdsNon-Maori Households
Increase in Ownership 1976–81Proportion with Amenity (1981 Census)Increase in Ownership 1976–81Proportion with Amenity (1981 Census)
Telephone18.071.410.493.2
Electric clothes dryer47.629.928.746.4
Automatic washing machine3.525.947.053.1
Other washing machine..64.7..42.8
Colour television520.764.6228.367.7
Black and white television–52.132.1–48.634.3
Deep freeze16.666.012.473.4
None–37.81.6–46.20.6

COMMUNITY SERVICE FOR MAORI PEOPLE AND PACIFIC ISLAND POLYNESIANS—The legislative basis of the Maori Community Services Programme is the Maori Community Development Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by Maori people through their associations for the promotion of community services. An important feature of the Community Services Programme is that it calls upon the Maori and Pacific Island people to exercise the control and direction of their own communities.

The Maori organisations consist of 2 statutory groups and many voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the district Maori councils, Maori executive committees, and the Maori committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the department.

  2. The Department of Maori Affairs.

The Department of Maori Affairs—Through the activities of its Community Services Division the department collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups assistance and advice.

Under its Tu Tangata programme, the department has encouraged a partnership with the Maori people in the area of community administration. The traditional “Welfare” tag placed upon Maori efforts has been replaced by “Kokiri” (to advance).

Kokiri Community Management Groups have been established within the community and the department has responded to this commitment from the Maori people by introducing “Kokiri Units” which comprise departmental staff who respond to the needs within the community as determined by the Community Management Group.

These moves are allowing the decision-making processes, especially in the area of community administration, to be passed from the bureaucratic centre into the peoples' own hands.

The Department of Maori Affairs, again primarily through its community services division, assists Pacific Islanders of New Zealand nationality to adjust to the New Zealand situation and provides advisory services to individuals or groups facing difficulties.

New Zealand Maori Council—The primary functions of the New Zealand Maori Council are to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, and to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

Maori Wardens—Appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori committees to whom they are responsible, Maori wardens assist in the maintenance of law and order.

Maori Women's Welfare League—The League was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, and women's organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The League is involved actively in education, particularly at the pre-school level and plays a major role in initiating and promoting Tu Tangata Whanau programmes.

Maori and Pacific Island Community Officers—The Maori and Pacific Island Community officers carry out a different range of functions from those of other social workers. Their primary function is to work with groups rather than individuals. For example, it is not strictly a Maori community officer's duty to deal with a Maori child playing truant from school, but if truancy is a common problem amongst Maori students in any locality, it is the community officer's duty to hold discussions with parents and try to convince them of the importance of ensuring that their children attend school regularly. A great deal of time of the community services staff is occupied in informing Maori and Pacific Island parents of vocational opportunities open to their children, in recruiting and organising vocational training groups for school leavers, stimulating the formation of play centres and other pre-school groups, and in dealing with youth problems in the cities. The whole emphasis is on youth and community development and the strengthening of the family and kinship groups which have traditionally supported the individual.

MAORI LAND—Before European settlement, all land was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land remaining in this tenure is termed Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the right to purchase land from Maoris was reserved to the Crown. Almost all of what had been Maori customary land was converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.).

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown. If sold or transferred other than to the Crown it remains Maori freehold land unless the document of transfer states otherwise, in which case even though the new owner may be a Maori, the land becomes general land. A Maori may buy or otherwise acquire land which is not Maori freehold land, i.e. general land, and for this reason there is an unknown but considerable amount of general land owned by Maoris in addition to their holdings of Maori freehold land.

At 31 March 1982 the area of Maori freehold land in New Zealand was 1 317 517 hectares. Maori freehold land is subject to the jurisdiction of the Maori Land Court pursuant to the Maori Affairs Act 1953 and some general land owned by Maoris is also subject to certain provisions of that Act.

Maori Land Court—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders including in certain cases, determining entitlement to, and vesting in persons entitled, the beneficial interests of deceased owners, in Maori freehold land.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any 3 or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that 2 Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the court. With certain exemptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

During the year ended 31 March 1982 the Maori Land Court conducted 82 sittings throughout New Zealand and dealt with 5846 applications, from which a total of 9734 orders were made.

Maori Land Development and Rural Lending—The Board of Maori Affairs is constituted by section 5 of the Maori Affairs Act 1953 to promote greater involvement in, and identification of the Maori owners with, land development activities. The board is assisted by district Maori Land Advisory Committees. Owners of Maori land have access to usual lending institutions but it is not easy to borrow money for land development unless mortgage security can be given. Multiplicity of ownership often prevents this. Under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 the board, through the Department of Maori Affairs, may lend money for the development and settlement of Maori land. This does not affect the legal ownership, but the rights of the owners are suspended and the board has the right to exclusive occupation of the land. At 30 June 1982 stations farmed by the department contained a total of 111 399 hectares, 71 677 hectares of which were in grass.

The grassing programme achieved 2284 hectares of new development during 1981–82.

The original objective of Maori land development was to subdivide developed blocks for settlement by Maori farmers. A recent trend has been a preference by owners to form incorporations or trusts to assume control on their behalf when properties are sufficiently consolidated and have attained financial stability. Horticultural enterprises are becoming a most effective means by which Maori land can be utilised with the added advantage of providing employment opportunities.

The board makes loans to suitably qualified Maori trusts and incorporations to enable them to purchase farms or to enter into leasing or share farming contracts. New loans and further advances are also made available to existing farmers.

Maori Trustee—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves, estates of deceased Maoris, and those under disability. It is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. Maori Trustee activities have been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the district officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

Administration of leases of Maori land and distribution of rent to numerous owners, also lending to Maoris for businesses, homes and other purposes are now major activities of the Maori Trustee. The Maori Trust Office operates independently but within the general framework of the Department of Maori Affairs.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in each of the latest 4 years.

ItemAs at 31 March
1979198019811982
Assets—$(thousand)
    Cash1,0671,1801,141965
    Investments—
    Government securities1,9501,9501,7001,700
    Local authority debentures and stock4,6693,1642,9092,854
    Secured bonds1,4061,7061,706
    Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft5,8276,7597,9099,260
    Land, buildings, and miscellaneous265232242237
Total13,77814,69115,60716,722
Liabilities—
    Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors8,1218,6829,17310,248
    Reserves and appropriation account5,1795,5215,8115,612
    Sundry creditors, etc.478488623862
Total13,77814,69115,60716,722

3 C—PACIFIC ISLAND POLYNESIAN POPULATION

The total Pacific Island Polynesian population in New Zealand numbered 89 697 at the 1981 Census and represented 2.9 percent of the total New Zealand population compared with 2.0 percent in 1976. Of these persons, 873 were temporary visitors in New Zealand on census night leaving a resident Pacific Island Polynesian population of 88 824 (60 966 at the 1976 Census), an intercensal increase of 27 861 (45.7 percent). Nearly half (42 078 or 47.4 percent) of the resident Pacific Island Polynesian population were Samoans while more than a quarter (23 880 or 26.9 percent) were Cook Island Maoris (see table on page 81).

Age Distribution—The Pacific Island Polynesian population in New Zealand was characterised by high proportions of children (0–14 years) and also by high proportions in the main working ages (25–44 years). Some 41.3 percent of the Pacific Island Polynesian population were under 15 years of age compared with 40.0 percent of the New Zealand Maori population and only 25.2 percent of the population excluding New Zealand Maoris and Polynesian Pacific Islanders.

However, while both the Maori and Polynesian populations in New Zealand have youthful age structures, the proportion in the major working ages (25–44) is a distinguishing feature when comparing the two populations.

The following table shows that 29.6 percent of the Pacific Island Polynesian population were aged between 25 and 44, compared with 23.7 percent of Maoris and 26.9 percent of the population excluding Maoris and Polynesians.

Age (Years)Resident New Zealand Population
Pacific Island PolynesianN.Z. MaoriEuropean* and Other
* Population excluding Pacific Island Polynesians and New Zealand Maoris.
Percent
0–415.212.67.3
5–1426.127.417.9
15–1910.013.19.5
20–249.410.48.4
25–4429.62.3.726.9
45–597.09.015.0
60 and over2.63.915.0
        Total100.0100.0100.0

Geographical Distribution—The Central Auckland statistical area had the largest resident Pacific Island Polynesian population—57 462 or 64.7 percent of the resident Pacific Island Polynesian population of New Zealand. They represented 7.1 percent of the resident population of the statistical area.

The next largest concentration was in the Wellington statistical area with a Pacific Island Polynesian population of 17 580 (3.1 percent of the population of the area) representing 19.8 percent of the resident Pacific Island Polynesian population in New Zealand. Only 6.5 percent (5793) of the New Zealand Pacific Island Polynesian population lived in the South Island at the 1981 Census.

Urbanisation—At the 1981 Census, 97.9 percent of the Pacific Island Polynesian population were in areas classified as ‘urban’ and this population was concentrated within particular urban centres.

The highest proportion of Polynesians was in Porirua Basin main urban area where 12.1 percent (6513) of the population were Pacific Island Polynesians. Tokoroa secondary urban area had the next highest proportion of Polynesians with 2232, constituting 11.7 percent of the resident population of the urban area.

In the Porirua Basin main urban area, the Pacific Island Polynesian population exceeded the New Zealand Maori population. This was also the case in Central Auckland main urban area which had a Pacific Island Polynesian population of 23 769 (8.9 percent of the resident population). The largest Pacific Island Polynesian population was in Southern Auckland main urban area with 25 320 representing 11.3 percent of the resident population. Between them, these four urban centres accounted for 65,1 percent of the resident Pacific Island Polynesian population in New Zealand.

Labour Force—The Pacific Island Polynesian full-time labour force of 35 019 represented 2.6 percent of the New Zealand resident labour force in 1981. The intercensal increase in the Polynesian labour force, of 44.8 percent (10 830), was proportionately greater than that for either the Maori labour force (16.2 percent) increase intercensally or the labour force excluding Maoris and Polynesians (4.2 percent).

The full-time labour force represented 39.4 percent of the resident Pacific Island Polynesian population. Over half (56.1 percent) of the labour force were aged between 25 and 44 years.

The following table shows that in contrast to the New Zealand Maori labour force (40.0 percent were under the age of 25), only 29.9 percent of the Pacific-Island Polynesian labour force were under 25.

Age (Years)Resident Full-time Labour Force
Pacific Island PolynesianN.Z. MaoriEuropean* and Other
* Full-time labour force excluding Pacific Island Polynesians and New Zealand Maoris.
Percent
15–1911.720.711.5
20–2418.219.415.3
25–4456.143.044.7
45–5913.015.524.1
60 and over1.11.54.4
    Total100.0100.0100.0

The numbers in the Pacific Island Polynesian labour force who were unemployed increased by 2575 (246.9 percent) between 1976 and 1981 to reach 3618 or 10.4 percent of the Pacific Island Polynesian full-time labour force in 1981, compared with 4.3 percent in 1976. Largely as a result, the proportion of wage and salary earners dropped from 94.0 percent in 1976 to 87.8 percent of the Pacific Island Polynesian full-time labour force in 1981. However the following table shows that the proportion of wage and salary earners in the Pacific Island Polynesian labour force (87.8 percent) remains higher than that for the New Zealand Maori labour force (82.1 percent) or for the remainder of the labour force (81.9 percent).

Employment StatusResident Full-rime Labour Force
Pacific Island PolynesianN.Z. Maori 1981 PercentEuropean* and Other 1981 Percent
1976 Percent1981
NumberPercent
* Full-time labour force excluding Polynesians and Maoris.
Employer0.83451.01.56.4
Self-employed0.82460.72.l7.6
Wage and salary earner94.030 54687.882.181.9
Relative assisting..180.10.20.5
Unemployed4.33 61810.414.13.5
Not specified..246......
        Total100.035 019100.0100.0100.0

The main industry for the Pacific Island Polynesian labour force was manufacturing which employed 18 285 workers, over half (58.2 percent) of the Pacific Island Polynesian full-time labour force at the 1981 Census.

However, the proportion in the manufacturing industry has dropped since 1976 with resulting increases in the proportions in some other industry groups—in particular, “wholesale, retail and restaurant”, “finance, insurance and business” and “community, social and personal services”. The high degree of urbanisation of the Pacific Island Polynesian population is reflected in the low proportion of workers in agriculture and related industries.

Industry Major GroupResident Full-rime Labour Force
Pacific Island PolynesianN.Z. Maori 1981 PercentEuropean* and Other 1981 Percent
1976 Percent1981
NumberPercent
* Labour force excluding Polynesians and Maoris.
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, fishing1.35881.913.111.3
Mining and quarrying0.1390.10.70.3
Manufacturing61.418 28558.235.222.4
Electricity, gas, water0.62130.71.61.2
Building and construction5.31 1823.88.66.6
Wholesale, retail and restaurant7.12 5178.09.017.9
Transport, storage, communication8.22 4607.810.58.2
Finance, insurance, business1.77232.31.87.7
Community, social, personal14.35 42417.319.524.4
Inadequately defined..3 594......
            Total100.035 019100.0100.0100.0

Income—The most common income group for Pacific Island Polynesian males in the full-time labour force was $8,000-$9,999. The most common income group for both Maori male labour force and for the remainder of the male labour force was $10,000-$11,999. The median income for the Polynesian male labour force was also lower ($9,593) than that for either the Maoris ($9,936) or the remainder of the male labour force ($12,068).

For Polynesian females in the full-time labour force the most common income group was $8,000–$9,999, the same as that for Maori females and for the remainder of the female labour force. However, the median income for Pacific Island Polynesian women ($7,342) was higher than that for Maori women ($6,837) and compared with $7,780 for the remainder of the female labour force.

Pacific Island Polynesian Dwellings—Some 18 096 permanent and private dwellings were classified as Pacific Island Polynesian at the 1981 Census. They represented 1.8 percent of all permanent and private dwellings in New Zealand.

There were 85 707 occupants in these Polynesian dwellings giving an average occupancy rate of 4.7 persons per dwelling. This compares with an average occupancy rate of 4.2 persons per dwelling for New Zealand Maori dwellings and 2.9 for all other permanent and private dwellings (i.e. excluding Polynesian and Maori).

A total of 2217 (12.3 percent) Pacific Island Polynesian dwellings had 8 or more occupants, the equivalent proportions for New Zealand Maori dwellings being 7.8 percent and for “other” dwellings just 0.6 percent. Some 6.1 percent of Pacific Island Polynesian dwellings had one occupant compared with 8.9 percent of New Zealand Maori dwellings and 19.3 percent of all other dwellings.

Number of OccupantsPermanent and Private Dwellings
Pacific Island PolynesianNew Zealand MaorisEuropean* and Other
* Excluding Polynesian and Maori dwellings.   
Percent
16.18.919.3
2–444.351.764.9
5–737.331.615.2
8 and over12.37.80.6
        Total100.0100.0100.0

The majority of Pacific Island Polynesian dwellings were rented (10 773 or 60.3 percent), the proportion being higher than that for both Maori dwellings (50.1 percent) and other dwellings (23.1 percent). In comparison, 38.9 percent (6951) of Pacific Island Polynesian dwellings were owned (with or without a mortgage) compared with 45.3 percent of Maori dwellings and 73.6 percent of the remaining dwellings.

Households—The following table shows that both Pacific Island Polynesian and New Zealand Maoris households had lower proportions of households as “one family complete” than did the remainder of the population.

Nearly a third of Pacific Island Polynesian households (5658 or 31.3 percent) were “other family households” (i.e. multi-family or families plus other persons). For Maoris, 24.1 percent were “other family households” while the proportion for all other households was only 8.1 percent.

For the Pacific Island Polynesian population some 75.8 percent of these “other family households” consisted of one family plus other persons while the remaining 24.2 percent were “multi-family households”.

Only 6.1 percent of Polynesian households were one person households compared to 8.9 percent of Maori and 19.3 percent of all other households.

Household TypeProportion of HouseholdsAverage Number of Members Per Household
Pacific Is. PolynesianN.Z. MaoriEuropean* and OtherPacific Is. PolynesianN.Z. MaoriEuropean* and Other

* Total permanent, private dwellings excluding those classified as Pacific Island Polynesian and New Zealand Maori.

† Households of which total occupants consist of members of one family (husband, wife, unmarried children), but with one or more members absent on census night.

  PercentPercent
One family complete46.445.556.24.64.33.3
One family incomplete†10.615.710.23.83.73.0
Other family:
One family plus other persons23.718.26.85.85.44.4
Multi-family7.65.91.38.37.75.8
Total, other family31.324.18.16.46.04.6
Non-family5.65.86.12.62.52.4
One person6.18.919.31.01.01.0
        Total, Households100.0100.0100.04.74.22.9

FURTHER INFORMATION—For further information relating to the Pacific Island Polynesian population on education, housing and community services programmes refer to Section 3B. Immigration regulations and the Citizenship (Western Samoa) Act 1982 are contained in Section 3D.

3 D—EXTERNAL MIGRATION

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—During the years 1978 to 1981 there was a significant increase in the numbers of New Zealand residents going overseas, seeking better employment opportunities, on business or pleasure trips and on working holidays. The 1982 year has, however, seen a decrease in departures of New Zealanders, particularly in the permanent and long-term category.

Total migration figures (excluding only movements of armed forces) are shown in the following table for the most recent available 5 years. (A later year is included in the Latest Statistical Information Section at the back of this Yearbook). “Long-term”, as used here, indicates arrivals or departures for an intended stay of 12 months or more. Conversely, “short-term” refers to less than 12 months.

Through passengers, not included in the “All Passengers” totals, are persons who arrive in New Zealand but do not pass through immigration controls and do not complete arrival declarations. Also described as transit passengers, they normally depart on the same flight or vessel within a few hours of arriving in New Zealand.

ARRIVALS IN NEW ZEALAND
Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsShort-term MovementsAll Passenger ArrivalsThrough PassengersCrewsTotal Arrivals
N.Z. Residents ReturningTemporary Visitors Arriving
197836 972287 868390 940715 780162 733182 1761 060 689
197940 808346 324418 744805 876176 586172 8251 155 287
198041 607439 137445 195925 939176 822175 8101 278 571
198144 965462 006463 456970 427138 378170 9611 279 766
198245 292428 414472 581946 287129 866164 0471 240 200
DEPARTURES FROM NEW ZEALAND
Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) DeparturesShort-term MovementsAll Passenger DeparturesThrough PassengersCrewsTotal Departures
N.Z. Residents DepartingTemporary Visitors Departing
197863 680284 284389 972737 936162 733182 3271 082 996
197981 008343 764407 648832 420176 586173 1871 182 193
198076 024426 805444 424947 253176 822176 7951 300 870
198169 790451 300465 546986 636138 378170 0801 295 094
198256 774419 458474 798951 030129 866164 4861 245 382

A summary of arrivals and departures during the latest 5 years by sex is given in the following table. Crews, through passengers, and armed forces personnel on military exercises have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* A minus sign denotes an excess of departures over arrivals.
1978378 344337 436715 780388 076349 860737 936–22 156
1979424 848381 028805 876438 504393 916832 420–26 544
1980484 986440 953925 939495 131452 122947 253–21 314
1981513 469456 958970 427520 370466 266986 636–16 209
1982500 946445 341946 287502 856448 174951 030–4 743

From 1968 to 1970 there was an alteration in the net migration flow. This is illustrated in the following diagram which covers all passenger migration, excluding through passengers and crews. The excess of departures over arrivals recorded during the March years 1967–68 to 1969–70 was a migration feature unknown since the depression of the 1930s. It was followed by 6 years of migration gains, but since 1976–77 there have been substantial annual losses.

Long-term Migration—The following table gives an analysis of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for March years. (Short-term migration is analysed in Section 37, Travel and Tourism.) In the year ended March 1982 there was a net loss of 11 482 from permanent and long-term migration. This net loss represented a decrease of 13 343 or 53.7 percent from the 1980–81 migrant loss figure of 24 825. The main area of change was in the number of departures, which decreased by 13 016 or 18.6 percent.

Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsLong-term (Including Permanent) Departures
Permanent ArrivalsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Arrivals (Immigrants)Permanent Departures of New Zealand ResidentsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Departures (Emigrants)
N.Z. Residents Returning*Long-term Visitors*N.Z. Residents Depart'g*Long-term Visitors Depart'g*
* Arrivals: after absence of, or intending to stay, 12 months or more respectively. Departures: persons intending to stay away for, or after stay in New Zealand of, 12 months or more respectively.
197814 18815 6447 14036 97218 33639 4245 92063 680
19799 96022 3288 52040 80819 68052 9528 37681 008
198010 76923 5617 27741 60723 87546 1625 98776 024
198112 52825 7746 66344 96525 53639 1985 05669 790
198212 31226 8306 15045 29219 71933 0504 00556 774

The countries of origin and destination of these long-term (including permanent) migrants are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchAustralia*United KingdomUnited StatesWestern Samoa*Cook Islands and Niue*CanadaOceaniaEuropeAsiaAll Other CountriesTotal

* Included in Oceania.

† Included in Europe.

‡ Includes unspecified.

Immigrants by Country of Last Residence
198013 2929 9122 0051 0071 01880719 71611 8903 9603 22941 607
198114 06511 4452 0871 19185981720 36014 0914 8782 73244 965
198214 12012 2902 1381 0388181 00219 96315 3703 7393 08045 292
Emigrants by Country of Next Residence
198042 91013 5492 5171 0157201 34549 31515 4162 9524 47976 024
198142 4839 3232 3731 0557041 31248 29210 8483 3683 59769 790
198234 9346 6882 0858644991 08139 9707 9032 8012 93456 774

Ages—The following table gives the age distribution of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1982.

Age, in YearsPermanent and Long-term ArrivalsPermanent and Long-term DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* A minus sign denotes an excess of departures over arrivals.
Under 155 1634 8189 9815 9215 59311 514–1 533
15–191 5621 7193 2812 6713 5456 216–2 935
20–243 9374 9648 9017 8907 48615 376–6 475
25–4410 5588 61519 17310 6788 34319 021152
45 and over1 9472 0093 9562 3562 2914 647–691
    Total23 16722 12545 29229 51627 25856 774–11 482

Occupations—The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures during the year ended 31 March 1982 by occupation major groups and by those occupations or groups of occupations which were the main contributors to the movement within each major group.

OccupationPermanent and Long Term Migrants
ArrivalsDeparturesNet Gain or Loss
* Protective service workers include fire fighters, policemen, detectives, security officers, night watchmen, etc.
Professional, technical, and related workers—
    Architects, engineers, and related technicians1 1501 222–72
    Medical, dental, veterinary, and related workers2 1432 623–480
    Teachers1 8151 690125
    Accountants429459–30
    Workers in religion34431925
    Other2 2972 595–298
    Total8 1788 908–730
Administrative and managerial workers—
    Managers9001 205–305
    Other926230
    Total9921 267–275
Clerical and related workers—
    Stenographers, typists, and card and tape punching machine operators1 4991 597–98
    Computing machine operators232342–110
    Other2 4844 376–1 892
    Total4 2156 315–2 100
Sales workers—
    Salespeople, shop assistants, and related workers6881 300–612
    Other600968–368
    Total12882268–980
Service workers—
    Cooks, waiters and waitresses, bartenders, and related workers7561 052–296
    Protective service workers*376449–73
    Other7691 171–402
    Total1 9012 672–771
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters—
    Farmers383432–49
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers338671–333
    Other280385–105
    Total1 0011 488–487
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
    Food and beverage processors284777–493
    Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, and related workers224485–261
    Machinery fitters, machine assemblers, and precision instrument makers (except electrical)1 3301 824–494
    Electrical fitters and related electrical and electronics workers510755–245
    Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers and erectors553859–306
    Printers and related workers266365–99
    Painters253405–152
    Bricklayers, carpenters, and other construction workers1 1061 545–439
    Material-handling and related equipment operators, dockers, and freight handlers311556–245
    Transport equipment operators587951–364
    Labourers, not elsewhere classified8111 584–773
    Other9421 540–598
    Total7 17711 646–4 469
Occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described1 2681 21157
    Total, actively engaged26 02035 775–9 755
Not actively engaged19 27220 999–1 727
    Total arrivals and departures45 29256 774–11 482

Origin—The following table shows for the latest 3 years the birthplaces of long-term (including permanent) migrants.

Country of BirthImmigrants*Emigrants
1979–301980–311981–821979–801980–811981–82

* Persons arriving in New Zealand for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent arrivals). Plus New Zealand residents returning after an absence of 12 months or more.

† New Zealand residents departing for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent departures). Plus overseas visitors departing from New Zealand after a stay of 12 months or more.

North America1 5171 5531 5061 3731 3261 101
    Canada398444452483419378
    United States1 0661 0551 008838864679
South America9188845911989
Europe86409 73611 34610 3569 0656 584
    Netherlands7961 1801 471525444366
    United Kingdom6 7897 3738 6098 4827 5505 262
Asia3 2223 6992 6931 6471 6791 507
    Malaysia511476510557562497
Africa474463433405482340
Oceania27 57729 38229 20262 12957 10047 123
    Australia4 4204 0133 5574 0513 7162 945
    Cook Islands and Niue910758696504595486
    Fiji544569524409418322
    New Zealand19 88122 14322 46255 61850 65741 994
Other Countries864428551930
    Total41 60744 96545 29276 02469 79056 774

IMMIGRATION POLICY—New Zealand's immigration policy is designed to encourage the entry of skilled labour into New Zealand, and to protect domestic employment opportunities for New Zealand citizens and residents who have the right to reside here permanently. At the same time, considerable emphasis is placed on humanitarian considerations such as the reunification of families, and the provision of settlement opportunities for refugees.

Since January 1981 the Department of Labour has been responsible for entry requirements into New Zealand.

Further information may be obtained from the nearest New Zealand overseas representative, from district offices of the Department of Labour, or by writing to the Secretary of Labour, Department of Labour, Private Bag, Wellington.

CITIZENSHIP—The current basic legislation on New Zealand citizenship is the Citizenship Act 1977, and the Citizenship (Western Samoa) Act 1982, which are administered by the Department of Internal Affairs. Prior to the 1977 Act, the relevant legislation was the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948.

Citizenship Act 1977—Under the Citizenship Act 1977, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways:

  1. by birth in New Zealand;

  2. by descent (i.e., birth outside New Zealand);

  3. by grant of citizenship.

Those persons who were citizens under the 1948 Act (whether by birth, descent, naturalisation, registration or under transitional provisions) at 31 December 1977, retain their status under the 1977 Act. The 1977 Act also introduced citizenship by descent through the female line, and citizenship by adoption.

To be eligible for a grant of New Zealand citizenship, a person (other than the spouse of a New Zealand citizen; or a person under 18 years of age) must:

  1. have resided in New Zealand for the 3 years immediately preceding the date of application;

  2. be entitled in the terms of the Immigration Act 1964 to reside in New Zealand permanently;

  3. be of full capacity;

  4. be of good character;

  5. have sufficient knowledge of the English language and of the responsibilities and privileges attaching to New Zealand citizenship;

  6. intend to continue to reside in New Zealand or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government, or service in the employment of a person, company, society, or other body of persons resident or established in New Zealand.

Citizenship (Western Samoa) Act 1982—This Act provides primarily for the grant of citizenship to any person who—

  1. can establish that he/she is a Western Samoan citizen or that he/she comes within the specified degrees of association with Western Samoa; and who either

  2. was in New Zealand at any time on 14 September 1982; or

  3. lawfully entered New Zealand on or after 15 September 1982 and is entitled to reside in New Zealand permanently in terms of the Immigration Act 1964.

Under the 1977 and 1982 Acts, adults who acquire New Zealand citizenship by grant may be asked to swear allegiance to the Queen of New Zealand. Commonwealth citizens (British subjects) whose country recognises Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State are asked to take the oath on the application form. Other persons holding citizenship of a country which does not give this recognition are conditionally approved as New Zealand citizens, and are required to swear allegiance at a private or public ceremony to make the grant effective. Apart from this one differentiation, the 1977 Act treats aliens (non-British subjects) on exactly the same basis as British subjects. The requirements that aliens be registered was abolished on the introduction of this Act.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than by marriage, and have acted in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand, or voluntarily exercise any of the privileges or perform any of the duties of another nationality or citizenship in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, mistake, or wilful concealment of relevant information may be withdrawn. Under certain conditions New Zealand citizenship may also be validly renounced.

There was a marked increase in applications for citizenship during the year ended 31 March 1982. Applications received totalled 12 396 compared with 7599 during the previous year, and 10 411 persons were granted citizenship.

Permanent Entry: Occupational Grounds—The New Zealand Government periodically determines the occupational skills in demand in New Zealand which warrant recruitment from overseas. A list of these skills, called the Occupational Priority List (OPL), is published by the Department of Labour to assist employers who are unable to fill job vacancies from within New Zealand.

Another measure adopted to assist employers is the Immigration Placement Service (IPS), which operates through the Migration Branch of the New Zealand High Commission in London and the Employment and Vocational Guidance Service of the Department of Labour. This service provides employers with information on suitably qualified prospective migrants in the United Kingdom.

In general, applicants for permanent entry on occupational grounds must be between the ages of 18 and 45 years, of sound mental and physical health and of good character, and, if married, have no more than 4 dependent children. Accommodation and employment are usually required to be pre-arranged.

In certain skilled occupations where there is a known shortage in New Zealand, the New Zealand Government has relaxed the criteria for entry by waiving the requirement of employment and accommodation guarantees. This applies to suitable applicants from selected countries, who are single or married couples without children. There is also provision for the entry of business people and entrepreneurs who can bring both skills and capital which the Government considers will benefit New Zealand, for example, by creating additional employment opportunities or by generating new exports.

Applications are occasionally received from persons who have distinguished themselves in the arts or sciences, or in public or cultural life overseas, and who wish to settle in New Zealand. Although they could make a major contribution to New Zealand life, most of them do not qualify in terms of normal occupational criteria. In the same way, applications are sometimes received from persons who, although outside normal criteria, have been actively involved in promoting or protecting New Zealand's interests overseas. The Minister of Immigration may approve such applications in appropriate cases.

Family Reunification—The policy on family reunification provides for the entry of relatives who are spouses and/or dependent children of New Zealand citizens or permanent residents; parents of New Zealand citizens or permanent residents if they have no children living in their own country; brothers, sisters, and children of New Zealand citizens or permanent residents if they are single without dependants, and alone in their country of residence. Other cases where there are special circumstances such as a high degree of financial or emotional dependence on the New Zealand citizen or permanent resident may also be considered.

Western Samoa—Within the South Pacific region, immigrants from Western Samoa constitute by far the largest group entering New Zealand for permanent settlement under a special quota arrangement instituted in 1962. Up to 1100 Western Samoan citizens may be accepted for permanent entry each year, over and above those who qualify under the family reunification provisions of the immigration policy. Applicants who seek entry under the quota are required to meet normal requirements in relation to age, family size, health, character, and accommodation, and to be in possession of a guarantee of employment in any occupation, prior to entry.

As a result of the passing of the Citizenship (Western Samoa) Act 1982 by the New Zealand Parliament in September 1982, many Western Samoan citizens who were in New Zealand at that time became eligible to apply to the Department of Internal Affairs for New Zealand citizenship. Applications from Western Samoan citizens for permanent residence in New Zealand continue to be considered in accordance with the policies outlined above.

The Netherlands—Under the terms of a migration agreement between the Netherlands and New Zealand, an annual quota of immigrants from the Netherlands is accepted. Migrants accepted under this arrangement are required to meet normal criteria with respect to age, family size, health and character, and the Netherlands Emigration Service guarantees to place such migrants in employment and accommodation after arrival.

Refugees—The admission and resettlement of refugees who come within the mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has been an important priority of the New Zealand Government. Refugees have been accepted in New Zealand since 1944 from Europe, Asia, South America, and Uganda. When selecting refugees emphasis is placed on the humanitarian circumstances of each case. The selection criteria may vary for different refugee situations but it is considered in the best interests of the refugees themselves that those selected can be expected to adapt quickly to New Zealand conditions. Account is also taken of any previous association with New Zealand, and of links with friends or relatives living in New Zealand.

Where refugees arrive in large groups (e.g., as in the Indo-Chinese Refugee Programme) the Government provides special assistance in the form of group orientation programmes for up to 6 weeks after arrival. During that period the refugees are accommodated in the Mangere Reception Centre and costs are met by various Government departments including the Department of Social Welfare, which pays a special emergency benefit to meet living expenses until the breadwinner begins working. Medical and dental checks are provided by the Department of Health, and the Department of Education organises general orientation and familiarisation courses (covering aspects of daily living in New Zealand) and instruction in the English language. After completing the orientation programme the refugee settlers are moved to their final destinations where they are helped by their sponsors and, where possible, by other persons from their country of origin, to overcome their early resettlement problems in a local community.

Resettlement committees at each of the district offices of the Department of Labour assist refugee sponsors at the local level with employment and any other problems that the refugees may face, as well as following up each local group's progress.

Current policy establishes quotas of refugees who may be accepted for entry, and the quotas are kept under review. Quotas approved in the continuing programme of acceptance of East European, Russian, Jewish, and handicapped refugees provide for the entry of 90 families. The New Zealand Government has agreed to the entry of up to 650 Indo-Chinese refugees for resettlement in New Zealand between 1 July 1982 and 30 June 1983. Priority is being given to those refugees with immediate family already resident in New Zealand. Once established in New Zealand, refugee settlers may sponsor the entry of relatives to New Zealand for family reunification under normal family reunification policy. During 1982, 587 Indo-Chinese refugees arrived for resettlement bringing the total of Indo-Chinese refugee settlers in New Zealand to 4678 at the end of 1982.

In November 1982 the Government agreed to resettle a third group of 100 Polish refugees in New Zealand. By September 1982, 196 Polish refugees had been resettled in New Zealand. When these migrants were selected, account was taken of their occupational skills and links with New Zealand.

Interdepartmental Committee on Resettlement—The Interdepartmental Committee on Resettlement (ICR), in consultation with other Government agencies and non-Government bodies, reviews the facilities available to assist new migrants, and as appropriate develops proposals to satisfy the reasonable requirements of new migrants.

Resettlement Unit—As a part of the Immigration Division of the Department of Labour, the Resettlement Unit's role is to assess the range of resettlement services available to new settlers and working visitors, and to make recommendations to the ICR and other interested bodies. Work undertaken by the Resettlement Unit this year has been aimed at fostering a better understanding in New Zealand of the difficulties faced by migrants and working visitors, and suggesting ways in which these settlers may be assisted to take their place in the community.

Temporary Entry—Entry permits for people wishing to visit New Zealand on a temporary basis are generally issued for varying periods of up to 6 months, though further extensions may be granted to bona fide tourists and other visitors to allow a total stay of up to 12 months. Visitors who wish to work while in New Zealand, whether for a New Zealand employer or on behalf of an overseas company, must apply for a temporary work permit; otherwise visitors are prohibited from working here. This requirement does not, however, affect Australian citizens who wish to work while in New Zealand, nor does it affect persons born in the Cook Islands, Niue, or Tokelau, who are New Zealand citizens and therefore have unrestricted right of entry into this country.

South Pacific Work Permit Schemes—New Zealand has special work permit schemes in operation for citizens of Tonga, Fiji, and Western Samoa. Under these schemes, agreed upon after negotiations with the respective governments, workers may undertake employment in response to specific job offers from New Zealand employers. Employers are required to make financial and other commitments to ensure the welfare of Island workers while they are in New Zealand, and the Department of Labour checks that the conditions of employment offered are acceptable and that the accommodation provided is of a suitable standard. The maximum period of employment is 11 months.

From time to time New Zealand makes special arrangements on an ad hoc basis with other Pacific countries to provide employment opportunities as local conditions permit.

Student Entry—Entry may be granted to overseas students to undertake approved courses of study, provided they make prior application and meet a number of requirements (including producing evidence of the availability of the necessary funds). The primary aim in permitting students from other countries to study in New Zealand is to train them to a stage where they can be of value in the development programmes of their own countries. For this reason, students from developing nations have preference.

Formalities: Entry Permits—Except for New Zealand citizens and certain other categories of travellers listed below under “Special Arrangements”, all persons entering New Zealand are required to obtain entry permits under the Immigration Act 1964. All persons intending permanent residence in New Zealand should seek prior approval before setting out on their journey. This may be done by writing to the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or to the Secretary of Labour, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand for the necessary application forms. Visitors to New Zealand from a number of countries may not require visas or prior entry authority, provided the purpose of entry is for tourism or to visit family and friends. Further details are available from the nearest overseas representative of New Zealand.

Departure from New Zealand—All persons leaving New Zealand must have a valid travel document (except for short visits by New Zealand citizens to Rarotonga and direct return). As from 1 July 1981 New Zealand citizens were required to have a passport to enter Australia. This greatly affected the number of passports issued. New Zealand citizens do not require a visa to enter Australia.

Passports—All persons who arrive in New Zealand, excepting New Zealand citizens travelling direct from Australia and certain other Trans-Tasman travellers listed below, may be required to produce a valid passport or some other acceptable and recognised travel document. Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1980.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, Rotorua, Christchurch, and Dunedin, at Rarotonga and Niue by the New Zealand Representatives, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brussels, Canberra, Geneva, The Hague, Hong Kong, Honiara, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Mexico City, Moscow, New York, Noumea, Nuku'alofa, Ottawa, Paris, Peking, Port Moresby, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago (Chile), Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington.

United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, Malaysian, Singapore, Fijian, Western Samoan, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

During the year ended 31 March 1982 there were 242 441 New Zealand passports issued, compared with 87 542 during the previous year.

Special Arrangements: Australian Citizens—Australian citizens are exempt from New Zealand entry permit requirements (but not from other provisions of the Immigration Act). They are not required to produce a passport on arrival in New Zealand if they have travelled direct from Australia.

Trans-Tasman Travellers—British Commonwealth citizens and citizens of the Republic of Ireland who have been granted permission to reside indefinitely without restriction in Australia, providing they have travelled direct from Australia to New Zealand, are not required to obtain a prior entry authority or to produce a passport on arrival. They may, however, be asked to produce some evidence of their entitlement to the exemption. These travellers are not exempted from other provisions of the Immigration Act.

Prohibited Immigrants—The following categories of persons are prohibited from entry to New Zealand whether for permanent or temporary entry:

  1. Mentally disordered persons, or people suffering from tuberculosis, leprosy, or syphilis;

  2. Persons who have been convicted of an offence and sentenced to a term of imprisonment or other form of detention for 1 year or more or to any form of indeterminate detention for which they may be detained for a period of 1 year or more;

  3. Persons who have been deported from New Zealand (except for a certain class of ship deserter), or deported from any other country. Those within any of the above categories who enter New Zealand without first obtaining special permission to do so commit an offence under the Immigrations Act 1964.

Re-entry—People who have the status of permanent residents lose their residential status when they travel out of the country, unless they have first obtained a re-entry authority. Multiple re-entry authorities are valid for a period of up to four years and entitle the holder to leave and return to New Zealand on any number of occasions while the authority remains valid. Application for a re-entry authority may be lodged at any district office of the Department of Labour before departure.

Remaining in New Zealand Without a Permit—Persons who remain in New Zealand beyond the validity of a temporary permit are committing an offence against the Immigration Act and, if convicted, are liable to be deported.

Deportation—The Immigration Act 1964 makes provision for the deportation of persons in four main categories: persons convicted of certain offences against the Immigration Act; permanent residents who are convicted within specified periods of their arrival in New Zealand of an offence for which the Court has the power to impose imprisonment; those who have engaged in, or who belong to organisations which have engaged in, acts of terrorism; and any person who the Minister of Immigration has certified constitutes a threat to national security.

Appeals Against Deportation—Persons who have been convicted of offences against the Immigration Act may appeal in writing to the Minister of Immigration against deportation on the grounds that it would be unduly harsh or unjust to deport them. In addition, a Deportation Review Tribunal is empowered to hear appeals on humanitarian grounds from permanent residents against deportation orders following convictions for criminal offences.

3 E—GOVERNMENT BODIES CONCERNED WITH THE CHANGING ROLES OF WOMEN

In the past thirty years there has been a marked change in the social and economic factors which affect traditional roles in the community. These factors include changes in the structure of the population, in the family cycle and its composition, and employment opportunities available for both men and women.

This process of social and economic change is characteristic of industrialised nations in particular. It has led to increasing attention to the role and status of women, including the commitment of the international community to the United Nations Decade for Women 1975–85, and the recommendation of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1981).

It is in this context, that the following government bodies have been established. Their role is to promote and advise the Government of the day on particular issues relating to the achievement of equal opportunities for women, and their full integration into all aspects of national life.

National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women (NACEW)—The increase in the numbers and proportion of women in the workforce in the fifties and sixties, led employers, unions, and women themselves, to recognise that conditions of employment for women required attention. Legislation (both protective and restrictive), regulations and practices prevented women from enjoying equal opportunity in the workplace. In response to this concern, the National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women (NACEW) was established in 1967.

The council was charged with the responsibility of advising the Minister of Labour on all matters relating to the employment of women in New Zealand for example: part-time work, child care, equal pay, maternity leave, and positive action to promote equal opportunity for women in the workforce. It also has responsibility for promoting a greater public awareness and understanding of all aspects of women's employment.

The NACEW is composed of a Chairperson and twelve other members. The Chair and six council members are appointed by the Minister of Labour for their knowledge and experience in women's employment matters. The remaining six members represent employer and employee organisations in the private and state sectors, and the Departments of Labour and Education.

Committee on Women—The Committee on Women had its origins in a National Development Council subcommittee established in 1969 and convened by Mrs (now Dame) Miriam Dell, and a paper produced by that subcommittee on “The Role of Women in National Development” in 1970.

In 1974 the NDC subcommittee was raised to full sector council status and its membership, under the Chair of Miriam Dell, was expanded from three to five. At this time it was responsible to the Prime Minister and serviced through the Cabinet Office.

The committee was given responsibility for the implementation of International Women's Year (1975) and established a working party to organise the year's activities. One such activity was an evaluation of the Report of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Women's Rights which had been published in June 1975.

In 1976 the Committee on Women was expanded to a total membership of twelve. Miriam Dell was appointed as Chair, and the eleven additional members were appointed as individuals, with the exception of an ex officio representative of the National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.

Responsibility for the Committee on Women was returned to the Minister for National Development, and the committee was charged with the following tasks:

  1. to promote the objectives of the World Plan of Action for IWY and the UN Decade for Women;

  2. to assess New Zealand's progress towards achievement of these objectives;

  3. to advise the Government through the Minister for National Development on these and all other matters affecting women in New Zealand.

These tasks were expanded in 1978 to include administration of a special project fund of $25,000 per annum, set up to provide assistance for projects of benefit to women, e.g. the establishment of women's centres, production of resources, exhibitions, training courses and cultural activities.

In 1979, responsibility for the Committee on Women passed to the Minister of Justice, the Hon. J. K. McLay, who was appointed to the newly-created Cabinet position of Government Spokesman on Women's Affairs. In 1981 the committee was restructured as the Advisory Committee on Women's Affairs and given expanded terms of reference (see ACWA below).

Advisory Committee on Women's Affairs (ACWA)—In September 1981 the Committee on Women was reconstructed and became the Advisory Committee on Women's Affairs to the Government on matters affecting women. Members are appointed by the Government, not as representatives of any particular organisations or special interests, but as individuals who are familiar with a wide range of issues affecting women. ACWA currently has seven members, including the Chair.

ACWA's terms of reference are:

  1. to evaluate government policies on the basis of the identified needs of women in New Zealand;

  2. to generate appropriate policies on the basis of the identified needs of women in New Zealand;

  3. to promote the co-ordination of activities, programmes and policies of all agencies relevant to the concerns of women.

In addition to these, ACWA has continued with activities originally undertaken by the Committee on Women, such as administration of the Project Fund (which remains at $25,000), production of a news sheet, promotion of the UN Decade for Women, and maintenance of the women's resources library.

It also houses and provides administrative assistance for the Women's Appointment File (WAF), which is a curriculum vitae resource of over 600 women who are willing and available to serve on government boards and committees.

The WAF was set up in 1979 and aims to counteract the imbalance of men and women in public office, and to encourage greater participation by women in the decision-making process. It is currently managed by a voluntary committee comprising various representatives of voluntary women's organisations.

One of ACWA's most important functions is that of liaison with women and women's groups throughout New Zealand, to ensure that the committee can fairly represent and articulate the views and the needs of New Zealand women to the Government.

To this end, women's groups and individuals are encouraged to maintain close contact with ACWA, and committee members accept a large number of speaking engagements throughout New Zealand. The quarterly news sheet, which outlines ACWA's current activities and reports on national and international items of interest to women, is another medium through which this important liaison is effected.

To enable the committee to deal with its extensive brief, a subcommittee structure has been evolved reflecting the areas of concern to ACWA. It is a flexible structure, and the subcommittees are convened to respond to particular issues and needs as they arise, or are identified. The subcommittees currently in operation are Economic Status, Education, Health, International Statistics, and Violence.

Women's Advisory Committee of the Vocational Training Council (WAC/VTC)—The Women's Advisory Committee of the Vocational Training Council was established in 1975 to advise the council on matters relating to women's training and to act as a catalyst to change the traditional attitudes affecting the vocational training of women and girls. The council, which formerly reported to the Minister of Education, now reports to the Minister of Labour.

Membership of the committee comprises representatives from the Federation of Labour, the Employers Federation, State Services Co-ordinating Committee, the Combined State Unions, the Departments of Education and Labour, the Technical Institute/Community College system, the Polynesian Advisory Committee of the VTC, the National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women, and the Advisory Committee on Women's Affairs. There is also provision for an additional person with experience and knowledge of the special needs of women in relation to training and employment.

The committee is chaired by a Ministerial appointee to the VTC.

Since its establishment, the committee has been directing its efforts towards achieving equality of opportunity for women in the areas of training, and the promotion of non-traditional occupations for women is one of its current major programmes.

National Advisory Committee on Women and Education (NACWE)—The National Advisory Committee on Women and Education replaced an ad hoc committee originally set up to organise the 1975 conference “Education and the Equality of the Sexes” which was jointly sponsored by the Committee on Women and the Department of Education. This ad hoc committee continued in order to monitor the implementation of recommendations from the conference, and its work expanded to the extent that the Minister of Education set up a formal advisory committee in 1979.

The NACWE had sixteen members, representative of relevant interest groups, who advised the Minister of Education on matters pertaining to the education of girls and women; the achievement of equality of opportunity and treatment for women in the education service; and ways in which the education system could contribute to equality of the sexes in New Zealand society.

The NACWE was disestablished by the Government in June 1982, and its work programme passed to various sections of the Department of Education. The Chair of NACWE was subsequently appointed to ACWA.

Legislation—The following legislation, either removing legal discriminations against women or directly aimed at assisting women, has been passed since 1970.

Domestic Proceedings Amendment Act 1971—Extended provisions for maintenance orders.

Equal Pay Act 1972—Established the principle of equal pay for equal work without discrimination on the basis of sex.

Social Security Amendment Act 1973—Established the domestic purposes benefit for solo parents.

Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1973—Extended compensation provisions to non-earners.

Matrimonial Property Act 1976—Provided for a more equitable division of property on the dissolution of a marriage.

Domicile Act 1976—Provided that a woman's domicile does not have to follow that of her husband.

Social Security Amendment Act 1977—Introduced national superannuation without discrimination.

Human Rights Commission Act 1977—Prohibited discrimination in such areas as employment, and access to goods and services on the grounds of sex or marital status.

Citizenship Act 1977—Accorded all New Zealand citizens the same rights with respect to the citizenship of spouses and children.

Social Security Amendment Act 1979—Provided for the payment of sickness and unemployment benefits to women and men on an equal basis.

Evidence Amendment Act 1980—Provided some restrictions on the cross-examination or presentation of evidence pertaining to a victim's sexual history.

Family Courts Act 1980—Removed family law to special court with special support services.

Family Proceedings Act 1980—Introduced no fault dissolution of marriage, and revised the law relating to matrimonial and domestic proceedings.

Guardianship Amendment Act 1980—Introduced custodial provisions which ensure that the welfare of the child is paramount and no one person can be preferred as custodial parent on the basis of sex.

Maternity Leave and Employment Protection Act 1980—Guaranteed up to 26 weeks unpaid leave to most women workers expecting a baby or planning to adopt a young child.

Factories and Commercial Premises Amendment Act 1981—Lifted restrictions on women working during night hours.

Domestic Protection Act 1982—Extended protection to the victims of domestic violence in whatever situation this occurs.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications containing data on population include the following. Department of Statistics bulletins may be obtained from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington or, in some cases, Government Bookshops. Most other official publications may be obtained from Government Bookshops in the main centres.

Population and Migration—Department of Statistics (Annual)

Pt. A—Population

Pt. B—Migration

Census of Population and Dwellings 1981—Department of Statistics.

Regional Statistics Series

Bulletin 1–10 (Each bulletin gives final population, dwelling, and household statistics on a major area of New Zealand)

Vol. 1—Pt. A—Location and Increase of Population.

Pt. B—Population Density.

Pt. C—Usually Resident Population.

Vol. 2—Ages and Marital Status.

Vol. 3—Religious Professions.

Vol. 4—Labour Force.

Vol. 7—Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin.

Vol. 8a—Maori Population and Dwellings.

8b—Pacific Island Polynesian Population.

Vol. 9—Dwellings.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Demographic Bulletin—Department of Statistics.

New Zealand Sub-national Population Projections 1976–1991 (Series of 20 bulletins)—Department of Statistics.

Pocket Digest of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Miscellaneous Bulletin Series—Department of Statistics.

No. 1—New Zealand Males and Females—A Statistical Comparison.

No. 7—New Zealand Maori and Non-Maori Populations.

No. 10—Family Statistics in New Zealand.

No. 12—New Zealand Children 1979.

Social Trends in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1977).

The New Zealand People 1971 (Summary of data from 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings)—Department of Statistics.

Maps of Statistical Boundaries—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Maori Affairs (Parl. paper E. 13).

Chapter 4. Section 4; VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The major components of population growth are natural increase and any gain from migration. The slowing-down of New Zealand's population growth in recent years has been a result of a fall in increments from both components. The balance of migration has, in fact, showed an annual loss of population since 1976–77, and the continued fall in the birth rate over the past 2 decades has substantially reduced the excess of births over deaths.

The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the latest 5 years, and emphasises the relatively high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural Increase Rates per 1000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
197851 02924 66926 3606 5801 2155 3658.3919.97
197952 27925 34026 9396 6541 3065 3488.5919.52
198050 54226 67623 8666 4201 3395 0817.5918.33
198150 79425 15025 6446 6051 2905 3158.1219.00
198249 93825 53224 4066 2161 3184 8987.7217.45
Note—Population figures are revised for the years 1977–80.

In the 5 years to 31 December 1982 New Zealand gained by natural increase of population a total of just over 127 000.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, are for 1981.

CountryRate per 1000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural increase
* As at 1980.
New Zealand16.18.08.1
Japan13.06.16.9
Australia15.87.38.5
France14.910.34.6
Italy10.99.51.4
Canada*15.57.28.3
Norway12.89.92.9
United States15.98.77.2
Netherlands12.58.14.4
United Kingdom13.111.81.3
Switzerland*11.69.22.4
West Germany10.111.7–1.6

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law regarding the registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth is normally registered at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth.

Birth statistics are compiled by the Department of Statistics from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

Under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, provision is made for births not registered in the ordinary way to be recorded at a later date in a special register kept by the Registrar-General. Such cases include elderly people requiring evidence of age for social welfare purposes. Until 1971 these late registrations were included in published live-birth statistics but they are now excluded. The numbers are normally relatively small; in 1981 they totalled 706.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the latest 5 years. Late registrations (see above) have been excluded from all these figures. The birth rate, which fell in the early 1960s and then appeared to stabilise at 22 to 23 births per 1000 of mean population in the later 1960s, resumed the decline in the 1970s and, as the decade ended, appeared to be reaching a new stability at a lower level.

YearNumbersRates per 1000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
197851 0296 58016.2324.50
197952 2796 65416.6624.28
198050 5426 42016.0823.16
198150 7946 60516.0923.61
198249 9386 21615.69 

In the following table the New Zealand birth rate is compared with that of Australia, Canada, and the United States.

CountryBirth Rate per 1000 Mean Population
19741975197619771978197919801981
New Zealand19.518.317.617.216.216.716.116.1
Australia18.418.416.716.115.715.515.315.8
Canada15.415.415.815.515.315.5..15.5
United States15.014.814.715.315.315.815.815.9
Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Statistical Yearbook.

REFINED BIRTH RATE—“Crude” rates of the number of births per 1000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the childbearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the nuptial birth rate per 1000 married women of 16–44 years of age, or the total birth rate per 1000 of women aged 15–44 years. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Census YearBirth Rate per 1000 Women“Crude” Birth Rate per 1000 Mean Population
Married Women 16–44 YearsTotal Women 15–44 Years
* New Zealand residents.
1966152.8x114.422.37
1971145.7x112.922.51
1976104.7x83.517.68
198194.9*72.5*16.09

The percentage of married women among women in the child-bearing age groups was 61.8 in 1981 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age composition of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birth rate also varies with age, the change in age composition over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

The following diagram shows numbers of births and deaths and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates zero population growth if the population is closed to migration, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during the 6 most recent years were as follows:

YearGross RateNet Rate
19761.093x1.065
19771.077x1.050x
19781.0140.990
19791.0411.014
19800.9900.965
19810.9780.953

SEX OF CHILDREN BORN—The numbers of boys and girls born during the latest 5 years are given in the following table.

In each year more boys than girls are born, a disparity in births that is outweighed by the higher death rates of males at every age level. The death rate per 1000 live births for babies under 12 months of age in 1981 was 13.01 for boys and 10.22 for girls; for children of from 1 to 4 years of age it was 0.95 for boys and 0.64 for girls; for children aged 5 to 14 years it was 0.35 for boys and 0.23 for girls; and the pattern repeated itself for each age group through adolescence and adult life.

The following table illustrates the disparity in the numbers born.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1000 Female Births
MalesFemales
197826 06224 9671 044
197926 67025 6091 041
198025 93824 6041 054
198126 12624 6681 059
198225 69824 2401 060

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—In 1981 there were 501 confinements resulting in all live multiple births, including 9 cases of triplets. There were also 22 cases where one of the twins was stillborn and another 9 cases where both twins were stillborn.

YearSingle BirthsTwin BirthsTripletsTotal CasesStill Birth Rate per 1000
LiveStillBoth LiveBoth StillOne Live One StillAll LiveTwo Live One StillSingleMultipleSingle CasesMultiple Cases
* Including 1 case of quadruplets all live-born.
197753 1053805186195253 4855507.149.1
197849 9623465113121150 3085376.927.9
197951 240334503112751 5745236.524.9
198049 522327492414649 849517*6.634.8
198149 761292492922950 0535325.858.3

AGES OF PARENTS—Information on the relative ages of parents of nuptial living children whose births were registered in 1981 is shown in the following table. Registrations of births under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 are excluded.

Age of Father, in YearsAge of Mother, in Years
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–6465 and OverTotal Cases
* Including 7 cases of triplets, all live-born, and 17 cases of twins where one was still-born.
Single Births
Under 202391 044211457141 551
20–24944 7405 7981 097177611926111 995
25–2986458 0795 643933187562311215 587
30–341698414 0611 81643386391817 365
35–392867332694402103381431 663
40–44115244011175307303
45 and over1274115
        Total3446 50715 01111 2033 6671 19735013657738 479
Multiple Births
Under 201618
20–2424059212124
25–29798651011182
30–3411144329921100
35–3949102126
40–44112
45 and over
        Total4541721335020531442*
        Grand total3486 56115 18311 3363 7171 21735513958738 921

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1981 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Nuptial Cases
0123456–910–1415 and over
* This number represents 38 479 single cases and 442 multiple cases.
Number of Mothers
Under 201 1393932521 559
20–246 2404 2621 30427831412 119
25–295 3945 8383 212996234771815 769
30–341 5192 3302 0979953291306327 465
35–3931236737428914910092511 689
40–445645454035265161305
45 and over221214315
        Total14 66213 2377 0582 60078033822816238 921*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1981.

Age of Mother, in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 201 5592 0161.29
20–2412 11920 0931.66
25–2915 76932 6352.07
30–347 46519 4742.61
35–391 6895 4883.25
40–443051 2634.14
45 and over15946.27
    Total38 92181 0632.08

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz, the average number of children (including those registered in 19.31) born up to the present time to those mothers of nuptial children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1975, 2.19; 1976, 2.17; 1977, 2.13; 1978, 2.11; 1979, 2.11; 1980, 2.07; and 1981, 2.08.

FIRST BIRTH—Statistics of nuptial first confinements show that, during the latest decade, the percentages of first confinements during the first year and first 2 years after marriage initially showed an annual decline and now appear to have stabilised at a lower level.

YearTotal Nuptial CasesTotal Nuptial First CasesPercentage of First Cases to Total CasesFirst Cases Within 1 Year After MarriageFirst Cases Within 2 Years After Marriage
NumberPercentage to Total First CasesNumberPercentage to Total First Cases
197743 45415 75136.244 21326.747 48447.51
197840 33914 79236.663 81225.776 80445.99
197940 90115 05436.813 79825.236 74944.83
198039 27414 98938.173 78325.246 75045.03
198138 92114 66237.673 71525.346 73945.96

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419801981
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8532.3825.2425.34
126.7926.3030.5626.4223.2119.7920.62
210.2411.2811.5611.4218.4815.1115.44
36.167.885.955.0711.9212.4111.44
43.967.183.302.826.949.599.38
5–95.497.365.053.566.5216.8316.77
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.551.031.01
        Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

Age of Mother, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419801981
Under 208.907.339.0819.6417.968.847.77
20–2440.3941.7947.7152.6748.1442.9642.56
25–2932.7929.5427.7918.2826.7435.1036.79
30–3413.1014.6110.396.005.5110.5610.36
35–393.795.363.922.571.342.182.13
40–440.991.341.020.810.300.330.38
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.010.030.01
        Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1974, 23.29; 1978, 24.38; 1979, 24.64; 1980, 24.76; and 1981, 24.88 years. These figures refer to nuptial births only.

EX-NUPTIAL LIVE BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 6 years, with the percentage they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Comparisons of the ratio of ex-nuptial births to all live births (either on a year-to-year basis or on an international basis) should be made with caution. Some of the difficulties were discussed in supplements to the January 1967 and November 1975 Monthly Abstracts of Statistics. For example, the ex-nuptial ratio as a true indicator of ex-nuptial fertility is of limited value because it is influenced by extraneous factors. Ex-nuptial ratios may change not so much because of changing numbers of ex-nuptial births but because of a change in nuptial fertility experience as measured by nuptial birth numbers. This situation is well illustrated by experience during the 1962–79 period when ex-nuptial births increased from 5227 to 10 942 while nuptial births showed an overall fall from 59 787 to 41 337, resulting in the ex-nuptial ratio exaggerating the “real” rise in the ex-nuptial fertility level.

YearNumberRatio*
* Ex-nuptial live births as a proportion of total live births.
197710 26518.95
197810 25420.09
197910 94220.93
198010 85721.48
198111 44122.52
198211 38622.80

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movements in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included. The figures for census years are as follows:

Census YearUnmarried Women 15–44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birth Rate per 1000 Unmarried Women
* New Zealand residents.
1945156 3261 82511.67
1951130 3431 93514.85
1956129 8772 31017.79
1961138 0183 33224.14
1966183 9966 94037.72
1971199 1478 98145.10
1976224 1859 59742.81
1981264 681*11 44143.23

In 1981 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements resulting in live births was 11 363. Of these, 11 282 cases were single births, 74 cases were twins, and there were 2 cases of triplets. There were 5 cases of twins where 1 child was stillborn. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 11 441. From the following table, it can be seen that of the 11 363 mothers, 4147 or 36.50 percent were under 20 years of age.

AgeNumber of Mothers
11
121
136
1440
15156
16536
17911
181 215
191 282
201 174
21957
22836
23720
24–292 436
30–34780
35–39241
40–4469
45 and over3
        Total11 363

Reregistration—An ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married may be reregistered from birth. Applications for registration must be made within 3 months after the date of the marriage.

The number of reregistrations in each of the latest 6 years were as follows: 1975, 1433; 1976, 1478; 1977, 1284; 1978, 1288; 1979, 1075; 1980, 1328; and 1981, 1473.

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974 requires that all ex-nuptial births be notified to a social worker so that inquiries may be made concerning the circumstances of each mother and child for the purpose of offering advice and assistance.

The following table shows the outcome of the inquiries made in recent years. Inquiries relate to some births from the preceding year and do not cover all births in the year stated.

Location of Infants19801981
No.%No.%
Reregistered after marriage of parents21421111
Remaining with mother (parents cohabiting)3 517423 11742
Remaining with mother (parents not cohabiting)2 840342 51734
Placed with relatives38051993
Placed with strangers with view to adoption42654185
Placed with strangers, no expressed wish to adoption1312
In children's home or other institution on a long-term basis138
Committed to care of Social Welfare127
Not traced900111 01814
Died691501
        Total8 3841007 457100

ADOPTIONS—The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during recent years.

YearTotal
19762 942
19772 523
19782 380
19792 050
19802 125
19811 885

In 1972, for the first time for many years, there was a substantial drop in the number of adoption orders made by the Court and this trend has continued. Of the 1885 adoptions finalised in 1981, social workers of the Department of Social Welfare were concerned with 1647 or 87 percent. Maori welfare officers handled most of the others.

The following table, which relates only to cases handled by the department, shows the number and status of children adopted over the last 5 years.

Status of Children Adopted19771978197919801981
* These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Ex-nuptial1 5361 5261 3751 2321 014
Nuptial537523374408336
Not known*4381205317297
        Total2 1162 1301 9541 9571 647

In 1981, 62 percent of the children adopted were born out of wedlock. Of these children born out of wedlock, 64 percent were aged less than 1 year at the time of placement for adoption.

The next table shows the age at placement according to the status of the children adopted in 1981.

AgeNuptialEx-NuptialNot KnownTotal
* These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Under 1 year7665022748
1–5 years2765698
6 years and over188..26
Not known*215291269775
        Total3361 0142971 647

The following table shows the original relationship between adopted children and their new parents.

Relationship19771978197919801983
Strangers1 0521 067845715556
One parent and spouse792782773894763
Relative or close friend272281336348328
        Total2 1162 1301 9541 9571 647

STILLBIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A stillborn child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The following table shows for the latest 6 years the numbers of still births and the rate per 1000 total births.

YearNumberRate
19774137.57
19783647.08
19793486.61
19803496.86
19813326.49
19822975.91

4 C—DEATHS

The death rate (by which is usually meant the crude death rate, the number of deaths per 1000 of total mean population) is less subject to fluctuation than the birth rate. In the absence of wars, epidemics, and other large-scale disasters, it changes slowly. The New Zealand crude death rate was 8.80 in 1930 and 50 years later, in 1980, it was 8.48. In between, it had reached a peak of 11.05 in 1942, during the Second World War, and a low point of 7.85 in 1978. In contrast, the birth rate (19.30 in 1930 and 16.09 in 1981) had been as high as 27.64 in 1947 and is now falling below even the level of the 1930s Depression years. Depressions, wars, peace, prosperity, changing social attitudes, and the popularisation of improved methods of birth control have all left their mark on the birth rate.

Under normal conditions the most important factor affecting the crude death rate is the age structure of the population, which (like the death rate itself) changes slowly. An ageing population will tend to have a high death rate, while a young one (provided that infant mortality is not abnormally high) will have a low one.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1000 of mean population. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more Maori ancestry and the term non-Maori covers all other persons.)

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
197823 4541 21524 6698.16x4.52x7.85x
197924 0341 30625 3408.39x4.77x8.08x
198025 3371 33926 6768.84x4.83x8.48x
198123 8601 29025 1508.29x4.617.97
198224 2141 31825 532....8.02
Note—Mean population figures are revised between 1977–80.

The chief merit of the crude death rate is that it is easily calculated, requiring only the number of deaths and the size of the population “at risk”. However, it is very misleading when comparisons are being made between two or more populations with different age structures, such as the Maori and non-Maori populations of New Zealand. The Maori population is a “young” one, with a high proportion of children and young people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally very low, and relatively few elderly people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally high. The non-Maori population is older, with a considerably smaller proportion of children and young people and a larger proportion of elderly people. The result is that a comparison of crude death rates gives a false picture of Maori mortality as compared with non-Maori.

In the following table, based on 1980 figures, adjustments made to effect a truer comparison show that mortality for Maoris is generally relatively higher than for non-Maoris; in addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the two races in each sex (age-specific rates are the number of deaths per 1000 (or per 10 000, etc.) of the population in the specified age groups).

Ethnic GroupAll Ages Rates per 10 000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10 000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to Non-Maori PopulationUnder 5 Years5–14 Years15–24 Years25–44 Years45–64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori51.5115.245.83.914.528.3167.2769.9
Non-Maori95.831.73.715.116.9113.1714.6
Females
Maori41.2101.443.92.37.821.2137.0543.5
Non-Maori82.526.02.76.99.868.9530.0
Both Sexes
Maori46.4108.344.83.111.224.8151.9650.4
Non-Maori89.128.93.211.213.391.2608.5

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the number of deaths and the respective crude death rates for each sex separately for the latest 5 years.

 Deaths of MalesDeaths of FemalesTotal DeathsMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
NumberRate*NumberRate*NumberRate*
* Deaths per 1000 of mean population.
197714 3179.1411 6447.3925 9618.26123
197813 6008.6811 0697.0224 6697.85123
197913 9428.9311 3987.2325 3408.08122
198014 3209.1612 3567.8226 6768.48116
198113 6708.7111 4807.2325 1507.97119
198213 832 11 700 25 5328.02118

Deaths of Maoris, included in these figures, in 1982 totalled 1318, of whom 755 were males and 563 females.

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—In 1981 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were August and September, with totals of 2434 and 2313 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month were not registered until January 1982), February had the least number of deaths, 1736, followed by April with 1911.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1981 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
* Excludes adjustments by the National Health Statistics Centre as a result of analysis and collation of registration forms and death certificates.
Under 1*340252592
1–49763160
5–9512677
10–14564197
15–1921898316
20–2423493327
25–2914475219
30–3417980259
35–39160101261
40–44256174430
45–49380224604
50–54634355989
55–591 0235451 568
60–641 2867422 028
65–691 8281 1612 989
70–742 1251 4313 556
75–791 9671 6413 608
80–841 4081 7733 181
85–898141 4672 281
90–943658521 217
95–9991249340
100 and over143751
        Total13 67011 48025 150

The Maori population is a young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the percentages of deaths of Maoris and non-Maoris which take place at various ages. The following table illustrates the position for the year 1981.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths per Age Group
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 56321202.659.3015.96
5–14159150.671.168.02
15–24563802.366.2012.44
25–441 0021674.2012.9514.29
45–644 72846119.8135.748.88
65 and over16 77644770.3134.652.60
        All ages23 8601 290100.00100.005.41

In the following table is given a time series for rates of death per 1000 of mean population by age groups. Health measures have achieved an immense saving of young life and a prolongation of life, especially among elderly women.

YearUnder 1*1–45–1415–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475 and Over

* Per 1000 live births in this case.

† Non-Maori figures only as Maori at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
1901†78.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
1921†53.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
197914.740.76x0.371.56x1.38x2.33x7.19x18.41x44.98x120.65x
198C13.880.720.371.511.542.10x6.2717.93x45.39131.13x
198113.010.950.351.531.352.266.5717.3043.38114.08
Females
1901†63.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
1921†42.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
197910.150.66x0.27x0.570.66x1.52x4.18x9.82x25.09x87.21x
198011.790.62x0.270.700.751.49x4.41x10.24x26.21x94.19x
198110.220.640.230.670.641.513.949.1923.7384.67
Both Sexes
1901†71.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
1921†47.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
197912.490.71x0.321.08x1.02x1.93x5.7214.01x34.19x99.47x
198012.860.67x0.321.11x1.141.80x5.36x14.00x34.96x107.73x
198111.650.800.291.110.991.895.2913.1432.6795.40
Note—Mean population figures are revised between 1977–80.

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of the total population by sex is shown in the following table. Prior to 1974 the data relates to the non-Maori population only.

YearMalesFemales
age (years)
190141.6437.68
192148.4546.97
194158.6559.60
196163.8067.32
197164.7570.04
197763.0669.27
197863.4269.69
197964.1270.36
198065.6971.01
198165.0271.26

The average age of death of Maoris in 1981 was 51.50 and 52.42 years for males and females respectively. The younger age composition of the Maori population is an important factor to be borne in mind.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables, depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular calendar periods for the total New Zealand population, have been constructed at regular intervals since 1950–52. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are provisional abridged tables based on the 1981 population census, together with mortality statistics for the calendar year 1981.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the “expectation of life”. The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the total population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident.

Further details concerning life table methodology and construction and trends in New Zealand life expectancies can be obtained from New Zealand Life Tables 1975–77, obtainable from Government bookshops.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)*
MalesFemales
* Provisional.
070.3676.61
170.2876.40
566.5472.59
1061.6567.65
1556.7662.74
2062.1357.94
2547.5553.13
3042.8248.29
3538.1243.44
4033.4238.66
4528.8834.03
5024.5529.52
5520.4425.16
6016.7221.00
6513.3017.03
7010.3313.45
757.7810.16
805.527.23

The trend since 1950–52 in the life expectancy of New Zealand's population has generally been a slow but steady improvement for both sexes. This improvement has been striking for the younger ages but less significant for the oldest ages, and only marginal for males. Between 1975–77 and 1981 there has been a sharp increase in life expectancy in all ages.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
* Provisional.
1950–5267.1950.7516.1071.2954.1818.44
1955–5768.2051.2916.1173.0055.4019.07
1960–6268.4451.1716.0073.7555.8719.27
1965–6768.1950.6215.7474.3056.0919.58
1970–7268.5550.7715.7474.6056.3419.78
1975–7769.0151.1716.0975.4557.0120.42
1981*70.3652.1316.7276.6157.9421.00

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown in the following table. These expectations are taken from New Zealand Life Tables 1975–77.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
063.3567.75
163.6267.76
262.7266.90
361.8065.99
460.8665.05
559.9164.09
1055.1159.22
2045.6649.59
3036.7440.09
4027.7730.94
5019.9822.80
6013.5516.23
709.0411.12
805.506.87

Life expectancy at birth for Maori males increased by 2.39 years between 1970–72 and 1975–77 while that for Maori females increased by 2.79 years. These increases in Maori life expectancy are, however, slightly overstated because of problems of classification of ethnic origin and non-response to the relevant question at the 1976 Census of Population. These led to an overstatement of the Maori population exposed-to-risk of mortality during 1975–77, and Maori life-expectancy at all ages was consequently overstated. The opposite is true for non-Maoris.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter than that of non-Maoris at all except the highest ages. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 6.02 years greater for non-Maori males and 8.13 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1970–72, the differences were 8.13 years and 10.20 years respectively.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. Source: United Nations. Demographic Yearbook 1980.

CountyPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales
Australia197970.7977.76
Canada1975–7770.1977.48
Denmark1978–7971.377.4
England and Wales1976–7870.076.20
France1977–7969.8978.02
Japan197973.4678.89
Netherlands197972.478.9
New Zealand198170.3676.61
United States197869.577.2

REGISTRATION OF DEATH, BURIAL, AND CREMATION—Deaths are required to be registered by the funeral director within 3 days after the day of burial. The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1974. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision exists for the disposal of the dead. Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary.

The rate of cremation for every 100 deaths registered doubled between 1950 and 1970, and has continued to increase, exceeding 50 percent in the past 2 years. The following table relates cremations to the number of deaths since 1950. Prior to 1970 the statistics concern deaths of non-Maoris only.

YearDeaths RegisteredCremationsRate per 100 Deaths Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
195016 7151 7991 4543 25319.46
196019 5242 9582 5825 54028.38
197024 8405 4184 4749 89239.82
197925 4106 8275 74612 57349.48
198026 6767 2106 24013 45050.42
198125 1507 0695 96913 03851.84

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The selection of cause of death recommended by the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases is based on the concept of selecting the underlying cause of death.

The certifier's statement largely determines the cause but to obtain more accurate data the nosologists also refer to all autopsy reports received, cancer case registrations, coroners' reports, and hospital case summaries.

Medical practitioners certified 81 percent of deaths registered in 1980 and 19 percent were certified by coroners. Of the deaths certified by doctors, 13 percent were subject to autopsy whilst 98 percent of deaths certified by coroners were subject to autopsy. Overall, 29 percent of all deaths had autopsies performed.

Detailed information about causes of death is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre in New Zealand Health Statistics Report—Mortality and Demographic Data.

The following table is a summary of causes of death, numbers and rate per million of mean population for the years 1978 to 1980. New Zealand adopted the Ninth Revision of the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases in 1979. As a result, care must be taken when comparing 1979 and 1980 figures with those for previous years. Rates particularly affected are asterisked in the Cause of Death table.

The sharp increase in rates for “All other accidents” in 1979 and 1980 is chiefly attributable to the effects of the Mount Erebus air disaster in 1979. Over half of those deaths were not registered until 1980.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197819791980197819791980

* 1979 data not comparable with previous years due to introduction of 9th Revision of WHO International Classification of Diseases.

Source: National Health Statistics Centre.

Enteritis and other diarrhoeal diseases39362412128
Tuberculosis of respiratory system222520786
Other tuberculosis including late effects373144121014
Infectious hepatitis91412344
Syphilis and its sequelae432111
All other infective and parasitic diseases795671251823
Malignant neoplasm5 2115 3665 4651 6651 7171 745
Benign neoplasm and neoplasm of unspecified nature413332131110
Diseases of thyroid gland151725558
Diabetes mellitus342382446109122142
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency12911434
Anaemia26403881312
Alcoholic psychosis and alcoholism*69263422811
Meningitis232622787
Multiple sclerosis272626988
Paralysis agitans668567212721
Epilepsy383754121217
Chronic rheumatic heart disease*214162156685250
Hypertensive disease314362329100116105
Ischaemic heart disease6 9727 1137 4592 2282 2772 382
Other forms of heart disease*8131 1441 053260366336
Cerebrovascular disease2 9953 0273 1589579691 009
Diseases of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries709634713227203228
Acute respiratory infections including influenza6052241191777
Pneumonia1 0721 0281 105343329353
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma*1 207825958386264306
Other diseases of respiratory system*17155972055179230
Peptic ulcer136132156434250
Appendicitis1066322
Intestinal obstruction and hernia949874303124
Cirrhosis of liver141166149455348
Diseases of gallbladder414544131414
Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome and nephrosis*125157188405060
Infections of kidney424837131512
Hyperplasia of prostate2032276109
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and puerperium567222
Rheumatoid arthritis355558111819
Congenital anomalies253261241818477
Birth injury, difficult labour, other anoxic and hypoxic conditions, and other causes of perinatal mortality229220187737060
All other diseases1 0941 2281 178350393376
Motor vehicle accidents688594622220190199
All other accidents7769141 012248293323
Suicide and self-inflicted injury32230233710397108
All other external causes8010080263226
        Total24 67825 48226 6887 8868 1558 526

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH—Heart disease, malignant neoplasms (cancer), and cerebrovascular disease were again the leading causes of death in 1980 (the latest year for which data are available). These 3 causes accounted for approximately 66 percent of all deaths in 1980—ischaemic heart disease accounted for 28 percent of deaths, malignant neoplasms (cancer) for 20 percent, and cerebrovascular disease for approximately 12 percent.

Death rates per million of mean population from leading causes of death are shown in the following table.

Cause of Death19761977197819791980
Deaths per million
All heart disease2 7492 8152 6302 7812 845
Malignant neoplasms (cancer)1 6511 6791 6651 7171 745
Cerebrovascular disease9861 0119579691 009
Accidental causes508548457483522
Pneumonia320295343329353

Heart Disease—Heart disease as a group of diseases is still the leading cause of death in New Zealand. The standardised mortality ratios for all forms of heart disease show that between 1970 and 1980 rates for males have fallen by 13 percent and rates for females have fallen by 11 percent.

Numbers of deaths and standardised mortality ratios for heart disease, excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations, are shown below.

YearAll Forms of Heart Disease
MalesFemales
NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*
* Base years 1950–52 = 100.
19654 7101003 39479
19704 886993 40572
19754 845923 31564
19775 147923 65665
19784 843853 38759
19795 101883 58961
19805 039863 86864

The standardised mortality ratio shows the number of deaths registered in the year of experience expressed as a percentage of those which would have been expected in that year had there operated the sex-age mortality of a standard period (the 3 years 1950–52 were chosen). The standardised mortality ratio has been adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age-structure of the population.

Cancer—In New Zealand 1 death in 5 in 1980 was caused by cancer. The cancer crude death rate has increased in each of the latest 5 years for which figures are available from 165.1 per 100 000 population in 1976 to 174.5 in 1980.

A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. These reports cover mortality from cancer and also survey all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry.

A summary of numbers of deaths from cancer, crude death rates, and standardised mortality ratios is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100 000Standardised Mortality Ratios*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100 000Standardised Mortality Ratios*
* Base years 1950–52 = 100.
  Males  Females 
19601 72414***1011 566132.592
19702 436173.01262 024143.599
19752 726176.91292 281147.6101
19772 848182.31302 402153.4102
19782 801179.21252 410153.9102
19792 901186.01282 465157.5103
19802 952188.91282 513160.2103

A classification of cancer deaths during 1980 according to age and sex is shown below. Ninety-three percent of deaths from cancer during 1979 were at 45 years of age or above, and 62 percent were at 65 years of age or above.

Age Groups. in YearsDeaths of MalesDeaths of Females
NumbersRate per 100 000 of Population at Ages GivenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages GivenNumbersRate per 100 000 of Population at Ages GivenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages Given
Under 564.61.475.62.0
5–14227.219.372.49.0
15–243712.48.22910.314.5
25–4413532.618.316339.536.7
45–64901313.827.0787277.938.4
65 and over1 8511 431.920.01 520873.316.5
        All ages2 952188.920.62 513160.220.3
* All ages crude rate.

Cancer of the lung continues to be the major site in male deaths from cancer. Six percent of all male deaths in 1979 were caused by lung cancer. Breast is the major cancer site in females and accounted for 4 percent of all female deaths.

The following table shows deaths from cancer (malignant neoplasms) by sex and selected sites, registered in New Zealand during 1979 and 1980.

SiteSexNumbersRates per Million Mean Population
197819791980197819791980
Buccal cavity and pharynxM745657473636
 F302631191720
OesophagusM776575494248
 F476240304025
StomachM201228198129146127
 F124122130797883
Large intestineM267247279171158179
 F326323298208206190
RectumM133147150859496
 F128125118828075
Bronchus, trachea, and lungM811859868519551556
 F237256265151164169
BreastM624413
 F431481509275307324
Cervix uteriF1057994675060
Corpus uteriF615552393533
Ovary, fallopian tube, and broad ligamentF1531551609899102
ProstateM249278311159178199
Bladder and other urinary organsM1791361471158794
 F617380394751
Skin, all formsM7494106476068
 F596058383837
BrainM839785536254
 F496561314239
Lymphosarcoma and treticulum cellsarcomaM354332222820
 F383334242122
LeukaemiaM98109113637072
 F808081515152
All other and unspecified sitesM514540527329346337
 F481470502307300320
        Total cancer deathsM2 8012 9012 9521 7921 8601 889
 F2 4102 4652 5131 5391 5751 602

Cerebrovascular Disease—Cerebrovascular disease, the third of the principal causes of death in New Zealand, affects mainly the late-middle-aged and the elderly. In 1980, 3158 persons died of the disease. Of these, only 100 were below 50 years of age, and 3058 were 50 years of age or above.

The World Health Organisation defines cerebrovascular disease as follows:

“Cerebrovascular diseases are diseases of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) of vascular origin. The term covers a wide range of clinical manifestations, varying from subarachnoid haemorrhage resulting from a rupture of Berry aneurysm on the one hand to arteriosclerotic Parkinsonism and dementia on the other.”

The incidence of deaths from cerebrovascular disease over a series of years is shown in the following table. After reaching a peak in 1972 the rate has generally declined. The 1980 rate of 1007 per million of mean population is 5 percent higher than the record low 1978 rate.

YearDeathsRate*
* Rate per million of mean population.
19652 8751 086
19663 0671 143
19672 8251 035
19683 1101 128
19693 0701 104
19703 2131 140
19713 3101 156
19723 4471 182
19733 5131 179
19743 4581 136
19753 2351 048
19763 074986
19773 1621 011
19782 995957
19793 027969
19803 1581 009

INFANT AND PERINATAL MORTALITY—The following table shows New Zealand perinatal mortality numbers and rates for three recent years. An infant death is defined as a live-born infant dying before the first year of life is completed. A neonatal death is defined as the death of a live-born infant before the 28th day of life; a post neonatal death as the death of a live-born infant between the 28th day and the first year of life.

Perinatal Mortality—Perinatal deaths comprise still births and deaths in the first week of life. The late fetal death (still births) and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1000 total births (still births plus live births), while the death rate for neonatal and infant death is calculated per 1000 live births.

DeathYearMaoriNon-MaoriTotal Population
No.RateNo.RateNo.Rate
Late fetal1979446.63036.63476.6
 1980538.23137.03667.2
Early neonatal1979538.02445.32975.7
 1980365.62215.02575.1
Perinatal19799714.554711.964412.2
 19808913.753412.062312.2
Neonatal1979609.03006.63606.9
 1980426.52605.93026.0
Post neonatal1979629.32485.43105.9
 19808613.42696.13557.0
Infant197912218.354812.067012.8
 198012819.952912.065713.0

In a review of neonatal and postnatal deaths, issued by Department of Health in November 1976, it was shown that 8 countries, selected on the basis of their having one million or more population and on their reporting of data regarded by World Heath Organisation as complete, had a lower mortality rate than New Zealand. These 8 were Sweden, Finland, Japan, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, France, and Switzerland. The following table shows infant mortality rates for selected countries (including some of the 8) during 1978. The figures represent deaths per 100 000 live births.

CountryAge of Child
Under 1 YearUnder 1 Day1 and Under 7 Days7 and Under 28 Days1 Month and Under 1 Year
Deaths per 100 000 Live Births
Sweden77619227285227
Japan839200251113275
Netherlands958235300122301
New Zealand1 378378223137639
Australia1 207499207105397
England and Wales1 321374338158452
Switzerland863268195133266
Sources: World Health Statistics Annual; Deaths, Australian Bureau of Statistics 1978; Mortality Statistics, England and Wales 1978.

Causes of Infant Mortality—Deaths from the principal causes of infant mortality, and the rate per 1000 live births, are shown for the Maori, non-Maori, and total population in the following table. The data refer to 1980.

Cause of DeathMaoriNon-MaoriTotal Population
Number of DeathsRate Per 1000 Live BirthsNumber of DeathsRate Per 1000 Live BirthsNumber of DeathsRate Per 1000 Live Births
Infectious and parasitic diseases71.140.1110.2
Malignant neoplasms40.140.1
Diseases of the nervous system30.5150.3180.4
Diseases of the circulatory system22
Diseases of the respiratory system335.1461.0791.6
Diseases of the digestive system10.2230.1
Congenital anomalies193.01353.11543.0
Perinatal causes—
    Birth injury180.4180.4
    Hyaline membrane disease30.5431.0460.9
    Other anoxic and hypoxic conditions20.3130.3150.3
    Immaturity91.4210.5300.6
    Other perinatal causes142.2621.4761.5
Sudden infant death syndrome345.31403.21743.4
Accidents, poisonings, and violence (external causes)20.3160.4180.4
Remainder(all other causes)10.280.290.2
        Total, all infant deaths under one year12819.952912.065713.0
Source: National Health Statistics Centre.

The data for infants shown in the previous table are not strictly comparable with those for years prior to 1979. The adoption in 1979 of the Ninth Revision of the WHO International Classification of Diseases has influenced coding practices. The main changes include a re-assignment of infectious and respiratory diseases from their specific categories into that of “Other perinatal causes” and an internal restructuring of the whole perinatal area. This latter modification is related to the recommendation by WHO of a restyled Medical Certificate of Causes of Fetal and Neonatal Death which was adopted by New Zealand in 1978. This provided for a dual emphasis on both the main disease or condition in the fetus or infant and on the main maternal disease or condition affecting the fetus or infant. In the table, the cause of death has been selected according to the main disease affecting the neonate.

Another change which is related to the use of the Ninth Revision is that there is now a specific code for sudden infant death syndrome.

MATERNAL DEATHS—The New Zealand Maternal Mortality Research Amendment Act of 1979, which replaced the Maternal Mortality Research Act of 1968, defines a maternal death as:

  1. A death that occurs during pregnancy or within a period of 3 months after the date of the conclusion of a pregnancy;

  2. A death of a woman who at the time of her death was suffering from chorionepithelioma or hydatidiform mole.

This definition is for national use only and covers a wider range of cases than the maternal mortality definition recommended by the World Health Organisation. Maternal deaths from complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium numbered 7 in 1980, with a rate of 1.4 per 10 000 live births.

Maternal deaths occurring during pregnancy or within 3 months of delivery but not due to complications of pregnancy or childbirth or the puerperium numbered 9 in 1980 with a rate of 1.8 per 10 000 live births.

DEATHS OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—Recent Yearbooks have included a review of mortality rates among children aged 1 to 4 years in New Zealand and in selected overseas countries. New Zealand's ranking has been disappointingly low.

In 1980 New Zealand's age-specific mortality rate for children aged 1–4 was 67.7 per 100 000 compared with 36.1 per 100 000 in Sweden (1978), 50.3 per 100 000 in England and Wales (1979), and 68.8 per 100 000 in the United States (1977).

Various explanations have been attempted, but the fact remains that New Zealand pre-schoolers are at a higher risk of accidental death than pre-schoolers in many other countries with similar standards of living.

The following table shows the number of deaths of pre-school children from accidents and violence in New Zealand during 1980. The leading causes, accounting for 47 of the 67 deaths, were accidents involving drowning and motor vehicles.

Causes of DeathSexAge (In Years)Total
1234
DrowningM644115
 F244212
Motor vehicle accidentsM313512
 F22228
FireM112
 F112
ScaldsM11
 F11
Water transportF112
FallsM11
 F11
PoisoningM11
 F11
Inhalation of stomach contentsM11
 F11
Electric currentM11
Mechanical suffocationM11
Railway accidentsM11
Struck by falling objectM11
Excessive coldM11
HomicideF11
        TotalM12911638
 F787729
 Total1917181367

DEATHS AMONG TOTAL POPULATION FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Accidents, poisonings, and violence caused approximately 8 percent of the total deaths in each of the years 1976 to 1980.

The following table shows deaths from external causes for the latest 3 years. In this table, falls on board ship and from horseback (if any) are classified as transport accidents.

The sharp increase in rates for “Other transport accidents” is influenced by the deaths of aircraft passengers and crew in the Mount Erebus air disaster of 1979. Over half of those deaths were not registered until 1980 so both 1979 and 1980 rates show an increase.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197819791980197819791980
* Includes drowning from water transport.
Motor-vehicle accidents688594622220190199
Other transport accidents59179204195765
Accidental poisoning483231151010
Accidental falls26335941384115132
Accidents caused by machinery35203011610
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material474634151511
Accidents caused by firearms152114574
Accidental drowning and submersion*161131143514246
Suicide and self-inflicted injury32230233710397108
Homicide584940191613
All other external causes170177183545758
Total deaths from accidents, poisoning, or violence1 8661 9102 051596611655

An analysis of deaths registered during 1980 by the principal external causes and by sex and age group is given in the following table and in the notes following it.

Age Group (In Years)Motor Vehicle AccidentsAccidental DrowningsAccidental PoisoningsAccidental Falls
MFMFMFMF
Under 15363225181133
15–2418561247121151
25–348417184351
35–44311262271
45–542715112165
55–6430181241184
65–74261852211920
75 and over1911213291224
        Total43818410340229154259
Age GroupSuicide and Self-inflicted InjuryHomicideAll Accidents. Poisonings, and Violence*
MFMFMF
* Includes causes other than those shown in table.
Under 1524310670
15–24582372349107
25–3442227421655
35–4431123211443
45–542723311571
55–64296112060
65–7422141210986
75 and over14121149281
        Total22511227131 278773

Accidental Falls—There were 413 deaths from accidental falls in 1980. This is one accident area in which the total female mortality exceeds the male. However, as shown in the preceding table, there is an excess of male deaths over female deaths between the ages of 15 and 64 years. At 75 years of age and above the higher life expectancy of females ensures that more elderly women than elderly men are exposed to the risk of fatal falls.

In 1980 the home was the place of occurrence of 41 percent of fatal accidental falls and, in fact, falls are the chief cause of death in home accidents.

Site of Non-transport Accidents—The place of occurrence of fatal non-transport accidents (excluding surgical and medical misadventure and late effects of accidental injury) is shown in the following table. As mentioned previously, falls are the chief cause of accidental fatalities in the home, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Accidents occurring at home and in residential institutions (rest homes, hospitals, etc.) accounted for 60 percent of all fatal non-transport accidents in the 3-year period 1978 to 1980.

Place of OccurrenceNumber of AccidentsRate per Million of Mean Population
197819791980197819791980
Home (including home premises) and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)255263293818494
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)2925309810
Mine and quarry737212
Industrial places and premises4025231387
Places for recreation and sport131013434
Street and highway152417585
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)231614754
Residential institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)107142179344557
Other specified places130115130423742
Place not specified28723492311
        Total647695740207222236

Water Accidents by Location—The following table, prepared by the New Zealand Water Safety Council, shows drownings by location and age group during the year ended March 1982. Particularly significant is the relatively large number of drownings of small children below 5 years of age, especially in private swimming pools. During 1982, 125 people drowned (94 males and 31 females).

LocationAge in Years
Under 55–1011–1516–2021–3031–4041–5051–60Over 60Total

* Includes 3 of unspecified age.

† Includes 6 of unspecified age.

Rivers, streams, and other running water21213214*
Seas and beaches232131214
Harbours1121319
Swimming pools—
    Private1411117
    Public33
    Thermal112
    Hotel/motel112
Pools and pond11
Farm trough and sheep dip33
Farm dams and drains22
Home bath123
Scuba diving516
Sump hole11
Rafting (river)11
Sludge pond11
Fishing off rocks (sea)112
Windsurfing (lake)11
Water ski-ing (lake)11
Boating accidents—
    Rivers411110*
    Seas3752522
    Harbours3339
    Lakes and lagoons11
        Total2610312171814145125

4 D—MARRIAGES

Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a celebrant included in the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act 1955, or before a duly appointed registrar or deputy registrar of marriages. A licence must be obtained from a registrar of marriages before a marriage by a marriage celebrant can be solemnised. Marriage by a marriage celebrant may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the registrar is open for the transaction of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a registrar of marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

The Marriage Amendment Act 1976 extended the right of solemnising marriages to nominated members of approved organisations of a non-religious character. Justices of the Peace may also be nominated to act as marriage celebrants.

In the case of a person under 20 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a District Court judge may be sought in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since *** April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during recent years are shown below. The marriage rate, like the birth rate, has been declining in recent years, but 1982 shows a slight increase for the last 2 years.

YearNumberRate per 1000 of Population
197624 1547.71x
197722 5897.19x
197822 4267.13x
197922 3267.12x
198022 9817.31x
198123 660x7.49x
Note—Population figures are revised for the years 1976–1980.

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1981 are given below. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1000 of Mean Population
Australia7.6
Belgium6.5
Canada7.5
France5.8
West Germany5.8
Italy5.5
Japan6.6
Netherlands6.0
New Zealand7.5
Sweden4.6
United Kingdom7.1
United States10.6

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest available 5 years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
197718 32918 6619831 0363 2772 89245 178
197818 20618 3838429193 3783 12444 852
197917 90918 1928449283 5733 20644 652
198018 40018 6968518763 7303 40945 962
198118 51518 8358819454 2643 88047 320

The following table shows marriages by marital status of marriage partners prior to that event.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
197716 8751951 2591885022931 5983391 340
197816 6072151 3841534082811 6232961 459
197916 3791901 3401654322471 6483061 619
198016 8231811 3961574112831 7162841 730
198116 7431881 5841664232921 9263342004

In the period 1977–81 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried. Over forty years ago during the 1938–40 period, remarriages of widows totalled only 67 to every 100 remarriages of widowers. In the changed social climate of 1977–81, 107 widows remarried to every 100 widowers who did so.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—Until recently, the proportion of minors among persons marrying had been increasing over a fairly long period of years but it is now declining slightly. On 1 January 1971 the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 20 years of age. In 1981, 1 bride in every 6 was under 20 years of age. Bridegrooms were usually older than their brides; only 1 in every 28 was under 20 years of age.

Of the persons married in 1981, 4738 or 10.01 percent were under 20 years of age; 21 228 or 44.86 percent were returned as 20–24 years; 9841 or 20.8 percent as 25–29 years; 6547 or 13.84 percent as 30–39 years; and 4966 or 10.49 percent as 40 years of age and over.

The following table relates to the year ended December 1981.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over
Under 205732441311832
20–242 7046 50763212023629 994
25–295113 4171 636330902286 014
30–348375896856216647142 598
35–392819135936721489331 281
40–4447513520320913190847
45 and over342841492343271 2552 094
Total brides3 90611 2343 8271 7329366231 40223 660

The following table shows the percentage distribution by age group of males and females marrying. It refers to the 5-year period 1965–69 and to recent individual years.

PeriodUnder 20*20–24*25–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotal
* Under 21 and 21–24 respectively before 1971.
Males
1965–6915.2344.7921.246.313.462.346.63100.00
19775.4747.1722.938.874.152.708.68100.00
19785.2546.6823.319.164.592.728.30100.00
19794.7645.5623.959.854.632.728.52100.00
19804.1144.2825.0510.484.763.048.28100.00
19813.5242.2425.4210.985.413.588.85100.00
Females
1965–6945.3333.629.083.052.101.815.01100.00
197724.6944.8613.535.713.081.986.12100.00
197823.0546.2113.626.063.291.995.78100.00
197921.2746.7914.546.153.352.265.63100.00
198019.0247.7815.136.693.422.235.73100.00
198116.5147.4816.177.323.962.635.93100.00

The average ages (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females are shown in the following table.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
197627.4524.52
197727.9024.93
197827.8724.95
197928.0625.07
198028.7125.77
198129.2026.25

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest 5 years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Age in Years
197724.3438.8557.7021.9134.8151.78
197824.5138.5857.7421.9434.9451.17
197924.5938.6157.0422.0634.7350.96
198025.2239.2357.8722.7135.8051.87
198125.4139.6858.1522.9835.8951.88

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or most popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides in 1981 was 20 years. In the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied and for recent years it has been 21 to 24; in 1981 it was 22 years.

Marriages of Minors—Of every 1000 men who married in 1981, 35 were under 20 years of age. Among brides, 165 in every 1000 were under 20. Since 1 January 1971 the age of majority has been 20 years. In 573 marriages in 1981 both parties were given as under 20 years of age, in 3333 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 259 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

As already stated, the proportion of minors among persons marrying now appears to be levelling off or even falling. The main reason for this is the changing age structure of the population, with a slowly diminishing proportion consisting of minors of marriageable age.

In the table below figures are given for the latest available 5 years.

YearAge in YearsTotal Minors and 20-Year-olds
161718192016–20 Years16–19 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–20 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–19 Years
Bridegrooms
197717903367931 7272 9631 23613.115.47
197815743087811 6062 7841 17812.415.25
197910732577231 5022 5651 06311.494.76
198010552566241 4332 37894510.354.11
19819462145631 2822 1148328.943.52
Brides
19772787181 8312 7523 0838 6625 57938.3424.69
19782446861 6612 5773 0378 2055 16836.5823.04
19791745781 5232 4743 0037 7524 74934.7221.27
19801604571 3512 4043 0997 4714 37232.5119.02
19811004081 1692 2293 0196 9253 90629.2716.51

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 23 660 marriages performed in 1981, Anglican clergymen officiated at 4534, Presbyterian at 3967, Roman Catholic at 2843, Methodist at 1446, and clergymen of other churches and marriage celebrants at 6758, and 4112 marriages were solemnised by registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before registrars in each of the 5 latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
19771978197919801981
* Including 4277 marriages (18.08 percent) performed by marriage celebrants other than ministers of religion.
Anglican22.3220.6819.5420.0419.16
Presbyterian20.9419.7118.4017.2016.77
Roman Catholic13.0612.5212.2212.4912.01
Methodist6.846.086.065.936.11
Others*12.5919.1823.0525.5528.57
Before registrars24.2521.8320.7118.7917.38
        Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the 1981 Census of Population, 25.7 percent were recorded as adherents of the Anglican Church, 16.7 percent Presbyterian, 14.3 percent Roman Catholic, 4.7 percent Methodist, 23.5 percent were of no religion, or objected to stating their religious profession, or did not specify any religious profession.

DISSOLUTION OF MARRIAGE—Under the Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963, a petition for divorce could be presented to the High Court on one or more of several grounds, which included adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than 2 years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than 2 years, and the parties living apart for 4 years and not likely to be reconciled. Where the parties were separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least 2 years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court was required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

The Family Proceedings Act 1980, which replaces the Matrimonial Proceedings Act, came into force on 1 October 1981. It lays down only one ground on which an order dissolving a marriage can be made— that is, that the marriage has broken down irreconcilably. To establish that the marriage has broken down irreconcilably, the parties must be living apart, and have been doing so for the previous 2 years. The provisions for counselling and the promotion of conciliation have been strengthened.

The following table gives the grounds of petitions and decrees during the 2 years, 1980 and 1981.

GroundPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19801981198019811980198119801981
Adultery474329387318464407392314
Desertion6343623974606860
Separation by agreement2 0971 5042 2031 5611 7532 0731 8722 147
Separation by Court Order539390834596506549716802
Having lived apart for 4 years or more368302365231329350293333
Non-consummation851645674
Other28932117
        Total3 5512 5733 8752 7583 1343 4473 3593 667

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. A decree nisi normally applies for at least 3 months before a decree absolute is granted.

The next table shows the duration of marriage by ages of husbands and wives at the time of marriage, for cases in which decrees absolute were granted in 1981.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over (including Not Stated)Total
Husbands (All Petitions)
Under 53626310944221454542
5–93161 37241812767421572 499
10–142791 212341805629832 080
15–19135798251765024271 361
20 and over1161 1396211553913252 108
        Total8824 7841 7404822341223468 590
Wives (All Petitions)
Under 51862055531161237542
5–91 094906224817423972 499
10–14912875139542218602 080
15–1956862189371510211 361
20 and over6991 06821968259202 108
        Total3 4593 675726271152722358 590

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—Under the Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963, a decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage put an end to the marriage from the date of the decree. On average there were only about 20 such decrees in New Zealand each year. The principal ground was non-consummation. The Family Proceedings Act 1980 abolished the decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems arising from unhappy or maladjusted marriages. With the support and advice of the Department of Justice, the council is now largely responsible for the provision and administration of educational services in the field of marriage and family life. Over 170 tutors have been trained to lead courses in the community on such topics as marriage enrichment, parent education, human relations and communication.

The 23 councils affiliated to the National Marriage Guidance Council provide counselling centres served by 313 accredited counsellors. During the past year these people have provided skilled professional assistance in 8142 cases to couples who have approached the service on their own initiative and in addition they have assisted the Courts by serving as conciliators under the Domestic Proceedings Act. They have dealt with 2057 cases in this way. All in all, 29 653 counselling interviews were provided during the year.

The National Marriage Guidance Council employs a full-time director to organise and co-ordinate the work of affiliated councils. At the local level the work of 754 trained volunteers in the fields of counselling and marriage education is supported and co-ordinated by 5 full-time and 11 part-time directors, 5 visiting supervisors, and 34 receptionists or secretaries. The 5 visiting supervisors mentioned above represent an important extension of marriage counselling services into provincial towns. Supervisors from neighbouring councils are funded 1 day a fortnight to travel to smaller centres in order to stimulate and supervise the development of local volunteers. This has the effect of placing professional services in marriage education, counselling, and conciliation services closer to the people in rural communities.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on vital statistics will be found in the following publications.

Department of Statistics publications—

Vital Statistics (Annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Family Statistics of New Zealand 1978 (Bulletin. 1978).

New Zealand Children 1979 (Bulletin, 1979).

Justice Statistics 1978: Divorce and Domestic Proceedings (Bulletin, 1979).

Life Tables 1975–77 (1979).

Demographic Bulletin.

Social Trends in New Zealand (1977).

New Zealand Males and Females: A Statistical Comparison (Bulletin, 1980).

Pocket Digest of Statistics (Annual).

Department of Health publications—

Trends in Health and Health Services (3-yearly).

Mortality and Demographic Data (Annual).

Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data (Annual).

Cancer Data (Annual).

Department of Health Special Report Series—

Infant and Foetal Loss in New Zealand (1964).

Occupational Mortality Among Male Population Other than Maori, 20 to 64 Years of Age (1967).

Maori-European Comparisons in Mortality (1972).

Cancer of the Lung in New Zealand (1973).

Bibliography of the Epidemiology of New Zealand and its Island Territories (1969).

Diseases of the Ear, Nose, and Throat in Maori Children (1965).

Trends in Notifiable Disease (1964).

Domestic Accidents (1970).

Lung Function and Chronic Bronchitis in New Zealand (1978).

Perinatal Mortality in New Zealand, 1972–73 (1977).

Parliamentary papers—

The Public Health (Annual report of the Department of Health, Parl. paper E. 10).

Report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12).

Chapter 5. Section 5; HEALTH AND HOSPITALS

5 A—HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES

The nation's health services are the responsibility of a partnership of central and local government, private medical practitioners, para-medical workers, charitable and religious organisations, and private citizens, with the Central Government providing encouragement, financial assistance and incentives, and assuming final responsibility. This has been a deliberate policy of successive Governments, although emphases have varied from time to time according to political and economic conditions and demands for specific services. Growing urbanisation and industrialisation, with consequent intensification of the problems of pollution of water, air, and land, have in recent years resulted in a renewed emphasis on the importance of environmental health.

Public health services in the Department of Health have recently been reorganised to reflect growth and development in 2 distinct and identifiable areas; viz, environmental factors affecting health, and the promotion of personal good health in the community. The Division of Public Health continues to be responsible for environmental health, quarantine, occupational health and toxicology, radiation protection, and the quality of food.

A new division, the Division of Health Promotion, now gives greater emphasis to disease prevention and better personal health through the expansion of family health, health education, nutrition, and public health nursing services. Dental health services, principally to the school child population, are provided by the Division of Dental Health.

ADMINISTRATION—The functions of local authorities are defined by statute and regulation. Elected local authorities must appoint a sufficient number of health inspectors qualified under the Health Inspectors Qualifications Regulations 1975. Where a local authority is too small to need a separate, full-time inspector, the Act permits two or more to combine to share the cost. In some smaller sparsely-populated districts where a local authority does not employ its own inspector, the departmental inspectors of health do the work and the authority pays for it. Only 25 percent of inspectors are employed by the department.

In each of the 18 health districts, the medical officer of health, who is a medical practitioner with special qualifications in community medicine, is the adviser to all local authorities in his district; in some cases his approval is required before action can be taken by a local authority, and in others he is the first line of appeal against its decisions. He is required to keep the Director-General of Health and the Board of Health informed of local authority deficiencies in their responsibilities under the Health Act.

Diseases which are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 must be notified by doctors and hospitals to the medical officer of health who is responsible for control measures; within this area the local authority health inspector is subject to his direct supervision and control. New programmes of immunisation are undertaken by the department and, when these have been established, vaccines are provided free to general practitioners who are encouraged in this work. Quarantine arrangements for both aircraft and ships comply with obligations under the International Health Regulations. Medical officers of health administer this service. The broad objective is the control of communicable and chronic diseases and keeping New Zealand free of quarantinable diseases.

Accident prevention and the health of industrial and agricultural workers is the responsibility of the Department of Health in conjunction with the Department of Labour. The aim is to prevent occupational disease, control toxic hazards, raise standards of first-aid services, and ensure the safe use of agricultural chemicals. Food and nutrition standards aimed at protecting the consumer are laid down. An extensive programme, backed by legislation, governs the packaging, labelling, storage, and sale of poisons. Special environmental problems, such as radiation protection, occupational health, and atmosphere pollution, are also the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The objectives of health education programmes are to increase understanding of the value of health, to inform people of health services available, and to equip them with knowledge and skills they can use to solve health problems.

Family health responsibilities include medical and nursing supervision of infant, pre-school, and school children; the inspection of schools and child care centres; and the immunisation of infants against poliomyelitis, etc.

A school dental service, staffed by dental nurses and directed by dentists, provides dental care and health education for all pre-school, primary and intermediate school children. Private dental practitioners provide treatment for teenagers until their sixteenth birthday, or if they remain dependant, until their eighteenth birthday.

The Department of Health is responsible for the organisation and control of nursing services to the public in general; in hospitals (public or private); in homes for the aged, incapacitated, or infirm; and in any other places where the Department of Health has responsibility. Considerable delegation has taken place, mainly to hospital boards whose chief nursing officer is responsible for the administration of the services provided. The department keeps its nursing services and those provided by hospital boards under continuous review. Basic nursing education is provided in 26 hospital schools of nursing and 9 technical institutes. Formal post-basic nursing education at diploma/degree level is available from Victoria and Massey Universities, and 4 technical institutes have post-basic diploma courses. Short post-basic courses in learning and teaching are available from 2 teachers' colleges, and similar short courses in community health nursing are available from 4 technical institutes. “Bridging” courses to enable registered nurses to gain comprehensive registration are available from 2 technical institutes.

Within its public health nursing service, the department employs nearly 500 qualified nurses. Their work includes supervising the health of babies and small children, taking part in child health (including health education) programmes, providing a service to small industries and people in “at risk” occupations, taking part in disease control programmes, and assisting elderly people and people with mental health problems.

The Department of Health works closely with and seeks the advice and help of boards, committees, and councils such as the Board of Health, the- Medical Research, Hospitals Advisory, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Radiation Protection Advisory Councils, the Hospital Works, and Medical Services Advisory Committees, and the Dietitians, Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy, Opticians, Dental Technicians, and Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Boards. In all, officers of the department serve on over 100 boards, committees, and other organisations concerned with health.

In addition, there are very close working relationships with professional and other associations, voluntary health and welfare agencies, the universities, and other Government departments.

The department is responsible for the administration of a number of Acts dealing with health and social welfare. These will be found listed under Public General Acts in the Official section of this Yearbook.

Expenditure of the Department of Health in the 4 latest years is given in the following table.

Activity Programme1978–791979–801980–811981–82

* Mostly grants to hospital boards.

† From 1 April 1978 family health services have been combined with public health and environmental protection and medical and pharmaceutical services.

‡ From 1 April 1979 all expenditure is funded from Consolidated Account.

§ See Works Programme (Page 717).

 $(thousand)
Administrative services6,8658,51110,62512,308
Dental services21,60928,82430,86433,145
Hospital services*703,135827,6931,010,2111,207,358
Medical research4,3425,0376,7236,716
Medical and pharmaceutical services†190,326213,497238,184273,128
Public health and environmental protection†32,64340,45150,37661,031
Welfare services8,3838,4145,4703,921
Data processing services7,4475,1095,5735,511
Funded from Consolidated Account974,750‡1,137,5361,358,0261,603,118
Psychiatric hospital buildings5,090‡§§§
Public buildings construction1,210‡§§§
Funded from Works and Trading Account6,300‡
        Total981,0501,137,5361,358,0261,603,118
        Less departmental receipts1,0861,3221,8571,894
        Net expenditure979,9641,136,2141,356,1691,601,224

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: Local Authority Control— The provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, the control of noise nuisances, and the hygiene of premises (including eating houses) in which food is manufactured and sold, are primarily the responsibility of local authorities, but the Department of Health exercises general supervision. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of, and by arrangement with, the local authority. The department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors employed by local authorities and conducts specialist and refresher courses for them.

Department of Health Control—The objectives of the Department of Health in environmental health control are: (a) to create and maintain a healthy environment for the general public by the application of the principles of preventive medicine and the administration of legislation directly and indirectly related to this end; (b) to conserve hearing through the control of excessive noise from occupational and other environmental sources; (c) to control air pollution; (d) to provide scientific services and undertake research on all aspects of the use of ionising radiation with special emphasis on the medical applications and public health aspects. To monitor public exposure to radiation from all sources and to take action to reduce this where necessary. To promote general understanding of the nature of the hazards involved in radiation exposure in their current perspective.

Air Pollution Control—The Clean Air Act 1972 provides for the control of existing and potential sources of air pollution through a system of licensing processes known to emit air pollutants, and a requirement for all sources of emission to adopt the best practicable means for containment, thus minimising emissions to the atmosphere. Under the Clean Air Act the Clean Air Council gives advice directly to the Minister of Health and the Director-General of Health on clean air matters of concern to individuals or groups of individuals or the owners and operators of over 900 licensed premises throughout New Zealand. These licensed premises, particularly the larger ones, are monitored by Health Department officers to ensure they conform to the requirement for containment by meeting their licence conditions.

Clean air zones, the first of which has been established in Christchurch, can be required, under section 12 and 14 of the Act, when a need arises to impose special controls on the emission of air pollutants. In Christchurch there is a particular problem with domestic coal smoke and the Act provides for tighter control of domestic heating appliances and the granting of financial assistance to certain householders with the object of reducing domestic smoke emissions from coal burning.

Air pollution monitoring programmes are conducted in some main centres, and particularly in Christchurch and Auckland. These surveys indicate that the winter-time pollution levels in Christchurch exceed the WHO recommended standards for particulate concentrations on many occasions: and evidence of a significant contributions from motorcar exhaust emissions, in terms of carbon monoxide and lead, has been noted particularly in busy intersections. However, the low level of photochemical smog detected in the country reduces the need for legislation to control exhaust emissions beyond that already proposed for lead in petrol reductions when expanded refinery facilities become operative after 1984.

CONTROL OF DRUGS—The definitions of “drug” in the Food and Drug Act 1969 established groups to which differing provisions apply. Therapeutic drugs (that is, those substances or mixtures used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body or for modifying any physiological process or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives) are required, before being introduced commercially, to be “acceptable”, according to a procedure under the Food and Drug Act 1969. No new therapeutic drug may be distributed in New Zealand without the consent of the Minister of Health, under sections 12 and 13 of the Act.

This Act also requires that any drug which has been changed in any way in use, strength, or labelling must not be distributed until 90 days after notice of the change has been given to the Director-General of Health, who may consent to earlier distribution of a changed drug if he is satisfied of the drug's safety. If the Director-General considers the change to be of such character or degree that the drug ought not to be distributed without the consent of the Minister, the drug is referred to the Minister and may not be distributed until the Minister's specific consent has been obtained. A therapeutic drug is also restricted to sale from pharmacies only, unless special authority is given for general distribution in a schedule to the Therapeutic Drugs (Permitted Sales) Regulations 1978.

A cosmetic, dentifrice, detergent, disinfectant, or antiseptic does not have to be “cleared” for marketing unless claims in labelling or advertising bring it within the definition of a “therapeutic drug”.

The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis of any drug which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any drug intended for sale. Measures provide for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where drugs are manufactured or packed. Control over medical advertisements is also incorporated in this legislation.

Under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964, certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. This legislation also requires specific warning statements to be included in the labelling of certain drugs such as the antihistamines, aspirin, paracetamol, and hexachlorophane.

Controlled Drugs—Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 the import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of a wide range of narcotic and other drugs is strictly controlled. Except for medical practitioners, dentists, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons, those having the care of patients being lawfully supplied with drugs, the patients themselves, and other specified persons, or those who have been issued with a licence under the Act, the procuration, manufacture, possession, consumption, supply, or offer to supply controlled drugs is a serious offence.

Controlled drugs are divided into three classes. The heaviest penalties are for offences involving drugs in Class A, which include heroin, lysergide, desomorphine, and cantharidin. Offences involving the possession or use of drugs in Class C, which include cannabis plants, fruit, and seeds, are to be punished with fines but not by imprisonment unless by reason of previous convictions or exceptional circumstances.

Illegal dealing in controlled drugs is subject to heavy penalties.

To curb drug abuse, the Departments of Health, Customs, and Police jointly set up a National Drug Intelligence Bureau in 1972.

FOOD AND NUTRITION—The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any articles of food or drink which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food intended for sale. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where food is manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors and the samples are analysed in the Chemistry Division (DSIR) or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity whereby a purchaser of any food would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of that food, whether or not it is standardised by regulations.

A new Food Act was prepared in 1980 which represents a further stage in the revision of the Food and Drug Act 1969 and the Poisons Act 1960. It follows the Toxic Substances Act 1979 and is a companion to the new Medicines Act.

This new Food Act consolidates and amends the provisions of the Food and Drug Act 1969 that relate to food, and should come into force in 1983.

A Food Standards Committee, composed of highly qualified persons, meets regularly to discuss the latest technical advances in food production and to make appropriate recommendations for amendments to the legislation.

The nutrition section of the Department of Health provides advice on nutrition and dietetics to dietary departments of hospitals, and food service departments of welfare and other institutions. It is responsible for nutrition education programmes and provides a nutrition information service for Government departments, organisations concerned with the production and marketing of food, and the public. The section also carries out dietary research projects, generally in liaison with medical research teams concerned with nutrition research.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY—Since 1957 medical officers of health have been directly responsible for occupational health within their own districts. The objective of the occupational health programmes is, in consultation with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups, to assist in maintaining and where possible improving the health of workers.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women and children etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which factory inspectors may encounter. The Health Act 1956 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authority as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Factories and Commercial Premises Act 1981. The Department of Health suspends workers on health grounds, approves respirators for use when abrasive blasting or when working with asbestos, and arranges for any necessary medical examinations.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government departments. There is an occupational health laboratory in Wellington. Three teams of specialist doctors, nurses, and scientists reinforce the usual staff available to medical officers of health to investigate particular occupational health problems occurring in districts. These teams also study problems arising in industries such as forestry, which are to be found throughout the country.

Occupational Diseases—Notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances is controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964.

A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or marketing any toxic substance which has not been notified as industrial, be it chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards have been provided relating to the handling of certain hazardous chemicals, used in agriculture and horticulture. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for “Restricted Poisons” must bear a statement of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Register of Poisons.

The Toxic Substances Act, which was passed in 1979, will replace the Poisons Act and will come into force after the Toxic Substances Regulations have been promulgated in 1983.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are formally controlled, namely: asbestos, lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons (where, in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport, a special rating is required by pilots), and agricultural chemicals. Occupational health guidelines have been issued to monitor organophosphate pesticide users, and to protect workers in the following areas: aluminium, spraypainting and lead industries.

Similar guidelines for the electroplating industry are being prepared.

Medical and Nursing Services in Industry—The Department of Health encourages industry to develop preventive medical and nursing services and many industries employ an occupational health nurse. In some areas the department's occupational health centres serve as a base for a preventive service to small industries, and in others, visiting occupational health nursing services are provided.

First Aid—The statutory requirements concerning first aid in factories are set out in the Factories and Commercial Premises Act 1981 (Section 45) and the Factories (First Aid) Regulations 1966. This legislation is administered by the Department of Labour. In industries where more than 50 people are employed, the person responsible for first aid must be either a registered nurse or the holder of a valid certificate of the St John's Ambulance or the New Zealand Red Cross Society.

National Acoustics Centre—The National Acoustics Centre assists with the early detection of deafness and conservation of hearing. The centre conducts and promotes research into noisy industries, occupational deafness, and other forms of deafness. An advisory service is provided for those working with deaf people and training is given to those responsible for testing groups for hearing loss. Investigations into environmental noise are also undertaken by the regional noise engineers.

Radiation Protection—The National Radiation Laboratory provides the administrative and technical services required by the Radiation Protection Act 1965 and Regulations 1973 and the Transport of Radioactive Materials Regulations 1973. Prior approval must be obtained for the import or export of any radioactive material. Each owner of irradiating apparatus (source of X-rays) or radioactive material must ensure that they are used only under the control of a person specifically licensed for the purpose.

The laboratory provides the licensees with free monitoring, advisory, calibration, or other services which will assist in achieving radiation safety. Trained officers regularly visit all places where sources of ionising radiation are used. A service is available for measuring the exposures received by radiation workers.

The laboratory advises the requirements for the transport and disposal of radioactive materials and is responsible for monitoring a wide range of environmental samples for natural or man-made radioactivity.

FAMILY HEALTH—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. Free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with all public maternity hospitals and maternity wards. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also available, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses employed by hospital boards.

Approximately 99 percent of confinements take place in maternity hospitals or in maternity units of public hospitals. The medical care of the mother and child is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, and the medical and nursing professions. All private maternity hospitals are licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Department of Health has responsibility for ensuring that regulations regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed. Medical officers of health, through their senior nursing staff, exercise general supervision over the work of private hospitals in the local areas.

Family Planning—Family planning advice can be obtained from general practitioners, private specialists, and from any one of the 40 clinics operated by the N.Z. Family Planning Association (Inc.) in various centres throughout the country. The Government provides a grant to meet the cost of salaries of doctors, nurses, and health assistants (clinical) employed by the association in approved clinics.

In addition, the Government also provides a grant to the N.Z. Association of Natural Family Planning (Inc.) to meet the payment of the salary of the national co-ordinator, an initial 1-week residential training course for up to 70 teachers each year, and an annual 3-day training course for up to 100 teachers.

A number of hospital boards have established family planning clinics within their obstetrics and gynaecology departments to provide additional facilities for the public and training for doctors, medical students, and nurses; and other boards are being encouraged to provide these facilities.

Child Health—The Department of Health offers a preventive child health service. Babies are normally examined at about 6 weeks of age and again at 9 months. Additional examinations are given whenever there is anxiety over physical, mental, or emotional development. Public health nurses undertake supervision of some infants and pre-school children although the major proportion of this service is provided by the nurses of the Plunket Society. A comprehensive examination including vision and hearing testing is recommended for all children between the ages of 3 and 4 years. When necessary the children are referred to family doctors or medical officers of the Department of Health.

A consultative service is provided for schools, with special emphasis on the health supervision of handicapped children, both in the normal schools and in special education classes. Nursing staff make regular visits to all schools and, in consultation with teachers and parents, investigate children who appear to be in need of support and refer them if necessary for the appropriate services. All new entrants to school receive a health assessment by the public health nurse. Parent participation is encouraged. Correspondence School children are kept under health supervision as necessary and any school child requiring treatment is referred to the appropriate family doctor. Vision and hearing testing is carried out by trained staff for pre-school children, and again in Junior I and Form I. These tests are available on request to any child suspected of either defect. Tests are also offered to pupils in secondary schools.

The Government supports the Children's Health Camps Board which maintains six permanent camps for the short-stay placement of children convalescent after illness, for those whose physical health is unsatisfactory, and for those suffering from minor emotional disorders. Medical officers select children for admission and undertake general health supervision of the camps. Children derive benefit from the ordered routine of camp life which provides a diet designed to improve nutrition and a balance of free activity, rest, and sleep. The Department of Education maintains school classes with emphasis on remedial teaching.

A new health camp serving the Bay of Plenty and Waikato areas is sited in the suburb of Lynmore, Rotorua, and opened in January 1983.

Immunisation Programme—Immunisation, which is free, is usually done by the family doctor. The course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are 3 months old. Protection against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used at 3 months and 5 months of age together with an oral vaccine for poliomyelitis. Arrangements can be made for mothers who do not have family doctors to attend with their children at departmental clinics. If necessary, in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio) are given at 18 months and an additional polio vaccine at 5 years of age. Further booster doses against tetanus only are given at 15 years of age and recommended at 20-yearly intervals and on injury. Measles (Morbilli) vaccination is available from family doctors for infants from 12 months of age onwards. Rubella vaccination is available from family doctors for women and girls in the childbearing age groups. Rubella immunisation is also offered to 11-year-old girls at school.

HEALTH HAZARDS AND HEALTH EDUCATION: Alcoholism—In New Zealand alcoholism rates as a major public health problem. There is no accurate measure of the number of alcoholics but experts in the field suggest that there are at least 53 000 chronic alcoholics, and that an average of 10 people (family, friends, and working colleagues) are affected in each case. The figure for chronic alcoholics does not include excessive drinkers, estimated to number over 200 000.

The following table shows the estimated consumption of absolute alcohol per head of total population in New Zealand. The 1981 consumption is the equivalent of about 220 bottles of beer, 26 bottles of table wine, and 8½ 750 ml bottles of spirits for every citizen over the age of 15, including those who do not drink, or rarely drink, alcoholic beverages. Total consumption of alcohol is still rising.

YearBeerWine*SpiritsTotal

* Years ended June.

† Provisional

litres
19603.9960.3361.0085.340
19654.1600.4481.2185.826
19704.6720.8911.0506.613
19755.0521.2301.7648.046
19804.8361.8641.9418.641
1981†4.8722.0171.9688.857

The primary objectives of the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council, which was created in 1977, are to encourage and promote moderation in the use of liquor, to discourage its misuse, and to reduce the personal, social, and economic results of misuse of liquor.

In its first five years the council received an income of $1.4 million, $1.8 million, $1.65 million, $2.3 million, and $2.6 million, mainly from levies on alcohol, to meet its wide range of functions. During this period, the Alcoholic Advisory Council carried out surveys on the drinking habits and attitudes to alcohol of 10 000 adult New Zealanders, and the extent of (and attitudes to) alcohol use among 3000 school pupils. The findings of both surveys have been analysed and published. The council has also established a multi-disciplinary alcohol research unit in association with the Medical Research Council and the University of Auckland School of Medicine and supported independent research projects. It has established an alcoholism counsellor training course which has produced 70 graduates and it has aided in the establishment of 20 basic assessment and treatment facilities by hospital boards.

In association with the Department of Education the council has developed a Health Education Resources Project. This has now provided the first of several kits of resource material on alcohol-related matters for use in secondary schools. Financial assistance and advice has been provided to a wide range of voluntary agencies working in alcohol-related fields; and a library and information resource centre has been established to provide pamphlets, posters, and films. The council has interested over 100 firms and organisations in developing programmes in industry for the treatment of alcohol problems. Handbooks have been developed for doctors and para-medical counsellors, and a series of education and awareness programmes has been promoted through T. V., radio, magazines, and newspapers. When applicable, the council has provided advice and statistical data to the Government, Government departments, and other agencies on control policies, treatment methods and facilities, and other alcohol-related matters. In October 1982 the council conducted an Alcohol Alert Week on a nationwide basis.

Smoking—Smoking, especially cigarette smoking, is an acknowledged public health hazard. It is implicated as an important causative factor in lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, and it greatly increases the risk of heart disease and certain pregnancy-related and neo-natal disorders.

The following table indicates the smoking habits of New Zealand residents (excluding visitors) as recorded at the 1981 Population Census. In calculating the percentages the relatively small numbers of unspecified cases were omitted.

The census results indicated that approximately a third (32 percent) of New Zealanders of 15 years of age and over were regular smokers, and that 34.6 percent of males smoked as compared with 29.5 percent of females. The disparity in the percentages of male and female smokers was most marked in the older age groups—for example, 27.1 percent of men aged 60 or over were regular smokers compared with only 16.6 percent of women aged 60 or over. On the other hand, in the youngest age group surveyed, the 15 to 19 year olds, the percentage of girls who smoked regularly exceeded the percentage of boys, a fact that was also noted at the previous survey based on the 1976 Census.

Smoking PracticeAge Groups (Years)Total*
15–1920–2930–3940–5960 and over19811976

* 1981 figures relate to New Zealand residents aged 15 years and over, whereas 1976 figures relate to all persons (including visitors) in the same age groups.

† Never smoked cigarettes regularly or never smoked them at all.

‡ Do not smoke now, but used to smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

§ Smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

Percentage
Males
Never smoked†67.748.041.132.028.441.738.7
Not smoking‡5.413.021.230.844.523.721.7
Smoking§26.839.037.737.227.134.639.6
        Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Percentage
Females
Never smoked†63.749.050.954.267.356.456.7
Not smoking‡6.413.416.115.516.014.111.6
Smoking§29.937.633.030.216.629.531.7
        Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Cigarette smoking in New Zealand is probably less prevalent than in the past and in fact, the figures indicate a slight fall between the surveys taken in conjunction with the last two censuses in 1976 and 1981. However, the high level of smoking among young people, particularly young women, is a major health problem.

Health Education and Information—It is being increasingly recognised that the individual must be encouraged to take an active interest in, and responsibility for, his or her own health. This is particularly relevant in such areas as smoking, immunisation, sexually-transmitted diseases, and hearing protection. These and other topics are covered by the health education programmes of the Department of Health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health education in the district. Advertisements on health subjects are broadcast on radio or television and published in the press. Leaflets, pamphlets, and posters on many health topics are available from district health offices.

The Department of Health's magazine Health has a circulation of over 95 000 and is issued free on request to the public four times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the department's work.

Officers are available for lectures and discussions on health with schools and community groups.

DENTAL HEALTH—New Zealand's dental health service combines a school dental service for children, dental benefits for adolescents, and private practice for adults. There are 15 dental districts, a school for dental nurses in Wellington, and the school of dentistry at the University of Otago.

School Dental Service—The objective of the service is to maintain a high standard of dental health of pre-school and school children by regular and systematic treatment at 6-monthly intervals, commencing at the age of 2½ and continuing through the highest class at primary or intermediate school.

The school dental nurse, after completing the two-year training course, is appointed to a school dental clinic where she provides routine dental care for children. Regular visits are made to the clinic by the Principal Dental Officer and the Supervising Dental Nurse, who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of the work. The School Dental Service Gazette is published bi-monthly as a medium for continuing education.

The dental care comprises examination, application of disease prevention measures, fillings in temporary and permanent teeth, extraction of deciduous teeth, and dental health education. Some children are referred to dentists for additional care which is beyond the scope of the school dental nurses.

During the year ended 31 March 1982, 1106 school dental nurses provided dental care for 558 858 children. The treatment included 840 662 fillings and 26 477 extractions. Indicators of the success of the service are the acceptance (66 percent of pre-school children aged 2½ to 5 and 95 percent of the primary school children are enrolled) and the small number of extractions.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for teenagers up to 16 years of age is provided by private dentists as dental benefits under the Social Security Act, the dentist being reimbursed on a fee-service basis. Children who remain at school after their sixteenth birthday and qualify for the extended family benefit, or who are otherwise dependent upon parents for support, continue to receive dental benefits to their eighteenth birthday.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at 6-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

At 31 March 1982, a total of 26 411 children were enrolled for general dental benefits. Private practitioners completed 370 989 treatments under the scheme during the year ended 31 March 1982.

Dental Health Education—Dental health education is an integral part of the school dental service and includes activities in the clinics and the classroom. Educational materials are produced by the Department of Health for the school dental service and for general use in the community. Materials specifically for dentists are produced by the Dental Health Committee of the New Zealand Dental Association.

Dental Research—The Dental Unit of the Medical Research Council carries out research in a wide range of dental problems. Further research is undertaken by the School of Dentistry at the University of Otago and there is also a small research unit within the Division of Dental Health of the Department of Health.

Fluoridation—Approximately 64 percent of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water, which reduces the need for dental treatment. This represents approximately 54 percent of the population of New Zealand.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped persons has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Public hospitals provide a medical rehabilitation service, with co-operation from the Government and voluntary agencies.

Rehabilitation centres for the treatment of the severely disabled are established at Otara in Auckland, Palmerston North, and at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Rotorua. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are provided at Auckland and Christchurch. Geriatric assessment and rehabilitation units have been established by a number of hospital boards. Rehabilitation activities are also carried out in the physical medicine departments of general hospitals, and in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

The Rehabilitation League is the principal agent of Government in vocational rehabilitation. The main function of the League is to provide facilities for work assessment and work experience for the disabled Policy is decided by a central board of management and district committees administer the centres which are established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Napier.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, comprising representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Welfare, Health, and Education, and the Accident Compensation Corporation, advises the Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with the treatment by physical means of such potentially disabling conditions as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system.

A national centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis and research into treatment of these diseases. Full physiotherapy and occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients are referred from all parts of New Zealand and some from overseas are seen every year.

Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together in preventing and controlling deformity, and teaching people how to overcome their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A child potential unit is situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of nurses, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for assessment only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are operating under hospital boards. Post-graduate training is given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by the education boards, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

HEALTH STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the annual publication of Health Statistics Reports on mortality, morbidity, mental health, cancer, and hospital management as well as the publication of Trends in Health and Health Services every 2 years.

The Centre also prepares special statistics for the various divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation (WHO), which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time, special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

Since July 1975 the Centre has been monitoring the incidence of selected congenital malformations reported by medical practitioners to the Department of Health.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—The National Health Institute is one of the science groups which make up the laboratory support services of the Department of Health. It is a unit of the department's Bureau of Public Health and Environmental Protection.

Its laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology, virology, serology and mycology for medical officers of health, hospital and private laboratories, general practitioners and for other sections of the institute. The institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis, such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, texoplasmosis, influenza, and staphylococcal phage typing. In addition it carries out disease surveillance studies.

Public health laboratories have been established at 5 public hospitals in main centres to assist the department with examination of food, milk, and water, and of public health specimens.

MANAGEMENT SERVICES AND RESEARCH UNIT—This unit provides health care administration and health service managers with advice, where possible on a quantitative basis, for decision-making on the use of health care resources.

Survey research undertaken provides the means by which relative levels of needs and demands can be identified, as well as a basis for the promulgation of alternative proposals to meet those needs and demands. The unit is actively involved in health planning at national, local, and community levels, encouraging both providers and consumers of health care to participate in the development of their own services.

In the health services, manpower is the major resource. Projections based on special surveys and regular statistical collections are being developed for many categories of health workers. The implications of these are evaluated so that action can be taken to meet identified needs. Reviews of the patterns of services provided are also undertaken, with increasing attention being paid to the distribution of resources and the use to which they are put.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—The Medical Research Council of New Zealand has the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

At the end of 1982 research was in progress in most fields of medicine including the pre-clinical, clinical and para-clinical sciences. Increased emphasis was also being placed on the fields of social medicine and community health, and on research into health services, and the earlier work of the council on medical research in the South Pacific through its South Pacific Medical Research Committee was being continued.

The council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by private medical research foundations and societies such as the Cancer Society of New Zealand, and regional medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Hawke's Bay, Otago, and Southland.

The council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of $8.7 million is incurred in supporting research projects at the medical and clinical schools, and other university departments, and at the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, North Canterbury, and Otago Hospital Boards.

The council employs a staff of about 50 full-time workers. A further 330 workers are employed by other institutions under project and programme grants from the council.

The council awards scholarships and fellowships to selected graduates and undergraduates who wish to engage in medical research.

The council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the deans of the faculties of medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland, and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A medical education committee responsible to the council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1982 was 8565, but not all are in active practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the High Court is provided.

DOCTORS AND DENTISTS—The following table, based on figures in World Statistics in Brief 1983, shows for selected countries the number of inhabitants per doctor and per dentist. Figures relating to dentists range from 1974 to 1979.

CountryInhabitants
Per DoctorPer Dentist

* 1981

† 1980

‡ 1979

§ 1978

‖ 1977

New Zealand635†2 920
Australia559†2 460
England and Wales654‡3 460
Denmark432§1 150
Sweden506§1 160
France580‖2 010
Netherlands560§2 990
West Germany452‡1 930
Canada548‡2 440
United States524§1 910
Japan779‡2600
U.S.S.R.261*2 510
Iran2 282‡16 410
India3 586§64 900
Kenya..134 260
Brazil..3 120

The definition of doctor (physician) used in compiling this table included all graduates of a medical school or faculty actually working in a country in any medical field (practice, teaching, administration, research, laboratory work, etc.). A similar definition referring to graduates or qualified personnel of a dental faculty or school applied to dentists.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—The Dental Council was constituted under the Dental Act 1963. The functions of the council are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of practising dentists holding annual practising certificates at 31 May 1982 was 1207. Under provisions of the Dental Technicians Regulations 1968, a Registration Board for Dental Technicians was constituted. In 1982 there were 431 registered dental technicians.

Nurses—The Nursing Council of New Zealand was constituted under the Nurses Act 1971. Its functions include making recommendations on nursing programmes to be undertaken by candidates for examinations in relation to minimum standards required for registration; the conduct of examinations; the granting of approval of Schools of Nursing, subject to Ministerial concurrence; the enrolment and registration of overseas nurses; and the exercise of disciplinary powers.

The Nurses Act 1977, effective from 1 January 1978, repealed the 1971 Act and 1975 Amendment Act and removed the minimum age for the sitting of State Examinations for all classes of students except those for enrolment. It also required male students to undertake the obstetric part of the general and obstetric programme and enabled male persons to undertake midwifery training.

Programmes currently provided for registration or enrolment are as follows: 3-year student-based courses at 10 technical institutes leading to comprehensive nurse registration; 3-year hospital-based courses leading to either general and obstetric, psychiatric, or psychopaedic nurse registration; 1-year hospital-based courses leading to enrolment as nurses; 6-month hospital-based obstetric courses for general nurses leading to general and obstetric nurse registration; 1-year student-based midwifery courses for general and obstetric nurses or for comprehensive nurses; and 2-year hospital-based programmes for nurses holding a basic qualification.

A number of student-based “bridging” programmes have been introduced. These programmes offer the general and obstetric nurse, psychiatric or psychopaedic nurse curriculum. This further qualification entitles a nurse to comprehensive registration.

The Nurses' Regulations following the introduction of the 1977 Act became effective in 1980.

During the year 1981–82 there were 32 536 registered and enrolled nurses holding a valid annual practising certificate; the council's total register/roll exceeds 90 000; of these, 1663 are registered comprehensive nurses.

Physiotherapists—The New Zealand Physiotherapy Board is constituted under the Physiotherapy Act 1949. The board's functions are the examination and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is 3 years. Full-time training is conducted at the Physiotherapy Department, Auckland Technical Institute, and at the School of Physiotherapy, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin. From 1 February 1976 the control of this school was transferred from Otago Hospital Board to Otago Polytechnic Council. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration.

During 1982, 109 physiotherapists were registered, bringing the total ever registered to 3588. Some 1403 physiotherapists hold current annual practising certificates.

Occupational Therapists—The Occupational Therapy Board is constituted under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949. The board is concerned with the registration and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy.

The Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, conducts the 3-year course of training and clinical experience is gained at hospitals. Students who successfully complete the course are awarded a diploma in occupational therapy and then registered. There are some 400 occupational therapists in active practice.

Dietitians—The Dietitians Board, constituted under the Dietitians Act 1950, is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of persons engaged in the practice of dietetics.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school. In 1982 there were 707 registered dietitians. Annual Practising Certificates were issued to 237 dietitians.

Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians—The Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of four registered optometrists to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Optometrical Association Incorporated, one registered optometrist who is actively engaged in teaching optometry to be appointed on the nomination of the Council of the University of Auckland, two registered dispensing opticians to be appointed on the nominations of the Association of Dispensing Opticians and Optical Dispensers of New Zealand Incorporated, two ophthalmological specialists who are registered in respect of that speciality under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Medical Association, and one other person being an officer of the Public Service employed in the Department of Health.

By October 1982, 323 Annual Practising Certificates had been issued for the year ended 31 March 1983. This included optometrists and dispensing opticians.

Podiatrists—The Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966 provided for the constitution of a Podiatrists Board. The Podiatrists Regulations 1982 specify that the board shall consist of one officer of the Department of Health, and three persons entitled to registration as podiatrists who have been nominated by the New Zealand Society of Podiatrists, and a medical practitioner who has been nominated jointly by the Medical Association of New Zealand and the Executive Committee of the New Zealand Orthopaedic Association. The board's functions include the promotion of high standards of education and conduct among persons engaged or intending to become engaged in podiatry, the exercising of disciplinary powers in accordance with the Act in respect of registered podiatrists and the conducting of special examinations. The board also deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 300 registered podiatrists, but not all are engaged in active practice. A significant number of those in active practice work only part time. In pursuance of the Government's policy, a number of hospital boards are establishing community-oriented podiatry services, principally intended for the elderly.

Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers—The Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Board consists of 13 member/representatives from the Municipal and Counties Association, the Gas Association, the New Zealand Drainlayers Association, an engineer employed by a local authority or drainage board, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2), Department of Labour, Department of Education, Department of Health, and one other person, to be appointed by the Minister.

The board is concerned with the registration of plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers. It issues annual licences to craftsmen and registered plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers and limited certificates. It has also authority and responsibility for disciplinary action against craftsmen plumbers and gasfitters if it is established they have done unsatisfactory work.

Drainlaying may be carried out only by registered drainlayers, and gasfitting may be carried out only by craftsmen gasfitters or by registered gasfitters and holders of limited certificates working in the employment, or under the supervision, of craftsmen gasfitters.

Except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing defined in the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1976 can be performed only by craftsmen and registered plumbers and holders of limited certificates working in the employment or under the supervision of craftsmen plumbers.

Specifications and standards of workmanship and materials in plumbing work are prescribed in the provisions of the Drainage and Plumbing Regulations enacted under the Health Act.

Pharmacists—In October 1982 there were 3045 names on the Pharmaceutical Register in New Zealand. All registered pharmacists, except those who notify the registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by a council constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1970.

The council consists of 12 members, 11 being pharmacists, and 1 a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Seven members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmacists who are proprietors of pharmacies and four by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all limes maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmacist.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hunt, at which the diploma in pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to gain 52 weeks pre-registration experience before becoming eligible for registration as pharmacists.

Any pharmacist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a pharmacist or pharmacists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is pharmacist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership, or the holding of an interest in more than one pharmacy by any person, is subject to the consent of the authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the society. There are about 1130 pharmacies in New Zealand. A recent survey showed that on average there were 1.62 pharmacists per pharmacy; about 260 pharmacists work outside community pharmacies in hospitals, Government departments, and the pharmaceutical industry.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Medical benefits apply to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading.)

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate.

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner.

Every general practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a fee of $1.25 for a service provided in normal hours and up to $4.00 for a service rendered at night or on Saturdays, Sundays, or holidays; for social welfare beneficiaries, pensioners and their dependants, and for patients approved as “chronically ill”, the benefit ranges from $3 to $7; in the case of all children and young persons up to their sixteenth birthday, and those for whom family benefit continues to be paid, the benefit ranges from $4.75 to $8. For initial consultations with recognised psychiatrists, paediatricians, neurologists, and neuro-surgeons and general physicians, the department pays a benefit of $20; with all other specialists, the benefit paid for children and young persons is $10, and the benefit paid for all other patients is $5. These rates apply only to the first occasion on which a patient is referred by a general practitioner to a specialist, and, in the case of an inter-specialist referral, with prior concurrence of the original doctor. For subsequent visits, the fee paid by the department reduces to $1.25 for each visit, except in the case of Social Welfare beneficiaries and pensioners and their dependants, and the “chronically ill” for whom the fee is $3, and $4.75 in the case of children and young persons. In designated rural areas, an incentive bonus is payable to general practitioners. In 1981, the immunisation benefit was increased to $4.00 when the vaccine is administered by the doctor or a registered general nurse in his employ and under his direction. The immunisation benefit is in full settlement and no extra charge should be made. Most doctors make a claim directly from the Department of Health and ask patients for the balance of their fees. A minority require their patients to pay the whole fee and make personal claims on the Department of Health.

The number of medical practitioners providing general and specialist medical services in 1982 was 5210. During the year ended 31 March 1982, the cost per head of population was $16 33. The average population per active general practitioner in 1982 was 1672.

Pharmaceutical Benefits—Persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed by their medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1982 totalled 27 808 000 or 8.8 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $5.95, the cost per head of population for the year $52.65.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. In the case of private hospitals and other approved institutions benefits paid are in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients. The rates from 1 December 1981 are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $26.50 a day, with a minimum of $30.00.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $20.50 a day.

  3. For geriatric treatment $23.50 a day.

  4. Hospital treatment for maternity patients $26.50 a day.

  5. For long-stay medical patients, $23.50 per day.

Free treatment is accorded outpatients at public hospitals; this also covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses, hearing aids, artificial limbs, surgical footwear, wheelchairs, orthopaedic implants in private hospitals, ileostomy and colostomy appliances, and urinals. It does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. The patient is required to make a part-payment for surgical footwear.

A subsidy is also provided under the geriatric hospital special assistance scheme to assist geriatric patients in private hospitals where the patient requires hospital care and cannot be placed in a public hospital bed. The patient must contribute from his income to the payment of fees. In the case of a married patient in hospital for up to 13 weeks, the income left in the hands of the spouse who is not hospitalised must be not less than the rate of National Superannuation for a married couple. After 13 weeks the income left in the hands of the spouse who is not hospitalised must not be less than the rate of National Superannuation for a single person plus $20 per week.

Psychiatric Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public psychiatric hospitals is also free, A licensed (private) psychiatric hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits cover ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere. Recognised specialists may make a charge on the patient over and above the benefit. Licensed maternity-hospitals are entitled to receive fees of $26.50 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—These X-ray diagnostic services on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, attract a health benefit:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen.

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs.

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the free services. Eligible X-ray examinations at public hospitals are free, but those undertaken by private radiologists are limited to a specified benefit. Additional charges are the patient's responsibility.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and associated medical services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment afforded by contracting physiotherapists is the subject of a benefit under the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The standard benefit is $1 for each recommended treatment, but a higher rate of $1.50 is payable for beneficiaries and their dependants who qualify for the higher medical benefit. Where patients are treated in groups the benefit is 40 cents per patient.

To qualify for the benefit, physiotherapy treatment must in all cases be recommended by a registered medical practitioner. Treatment is limited to 6 weeks on a single recommendation but in the case of certain specified illnesses the Director-General of Health may extend the period of treatment on anyone recommendation up to 6 months.

Home-nursing Services—Under the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1964, home-nursing services are provided free where the services are afforded by a registered nurse or midwife employed by the Department of Health, a hospital board, or an organisation recognised for the purpose.

Domestic Assistance—Monetary assistance is given to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic help in the home, where it is required because of age and infirmity, or to support family situations in which the mother is incapacitated or needs help on account of family commitments. Hospital Boards may also provide home aid services as part of a range of domiciliary services intended to minimise the need for in-patient hospital or residential home care.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age or under 18 years if still attending school or otherwise dependent. Treatment may be provided in a State dental clinic, by a contracting dentist for whom there is a prescribed scale of fees, or in the dental department of a public hospital.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Breast Prostheses—Women undergoing a mastectomy are entitled to a benefit of up to $40 to meet the cost of a breast form (including annual replacements). Patients entitled to the benefit are issued with a certificate of eligibility prior to discharge from hospital for presentation to the supplier.

Contact Lenses—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities; (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than—10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—A free aid may be supplied, or a subsidy of $70 is payable towards the purchase of a hearing aid, where the patient suffers a hearing loss which renders the use of an aid necessary.

Eligibility on medical grounds for the provision of a hearing aid is to be determined by an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board or the Department of Health.

Normally a patient will be eligible for the payment of the full benefit only once every 5 years. However, if in the opinion of the authorising otologist, a patient's existing aid is inadequate after less than 5 years from the date of its issue, and a new aid is required to improve hearing ability, the hearing aid benefit at full rates is to be payable.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of the Accident Compensation Act 1972.

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon.

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes limb socks for such limbs and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

Orthopaedic Implants—Artificial hips and similar implants also qualify for benefit under the arrangements for artificial aids.

Wheelchairs—Manually operated wheelchairs are available through hospital boards on a free loan basis to disabled persons who require them on medical grounds. Motorised wheelchairs are fully subsidised in approved cases.

Acrylic Artificial Eyes—A benefit of up to $50 is available to all patients who have had an eye removed on and from 22 July 1977. For adults, the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial prosthesis only. Children and young persons are also entitled to a benefit of up to $50 towards the cost of replacement artificial eyes prior to their sixteenth birthday.

Wigs—A benefit of up to $100 is available to meet the cost of wigs required on cosmetic grounds by patients suffering from: (a) congenital dystrophy of the skin; (b) alopecia areata, severe and longstanding; or (c) in cases of illness or treatment of illness where baldness is not permanent but is likely to be prolonged. For adults the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial wig obtained. Children are entitled to “reasonable” replacements at intervals considered suitable by the medical officer of health.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of health benefits during the 5 latest financial years.

Item1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82

* Long-stay benefit introduced 1 July 1978.

† Benefit introduced 1 April 1978.

‡ Benefit introduced 1 June 1978.

 $(thousand)
Maternity benefits—
    Medical practitioners' fees4,8925,9526,8327,8009,331
    Medical practitioners' motor vehicle allowance156198205258317
    Obstetric nurses' fees1933406987
    Obstetric nurses' motor vehicle allowance........13
 5,0676,1837,0778,1279,748
Medical benefits—
    General medical services29,44935,79834,95035,48735,261
    GMS motor vehicle allowance124200188199197
    Specialist medical services3,0084,3604,4164,6264,464
    Rural practice bonus and other incentives606764740741755
    Immunisation benefit540647577476672
    Practice nurse subsidy2,2574,1835,9857,97910,667
    Social workers in general practice22534....
 35,98645,97746,89049,50852,016
Private practice and post-graduate grants3259556465
Special area and other arrangements—
    Section 117, Social Security Act1981561498..
 2302152047265
Hospital benefits—
    Treatment in private hospitals— maternity benefits281258209199204
    Treatment in private hospitals—medical, surgical, and Karitane3,9353,7354,1004,4515,169
    Treatment in private hospitals—geriatric benefit12,59913,65820,17824,58530,840
    Treatment in private hospitals—long stay benefit*216449516697
    Treatment in approved institutions1,2821,2091,7902,3272,898
 18,09719,07626,72632,07839,808
Pharmaceutical benefits—
    Drugs supplied—
        By chemists96,362111,812130,665145,580171,609
        By medical practitioners and Department of Health;149185204170166
        To institutions and private hospitals1,2021,4271,9091,5102,161
    Non-disposable syringes and needles for diabetics†251917132
 97,713113,449132,797147,277174,068
Supplementary benefits—
    Dental services5,3166,3596,0827,8468,188
    Laboratory services13,48317,10618,43823,31525,676
    Artificial aids6583105133168
    Physiotherapy services;1,3471,5301,5021,5801,659
    Radiological services1,8101,8942,1132,0772,135
    Breast prostheses2023191955
    Hair pieces‡31485056
 22,04227,02628,30735,02037,937
        Total179,134211,926242,002272,084313,642

WELFARE SERVICES—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the needs of elderly people either through these agencies or through private facilities, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. At 31 March 1982 religious and welfare or private organisations provided 16 924 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 948 old people's home beds.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and old people's welfare councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs. During the year ended 31 March 1982 over 15,547 persons were delivered meals-on-wheels. An average of 100 meals were supplied to each person during the year. The service is operated by 28 hospital boards with the assistance of voluntary drivers.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—As from 1 April 1981, subject to maximum subsidies of $21,000 per bed for old people's homes and $25,000 for geriatric hospital beds, and certain other conditions, religious or welfare organisations providing accommodation for old people may be granted 100 percent of the approved building cost. Since October 1974, the policy has been widened to provide an 80 percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation, and 100 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The administration of policy is a Department of Health responsibility.

During the year 1981–82, subsidies amounting to $5,496,325 were approved. From April 1950 to 31 March 1982 subsidies totalling $73,005,717 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 8594 old people.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from the public funds. Among the more important are the Royal N.Z. Plunket Society, the Children's Health Camps Board, the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the St. John's Ambulance Association, the New Zealand Crippled Children Society, the Hearing Association, the Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind, the Family Planning Associations, the Neurological Foundation, the Rehabilitation League, the Laura Fergusson Trust for Disabled Persons, the New Zealand Society for the Intellectually Handicapped, the Cancer Society, and the National Heart Foundation. A fuller list of voluntary organisations in the field of health was published in the 1976 and earlier editions of the Yearbook.

HEALTH INCOMES AND EXPENDITURE—According to New Zealand's first Census of Services, the Central Government during the 12 months ended 31 March 1981 contributed more than $930 million in grants and subsidies to help meet the operating expenses of private health practitioners, public and private hospitals, and licensed old people's rest homes. These payments represent approximately $300 per head of population.

Private Practitioners' Incomes—The total income of the 3693 private practitioners in the census amounted to $230.7 million in 1980–81, of which $66.4 million was supplied by the Central Government.

The following table shows average gross incomes and cash grants received by type of private practice.

Type of Private PracticeAverage Gross Income* Direct Government Grants/SubsidiesNet Profit or Income

* Per full-lime equivalent.

† In some instances statistical estimation was involved in arriving at total grants by type of practice.

‡ After adjustments for changes in stocks and including any salary received by practitioners. Net profit or income is before tax.

 $$Percent of Average Income$
Medical specialist83,23619,84223.843,011
General practitioner62,36627,47444.130,490
Dentist70,89110,87915.329,540
Optician/optometrist113,9061,5341.334,460
Physiotherapist40,75614,47735.518,663
Chiropractor45,677500.120,448
Radiologist120,32641,61434.647,034
All types of private practice69,45919,99128.831,312

Incomes of Hospitals and Rest Homes—Public hospitals comprised 62.4 percent of all hospital institutions in the census. Of the remainder 12.1 percent were private non-profit, 18.5 percent incorporated private, and 7 percent non-corporate private establishments. In contrast 99.2 percent of all licensed old people's rest homes were privately owned, mostly non-corporate or non-profit.

Central Government grants and subsidies provided 91.9 percent of the income of all public and private hospitals, and 16.9 percent of the non-capital receipts of old people's rest homes.

The following table shows gross income per establishment.

Type of EstablishmentAverage Gross IncomeGovernment Grants and Subsidies
 $$
Hospital—
    Public3,913,4143,736,838
    Private, non-profit633,047225,674
    Private, other391,593189,176
    All establishments2,616,9492,405,890
Rest homes—
    Public259,667259,667
    Private, non-profit244,75651,362
    Private, other74,2565,156
    All establishments130,91322,074
Note—For further information on the Census of Services refer to Section 21B of this' Yearbook.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications dealing with health and medical services include the following:

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10), Department of Health (Annual).

Health, Department of Health bulletin (Quarterly).

Report of the Medical Research Council of New Zealand (Parl. paper E. 11).

Trends in Health and Health Services, Department of Health (2-yearly).

Health Expenditure in New Zealand—Trends and Growth Patterns, Department of Health (1979).

Accommodation and Service Needs of the Elderly, Department of Health (1976).

Health Manpower Resources 1978, Department of Health (1978).

Census of Population 1981; Bulletin—Cigarette Smoking, Department of Statistics.

Social Trends in New Zealand, Department of Statistics (1977).

Alcoholism: Challenge to Industry, Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council (1979).

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 12—New Zealand Children 1979, Department of Statistics (1979).

Annual Report of the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council (Parl. paper E. 26).

Report of the Clean Air Council (Parl. paper E. 22).

The Department of Health has published a considerable number of reports in its Special Report series in recent years. Inquiries concerning these should be addressed to:

Management Services and Research Unit,

Department of Health,

Private Bag,

Wellington.

5 B—HOSPITALS

The Hospitals Act 1957 requires the Minister of Health to ensure the provision and maintenance by hospital boards of hospitals and hospital services and to encourage the provision and maintenance of private hospitals. The Department of Health advises the Minister on, or determines in respect of boards, the extent and standard of hospital and allied services, the building requirements to provide these services, the numbers and levels of the main groups of professional staffs to be employed, the appropriate annual financial grants, the salaries and conditions of employment of about 60 percent of staff, and the measure of financial assistance to be given to private hospitals, including loan finance. The department also licenses and supervises private hospitals, inspects the work of all hospitals, and compiles financial and statistical data about them. There are 29 hospital boards and 163 private hospitals.

Since 1 April 1958, the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. Private hospitals, which provide about one-sixth of the available beds, receive partial payment from the Government for hospital treatment of patients; additional fees may be claimed from the patients. Hospital and home nursing services involve the Department of Health in establishing and assisting to maintain minimum standards of nursing service in general hospitals, in homes for the aged, etc.; in advising, inspecting, and reporting on such services in hospitals; and in generally advising the Minister on nursing.

Experience has been that, generally speaking, advisory boards, committees, and councils play a most valuable part in helping to formulate health policies and programmes, and, in certain cases, in administering policies or programmes laid down by Government. The setting-up of such agencies enables the Minister and the Department of Health to draw upon expert advice and wide experience and ensures that non-departmental people with up-to-date knowledge, day-to-day working experience, and responsibility in particular areas of health play a worthwhile part in health administration. A partnership of this kind is particularly important in the case of public hospitals, which are run by democratically elected boards. Recognition of this is seen in the requirements of the Hospitals Act that the Minister of Health may not act in certain public hospital matters without a recommendation from the Hospitals Advisory Council.

The department's objectives in the case of physical medicine and rehabilitation are to stimulate interest and co-ordinate treatment of the chronic diseases; to promote and maintain a unified rehabilitation service; and to maintain and develop physiotherapy and occupational therapy services.

A major development affecting hospital boards since 1977–78 has been the injection of special funds, initially from receipts of alcohol and tobacco duty, to assist them in moving their services out into the community. This should eventually have a significant effect on the level of provision of beds by the larger hospital boards.

The welfare services involving the department include the medical and social care and general welfare of the aged. The department advises the Minister on subsidies to be paid to religious and welfare organisations which provide homes and hospital beds for the elderly, and it also administers legislation governing the standards and oversight of old people's homes.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—General and psychiatric hospitals (except for Lake Alice Hospital) are controlled by locally elected hospital boards. A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every 3 years for each hospital district. It is the duty of every hospital board to provide, maintain, and staff such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary.

In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of Governmental efforts to restrain the rapid growth in health expenditure. To this end, hospital boards were required to accept a 1-percent reduction in their allocation of funds in 1979–80, 1980–81, and again in 1981–82.

More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build-up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres. To help meet the cost of these, boards have been allocated growth expenditure amounting to ½ percent of their base allocation.

The Director-General of Health is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

Hospital boards are required to operate their own ambulance services unless they enter into some arrangement with a subsidised voluntary agency. In this regard the Order of St. John and organisations such as the Wellington Free Ambulance perform valuable services.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1982 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, old people's homes, and psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1000 of Population
General14 6884.611 2263.5
Maternity2 3520.71 1960.4
Psychiatric and psychopaedic8 4842.77 4132.3
Total hospital beds25 5248.019 8356.2
Non-hospital beds9480.38190.3
    Total26 4728.320 6546.5

In addition to the 25 524 hospital beds in public institutions at 31 March 1982 there were 5506 beds in the 170 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratio of beds per 1000 of population becomes 6.3 for general beds and 0.8 for maternity beds.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1982 was 185, comprising 107 general hospitals, 44 maternity hospitals, 18 old people's homes, and 16 psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

A total of 420 068 persons were treated or maintained in public hospitals or similar institutions during the year ended 31 March 1982. This figure, which included persons in maternity beds, psychiatric and psychopaedic beds, and non-hospital beds in old people's homes but not hospital outpatients, was equivalent to 13.2 percent of the population. The 1979–80 figure was 407 967, and the 1980–81 figure, 415 111.

Outpatient attendances at public hospitals (including dental but excluding X-ray, laboratory, and pharmacy) totalled 4 125 520 during the year ended 31 March 1982, compared with 3 856 657 the previous year.

Waiting Lists—At 31 March 1982 there were 39 848 names on waiting lists for admission to public hospitals, a rate of 12.49 persons per 1000 residents. This compares with 38 501 on waiting lists at 31 March 1981, a rate of 12.12 persons per 1000 residents.

STAFF: All Hospitals—The number of staff employed by hospital boards hospitals as at 31 March in 4 recent years were as follows:

Category of StaffAs at 31 March
1979*1980*1981*1982
* Figures based on full-time equivalents.
Professional staff—
    Medical2 225.72 221.62 336.42 465.9
    Dietitians132.3115.9141.5147.4
    Laboratory technicians548.9549.4598.0616.8
    Occupational therapists360.3295.6322.6376.2
    Physiotherapists464.2460.6469.4535.7
    Radiographers364.8380.6407.5433.0
    Hospital scientific officers48.379.664.767.6
    Other professional and technical2 164.42 423.52 503.02 588.7
Social workers338.1353.9408.6452.9
Nursing staff (qualified)11 782.512 069.212 918.813 672.6
Nursing staff (unqualified)4 474.74 374.04 417.14 225.5
Nursing students7 003.26 439.25 635.34 815.0
Students, other721.6720.3654.1632.6
Administration, central offices3 953.64 025.54 324.04 133.6
Clerical support879.6892.3951.21 100.8
Managers/supervisors472.1366.5400.8448.6
Other12 953.812 763.913 049.312 643.7
        Total48 888.148 531.649 602.349 356.6

FINANCE: Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is set out in the following table.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing
* Includes payments from sinking funds.
$(thousand)
1978–7972,68718,183348,116
1979–8078,98519,910407,103
1980–3170,92023,729454,490
1981–8241,99324,879471,832

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to control by the Minister of Health. The sum provided by Government for public hospital maintenance expenditure is allocated to the individual hospital boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of known increases in salary and wage rates and prices plus an allowance for growth. A portion of the total is, however, held in reserve, to enable allocations to be made to boards having to meet the cost of commissioning major capital works reaching completion during the year. Additional grants are also made, when necessary, for general wage increases which may be approved after the basic allocation has been made. Grants for minor capital works and equipment are made to boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of price increases plus an allowance for growth. In general, major works over $20,000 are financed by loans raised by hospital boards, interest and principal repayments being met by Government grants.

Expenditure for both public and psychiatric hospitals during recent years was as follows:

Grants to Hospital Boards1978–791979–801980–811981–82

* Included in operating grant, but no longer shown separately.

† Added to operating grant in 1981–82.

 $(thousand)
Grants Allocated Directly
Operating grant—
    Salaries and wages404,843482,129576,448744,960
    Other operating119,522131,334156,386203,030
    Minor capital*12,08512,20516,645..
        Total536,450625,668749,479947,990
Supplementary Grants
Reserve for salary and wage increases85,80191,149123,533115,546
Loans—Repayments and payments into sinking fund17,14519,95826,21429,948
    —Net interest23,21630,87438,22244,466
Community care—
    General†5,8508,74710,914..
    Family health counselling services†244448606..
    Health centres3491,3461,030317
Geriatric hospital patient assistance4,7106,7018,42911,825
Special capital787652,658572
Other items (including wheelchairs, hearing aids, orthopaedic implants)1,2512,7333,160567
        Total139,353162,021214,766203,241
        Grand total675,803787,689964,2451,151,231

PRIVATE HOSPITALS—At 31 March 1982 there were 170 licensed private hospitals, providing a total of 5488 beds. Private hospitals are shown by type and by number of beds in the following table as at 31 March of the years stated.

Type of HospitalNumber of HospitalsLicensed Beds
198019811982198019811982

* Includes 3 hospitals with geriatric beds and 1 with children's beds.

† Included with other entries.

‡ Includes 1 hospital with geriatric beds.

§ Beds for psychiatric patients in Calvary Hospital, Christchurch.

Maternity666594141
Medical and surgical3533*33*1 4601 394*1 446*
Medical and/or geriatric1191211273 5763 7463 932
Medical and children's (Karitane)
Maternity, medical, and surgical111102102
Psychiatric/geriatric23‡344§73‡45
        Total3631641705 1395 3565 566

The Government assists private hospitals by the provision of loan money for new hospitals and the upgrading and extension of existing hospitals. Amounts paid under this scheme during the last 3 years were as follows: 1979–80, $206,419; 1980–81, $261,363 and 1981–82, $150,000.

PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—Under the Mental Health Act 1969 the control of psychiatric hospitals (with the exception of Lake Alice Hospital, Marton, which continues to make national provision for security patients) was transferred from the Department of Health to local hospital boards from 1 April 1972. From 1 April 1978 the funding of psychiatric hospitals was fully integrated with that of public hospitals, and therefore separate financial data are no longer available.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, domicile, race, and length of stay.

The following table gives the annual averages and the rates per 100 000 mean population for those in psychiatric hospitals and psychiatric patients in public hospitals.

YearResident in Psychiatric HospitalOn Leave from Psychiatric HospitalTotal for Psychiatric HospitalsPsychiatric Patients in Public Hospitals
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
All Patients
19777 877250.81 77456.59 651307.32678.5
19787 619243.51 80957.89 428301.32467.9
19797 487239.61 83858.89 325298.52568.2
19807 321232.52 20269.99 523302.52487.9
19817 208227.02 26871.49 476298.42497.8

Maori Admissions—The number of Maori first admissions to psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals, together with crude and standardised rates, are shown in the following table for 1976 and subsequent years. During 1976–79 the first admissions rate has increased by 4.7 percent.

YearNumber of First AdmissionsCrude Rate per 100 000 Mean Maori Population*Standardised Rate per 100 000 Mean Maori Population*†

* People of half or more Maori ancestry.

† Age-adjusted to Maori mean population for 1959.

1976425156.7149.3
1977435157.8148.6
1978444158.3146.0
1979469164.2148.6

Although the above table gives a valid measurement of changes in the Maori first admission rate, it would be misleading to compare these rates with those for non-Maoris without making allowances for differences in the age-structure of the two populations.

Such an adjustment has been made in the following table, which shows the age-specific rates per 100 000 mean population for Maori and non-Maori first admissions.

YearAgesStandardised Rate
0–910–1920–2910–3940–4950–5960 and over
1976—Maori35141322231148190283156.7
        —Non-Maori23118218184185181207144.6
1977—Maori18122332257208238224178.9
        —Non-Maori18100214179156160189131.3
1978—Maori22130306276201158252175.3
        —Non-Maori1291227195179181200138.5
1979—Maori2813135827318614398156.6
        —Non-Maori10103230199178161220141.6

Admissions and Readmissions—The provisional total of admissions to psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals during 1981 was 8775, compared with 8852 during the previous year. This total was made up of 2924 first admissions and 5851 readmissions (comparable figures for 1980 were 2962 and 5890). These figures exclude psychiatric units in general hospitals, The Bridge (Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch), and Rotoroa Island.

A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital.

The readmission rate is not necessarily an indication of therapeutic failure and may in many respects be a more accurate index of therapeutic vigour. It is still possible to encounter grossly over-simplified ideas with regard to the operations of psychiatric hospitals. For example, it is sometimes assumed that discharge from hospitals is, or should be, an indication of final and complete cure.

In certain respects the long-established practice of publishing readmission rates for psychiatric hospitals (no similar figures appear for general hospitals) seems to perpetuate this misconception. Readmission figures are sometimes quoted as evidence that psychiatric hospitals “do not actually cure people”. As with many other types of illness, psychiatric disorders may require more than one hospital admission before the condition is stabilised.

Admissions to psychiatric hospitals for alcoholism and drug addiction (under the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966) during 1982 are shown in the following table. The figures are provisional.

HospitalSection 8Section 9Total
Carrington71421
Oakley121527
Tokanui41014
Cook22
Totora Trust268
Sunnyside281139
Cherry Farm101828
Rotoroa Island391756
The Bridge (Auckland)742296
The Bridge (Wellington)111728
The Bridge (Christchurch)101424
        Total197146343

Admissions under section 8 of the Act are made as a result of applications from the patients themselves; applications under section 9 are a result of applications made on the patients' behalves by reputable persons. Rotoroa Island and The Bridge, Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, are conducted by the Salvation Army.

General Trend—The average number of occupied beds in psychiatric hospitals in 1981 was about 2.3 per thousand of population. This is the lowest figure recorded since 1880. No absolute conclusions can be drawn from a low bed-occupancy rate; but a consistently falling rate, despite substantial admission rates, can fairly be assumed to indicate an active philosophy of treatment and successful therapeutic programmes.

Discharges—There are 3 principal ways of being discharged from psychiatric hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged “not committed”, which means being discharged from a psychiatric hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

Diagnoses—Numbers and rates of first admissions, readmissions, and discharges of patients under psychiatric care during 1980 are shown by diagnosis in the following table. This information was not available for later years at the time of going to press.

DiagnosisFirst AdmissionsReadmissions (includes Replacements From Leave)DischargesTotal
OutrightLeaveNot Committed
 Number
Senile and presenile organic psychotic conditions36422126887355
Alcoholic psychoses3310164481113
Drug psychoses36436221285
Other organic psychotic conditions77217196941291
Schizophrenic psychoses4102 4901 7001 160202 880
Affective psychoses4061 5821 57641921 997
Paranoid states649010257159
Other psychoses15117427471345
Neurotic depression and other depressive disorders7779381 63267111 710
Other neurotic disorders174187360171378
Alcohol dependence or abuse8952 0982 605388143 007
Drug dependence or abuse661051193121171
Other personality disorders4388081 024172581 254
Stress and adjustment reactions254163432141447
Non-psychotic disorders of childhood and adolescence381958361
Non-psychotic mental disorders following brain damage25403922162
Conditions associated with physical disorders761717
Mental retardation19086579126581 064
No psychiatric diagnosis171117209181291
        All cases4 57610 26411 5282 93722214 687

Deaths—During 1981, 445 patients died in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals, compared with 480 in 1980.

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS: Principal Diseases and Disabilities—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about all patients, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand. As from 1 July 1981 maternity cases are also included.

The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated in public hospitals in 1981, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is available in Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Health Statistics Report.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but it is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1981 (INCLUDES READMISSIONS)
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Intestinal infectious diseases3 746100.3
Tuberculosis494255.1
Zoonotic bacterial diseases2514.0
Other bacterial diseases4035212.9
Poliomyelitis and other non-arthropod-borne diseases of central nervous system22283.6
Viral diseases accompanied by exanthema660121.8
Arthropod-borne viral diseases2
Other diseases due to viruses and chlamdiae1 80280.5
Rickettsioses and other arthropod-borne diseases49
Syphilis and other venereal diseases194
Other spirochaetal diseases92
Mycoses8244.9
Helminthiases6868.8
Other infectious and parasitic diseases21420.9
Late effects of infectious and parasitic diseases7511.3
Malignant neoplasm of lip, oral cavity, and pharynx535387.1
Malignant neoplasm of digestive organs and peritoneum3 96075819.2
Malignant neoplasm of respiratory and intrathoracic organs3 16264420.4
Malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, and breast4 0201854.6
Malignant neoplasm of genito-urinary organs4 4343668.3
Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified sites4 07867916.7
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue2 81328810.2
Benign neoplasms4 266210.5
Carcinoma in situ81410.1
Neoplasms of uncertain behaviour43071.6
Neoplasm of unspecified nature144117.6
Disorders of thyroid gland68791.3
Diseases of other endocrine glands3 5751253.5
Nutritional deficiencies7545.3
Other metabolic disorders and immunity disorders975343.5
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs2 136401.9
Organic psychotic conditions1 28120916.3
Other psychoses2 366251.1
Neuroses, personality and other non-psychotic mental disorders5 168300.6
Mental retardation16121.3
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system329278.2
Hereditary and degenerative diseases of central nervous system1 26212910.2
Other disorders of central nervous system3 040561.9
Disorders of the peripheral nervous system1 830110.6
Disorders of the eye and adnexa5 95590.2
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process5 7281..
Acute rheumatic fever30941.3
Chronic rheumatic heart disease619304.9
Hypertensive disease1 364513.7
Ischaemic heart disease12 6911 62812.8
Diseases of the pulmonary circulation57114325.1
Other forms of heart disease7 00974010.6
Cerebrovascular disease7 2581 79124.7
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries3 58638110.6
Diseases of veins and lymphatics, and other diseases of circulatory system5 913400.7
Acute respiratory infections4 46580.2
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract7 6353..
Pneumonia influenza4 21552112.4
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and allied conditions14 9735093.4
Pneumoconioses and other lung diseases due to external agents481020.8
Other diseases of respiratory system1 714844.9
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws2 6671..
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum4 5161312.9
Appendicitis5 14860.1
Hernia of abdominal cavity5 698310.6
Non infective enteritis and colitis880515.8
Other diseases of intestine and peritoneum5 6021132.0
Other diseases of digestive system5 4301913.5
Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome and nephrosis1 5211519.9
Other diseases of urinary system4 940440.9
Diseases of male genital organs4 301270.6
Disorders of breast2 24820.1
Inflammatory disease of female pelvic organs2 58320.1
Other disorders of female genital tract12 9964..
Pregnancy with abortive outcome7 316
Complications mainly related to pregnancy7 9722..
Normal delivery/indications for care-pregnancy/labour/delivery18 0301..
Complications occurring mainly in labour and delivery5 8401..
Complications of the puerperium306
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue2 99880.3
Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue93930.3
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1 904100.5
Arthropathies and related disorders7 277871.2
Dorsopathies4 21190.2
Rhuematism excluding the back3 431
Osteopathies, chondropathies, and acquired m/skeletal deformaties2 532241.0
Congenital anomalies6 5151101.7
Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period5 7661362.4
Symptoms19 865350.2
Non-specific abnormal findings268
Ill-defined and unknown causes of morbidity and mortality75811214.8
Fracture of skull2 9011174.0
Fracture of spine and trunk1 962412.1
Fracture of upper limb4 371120.3
Fracture of lower limb7 6612703.5
Dislocation1 08440.4
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles1 79610.1
Intracranial injury (excluding those with skull fracture)8 276791.0
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis1 087777.1
Open wound of head, neck, and trunk1 87780.4
Open wound of upper limb2 30110.1
Open wound of lower limb1 81030.2
Injury to blood vessels4436.8
Late effects of injuries, poisonings, and other external causes4 469180.4
Superficial injury46810.2
Contusion with intact skin surface2 35320.1
Crushing injury219
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice91450.6
Burns1 380211.5
Injury to nerves and spinal cord369
Certain traumatic complications and unspecified injuries17742.3
Poisoning by drugs, medicaments, and biological substances2 835170.6
Toxic effect of substances chiefly non-medicinal as to source933171.8
Other and unspecified effects of external causes388.133.4
Complications, surgical and medical care not elsewhere classified2 944281.0
Supplementary classification22 716290.1
        All conditions373 51511 8443.2

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay in public hospitals in 1981 was 11.2 days. Among sufferers from specified diseases and disabilities, the longest average stays were made by those with cerebrovascular disease (64 days), followed by patients with psychoses (60 days), other disorders of the nervous system (29 days), and tuberculosis (26 days).

Accident Cases—Accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1981 (including readmissions) are shown in the following table.

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport—
    Railway630.115.69840.2
    Motor-vehicle traffic10 28518.011.2114 73818.4
    Motor-vehicle non-traffic7531.38.06 0221.0
    Other road vehicles2 1323.74.79 9911.6
    Water1960.47.41 4390.2
    Air and space1070.211.21 1940.2
    Vehicle accidents not elsewhere classifiable5..16.482..
        Total transport13 54123.79.9134 45021.6
Non-transport—
    Accidental poisoning1 4512.52.33 3120.5
    Accidental falls13 44823.517.2231 56037.1
    Other accidents12 80222.46.177 77912.5
        Total non-transport27 70148.425.6312 65150.10
Surgical and medical complications and misadventures5 93210.414.787 36314.0
Late effects of accidental injury3 9586.913.051 2528.2
Adverse effects of drugs, medicaments, and biological substances1 4602.69.714 1662.3
Suicide and self inflicted injury2 2764.05.813 2762.1
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons2 1023.74.59 4161.5
Legal intervention19 9.5181..
Injury undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted2730.54.11 1170.2
Injury resulting from operations of war13..5.976..
        Grand total57 275100.010.9623 948100.0

The two largest groups come under the heading “Non-transport accidents”—, “Accidental falls” being slightly higher than “Other accidents” which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on.

Victims of accidental falls also had the longest aggregate stay in hospital. This was because of the long period spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls. Almost 1 in every 4 patients had been injured in a fall of some kind.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprised the third largest group and had the second largest aggregate stay. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 13 d Roads and Road Transport.

Accidents in the Home—A high percentage of non-transport accidents, especially those involving young children and elderly people, occur in the home. Accidents in the home in 1981 are included by type of accident in the previous section, but they are not separated out from accidents sustained elsewhere. The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying, in public hospitals after treatment for accidents sustained in the home. It includes only inpatients in public hospitals; not, of course, the large numbers of home accident cases treated in outpatient departments, doctors' surgeries, and in the home itself.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsAggregate Duration of Stay in Hospital (Days)
Accidental poisoning by—
    Dings and medicaments6771 531
    Petroleum products and other solvents186228
    Agricultural and horticultural preparations other than plant foods or fertilisers8497
    Noxious foodstuffs and poisonous plants6485
    Other solid and liquid substances43108
    Gases and vapours1722
Accidental falls5 591113 482
Struck by falling objects102890
Accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments1 4936 002
Accidental burns91113 104
Accidents caused by foreign bodies6651 554
All other and unspecified accidents1 6799 530
        Total11 512146 633

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths are shown in the following table.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
* 1981 figure not available.
197612 89325 457x50.6x
197712 61425 961x48.6
197811 95824 66948.5
197911 95325 34047.2
198012 69326 67647.6
198111 844**

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1981 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
0– 4 years21 73815 95337 691
5– 9 years10 5977 74218 339
10–14 years8 7456 94215 687
15–19 years11 71715 98827 705
20–24 years11 02325 85436 877
25–29 years8 04726 67034 717
30–34 years7 26919 11726 386
35–39 years5 92911 16217 091
40–44 years5 8979 04014 937
45–49 years6 5557 70714 262
50–54 years8 5927 99016 582
55–59 years10 5228 17818 700
60–64 years10 5528 12818 680
65–69 years11 4769 29620 772
70–74 years10 7038 92119 624
75–79 years7 9408 08516 025
80–84 years4 7506 26711 017
85 years and over2 8285 5958 423
Total164 880208 635373 515

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications containing data on hospitals include the following:

Hospital Management Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Mental Health Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Organisation of the Work of Hospital House Surgeons—Department of Health.

Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Surrey of Occupied Psychiatric Hospital Beds and Psychiatric Day and Outpatients, 1976—Department of Health (1979).

Bed Occupation Survey, 1976—Department of Health (1979).

Trends in Health and Health Services—Department of Health (2 yearly).

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10)—Department of Health (Annual).

A Health Service for New Zealand (Parl. paper H. 23, 1974).

Chapter 6. Section 6; SOCIAL WELFARE

6 A—SOCIAL WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK

Social services and the whole concept of state-supported or state-subsidised social welfare are continually evolving in response to the changing needs of society and the greater recognition of the responsibilities of that society towards its less-fortunate or more-vulnerable members.

The New Zealand social welfare system has grown pragmatically to meet local needs, and in the light of local experience, rather than under the influence of social or political theories. Even the 1938 Social Security Act, regarded as a landmark in the history of social welfare in New Zealand, did not introduce any sweeping theoretical changes, and since then ideas have been refined and enlarged rather than radically altered.

Nowadays the Department of Social Welfare, formed in 1972 from an amalgamation of the Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education, is the main Government agency in this field.

Also involved in social welfare are the Departments of Health, Education, Justice, Labour, Maori Affairs, and Internal Affairs.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are to:

  1. Administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies for New Zealand.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities in Government or voluntary organisations.

  5. Maintain close liaison with, and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among, any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

  7. Provide administrative services to boards, councils, committees, and agencies.

The objects of the department's administrative services are to provide such administrative support, and advisory, training, and research services as are necessary for the efficient and effective administration of the department's functions. The department is a principal adviser to Government on matters of social welfare policy. It also has particular responsibilities to private and voluntary organisations. Units with special responsibilities for liaison with such organisations and for publicity and information have been established so that the public are kept informed of developments.

The objectives of the policy for benefits and pensions are:

  1. To safeguard individuals in the community against loss of income or reduction in income brought about by age, incapacity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment, or other circumstances by providing income security at a level which will enable them to belong and participate in the community; and benefits for children as a contribution towards their maintenance.

  2. To provide assistance towards housing finance for families of moderate means by an advance of family benefit.

  3. To provide additional benefits for those whose income and financial resources are insufficient to meet their living costs and other commitments.

  4. To provide pensions on the death or disablement of members of the forces as recompense for physical loss, at a level reviewed and set each year at 1 April in accordance with movements in the Consumers Price Index; and to provide other allowances and concessions according to the nature and extent of disablement.

  5. To provide and maintain a service to ensure the rehabilitation and resettlement in civil life of former members of the forces.

The objectives of the policy for social work services are:

  1. To make better provision for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, maltreated, and delinquent children.

  2. To establish and maintain institutions, or arrange foster homes, for the care and control of children committed to the guardianship of the State.

  3. To promote and maintain a preventive work, social work, and general counselling service for persons and families facing social and economic difficulties.

  4. To promote and maintain an effective rehabilitation service to ensure that disabled persons are given encouragement, counselling, and assistance to restore them to a fuller and more meaningful life.

The social work services involve individual and family casework and general welfare work. Emphasis is given to the care and control of children including those with emotional or behavioural problems.

The residential programme includes the inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and the licensing and supervision of child care centres in order to ensure satisfactory standards are maintained. This division also has a responsibility for children in licensed foster homes.

Added emphasis is given in the programme to the rehabilitation of disabled persons. Co-ordination with other agencies which also have responsibilities in this work, such as the Department of Health and Department of Labour, is achieved through representation of the department on the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, which also acts as an advisory body to the Government on rehabilitation.

MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIAL WELFARE SYSTEM—The present system cannot be characterised according to any single principle, theory, or formula. As already stated, it has evolved from changing needs and experience in dealing with them. For example, it looks like a form of community insurance, but is not financed, funded, or administered on an insurance basis. It is financed from general taxation; but a person's benefit bears no relation to his tax contribution. While basically income-tested and selective as to need within classes of benefit, it is also universally applied without regard to other income or means in 3 main cases (national superannuation, family, and medical benefits) and in the lesser miners' benefit. It transfers income from the more to the less affluent mainly on the basis of greatest help for those in greatest need. It reflects the traditional humanitarian, egalitarian, and pragmatic approach of New Zealanders and, most importantly, reflects an acceptance of community responsibility for social welfare.

The main features of the system are:

  1. Eligibility for benefits (other than emergency) is based on residence for varying qualifying periods and not on the amount of tax paid.

  2. Benefits (other than family, miners', national superannuation, and medical benefits) are subject to an income test with the amount of benefit being reduced if other income is over a prescribed level. Emergency benefits and additional benefits are subject to tests of both income and property.

  3. In paying national superannuation and family benefit without any rests of income or need it is assumed that for everybody over 60 years of age, and for all families with dependent children, a community-financed income supplement is necessary and desirable, irrespective of actual financial need or resources. Miners' benefit is not income tested, on the accepted assumption that if a person is disabled by disease arising from mining he needs to be compensated for losing income and enjoyment of life and that the income loss does not require to be established or tested.

  4. The concept of the family as the fundamental economic and social unit is recognised by the payments made in respect of the otherwise ineligible but dependent wife and children of a beneficiary; and the taking into account of the income of the husband or wife (legal or de facto) of a beneficiary when assessing the amount of those benefits subject to an income test.

  5. Contribution under a graduated income tax system and payment of benefits at a flat rate irrespective of contributions (that is, taxes paid) distinguishes the New Zealand system from many of those of other countries.

  6. The cash and medical benefits give a comprehensive coverage of need.

  7. Beneficiaries are given incentives to selfhelp and to work. From the start, amounts payable from standard benefits have been set below the average wages of low-earner groups; and small incomes, and most property, have been disregarded in assessing an individual's benefit. Conversely, national superannuation for people over 60 years, and the benefits for widows and domestic purposes beneficiaries with dependent children, or over a prescribed age, recognise these people's right to stop working if they want to.

  8. Funding is through taxation. The right to “contract out” on the grounds that the individual may not need, or qualify for, public aid is denied in the community interest, as it is with other State services such as education, defence, and police.

  9. The Social Security Commission has wide discretionary power to grant, withhold, or reduce benefits, and a general power of direction is given to the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare.

  10. With certain exceptions no person is entitled to more than one analogous benefit from either New Zealand or overseas.

  11. Standard rates with supplements, rather than differential rates according to the class of benefit, relate benefits to need rather than to the cause of need.

ADMINISTRATION—The Social Security Commission in the Department of Social Welfare administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Welfare, Part I of the Social Security Act 1964 dealing with cash benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health (see Section 5A).

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Department of Social Welfare, which likewise handles ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

Child welfare activities are governed by the Children and Young Persons Act and other legislation detailed later in this section.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—From 1 April 1964, when the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account (now the Consolidated Account), the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose. From 1 April 1958, the cost of public hospital administration has been borne directly by general taxation; treatment in public hospitals is free. Details of medical benefits are set out in Section 5a—Health and Medical Services.

Payments—The New Zealand system has developed the following types of social welfare assistance.

Cash benefits as of right for those eligible by category, residence, and income, paid at flat standard rates (plus allowance for dependants) without regard to taxes paid.

Emergency benefits for those who need help but who are not, for any reason, eligible for standard benefits.

Accommodation benefit is available to beneficiaries who have limited income and assets and who pay relatively high accommodation costs.

Medical and pharmaceutical benefits for all members of the community; free public (and subsidised private) hospital care.

Universally applied benefits (with no means test) for dependent children, and for those over 60 years of age.

Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last 5 financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82
Cash benefits—$(thousand)
    National superannuation926,5061,162,8891,334,1151,556,8181,895,845
    Widows41,94947,21853,34257,81562,164
    Domestic purposes111,793143,533169,449198,053252,654
    Orphans596692778866943
    Family183,148153,555220,854306,773297,705
    Invalids28,39233,91240,92449,58060,454
    Miners115113766872
    Unemployment19,86554,23666,077118,757156,429
    Sickness26,35230,32633,23638,55343,529
    Benefit on death3,3592,9672,9192,8122,737
    Advances for repairs to homes273286265350347
    Aid to families caring for disabled persons3256148941,2131,599
Employment subsidy for disabled civilians31
Capitalisation of family benefit3,6747,9689,0945,8724,374
        Total cash benefits1,346,3511,638,3101,932,0232,337,5302,778,852
Health benefits—
    Maternity5,0676,1837,0778,1279,748
    Medical36,21446,19247,09449,58152,081
    Hospital18,09719,07626,72632,07839,808
    Pharmaceutical97,713113,449132,797147,278174,068
    Supplementary22,04227,02628,30735,02037,937
        Total medical benefits179,134211,926242,002272,084313,642
* National superannuation came into effect from 9 February 1977. The amount shown is for the period 9 February to 31 March 1977. Expenditure on superannuation and age benefits which were replaced by national superannuation is for the period 1 April 1976 to 8 February 1977.

About one-half of the total expenditure on cash benefits (including supplementary assistance advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians) is paid without an income test.

The following table summarises social welfare expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to gross domestic product (GDP).

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Domestic ProductExpenditure*
Health BenefitsFamily BenefitOther BenefitsTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Excluding capitalised family benefits.

† Provisional.

 $(million) Amount$
197815,217179.1183.11,159.51,521.8484.11x
197917,541211.9153.51,476.81,842.3586.14x
198020,966242.0220.91,702.1x2,164.9689.89x
198124,127†272.1306.82,024.92,603.7827.43x
198228,832†313.6297.72,472.03,083.3975.08
Percentage of Expenditure to Gross Domestic Product
19781.181.277.6210.07
19791.210.888.4410.53
19801.15x1.068.1410.35
19811.131.278.3910.79
19821.091.038.5710.69

Government expenditure on social services (including health and education) is shown in relation to total Government expenditure in a table in the Statistical Summary at the back of this Yearbook.

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of social welfare cash benefits in force at 31 March 1982 was 1 006 398. Particulars of the various social welfare benefits in force at 31 March for the 5 latest years were as follows:

Class of Benefit19781979198019811982
Number in Force
National superannuation387 439397 010405 834418 901430 175
Widows'16 10316 17316 12015 41614 737
Domestic purposes31 46535 38537 04039 41243,447
Orphans'382422413388365
Family465 485462 651460 897461 211459 994
Invalids'11 36512 27215 64716 96117 891
Miners'3426211616
Unemployment17 48417 89420 85035 66632 596
Sickness7 6267 6577 5047 1047 177
        Total937 383949 490964 326995 0751 006 398

Relationship to Wages—In the following table standard weekly benefit rates are related to nominal award wages and average weekly earnings.

YearStandard Benefit Rate*Percentage of Average Total Weekly Earnings
UnmarriedMarriedUnmarried BenefitMarried Benefit

* Standard rate includes widows, miners, invalids, sickness, and unemployment benefits (except that a lesser rate is payable to unmarried invalids and sickness beneficiaries under 18 years and unemployment beneficiaries under 20 years).

† Weekly wage payout and hourly earnings relate to all employees, males and females, adult and juvenile combined. Salaried executives are included but no working proprietors. Earnings include overtime, bonuses, and all allowances and special payments.

 $$%%
197846.3777.2831.652.6
197952.1386.8830.350.5
198061.48102.4630.250.4
198170.75117.9228.747.9
198275.45120.3226.842.8

CASH BENEFITS—The rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. More recent increases for invalids', widows', and miners' benefits are shown in the following table.

Date of IncreaseAmount of Increase per Week
Married CouplesUnmarried Beneficiaries
 $$
25 Jul 19795.603.36
23 Jul 19807.764.66
22 Jul 19817.924.75
20 Jan 19829.365.62
21 Jul 198210.686.41
19 Jan 19838.805.28

The list below gives a summary of the weekly rates for cash benefits. The term unmarried includes those widowed or divorced.

BenefitWeekly Rate
20 January 198221 July 198219 January 1983

* Unemployment benefits are taxable where no child supplement is being paid for dependent children. Rates shown are gross.

† Prior to 19 January 1983 the benefit was $260 a year ($5 a week).

‡ National superannuation is not subject to an income test but is taxable. Rates shown are gross.

 $$$
Invalids and sickness—
    Unmarried—
        18 and over76.3782.7888.06
        Under 18 without dependants58.1062.9766.99
    Married—
        Husband or wife separately63.6468.9873.38
        Spouse included127.28137.96146.76
Widows76.3782.7888.06
Domestic purposes—
    Solo parent or woman alone76.3782.7888.06
    Caring for sick or infirm—
        Unmarried and 18 or over76.3782.7888.06
        Unmarried and under 1858.1062.9766.99
        Married63.6468.9873.38
Unemployment*—
    Unmarried person—
        Twenty years and over76.3782.7888.06
        Under 20 years without dependants58.1062.9766.99
    Spouse included127.28137.96146.76
Any of the above benefits with dependent children
    Solo parent and 1 child121.28131.96140.76
    Solo parent and 2 children126.28136.96146.76
        Increased by $312 a year ($6 p.w.) for each subsequent child†
    Married couple with 1 child132.28142.96152.76
        Increased by $312 a year ($6 p.w.) for each subsequent child†
Miners—
    Unmarried person76.3782.7888.06
    Married man (wife included)127.28137.96146.76
    Miner's widow74.7781.1886.46
Orphans37.7540.9043.50
Family—
    Each dependent child6.006.006.00
Accommodation benefit is available to beneficiaries with limited incomes and assets to assist them with accommodation costs
Emergency Benefits—According to circumstances
National superannuation‡—(23 Mar 1982)(21 Sep 1982)(22 Mar 1982)
 $$$
    Married person85.2499.1499.82
    Single person102.29118.97119.79
    Married couple170.48198.28199.64

Payment Whilst in Hospital—Married couples benefit is continued at the current rate during the period of hospitalisation where one party of a married couple is admitted to hospital.

Unmarried person benefit is continued at the current rate for the first 13 weeks of hospitalisation. The benefit is then reduced to $10.

Entitlement to benefit following the initial 13 weeks is dependent on the beneficiary's financial and personal circumstances, his or her needs, and the capacity to appreciate and understand any payment that may be made.

Basic Income Exemptions—The basic income exemptions at the end of 1982 were as follows:

Widows', invalids and domestic purposes benefits, $1,300 a year.

Sickness, and unemployment benefits—$25 a week (but see below regarding unemployment benefits and personal earnings).

Orphans benefit—$260 a year.

National superannuation is taxable and is paid to qualified persons, regardless of income. If the inclusion of a non-qualified spouse is sought, an income test applies. The income exemption in this case is $1,300 a year.

Family and miners benefits are paid regardless of the financial circumstances of the beneficiary.

Adjustment of Benefit for Income Above Exemption—Invalids, widows, and domestic purposes benefits are reduced by 40c for every complete $1 a year of gross income over the appropriate income exemption of $1,300 a year and up to $2,080 a year, then 80c for every $1 a year.

Sickness benefits are reduced by 8c for every 20c over $25 a week up to $40 a week, then 16c for every 20c a week of income.

The benefit to a married applicant is assessed having regard to the total income of both parties. However, benefit is paid at half the married couple rate for a maximum period of incapacity of 13 weeks, regardless of the spouse's income. Both parties must have been in full-time employment for at least 20 hours per week for a 12-month period immediately preceding the incapacity.

Unemployment benefits are reduced by 10c for every 10c of personal earnings in excess of $10 per week, the first $10 per week of any personal earnings being added to other income. The benefits are then reduced by 8c for every 20c of other income over $25 and up to $40 per week, then by 16c for every 20c of weekly income over $40.

Orphans benefits are reduced by $3 for every complete $4 a year of income over $260 a year.

National Superannuation—National superannuation, for persons aged 60 or over, replaced age and superannuation benefits from 9 February 1977. It is subject to a 10-year residence test and is taxable, but is not subject 10 an income test unless payment is claimed for unqualified spouse. There are no special contributions required as national superannuation is financed from ordinary government revenue.

The after tax rates of national superannuation represent a percentage of the average ordinary-time weekly wage after tax. At the introduction of the scheme on 9 February 1977, the after tax rate for a married couple was 70 percent of the average weekly wage before tax, and rose to 80 percent from 30 August 1978. From 28 August 1979 the definition was altered so that the after tax rate for a married couple was 80 percent of the average weekly wage after tax. The single rate before tax has been set at 60 percent of the married couple rate before tax. The review dates for national superannuation are different from those for other social welfare benefits.

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies certain conditions is also entitled to the benefit.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1982, according to the number of dependent children. (Deserted wives are also included.)

Number of Dependent ChildrenWidows' Benefits
Nil9 769
12 750
21 349
3559
4204
5 or more106
        Total14 737

Domestic Purposes Benefits—Persons who qualify for domestic purposes benefit are:

  1. A woman with a dependent child or children who is living apart from and has lost the support of, or is inadequately maintained by, her husband, or who is divorced from her husband, or whose husband is a prisoner;

  2. An unmarried mother of one or more dependent children;

  3. A father of one or more dependent children who has lost his wife by death, divorce, or some other cause.

  4. Women without dependent children who come within the definition of “a woman alone”, which is a woman who has never been married or who has lost the support of her husband, and who has cared for dependent children or for incapacitated relatives.

  5. Other persons qualifying for the domestic purposes benefit are those required to give full-time care and attention at home to a person who would otherwise have been admitted to hospital.

In the case of both a solo parent and a woman alone, de facto marriages are considered as marriages.

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than 3 years preceding the date of his or her death.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1982 was 365 (in respect of 466 children).

Family Benefits—The rate of the benefit is $6 a week for each child, until he or she reaches 16 years, or, if a full-time school pupil, the end of the year in which 18 years is reached. The rate was increased to $6 a week from 17 October 1979.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child or a child who has commenced his first year of intermediate or secondary education.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of a bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to bank accounts at 31 March 1982 was 427 788. The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1982 was 459 994 covering 954 280 children, compared with corresponding figures of 461 211 and 968 595 at 31 March 1981. At the end of the 1981 school year there were 82 640 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The average number of children in respect of whom benefits were paid was 2.07 per family at 31 March 1982.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of house properties, whether previously occupied or not, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of up to $6.00 of the weekly family benefit in respect of each of 1 or more children from the age of 1 year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $4,000. The maximum income limit for eligibility is $250 a week for a family with 1 child, rising by $25 a week for each additional child.

Details of family benefit capitalisation in recent years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedCapitalised Value of Benefits
  $(000)
19782 7643,673
19796 5917,968
19803 7109,094
19812 2785,872
19822 4454 374

Invalids' Benefits—An invalid's benefit is payable if a person aged 15 years or over—(a) is totally blind; or (b) is permanently and severely restricted in his capacity for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may within certain limits be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings. The personal earnings of a severely disabled beneficiary may be disregarded in whole or in part in computing his benefit.

Miners' Benefits—A miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted pneumoconiosis or any other occupational disease and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, provided that compensation in respect of the same disability is not being received.

Unemployment Benefits—Applicants for unemployment benefits are required to satisfy the commission: (a) that they are unemployed; (b) that they are capable of undertaking and are willing to undertake suitable work; (c) that they have taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment; (d) that they have resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time. People are not entitled to an unemployment benefit if they are full-time students, or if not employed because of a strike either individually, or by fellow members of their union at the same place of employment.

An unemployment benefit is not payable for the first 7 days of any period of unemployment for applicants with dependents, and the first 14 days for single people, except in special circumstances.

A further waiting period of up to six weeks is imposed on high income earners.

The commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding 6 weeks, the commencement of the benefit if the applicant: (a) has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason; or (b) has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker. The benefit may be terminated if the beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., national superannuation.

If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a spouse, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Benefits were granted to 114 110 persons in 1980–81 and 123 835 persons in 1981–82.

The following table shows the position regarding unemployment benefits and emergency unemployment benefits during the year ended 31 March 1982. Emergency benefits may be granted on grounds of hardship to persons who do not qualify for the ordinary unemployment benefit. The average duration of unemployment benefits (not including emergency benefits) which ceased during the 1981 calendar year was 16.6 weeks (16.2 weeks for men and 17.4 weeks for women).

 UnemploymentEmergency Unemployment
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Numbers obtained from a monthly count of benefits in force.
Benefits granted79 88243 953123 8353 4182 5145 932
Applications declined19 78910 37030 1591 3451 1152 460
Benefits in force at 31 March 198217 69213 11430 8069348561 790
Average number in force during year*20 97012 62233 5921 0328941 926

Sickness Benefits—A person over the age of 15 years who is incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and as a result suffers a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, may apply for a sickness benefit.

The number of persons granted sickness benefit was 31 354 in 1980–81, and 30 151 in 1981–82.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the March year 1982 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit.

Period on Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
Up to 55 4803 1008 580
5– 83 5002 4405 940
9– 122 0201 5103 530
13– 252 5903 5206 110
26– 389801 3602 340
39– 51540400940
52– 778404201 260
78–103410220630
104 and over7503601 110
        Total17 11013 33030 440

Benefit on Death—From 28 September 1982 a lump sum payment of $1,000, subject to a means test, is payable following the death of a non-beneficiary. A further payment of $500 is made for each dependent child.

Where the deceased is a national superannuant or social security beneficiary, superannuation or benefit payments continue for 4 weeks, and $1,000 is payable to the widow or widower, plus $500 for each child.

If a person without dependents dies, a grant of $500 is available for funeral expenses. Following the death of a dependent child, a grant of $500 is paid to parents or guardians, subject to a means test.

Where a solo parent dies, leaving dependent children who qualify for an orphan's benefit, each child receives $500 and an additional $1,000 is also available.

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit.

Accommodation Benefit—Accommodation benefit is for people whose income and cash assets are limited and who are paying accommodation costs in excess of a certain amount. The maximum amount of accommodation benefit is $22 a week for both married couples and single people.

Since 1973 a telephone rental concession equal to one-half of the amount of the rental may be granted to persons in receipt of invalids', widows', or related benefits.

Disability Allowance—A disability allowance of up to $12.50 a week is payable for disabled persons receiving an income tested benefit or for persons whose income is such that they could qualify for an income tested benefit. The allowance can also be paid in respect of the disabled wife or child of such a person. The purpose of the allowance is to meet special expenses arising from the person's disability, such as transport costs, special diet, domestic help, or medicines not on free list, etc.

Handicapped Child's Allowance—A non-taxable allowance of $12.50 a week to the parents of seriously physically or mentally handicapped children other than those already being cared for in full-time residential institutions.

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit (except the New Zealand miners, orphans, or domestic purposes benefits) residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for invalids' or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive national superannuation unless he has attained the age of 65 years and, if under 70, he will be required to establish that he would have been able to qualify on income grounds for an Australian age pension had he remained in Australia. The Act also provides that the department shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1982 comprised 624 national superannuation benefits; 24 widows' benefits; 60 invalids' benefits; 16 unemployment benefits; and 3 sickness benefits— a total of 727 compared with 732 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country. No male person applying for national superannuation under the agreement is entitled to receive payment unless he has attained the age of 65. The qualifying age for women is 60 years.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1982 comprised 13 420 national superannuation benefits; 79 widows' benefits; 5 orphans' benefits; 115 invalids' benefits; 4 unemployment benefits; and 1 domestic purposes benefit*—a total of 13 625 compared with 13 721 a year earlier.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom—In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mothers' and guardians' allowances, family allowances, sickness and unemployment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The qualifying age for retirement pensions under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of national superannuation when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age. Special provisions apply to married women arriving in the United Kingdom from New Zealand as far as entitlement to the United Kingdom retirement pension is concerned.

Statistics from Census of Population 1981—In addition to the traditional census question on taxable income, information was again sought at the 1981 Census of Population on social welfare benefits received by persons aged 15 years and over. Respondents were required to specify the nature of all cash welfare benefits or pensions received during the year ended 31 March 1981. A summary of the results is given below. The figures apply only to persons normally resident in New Zealand, i.e., temporary visitors have been excluded.

The table following indicates that 43.2 percent of the population aged 15 or over were in receipt of at least 1 social welfare cash benefit in the year ended 31 March 1981. It should be noted that these figures have been rounded, using simple random rounding to base three and, because of rounding procedures, totals are not necessarily the exact sum of the component parts.

* These are beneficiaries who were transferred to domestic purposes benefit from age benefit on the introduction of national superannuation.

Class of Benefit or PensionTotal BeneficiariesPercentage of Total Population 15 years and over*
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal

* Excludes cases where benefits were not specified.

† Includes War Veterans' Allowance.

None867 684429 4441 297 13177.137.056.8
Family only9 657387 240396 9000.933.417.4
National Superannuation only164 145230 469394 61414.619.917.3
Unemployment only31 71620 36752 0802.81.82.3
Sickness only9 2735 17514 4480.80.40.6
Domestic Purposes only5195 8716 3930.50.3
Widow's only11 89511 8951.00.5
Invalid's only8 8416 37215 2160.80.50.7
War Pension Allowance only†11 4306 58518 0151.00.60.8
Family and Domestic Purposes1 33232 71234 0410.12.81.5
Family and Widow's4 7644 7640.40.2
Other20 77219 26940 0441.81.71.8
Not specified4 9656 20411 169
        Total usually-resident population aged 15 years and over1 130 3371 166 3642 296 704100.0100.0100.0

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES—Friendly societies or lodges had a membership of 50 035 at the end of 1981 compared with 113 000 in 1938 before the introduction of social security. They provide sickness and death benefits for members. The funds of the societies (including central bodies) totalled $61.6 million as at 31 December 1981.

Specially Authorised Societies—The majority of new societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act in recent years have been specially authorised societies in the form of credit unions; the number of such societies registered is now 290 and their funds totalled $61.4 million in 1981.

Medical Care Societies—The provisions of benefits to provide part or all of the costs of medical or surgical attendance in return for voluntary contributions may be administered through a separate fund of a traditional friendly society or through a society providing only such benefits, including the costs of private hospital treatment. The latter type of society may be registered under the Friendly Societies Act 1909, but at least 2 are known not to be so registered. It is, therefore, not possible to give comprehensive statistics of either membership or funds related to such benefits. The number of individuals covered for such benefits is approximately 460 000 in societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act solely for the purposes and could be in excess of this figure in respect of traditional societies.

SOCIAL WORK—The establishment of the Department of Social Welfare from 1 April 1972 resulted in a widening of the scope of social work formerly undertaken by the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education and the Social Security Department. Although much of it is still concerned with the care, protection, and control of children and young persons, it now includes counselling work with the mentally and physically disabled, solo parents and their children, and the aged. The department now maintains a team of social workers and other staff who provide a general, individual, and family welfare counselling and guidance service for all age groups as well as undertaking general field investigation and inquiry work.

Services for Community Care—Assistance is given to community organisations providing care and training in the community for the handicapped, both physically and mentally, and for socially deprived children and pregnant women.

Financial assistance is given by way of subsidy to establish and operate residential homes, day care centres, and sheltered workshops. At 1 July 1980 the range and levels of available subsidies were as follows:

  1. Socially deprived children (i) 66⅔ percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation and $43.00 per week for each child in residence. (ii) 66⅔ percent of capital cost of establishing day care centres and $18.00 per week per child attending.

  2. Mentally handicapped persons: $9.30 per day for each child in residence.

  3. Physically and/or mentally handicapped persons: 80 percent of capital cost of establishing day care, sheltered workshop, and training facilities and 75 percent of cost of staff salaries.

  4. Field services: Salary subsidies to organisations providing field services, particularly for preventive work with children at risk.

Other assistance to organisations in this field include:

  1. An advisory service covering a wide range of activities from forward planning to details of administration and design;

  2. The engagement of Ministry of Works and Development in the search for, inspection of, and purchasing of suitable properties, on behalf of any organisation wishing to establish a subsidisable social welfare facility.

Standards of care and training are set by legislation, requiring residential and day care centres to be registered, and by periodic inspection to ensure that the standards are being maintained.

Social Work with Children and Young Persons—Besides clerical officers, social work services involve 576 social workers and 569 institutional workers. Casework duties include preventive work; investigations and reporting for the Children's and Young Persons Courts; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement; adoption and ex-nuptial birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Act; reporting to courts on matrimonial proceedings affecting custody of children; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; and the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Social workers receive assistance from about 1 200 social welfare volunteers who are members of the community. These people give their time and talent to receive brief training and to become involved, under the close supervision of the department, in giving support and assistance to individuals or families encountering difficulties.

Institutional care facilities include long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children, short-term facilities providing classification, emergency, and temporary care for both infants and older children, and family homes which provide care for children of all ages either on a short-term or long-term basis.

Social workers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even 2 or 3 years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and court action is the outcome of inquiries.

Social workers, on receiving from the registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist single parents. Placements in adoption homes are made by social workers for children for whom placements have not been made by private persons and other organisations. The smaller proportion of children being offered for adoption reflects a changing pattern in society, with an increase in the proportion of single parents undertaking the sole care of children.

Adoption—Under the Adoption Act 1955 a social worker must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child or young person under 20 years of age, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the court. The court is required to obtain a social worker's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least 6 months is normally required, during which the placement is supervised by a social worker, before a final order can be made.

Any person who is not a close relative and who undertakes to care for a child under the age of 6 years apart from its mother for a period of more than 28 consecutive days for payment or reward must have her home licensed by a social worker. At 31 December 1981 social workers were visiting 58 children so placed.

Children's Homes and Child-Care Centres—Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important social welfare function. Financial assistance is given by payments of $43.00 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 66⅔ percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of child care centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.), have been in force since 1961.

The Department of Social Welfare has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

Detached Youth Workers—The Detached Youth Worker Funding Scheme, operated by the Department of Internal Affairs, provides community organisations and local authorities with grants for the employment of detached youth workers.

Detached youth workers generally work with young people whose educational, employment, health, housing and recreational needs are not adequately met by existing services. Further information on the funding of this scheme is available in Section 8e of this Yearbook.

Children and Young Persons Proceedings—The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into effect on 1 April 1975, introduced substantial changes in the procedures under which the department carries out its functions in relation to juvenile offending and other problems concerning the welfare of children.

The main thrust of the Act was to extend the provisions for young offenders to be dealt with through care, protection, and control proceedings rather than through criminal prosecutions and to provide for such proceedings to be dealt with by newly-created Children's Boards rather than by courts.

Prior to the coming into force of this Act, children or young persons coming to the notice of the police for offending were dealt with either by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police or by prosecution in the Children's Court. Children and young persons considered to be in need of care, protection, or control were generally dealt with by way of complaint to the Children's Court under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act 1925.

Under the provisions of the Children and Young Persons Act 1974, a legal distinction is made between children (defined in the Act as persons under the age of 14 years) and young persons (defined as persons aged 14 years but less than 17 years).

Where a young person comes to notice for offending, the matter may be dealt with by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police by way of consultation between the police and a social worker.

Children's Boards deal with children coming to official notice either for offending or because they are considered to be in need of care, protection, or control.

The Youth Aid section and the children's boards can deal with cases coming to their attention in several ways. These include warnings by the board or Youth Aid section, oversight by a social worker or Youth Aid officer, counselling of the child or young person, and counselling of the parents or guardian.

Both the Children's Boards and the Youth Aid section have the option of referring any matter to a Children's and Young Persons Court.

Children's and Young Persons Courts—The Children's and Young Persons Courts were established by the Children and Young Persons Act 1974 and began operation on 1 April 1975. Figures in the following table are for the year ended 31 December 1981.

Children's and Young Persons CourtsNumber of Appearances
Appearances involving complaint under Children and Young Persons Act 19742 531
Appearances involving charges for offences10 411
        Total appearances12 942

Total Cases Coming to Notice—The table below gives total numbers of cases coming to official notice each year during the period 1977 to 1981.

YearYouth Aid Cases Not Referred to Court or Children's BoardsChildren's Board Cases Not Referred to CourtCourt AppearancesTotal NumberPercentage Decrease on Previous Year
19775 1873 15712 88621 230–0.1
19783 7832 78113 27619 840–6.5
19792 6282 72114 15119 500–1.7
19802 4722 56613 39718 435–5.5
19812 2742 31112 94217 527–4.9

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, by making legislative provision for the Youth Aid scheme and by creating the Children's Boards, has increased the range of formal provisions by which cases can be resolved without court action. It might be expected, therefore, that virtually all disposals not involving court action will now appear in the statistics while in the past there were undoubtedly a number of informal disposals which escaped the statistical net. Thus, even in the absence of any increase in the number of cases being dealt with, the new procedures might be expected to produce an increase in the statistics for disposals not involving the courts. This in fact is what is observed; while the number of court appearances remains essentially static at around 13 000 to 14 000, the number of non-court disposals at first increased, going from 12 588 in 1974 to 14 930 in 1975. Recent years, however, have shown a decline, especially in Youth Aid cases.

Appearances finalised in the Children's and Young Persons Court up to 31 December 1981 numbered 12 942.

Decisions of the Children's and Young Persons Court during 1981 are summarised in the following table.

DecisionNumber
Discharged, or admonished and discharged2 652
Admonished with some other penalty (fine, costs, restitution, forfeiture of driving licence, etc.)2 893
Admonished and returned to the care of Director-General287
Placed under supervision of a social worker3 397
Placed under guardianship of Director-General901
Referred to District Court or High Court and given an adult sentence1 867
Other order made945
        Total12 942

It can be seen from the table that the Children's and Young Persons Court resulted in a total of 901 children and young persons being placed under the guardianship of the Director-General during 1981. The corresponding figure for 1980 was 924. A further 3397 children and young persons were placed under the supervision of a social worker. This compares with 3467 in 1980.

Legal Representation—An interim report, Working Party on Access to the Law, published by the Department of Justice in 1982, expressed concern over inadequate legal representation in the Children's and Young Persons Court. The limitations of the existing schemes were highlighted by the reduction in August 1981 of the duty solicitor scheme. It reverted to the original concept, which permitted only those in police custody or on police bail, charged with an imprisonable offence, to see the duty solicitor. The dispositions available under the Children and Young Persons Act mean that a large number of those appearing before the Children and Young Persons Court face the possibility of guardianship orders, but are not eligible to see the duty solicitor. This possibility may be equally traumatic for the parents who may not be represented either. In fact their position is, in reality, worse, because being eligible for civil legal aid only, they are faced with applying for legal aid through a system which is not geared to the quicker disposal of cases in the Children and Young Persons Court.

To overcome this, the working party recommended replacing duty solicitors with “children's advocates”. The scheme would restrict the number of lawyers paid by government schemes in the court, and would ensure a lawyer was always present. Major advantages of the scheme would be continuity in the child-lawyer relationship, higher and more consistent standards of representation and the establishment of contacts between advocates and other agencies involved with the court. The working party recommended that a pilot scheme in Auckland be established, which if successful, could extend to other major urban children's courts by 1984.

The following table gives details of legal representation in the Children's and Young Persons Court during 1981.

CourtComplaints
Total Number of AppearancesPercentage with Legal RepresentationPercentage with Legal Aid
Auckland27370.317.2
Otahuhu31127.32.9
        Total, New Zealand2 52836.113.4
CourtCharges
Total Number of AppearancesPercentage with Legal RepresentationPercentage with Legal Aid
Auckland97769.620.9
Otahuhu93033.04.1
        Total, New Zealand10 41140.817.0
PenaltyCourt Decisions
Total NumberPercentage with Legal RepresentationPercentage with Legal Aid
Minor7 07639.414.7
Supervision3 62937.214.4
Guardianship order90137.315.3
Probation46249.125.8
Adult sentence87452.532.7
        Total, New Zealand12 94239.916.3

State Wards—State wards are children and young persons who, for a variety of reasons, have been subject to an order made by the Children's and Young Persons Court placing them under the guardianship of the Director-General of Social Welfare. The events leading to the making of such orders are as diverse as the people concerned, but they can be roughly divided into 2 broad categories. The first is parental inability or failure to provide a stable, permanent home or to meet a particular child's special needs. This would include cases of neglect, ill-treatment, and desertion as well as serious family problems beyond parent's control.

The second category is that of seriously disturbed or anti-social behaviour on the part of children and young persons which is beyond the capacity of their parents to amend or control.

The placement and oversight of wards is a major responsibility of social workers acting on behalf of the Director-General, and it is no light task. In addition to children placed under the Director-General's guardianship or in his temporary custody by court order, there are increasing numbers coming into care by way of voluntary agreement with parents. Such children are treated in almost every way as though they were wards. Parents seeking the department's help in this way do so for a variety of reasons, such as their own serious ill health, family break-up, and other pressures within the family or their desire to seek special care for a disturbed or difficult youngster. In 1981 there were 5760 state wards and 583 children in care under voluntary agreements.

At 30 November 1981 a total of 6852 children and young persons were under the care and control of the department. The reasons for their being placed were as follows:

Placed under guardianship of the Director-General by court order5 760
Under control by virtue of an agreement with parents583
On court remand, postponement, warrant, etc.509
        Total6 852

Children and young persons may come into care at any time from soon after birth to the age of 16 years. (Guardianship orders under the Children and Young Persons Act 1974 are not made in respect of young people over the age of 17 years.) Wards are automatically discharged at the age of 20 years but in practice, and depending on their circumstances, most are discharged with the approval of the Director-General at a much earlier age. Many return, after a period away from home, to the care of parents or members of their extended family and are discharged as soon as the Director-General is assured that they are no longer in need of supervision.

The majority of wards are cared for in the community and in 1981, 55.1 percent were living in foster homes, departmental family homes, or in the homes of relatives and friends. Just over 13.8 percent were with their own parents as a trial to possible discharge. Of the remainder, 10.7 percent were at work.

A proportion of wards, especially those in older age groups, come into care because of anti-social, even criminal, behaviour. With help and guidance, some of these settle in the community but some have to be admitted to the department's various training institutions, usually after assessment and trial in boys' and girls' homes. A proportion go on to institutions under the control of the Department of Justice. In all, 15 percent of the wards in care are in institutions.

Details of children and young persons under the control and supervision of the department at 30 November 1981 are shown in the following table.

Placement of ChildrenNumberPercentage
In foster homes2 79340.8
Placed with parents for trial period94713.8
Living with and supported by relatives1752.6
In employment (excluding those with relatives, etc.)73110.7
In residential colleges2143.1
Receiving tertiary education110.2
In Social Welfare short-stay homes3535.1
In Social Welfare family homes80511.7
In private institutions3204.7
In Department of Education special schools220.3
In hospitals150.2
In psychiatric hospitals570.8
On probation470.7
In Social Welfare and Department of Justice residential training centres3274.8
Absent without leave120.2
In police custody60.1
        Total6 83599.8

Community Service For Maori People and Pacific Island Polynesians—For information on the Maori Community Services Programme refer to Section 3B of this Yearbook.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications dealing with social welfare include the following:

Report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12)—(Annual).

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10)—Department of Health (Annual).

Accommodation and Service Needs of the Elderly—Department of Health (1976).

Home Help Services in New Zealand—Department of Health (1978).

The Welfare State?—Social Policy in the 1980s—New Zealand Planning Council (1979)

Family Statistics in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1978).

Survey of Persons Aged 65 Years and Over, 1973–74—Departments of Social Welfare and Statistics.

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 6—New Zealand Children and Young Persons Court Statistics—Department of Statistics (1979).

Justice Statistics—Department of Statistics (Annual).

Social Trends in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1977).

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 12 New Zealand Children 1979—Department of Statistics (1979).

The Prediction of Juvenile Offending: A New Zealand Study—Joint Committee on Young Offenders.

Trends in Health and Health Services—Department of Health.

Report of the Registrar of Friendly Societies (Parl. paper B. 18).

Report of the Department of Maori Affairs (Parl. paper E. 13).

Working Party on Access to the Law—Department of Justice (1982).

Census of Population and Dwellings 1981—Department of Statistics.

Vol. 5—Incomes

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

The war pensions programme is largely the outcome of New Zealand participation in two World Wars in which large numbers of citizens served as members of the forces. It applies also to service in Korea, South-east Asia, and in any emergency, including obligations undertaken under the charter of United Nations and service with the Regular Force prior to 1 April 1974.

The war pensions scheme has developed from one which initially gave limited compensation for those returned from active service to one of comprehensive coverage for ex-servicemen who are disabled or incapacitated at any time of their lives as a result of their service, and for their dependants and also for the dependants of those who have died as a result of service.

The war pensions legislation is designed to provide (a) basic pensions to compensate for disablement or death, which provide for physical loss and are therefore compensatory in character, and (b) supplementary pensions, in appropriate cases, to meet loss of income. The latter depend on the means of the pensioner and are economic in character, acting as income maintenance and being therefore similar to social security benefits.

ADMINISTRATION—For many years social security monetary benefits and war pensions have been administered by the same department.

The authority for paying war pensions is vested in the War Pensions Board, an independent body appointed by the Minister in Charge of War Pensions, with a chairman, a medical member, and a representative of the members of the forces appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Returned Services Association. The administration of the War Pensions Act is, however, the responsibility of the Secretary for War Pensions who acts under the general direction and control of the Minister.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first 2 months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The boards are not bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES AND ALLOWANCES—The list below summarises the rates of war pensions and allowances. The pensions for war disablement and war widows are now adjusted annually on a cost of living basis.

PensionWeekly Rate
20 January 198221 July 198219 January 1983

* Adjusted annually at 1 April in relation to movements in the Consumers Price Index.

† Subject to means test on income.

‡ Increased to $6.00 from 19 January 1983. Prior to this date the rate was $5.00.

 $$$
Disablement pension*—
    Total disablement50.9659.0259.02
    Special additional pension for blindness or serious disablement30.5835.4235.42
Economic pension†—
    Unmarried person76.3782.7888.06
    Married person63.6468.9873.38
Wife's pension†63.6468.9873.38
War widow's pension—
    Basic pension*37.5943.5443.54
    Economic pension†76.3782.7888.06
    Mother's allowance—
        One dependent child44.9149.1852.70
        Two dependent children49.9154.1858.70
            Increased by $5.00 a week for each subsequent child
Orphan's pension38.8041.9544.55
Child's pension6.006.006.00
Widowed mothers pension (totally dependent)—
    Basic pension*37.5943.5443.54
    Economic pension*76.3782.7888.06
Widowed mother's pension (partly dependent)—
    Basic pension*4.004.004.00
    Economic pension†74.1280.5385.81
War service pension and war veteran's allowance†—
    Unmarried76.3782.7888.06
    Married male63.6469.9873.38
    Married female63.6469.9873.38
    Age supplement (each)1.501.501.50
    Gratuity (veteran's widow)113.96126.32131.60
Dependent children (replacing the rates shown where there are dependent children)†—
    Solo parent and one child121.28131.96140.76
    Solo parent and two children126.28136.96146.76
        Increased by $6.00 a week for each subsequent child‡
    Married couple and one child132.28142.96152.76
        Increased by $6.00 a week for each subsequent child

Economic pensions, war service pensions, and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds $25 a week or $1,300 a year. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband only is taken into account.

Travel grants and other concessions may be made to severely disabled persons.

The social security legislation permits basic war disablement and war widows' pensions to be paid concurrently with any social security benefit and to be entirely disregarded for income tests.

Pensions for Dependants—From 1 April 1971 wives' pensions have not been payable in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 unless such pension was already payable at that date. From 1 April 1971 the wife of a member of the forces pensioned for total blindness in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 may receive a war service pension but not an age supplement. In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family.

Economic Pensions—An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

Servicemen pensioned in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 have not, from 1 April 1971, been eligible to receive an economic pension unless already in receipt of an economic pension at that date. At 31 March 1982 there were 2430 economic pensions in force.

War Veterans' Allowances—These make provision on economic grounds for ex-servicemen, mainly of the First World War, who have become unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. At 31 March 1982 there were 2500 allowances in force.

War Service Pensions—From 1 April 1971 the war service pension is payable on economic grounds in respect of overseas service in the Second World War or any subsequent war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served. Payable subject to an income test, the pension is designed for disabled or prematurely retired ex-servicemen who saw service overseas after 3 September 1939. Ex-servicemen of other Commonwealth countries may also qualify for the pension.

An applicant must also fulfil one of the following conditions: (a) be in receipt of a war disablement pension of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension payable for total disablement; or, (b) being in receipt of a war disablement pension of less than 70 percent satisfy the War Pensions Board he is unable by reason of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment or (c) not being in receipt of a disablement pension and not having attained the age of 65 years, satisfy the War Pensions Board he is unable by reason of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment.

There are residential qualifications of 5 years for an ex-member of New Zealand forces, or an ex-member of other Commonwealth forces, who was a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served, and 20 years for other applicants.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pension in determining the amount of the basic war service pension. A war service pension cannot be paid concurrently with a social security benefit other than a family benefit.

The war service pension will ultimately be the only war pension paid for economic reasons. The rates and income exemption for this pension are similar to social security benefits and, by agreement with the War Pensions Board, the same general rules of treatment of income and assets are applied. In most respects, therefore, the war service pension is similar to its civilian counterparts, the sickness or invalids' benefit as appropriate.

Where any war service pensioner and/or his wife has attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each is added to the basic war service pension. At 31 March 1982 there were 3928 war service pensions in force.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—Pensions and allowances are paid in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine which are directly attributable to the Second World War.

ACCOMMODATION BENEFIT—Accommodation benefit is available to recipients of income-tested pensions and allowances, on a similar basis to social security accommodation benefit. At 31 March 1982, 726 additional benefits were being paid to recipients of war pensions.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war service pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid.

During the year ended 31 March 1982, 334 bursaries were granted, expenditure being $62,302 for the year.

WAR PENSIONS MEDICAL RESEARCH TRUST BOARD—When a pensioner dies, any unpaid pension money not paid to dependants in the normal way may be paid to the War Pensions Medical Research Trust Fund for research into mental disorders or other fields of medical research beneficial to former members of the forces. This Medical Research Trust Fund is administered by a trust board which ensures that the money is applied to research beneficial to former members of the forces.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1982 the department dealt with 3199 applications for war pensions. Of these, 2800 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, war veterans' allowances, war service pensions, and pensions in respect of peacetime forces. The total for the previous year was 3042. Of these, 2695 were in respect of the applicant's own disability.

The number of appeals to the War Pension Appeal Board dealt with in 1981–82 was 268, of which 88 were upheld.

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force, except peacetime forces and war service pensions, at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsTotal
Number in Force
19793 91621 8512794 703119430 773
19803 56022 0692743 87420429 801
19813 17122 0693043 18720328 754
19822 80622 1483102 50021627 791
Expenditure $(000)
19799,49846,12924019,8784381475,801
19809,20247,07829816,957401473,589
198110,36548,41431816,037441475,192
19829,39452,32634814,424521076,554

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following:

  1. Travelling allowances paid to 467 pensioners at 31 March 1982

  2. Clothing allowances, of which 866 were being paid at 31 March 1982

  3. Gallantry awards, of which 146 were being paid at 31 March 1982.

The following are not included:

  1. Costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security, amounting to $621,285 in 1981–82.

  2. Railway and bus concessions to pensioners with severe disablement and locomotive disabilities, costing $52,143 in 1981–82.

  3. Funeral grants, which cost $194,761 in 1981–82.

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Department of Social Welfare which are given in Section 6A.

Pensions in force at 31 March 1982 are shown by class and by war or type of service in the following table.

War or Type of ServiceDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersDependants of Deceased ServicemenTotal
WidowsParents and Others
First World War 1914–18922291 85232 806
Second World War 1939–4519 2231042 7616022 148
Korean Force301162310
Vietnam Force27711279
Peacetime Forces1 52425881 592
Other5210163
        Total in force22 2991364 6887527 198

Resettlement assistance is available to men who have served in South-east Asia for 6 months prior to 1 April 1972 and for 12 months after that date.

Application for housing loans, which attract a 3 percent concession rate of interest, must be lodged within 5 years from the date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service or 2 years after discharge from the forces whichever is the later. Application for interest-free furniture loans must be lodged within 5 years of date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service. These loans are now administered by the Housing Corporation of New Zealand.

Applications for subsidised trade training and education assistance must be lodged within 2 years of return to New Zealand. Limited preferences in farm ballots are also available to ex-servicemen with a farming background.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure for the 3 latest years ended 31 March was as follows:

ItemYear Ended 31 March
198019811982
 $(000)
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance111111
Trade training—
    Salary subsidy44
    Training of blinded ex-servicemen404557
        Total556068

Rehabilitation loan assistance, now administered by the Housing Corporation, is shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoanYear Ended 31 March
19811982
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
Housing4627.554468.04
Furniture1430.111520.12
        Total6057.665988.16

Further information on war pensions will be found in the annual report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12), and on rehabilitation loans in the annual report of the Housing Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 13).

6 C—SUPERANNUATION AND PROVIDENT FUNDS

GENERAL—For many years the Government, local authorities, and increasing numbers of private employers have operated superannuation schemes to enable employees to make provision for their retirement in addition to the benefits provided under national schemes.

The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948, amalgamating funds which had been in existence since the early 1900s. Its revenues consist of members' contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Account, trading departments, and other bodies, and interest earned on investments. The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911, with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the general public. It also provides superannuation for the employees of local authorities and other approved bodies, and maintains an investment pool in which local bodies invest their surplus funds and which provides an important source of their loan finance.

A scheme under which National Superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders over 60 years of age who meet a 10-year residential qualification was introduced from 9 February 1977. More details of this scheme are given in Section 6A—Social Welfare and Social Work.

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury as deputy chairman, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Directors-General of Education and the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and 5 members appointed on the nomination of various employee organisations and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—All State employees may belong to the fund and this covers those in departments under the control of the State Services Commission, the Education Service, the New Zealand Railways, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the armed forces, the Police, the Prison Service, judges of the High Court, Maori Land Court judges, District Court judges, members, of Parliament, and members of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau public services. In addition, from 1 January 1964 membership has been compulsory for permanent employees of the Government from age 17 to age 24 years.

Contributions—Deductions are made from basic salary on a sliding scale according to the age from which membership of the fund dates. These are at the rate of 6 percent for those joining when below 30 years of age, increasing by I percent steps each succeeding 5 years of age until a maximum rate of 11 percent is payable from the age of 50 years. From 1975 a flat rate contribution of 6 percent has been available for older members as an alternative to the standard rates. The benefit at retirement is proportionately reduced for these contributors.

Credit may be purchased in certain circumstances for periods of Government service not currently ranking and for full-time study or periods of training outside Government service and which resulted in a qualification being gained. Certain intervals in Government service may also be purchased for superannuation purposes. The costs of buying credit for these periods varies according to age and salary at the time of purchase.

Benefits—The principal objective of the fund is the payment of an allowance on retirement, which is usually between the ages of 60 and 65 years, but may be earlier with the consent of a contributor's controlling authority and of the board where retirement is because of medical unfitness for further duty. Standard retiring allowances are calculated at one one-hundred-and-twentieth of the average of a contributor's salary over the final 5 years of service, for each year of contributory service, plus an equal amount for the first 40 years of service. Up to a quarter of the annual allowance may be surrendered on retirement in return for a cash payment of 9 times the amount commuted.

On death before or after retirement, an allowance at the rate of half the allowance a contributor would have received had retirement occurred on the date of death, or half the allowance actually being paid at the time of death, is payable to any surviving spouse, for life or until remarriage. The surviving spouse, if under the age of 61, may also surrender up to one-quarter of the annuity for a cash payment. An allowance of $78 a year is paid for children below 16 years of age (or 18 years where schooling is extended) or possibly to a higher age in the case of inability to earn a living because of physical or mental reasons.

All allowances are paid in advance in instalments each 28 days and no recovery is made where an entitlement ceased during a benefit period.

A cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced in 1969 providing for allowances to be increased relative to movements in the Consumers Price Index. Those already retired at the time the scheme was introduced receive an ex gratia adjustment based on 70 percent of price movements. Those who were already contributors in 1969 receive the basic 70 percent adjustment plus the proportion of the remaining 30 percent that the period paying the extra contributions bears to their total superannuation service. The adjustments reflect price rises that occur from the age of 60 years for superannuitants and the age of 55 years for widows. A recent variation to this scheme provides for adjustments to be made before the age of 60 if the retired contributor has completed 40 years actual or notional service.

Special Conditions—Armed forces contributors may qualify for a retiring allowance after completing their engagements with not less than 20 years' service. A special variation of the cost-of-living adjustment scheme allows this group to receive adjustments following the fifth anniversary of their retirement. The cost is 1 percent more than that required under the main scheme.

Female contributors who were employed before the introduction of equal pay for women in the State Services in 1962 still retain some special conditions related to the former entitlement of women to retire on completion of 30 years' service or on reaching age 55 years. However those joining the fund since 1962 have the same conditions as males.

The Government Superannuation Fund Amendment Act 1980 provides a single superannuation scheme for all members of the Judiciary and the Solicitor-General. This replaces the two schemes previously provided under the Act, one for District Court Judges, Maori Land Court Judges, and the Solicitor-General; and one for High Court, Compensation Court, and Arbitration Court Judges. The 1980 scheme is compulsory with contributions ranging from 7 to 8 percent of salary, dependent upon age at appointment. The normal retirement age will be 68, though there are provisions for early retirement. The maximum retiring allowance payable is two-thirds of the final salary and a refund of contributions may be taken in lieu of a pension. The standard provision for spouses and children apply.

Members of Parliament contribute at the rate of 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary for an allowance based on one thirty-second of an ordinary member's salary at the point of retirement for each year of service, up to two-thirds after approximately 21 years' service. They qualify for an allowance from 50 years of age on retiring from Parliament after not less than 9 years' service or not less than 8 years if this covers the duration of at least 3 sessions. The standard provisions for spouses and children apply.

Police and Prison Service contributors are obliged to retire at 60 years of age, and to enable older entrants to attain additional superannuation service, their service is counted as 1 year and one-seventh if they join the fund after the age of 25 years. A lesser fraction is added for those joining between 20 and 24 years of age. Increased rates of contributions are payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Statistics—As at 31 March 1982 there were 122 371 contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund. They paid $119,569,452 into the fund during the year. At 31 March 1982 there were 35 202 superannuitants who were entitled to $144,689,661 a year, made up as follows:

Qualifications for AllowanceMalesFemalesTotalAnnual Allowances
  Number $(000)
Retired for age or length of service20 0663 51423 580121,034
Medically unfit9092101 1193,881
Total retiring allowances20 9753 72424 699124,915
Spouses9 5579 55719,702
Children47647094674
        Total allowances21 45113 75135 202144,691

Total assets at 31 March 1982, which amounted to $831,756,648, included investments in Government stock, $803,631,740.

The average effective interest earning of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1982 was 8.72 percent.

As at 31 March 1982, contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund were distributed as follows:

Branch of ServiceNumberPercentage of Total
Armed Services12 74110.41
Education Service29 08323.77
Police4 9094.01
Post Office20 20616.51
N.Z. Railways11 0038.99
Public Service41 66434.05
Other employers2 7652.26
        Total122 371100.00

The following table gives a summary of financial statistics, together with the numbers of contributors, for the latest available 4 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund at 31 March

* Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.

† Based on retiring and other allowances at end of year. Actual total paid during year ended 31 March 1982 was $139,967,631, plus $27,123,203 for retiring allowances capitalised.

 $(thousand)
1979126 41777,61331,95690,94690,095529,230
1980127 52486,73740,48093,563102,390602,499
1981127 270106,71651,931117,440122,602705,358
1982122 371120,38363,925139,907144,690824,766

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The fund now provides services in a number of separate areas:

  1. Public Fund—The 2 oldest pension schemes have catered for the general public on an individual basis, sometimes with encouragement from their employer or as members of a group.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—Three schemes cover employees of all local bodies, quasi-government and other approved organisations, firemen, and nurses.

  3. National Superannuation Schemes—Two employer-subsidised schemes are available, one for farm employees and the other for any employees of companies, firms, Government departments, or local authorities willing to become contributing employers. A further scheme is available for the self-employed.

  4. Local Authorities Investment Pool—This ancillary activity enables local authorities to invest surplus funds at interest.

The State guarantees the benefits payable under all the schemes. There are some elements of State subsidy in the public fund and local authority schemes, and a guarantee of minimum interest earnings in the national schemes.

Public Fund—Membership was available to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 15 years.

The first scheme of the fund, the Level Premium Scheme, available since 1911 and now closed to new members, enables contributors to purchase a pre-determined weekly pension from age 60 years by paying fixed regular contributions according to age on joining. For the first $20 per week a State subsidy of 25 percent is built into the contribution rates and after 5 years' membership contributors qualify for incapacity, widows', and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme, which has been available to individuals and the self-employed since 1958, accepts contributions of any amount from members at any time. The contributions paid during each year are applied at the end of that year towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years according to the contributor's then age. Only the first $1,000 contributed each year attracts State subsidy and this ceases once the aggregate pension purchased reaches $20 per week. There is a widow's benefit.

These 2 schemes, along with the Post 60 Scheme introduced in 1965, are now being phased out in favour of the Cash Accumulation Scheme introduced in 1975.

Cash Accumulation Scheme—This scheme is being very widely used by individuals. It enables them to pay when and whatever amount of contribution they so desire, and also allows them to choose their own date of retirement on superannuation. It is based on a cash accumulation principle and is highly regarded as the ultimate retirement benefit since it reflects the significance of changing interest rates and the impact of inflation. This scheme now provides the vehicle for superannuation previously provided by the Annual Single Premium, Level Premium, and Post 60 Schemes.

Additional Benefit Plan—This provision was introduced in 1975. It allows an existing contributor to one of the fund's schemes to increase the estate or spouse benefit otherwise provided in the scheme by such amount as is required by paying an extra stipulated contribution. Most of the fund's schemes limit the benefit payable in the event of the contributor's death to a level no greater than the equity in the fund. This usually means that in the earlier years of a contributor's membership, the estate or spouse benefit could be much less than a prudent person would require. The Additional Benefit Plan satisfies this need.

National Superannuation Scheme—An employer-subsidised superannuation scheme was introduced in 1964 for farm workers, and in 1969 was expanded and made available to other employee organisations. It is now the largest single scheme in the fund. It has useful and simple provisions, is easy to understand and requires simple accounting and administrative procedures. During periods of non-employment it provides for the holding of credits and contains the modern facilities of portability.

Local Authorities Superannuation—The National Provident Fund continues to provide for superannuation for local authorities, and for employees of quasi-government organisations, and charitable and religious institutions. Under section 44 of the Act all local authorities are deemed contributors to the fund on behalf of their permanent employees who, qualified by age, elect to become contributing employees. Under section 58 of the Act other approved bodies are accepted under similar conditions by completing a special agreement with the board. The Standard Scheme is the main scheme, but variations thereof with special terms and conditions are available for use by firemen, nurses, harbourmasters and harbour board pilots, and aircrew employees of Air New Zealand. Contributory service is transferable between these schemes and with the Government Superannuation Fund, because of their great similarity.

Investment Pool—The Local Authorities Investment Pool continues to be the main avenue for the temporary investment by local authorities, and other approved bodies, of surplus loan moneys and reserve funds. For the year ended 31 March 1982, the interest credited amounted to $21.3 million compared with $18.6 million for the year ended 31 March 1981. The balances of the pool account as at 31 March of 4 recent years are shown below.

As at 31 March$(million)
1979295.2
1980257.7
1981280.4
1982318.5

Investments by Fund—The fund's lending to local authorities in recent years is shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNo. of ApplicationsAmount Considered $(million)Amount Approved $(million)
1979626121.5117.4
198051896.091.6
198145078.378.1
1982644172.6168.2

Approvals to the various local authorities during the year ended 31 March 1982 were as follows:

Class of Local AuthorityApplicationsAmount Applied ForAmount ApprovedAmount Deferred or Declined
 No. $(thousand) 
Cities and boroughs29354,79952,6412,159
Counties10411,43011,430
Electric power boards6215,59314,869724
Harbour boards5113,21813,218
Hospital boards5240,01740,017
Sundry local authorities8237,58036,0711,509
    Total 1981–82644172,637168,2464,392
    Total 1980–8145078,26678,084182

Comparative Survey—The following table provides a survey of financial and other statistics of the National Provident Fund for 4 recent years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
 1979198019811982
New contributors during yearNo.6 6106 4897 4376 864
Total contributors at end of yearNo.123 723124 707123 745121 437
Local authority scheme—
    ContributorsNo.16 00915 23514 63513 674
    Contributions$(000)37,05739,64045,91457,011
Public Fund—
    ContributorsNo.107 714109 472109 110107 763
    Contributions$(000)28,20332,56440,04450,081
Pensions and allowances at end of yearNo.11 95712 37813 33514 193
Income—
    Contributions$(000)65,26072,20485,958107,092
    Interest$(000)41,56553,07865,99385,820
    Government subsidy$(000)6,6807,7758,79210,145
        Total income$(000)113,506133,056160,743203,057
Outgoings—
    Pensions and allowances$(000)17,98020,11622,97630,118
    Other benefits$(000)9,2629,31011,58417,939
        Total outgoings$(000)27,24229,42634,56048,057
Investment pool at end of period$(000)295,175257,724280,388318,480
Funds at end of period$(000)552,284655,916782,099937,099

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information for potential members is available on request from the boards of the 2 funds. Further financial data is included in the following 2 Parliamentary papers:

Report of the National Provident Fund Board (Parl. paper B. 19).

Report on the Government Superannuation Fund (Parl. paper B. 20).

Chapter 7. Section 7; EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

7 A—EDUCATION

For a period of some 30 years from 1945 education in New Zealand was marked by rapid growth. In 1945, school, college, and university enrolments combined were 328 000 or 19.3 percent of the population. By 1982 the combined full-time enrolments totalled over 960 000, just over 30 percent of the population. This growth was because of increased births for the major part of the period; a marked tendency for pupils to stay on longer at school and also to undertake further education after leaving school; and the development of new educational services. An overall decline in the birth rate from the early 1960s, however, has resulted in falling rolls in primary schools, a reduced demand for teachers, and a consequent reduction in intake for teacher training starting in 1982. The smaller age cohorts have not effected secondary schools to the same extent as primary schools.

Over the same period, spending on education rose from about 8 percent of total Government expenditure in 1948–49 to 13.3 percent in 1981–82. Education at all levels is freely available.

In recent years difficult economic conditions and restricted employment, as well as the impact of technological changes, have posed new problems for education. School leavers in New Zealand have been entering a more challenging and difficult labour market. Young people can no longer readily find work irrespective of their educational or other qualifications. This has affected the schools in many ways. A proportion of students anxious to leave but unsuccessful in finding a job, return or remain at school. Another significant development, often also motivated by a desire to improve employment prospects, is the return of adults, to secondary schools to improve their qualifications. In 1982 there were 3373 of these people. In an attempt to adapt to these changes there is an increased emphasis on vocational guidance and career education programmes within secondary education. Work exploration (i.e., the opportunity for students to spend some time in the employment environment as part of their education) is rapidly increasing, with the support of employer and union groups. About a third of secondary schools provide special transition courses to cater for young people who have returned to school because they cannot get work, or for those the school considers could have difficulty in obtaining suitable employment.

The changed employment patterns are also necessitating changes to the traditional vocational training approaches which are expected to place new demands on the educational component of the programme.

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION—The Education Act 1964 provides for free and secular education in State primary and secondary schools. For all children between the ages of 6 and 15 years, education is compulsory. University education is provided under the Universities Act 1961, and funds for universities are distributed by the University Grants Committee.

The central administrative body directing education is the Department of Education, whose permanent head is the Director-General of Education. The head office is in Wellington and there are regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, each under the control of a superintendent.

The Department of Education, in discharging its responsibility to the Minister of Education for the administration of the system, advises the Minister on policy and development, controls the expenditure of money voted, ensures that schools are built and equipped when and where required and that teachers are recruited and trained, checks that standards are maintained in all schools (both State and private), and assesses the efficiency of teachers. An important professional function of the department is to conduct curriculum revision and development and to recommend curriculum changes to the Minister.

The control and management of State primary schools is the responsibility of the 10 education boards. State secondary schools are controlled by local secondary school boards. These boards are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for the maintenance of schools and building of new schools and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

The Department of Education directly administers the Correspondence School and State special schools. It controls the inspectorate, supervises the staffing of schools, and conducts the School Certificate Examination. All State and registered private schools are visited regularly by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. The department also administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—The members of education boards have in the past been elected solely by members of school committees on a ward system, but provision has now been made for the appointment to each board of a teacher to represent all teachers employed by the board.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district. It is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of school committees form the electorates for electing education board members.

A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters.

Secondary School Boards—Secondary schools are controlled and administered by their own boards of governors. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations, and provision has recently been made for the election of teacher representatives. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils, but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

Technical Institute Councils—Technical institutes, including the Technical Correspondence Institute, are controlled by councils with members representing business and industry, local authorities, the universities, and governing bodies of secondary schools.

Community Colleges—Amendments to the Education Act in 1974 created a new category of institution, community colleges, designed to meet continuing education needs particularly in provincial centres. They are governed as technical institutes. The first community college was opened in Hawke's Bay in 1975 and community colleges have since been established in five other centres.

Teachers College Councils—Teachers college councils have the usual administrative functions, combined with some professional responsibility for the training of teachers. They include representatives of education boards, of the Department of Education, the universities, and of the teachers' organisations.

Private Schools—There are a substantial number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration. Finance and other assistance is provided by the State including 50 percent of teacher salaries. Government controls are applied before new private schools can be built, and there is a requirement that after a transitional period, new teacher entrants to private schools must possess certain minimum qualifications.

In October 1975, the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act was passed to enable the voluntary integration of private schools into the State system. Over 180 schools have now integrated and others have entered into negotiations. Most of the schools now integrated are Roman Catholic, and all the Catholic schools are expected to integrate.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level more than three-quarters of the State schools have both boys and girls on their rolls. The rest of the State schools and most of the private schools are single-sex. Over the last 2 decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more co-educational than single-sex schools.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the net expenditure (actual expenditure less recoveries) from public funds on each branch or service of education for the years ended 31 March 1981 and 1982.

Item1980–811981–82
Net ExpenditureNet ExpenditurePercentage of Total
 $(thousand)%
Administration and general—
    General administration13,74716,2501.1
    Examinations583768
    Research1,3091,4440.1
    Subtotal15,63918,4621.2
Pre-school education—
    General administration694824
    Free kindergartens15,47618,5741.2
    Playcentres1,3571,4910.1
    Other pre-school agencies3694720.1
    Subtotal17,89621,3611.4
Education support services—
    General administration1,9812,3340.2
    School inspection service4,7856,2510.4
    Advisory and guidance service15,54618,4151.2
    Curriculum development and resources4,8894,9280.4
    School transport30,22137,5492.5
    Recruitment of teachers197193
    Subtotal57,61969,6704.7
Operations of schools—$(thousand)%
    State primary schools367,211451,64730.3
    State secondary schools306,518334,20422.4
    Correspondence school8,98110,1820.7
    Integration of private schools8,82841,8982.8
    Assistance to private schools34,39313,8680.9
    Special education21,26626,8661.8
    School buildings73,81374,9185.0
Subtotal821,010953,58363.9
Teacher education—
    General administration225235
    Pre-service training55,11156,4113.8
    In-service training3,8243,7380.2
    Teachers college buildings2,2002,0130.2
Subtotal61,36062,3974.2
Senior technical and community education—
    General administration6238560.1
    Technical institutes and community colleges72,76789,6106.0
    Assistance to students7,6067,3140.4
    Other continuing education agencies and programmes8,2459,0490.6
    Technical institute and community college buildings12,25214,5621.0
Subtotal101,493121,3918.1
University education—
    Operations of universities154,069182,06812.2
    Assistance to students30,67230,1042.0
    University buildings23,26523,9431.6
Subtotal208,006236,11515.8
National Library—
    Operation of National Library9,0029,6400.6
    National Library buildings155820.1
Subtotal9,01710,2220.7
Total1,292,0401,493,201100.0

The following table shows Government net expenditure on education and relates it to total Government expenditure in national accounting terms.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Education ExpenditureAs Percentage of Total Government Expenditure
Current (Salaries, etc.)*BuildingsTotalCurrent Education ExpenditureTotal Education Expenditure

* About 66 percent of current expenditure is on salaries of teachers and other staff.

  $(million)                       percent
1978684.0123.5807.512.114.2
1979812.2117.1929.311.913.6
1980907.2102.11,009.312.013.3
19811,180.5111.51,292.012.914.1
19821,377.2116.01,493.212.313.3

The following figures relate Government net expenditure on education to gross national product and mean population.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of Gross National ProductExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
* Provisional.
 $(000)percent$
1977699,4135.2224.12
1978807,5375.4258.09
1979929,3345.4296.99
19801,009,2934.9322.99
19811,292,0405.5412.17
1982*1,493,2015.3471.25

An international comparison of public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product is given in the following table for selected countries. Educational expenditure in many countries has been rising twice as fast as national income. These figures are taken from the UNESCO Statistical Yearbook.

CountryYearPublic Expenditure on Education as Percentage of G.N.P.
Australia19796.0
Japan19795.8
Austria19795.6
Netherlands19798.1
Canada19797.7
New Zealand19805.6
Denmark19796.3
Switzerland19795.0
France19793.5
United States19796.4
Germany, West19794.7
United Kingdom19785.7
Italy19784.6
USSR19807.2

International comparisons need to be treated with reserve because of the differing education systems and measures of expenditure.

SCHOOL BUILDINGS—Building expenditure for 1981–82 was as follows:

 $(m)
Universities (including equipment)23.9
Education buildings76.7
Technical institutes14.6
Teachers colleges2.3
Pre-school buildings1.2

Pre-School—As at December 1982 there were 533 kindergartens and 678 playcentres. Two new kindergartens were due to open in February 1983. The provision of a further 5 additional kindergartens and 1 additional playcentre was approved during the year and these are now under construction to open later on in 1983. New replacement buildings for a kindergarten and a playcentre are also under construction and work is proceeding to upgrade accommodation at several existing pre-school centres. In 1983 the Government approved an increase in the level of subsidy for smaller playcentre buildings and the introduction of a new Midway Subsidy Scheme.

Primary—Falling rolls in the primary sector have virtually eliminated the need for new schools and have resulted in a marked decline in the need for additional accommodation. The programme of upgrading, remodelling and replacing older school buildings to provide an improved teaching environment has continued.

Secondary—With the stabilisation of secondary school rolls emphasis on capital works is now in the area of upgrading and remodelling along with the provision of gymnasiums and auditoriums. Most secondary schools were built after 1950 and some of these are now in need of services improvements and their educational functions adapted to meet current teaching methods. There are several schools which have had to be rebuilt for various reasons over the last few years including Wellington High School, Mountainview High School, Timaru, Otago Boys High School, Dunedin, and Cromwell College.

Tertiary—The teaching of trade and technical subjects continues to receive a high priority from Government. This is reflected in the continuing programme of new and replacement facilities. Projects completed in 1981–82 included a class-room and administrative complex at Tairawhiti Community College, Gisborne, a pipe welding workshop and general trades workshop at Taranaki Polytechnic, an engineering workshop and building construction unit at Wanganui Senior Technical Division, and a teaching block at Waiariki Community College, Rotorua. Also completed were an administrative and teaching block at Palmerston North Teachers College. During 1981–82 construction began on an engineering workshop for Tairawhiti Community College, a teaching complex for Wanganui Senior Technical Division, and a student hostel village at Waikato Technical Institute.

UNIVERSITY BUILDINGS—Building and other capital requirements of universities are handled through the University Works Committee. This committee prepares for the approval of the Government an annual programme of projected expenditure on university capital works—buildings, land purchase, furniture and equipment, and subsidies on halls of residence. Expenditure in recent March years has been as follows:

 $(m)
1978–7924.7
1979–8024.7
1980–8123.3
1981–8223.9

STUDENT NUMBERS—The numbers of full-year students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Type of Institution198019811982

* Includes technical institutes, community colleges, and senior technical divisions (S.T.Ds).

† At secondary schools, various centres, and correspondence school.

‡ Teachers college students on studentships are included in university tables.

Pre-school
    Playcentres16 44816 19816 395
    Kindergartens39 07439 791x40 009
    Pre-school classes at primary schools1 039x685x825
    Correspondence School297341505
 56 858x57 01557 734
Primary (Juniors to Form 2)
    Primary schools373 688367 286367 879
    Intermediate schools and attached Intermediate73 13673 38375 510
    Area and district high schools (Primers to Form 2)6 3416 1776 205
    Forms 1 and 2 at Form 1 to 7 schools5 8626 2157 501
    Chatham Islands schools165..
    Correspondence school1 3351 3531 451
    Departmental special schools289277280
    Department of Social Welfare schools948569
    Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind738373
    Private primary schools45 61938 99727 199
 506 602493 856486 167
Secondary (Form 3 to Form 7)
    State Form 3 to Form 7 schools180 426x181 760x186 328
    Forms 3 to 7 at State Form 1 to 7 schools10 425x11 02813 517
    Area and District high schools (Form 3 to Form 7)2 7532 6392 718
    Correspondence school920989937
    Departmental special schools235215279
    Department of Social Welfare schools331315346
    Private secondary schools31 25627 98019 376
 226 346224 926223 501
    Technical Correspondence Institute28 56630 09129 837
    Institutes*—
    Full-time students6 8426 9157 330
    Part-time students37 65935 84936 210
    Classes at other institutions†—   
    Part-time students72 00867 85164 197
 145 075140 706137 574
Teachers colleges
    Teacher training‡5 8285 8444 411
    Post graduate specialist courses915753
    Other full-time courses....39
 5 9195 9014 503
University institutions—
    Full-time internal students30 98931 54932 076
    Part-time internal students12 94413 18713 235
    Extramural students7 3668 0288 838
 51 299x52 764x54 149
    Total992 099x975 168x963 628
    Percentage of population at 30 June32.031.2.x30.5
Part-year Students Enrolled in Tertiary and Continuing Education Courses*
Type of Institution198019811982
* As at 1 July.
Secondary Schools
    Short courses at evening classes 25 34738 441
Technical Institutes
    Short courses33 63745 62451 465
    Seminars21 40621 94821 794
    Block courses32 15829 59235 299
Teachers Colleges
    Diploma of Teaching....915
    Block courses....350

TEACHING STAFF—Statistics of entitlements and full-time teaching staff at all educational institutions are shown in the following table.

InstitutionPositions (Full-time Equivalents)Full-time Staff 1982
19811982MaleFemaleTotal

* All staff is part-time.

† Includes teachers at full and contributing primary schools, intermediates, board, special schools, attached intermediates, teachers of special classes and special needs teachers.

‡ Includes advisers, psychologists, speech and reading teachers, and teachers not employed under staffing schedules such as visiting teachers, itinerant teachers, museum and zoo teachers, REAP, pool relief, physiotherapists, etc.

§ Includes all staff at F1–7 schools.

‖ Includes staff at Department of Education, Social Welfare and Justice special schools.

¶ Excludes positions filled by part-time staff.

** ASTU means Advanced Studies for Teachers Unit.

Pre-school
    Playcentres*255256
    Kindergartens1 1441 171121 1281 140
    Correspondence School11131313
Primary
    State†18 84518 5756 40411 88418 288
    Private1 5881 0953086991 007
    Correspondence School777776471
    Supporting services‡934911333567900
    Area schools519516282224506
    Manual training708702348347695
Secondary
    State§11 89812 3877 0974 52811 625
    Private1 7051 1616024131 015
Correspondence31930683165248
Departmental special‖1761787284156
Tertiary
    Technical institutes2 5062 6251 7695892 358
    Teachers colleges592555384144528
    Universities¶3 0433 0712 6823893 071
Correspondence School
    (ASTU)**13147714
Note—The table has been restructured to include all teaching staff

The drop in primary school rolls, combined with a higher retention rate of teachers in the service, has resulted in a favourable staffing situation in primary schools. Primary schools with rolls above 155 pupils are now staffed on a ratio of 1 teacher to every 31 pupils, and those with rolls of less than 156 on a 1 teacher to every 25 pupil basis.

Overseas Students—Overseas students attending primary teachers colleges, technical institutes, secondary schools, and universities at 1 July 1982 totalled 3405, of whom 1286 were from the South Pacific area (excluding Australia) and 1471 from South-east Asia.

Projected Students—A projection of July education rolls, made in 1982 by the Department of Education and based on policies and trends at the time, is set out in the following table.

PeriodRolls
KindergartenTotal PrimaryTotal Secondary
Actual198240 009486 167223 501
Projected—198741 500420 800220 700
 199243 100408 300188 800

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS: School Certificate—The School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is taken by the majority of pupils at the end of 3 years of secondary education. The course of each candidate must include English, although the student is not required to sit the examination in that subject. A candidate may enter the examination in any number of subjects up to 6 and is credited with passes in the individual subjects in which he or she is successful.

In 1981, 74 821 candidates sat 328 062 papers or subjects and passed in 168 228, a pass rate of 51.3 percent. This includes extramural and Pacific Island candidates. Entrants from State and private schools in New Zealand sat a total of 273 297 papers or subjects and passed in 147 212, a pass rate of 53.9 percent. The most popular (or widely-taken) subjects among New Zealand school entrants were English (55 353 entries, 50.8 percent passed), mathematics (46 712 entries, 57.2 percent passed), science (35 649 entries, 58.2 percent passed), and geography (27 256 entries, 52.6 percent passed).

Sixth Form Certificate—These are awarded to pupils who have satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year on a single-subject basis—to a maximum of 6 subjects—beyond the level of School Certificate. The following table gives numbers of Sixth Form Certificate subject grades awarded in 1981.

Number of subjects654321
Percentage of pupils6.271.010.22.32.97.2

University Entrance—Pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a 4 years' secondary school course. Pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the University Entrance Examination which is conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

The University Bursaries Examination and the University Entrance Scholarship Examination, taken by secondary school pupils usually in Form 7, are also conducted by the University Entrance Board; they are competitive examinations for supplementary awards for study at a university.

Higher School Certificate—Higher School Certificates are awarded after a 5-year course to pupils who have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 2 years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the University Entrance Board for admission to a university in New Zealand and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year. Examination passes at other than university examinations are set out in the following table.

YearSchool Certificate*OtherUniversity EntranceUniversity Entrance ScholarshipUniversity Bursaries A and B

* The number of candidates passing one or more subjects.

† The number includes Trained Teachers Certificate, Diploma of Teaching, Technical Teachers Certificates, City and Guilds of London Institutes Examination. Technological, Engineers, and Surveyors Assistants and Public Service Shorthand Typists Examination are not now administered by the Department.

‡ Includes both accredited passes and passes by examination.

§ Provisional.

197857 7671 02618 6341824 693x
197954 6921 14619 2772025 286
198053 4321 53019 2231865 069
198153 229x2 40018 898x1875 225
198252 805§1 75819 2231805 319
YearTechnician Certificate 3-stage CourseN.Z. Certificate 5-Stage Course: FinalCertificates Issued
TradeAdvanced TradeIndustrial Practice
19788251 2152 138614416
19796221 0322 580785258
19804341 0752 440976622
19814521 0423 026965686
19825871 0593 300859869

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatePasses
AccreditedBy Examination
197831 90114 8893 745
197932 94415 0724 205
198032 95814 9694 254
198131 988x14 1654 733x
198232 64114 4174 806

SPECIAL EDUCATION—Whenever possible, handicapped children are enrolled with other children at ordinary pre-school services and in ordinary classes at their local primary or secondary school. When necessary, buildings are modified, special equipment is provided, and ancillary staff are appointed to assist the teacher. The Department of Education inspectors, psychologists, and other specialist advisers also help the teachers with suitable teaching programmes.

A comprehensive range of special education services has been developed for those handicapped children whose special needs cannot be met in ordinary classes through these measures. Small part-time groups for handicapped pre-school children are attached to selected kindergartens and playcentres. Education boards provide special classes and resource centres at primary schools or separate special schools for pupils who are intellectually handicapped, deaf, visually handicapped, physically handicapped, maladjusted and those young children who need careful assessment of their teaching needs as they enter primary school.

The education boards also administer special classes in hospitals, special schools in psychiatric hospitals, speech clinics and reading clinics, and employ itinerant teachers to assist children in ordinary classes who have a hearing handicap or serious reading difficulties.

Special classes for deaf, backward, and maladjusted pupils are provided at selected secondary schools.

The Department of Education itself administers 6 residential schools—2 for deaf children (which also admit day pupils), 2 for backward children and 2 for maladjusted children. The Department also provides the teaching services in Department of Social Welfare institutions for socially maladjusted children, and the education service in penal institutions administered by the Department of Justice.

This network of special schools and classes is supported by 4 specialised guidance services which also assist children in ordinary classes. The Hearing Assessment and Guidance Service offers guidance to the parents and teachers of deaf children. The Visiting Teacher Service provides liaison between teachers and the parents of pupils whose progress at school may be hampered by home difficulties. Advisers on handicapped children provide guidance and advice for parents and teachers of handicapped children. The Psychological Service provides a comprehensive diagnostic and advisory service for children who have learning or social difficulties. It maintains a close liaison with all secondary school guidance staff and with all health, education, and welfare services for children. These 3 services assisted approximately 35 000 pre-school and school-age children in 1982.

In 1982 the first grants under the Community Education Initiatives Scheme were made to pilot groups in three areas of New Zealand, beginning a special relationship between the department, community groups, and other government agencies in helping young people with special educational needs.

In 1982 some 1891 State teachers were employed in the special education and guidance services. A total of 6820 children were enrolled in special classes and schools, and 5341 children were enrolled at speech or reading clinics.

The following table shows the number of pupils (including pupils at Activity Centres) receiving special education at kindergartens, primary and secondary schools at 1 July 1981 and 1982.

DisabilityMaleFemaleTotal
Full-time Special Education
    Visually handicapped504696
    Hearing handicapped296314610
    Physically handicapped200159359
    In Health camps18798285
    In general hospitals358246604
    Backward—in schools, classes1 7538932 646
    in experience classes7344601 194
    Intellectually handicapped1 0657831 848
    Educationally retarded—in assessment classes9941140
    in pre-school classes at primary schools, kindergartens523422945
    Maladjusted—in adjustment classes14856204
    at Activity Centres6681147
    in Social Welfare schools259165424
    in psychiatric institutions7833111
    Other225678
    Total5 8383 8539 691
Part-time Special Education
    Visually handicapped219181400
    Hearing handicapped145155300
    Speech handicapped—on speech clinic regular roll3 3801 5004 880
    on speech clinic periodic roll9 7364 18613 922
    Educationally retarded37762439
Correspondence School
    Hearing handicapped111223
    Physically handicapped613798
    Backward195133328
    Intellectually handicapped8864152
    Educationally retarded10546151
    Maladjusted282452
    Gifted8614

The Department of Education co-ordinates the administration and development of the special education services for handicapped children through the district senior inspectors of primary and secondary schools.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION—Children below the age of 5 years are not enrolled in State primary schools except in very special circumstances. Education for children below 5 years of age is provided mainly by 2 national voluntary organisations: the New Zealand Free Kindergarten Union, and the New Zealand Playcentre Federation, which receive substantial support from the State. A number of other organisations which include the Department of Education correspondence school, mobile pre-school units and itinerant teachers provide for the pre-school education of children not attending playcentres or kindergartens.

Assistance from the Government is also available to voluntary educational organisations for handicapped pre-school children; to voluntary social welfare agencies for children needing full day care; and the selected community-based, non-profit making pre-school groups. Other institutions such as factory nurseries, university creches, informal family playgroups, private and community kindergartens and playcentres operate independently and receive no direct government financial assistance. Some hospitals and private schools also operate pre-school groups. The Department of Education's pre-school advisory service is available to all pre-school groups.

Financial assistance from the Government to free kindergartens and recognised playcentres includes sessional and administrative grants, the full cost of new building sites with a subsidy of $4 to $1 for buildings and a subsidy of $2 to $1 for approved equipment. The maintenance of the buildings is the financial responsibility of the Government. In areas of special need, the cost of the building and equipment may be met in full by the Government.

In July 1982, there were 40 009 children enrolled at 535 free kindergartens (including 2 YWCA Mobile Kindergartens) and 23 119 children (including 6724 under 2 years of age) at 682 recognised playcentres. A further 15 025 children attended other forms of pre-school education. Kindergarten teachers are trained in State teachers' colleges and receive grants on the same basis as primary teacher trainees. Playcentre supervisors are trained part-time within their own associations and work on a part-time voluntary basis. Other training courses, mainly for child-care personnel, are provided through some technical institutes and through the Department of Education correspondence school.

PRIMARY EDUCATION—Entry into a primary school is compulsory at 6 years of age, but it is common practice for children to start formal schooling at the age of 5 years. If living in an isolated area, a child may be enrolled with the primary department of the Department of Education's Correspondence School. The final 2 years of the primary course, Forms 1 and 2, may be taken at a full primary school, an intermediate school, an area school, or a Form 1–7 school depending on where a child lives. On completing Form 2, usually after 8 years' school attendance, a child normally enters Form 3 of a secondary school, or alternatively Form 3 in an area school. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years.

The curriculum of the primary and intermediate schools, as set out in the syllabuses of instruction, covers oral and written language (including reading and handwriting), mathematics, social studies, art and crafts, science, physical education (including swimming and outdoor education), health education, music, and, for some children in Forms 1 and 2, French. At the Forms 1 and 2 levels, Maori language teaching and creative crafts such as woodwork, metal work, homecraft, and sewing are available to both girls and boys.

Teachers have the assistance of advisers in a variety of fields, including science, physical education, art and crafts, reading, mathematics, music, Maori language programmes, and English language programmes for Maori and Pacific Island children. Itinerant advisers are also available to help teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. Specialist assistance in helping children with special needs is provided by the psychological service, speech therapists, visiting teachers, and advisers on deaf children. Primary schools receive grants for general running costs, e.g. cleaning and sanitation, administration, class materials, maintenance of buildings and equipment for library books, free textbooks, special purposes, swimming pools and manual training. Grants are paid to Education Boards which then distribute them in accordance with scales determined by them which provide for the particular needs of their area.

The basic equipment scheme provides grants to education boards to enable them to supply all schools with consumable items of art and craft and infant apparatus, equip new school accommodation and upgrade, repair and replace equipment.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in State primary schools and intermediates under Education Board control, and also pupils in attached intermediates under the control of Boards of Governors.

Schools under Board Control (Plus attached Intermediates)198019811982
No. of Schools at 1 JulRoll at 1 JulRoll at 30 SepNo. of Schools at 1 JulRoll at 1 JulRoll at 30 SepNo. of Schools at 1 JulRoll at 1 JulRoll at 30 Sep
Full primary1 031378 541388 2281 047122 141128 6181 085127 524134 699
Contributing964981243 448253 850999237 934244 965
Intermediate and attached intermediates14773 13673 26114973 38373 59916175 51075 033
Area schools (Primers to Standard 4)354 6744 846344 5474 644344 6754 687
Special schools652 4052 344632 3412 359622 4212 475
          Total2 242458 756468 6792 274445 860463 0702 341448 064461 859

Age Distribution of Primary and Secondary Pupils—The following table gives the ages of all pupils enrolled in New Zealand primary and secondary schools at 1 July 1981 and 1982.

Age, in Years19811982
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
Under 512997226464995
527 48725 77553 26227 20725 82153 028
628 24927 32455 57327 17225 53052 702
729 73328 54358 27628 33527 34755 682
830 71329 28159 99429 97328 77758 750
932 29231 04263 33430 93729 49260 429
1032 50231 42063 92232 27731 14563 422
1131 41229 97761 38932 27831 39363 671
1231 74530 03861 78331 66530 22961 894
1330 62529 70660 33131 52129 99361 514
1430 51329 11159 62430 70429 52460 228
1526 82626 59953 42527 29627 19754 493
1620 94920 90241 85119 86820 59040 458
1710 9559 96920 9249 8799 19519 074
182 3691 6864 0552 0521 3913 443
19 and over336477813308477785
Total366 835351 947718 782361 518348 150709 668

Size of Classes—The sizes of ordinary classes at State primary schools at 30 September are shown in the following table.

YearNumber of Pupils
0–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940*Total
Classes%Classes%Classes%Classes%Classes%Classes%
* Includes ordinary classes at State full contributing, intermediate and area schools. In 1982 there were 700 special classes at State schools: 672 with 0–19 pupils, 27 with 20–24 pupils and with 25–79 pupils.
19751 5699.42 28913.73 82723.06 06236.42 86617.2490.316 662
19771 1627.02 05212.54 42626.96 84041.51 96011.9310.216 471
19822 02612.12 50214.94 88529.26 01835.91 3027.8170.116 750

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1982 there were 79 516 Maori children attending State primary schools and 1950 attending private primary schools. Staffing is more liberal in schools with a large proportion of Maori or Pacific Island children. For statistics on Maori school leavers' qualifications and years of attendance at secondary schools refer to Section 3B of this Yearbook.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 148 intermediate and 13 attached intermediate schools at the end of 1982, numbered 75 510. Of all children in Forms 1 and 2 at State primary schools at 1 July 1982, 64.80 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest 2 years were as follows:

Age, in Years19811982
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10 and under216296512208301509
1113 35013 36726 71713 98014 58428 564
1218 58117 27435 85518 69117 51236 203
135 6304 40010 0305 6384 3209 958
1417191262153112265
15617628
16 and over213
      Total37 95435 42973 38338 67836 83275 510

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools, including primary departments in private secondary schools. The integration of private schools into the State system continued throughout 1982.

YearNumber of SchoolsPupils atTeachers (Full-time)
1 July30 SepMaleFemaleTotal
197832548 89350 1193751 5351 910
197932748 47649 7073671 5271 894
198031445 74645 2303801 3581 738
198127938 99737 2183711 1411 512
198220427 19923 3783086991 007

SECONDARY EDUCATION—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate and University Entrance stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first 2 years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools for each of the latest 5 years (figures exclude the secondary department of the Correspondence School). The decrease in the number of private secondary schools and the increase in State secondary schools is due to integration.

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High. Schools and Area SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
197825636102394
197925936100395
19802653596396
19812893488411
19823133464411

At 1 July 1982, 41 of the State secondary schools enrolled only boys and 42 schools only girls, with 244 schools co-educational. Most of the private schools are single-sex schools. At 1 March 1982 there were 76 secondary schools with over 1000 pupils.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors attached to the Department of Education. In 1982 there were 63 inspectors, plus 4 education officers who inspect primary and secondary schools. The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at 1 July 1982 were: State secondary schools, 100 038 boys and 99 307 girls; area schools, 1326 boys and 1392 girls; private secondary schools, 9828 boys and 9548 girls; full-time pupils in the secondary department of the Correspondence School numbered 350 boys and 587 girls. In addition, 372 boys and 253 girls received secondary education in 19 special schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1982, 29 923 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 27 987 pupils attending State secondary schools and 1465 pupils attending private secondary schools. Some 191 Maori boys and 118 Maori girls received secondary education at 19 special schools, and 162 Maori students were being educated by correspondence.

Secondary School Hostels—In 1982 there were 57 hostels for State secondary schools. A programme for 5-day hostels at certain rural secondary schools is being developed to strengthen rural secondary education.

Attainment Levels of State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education, classified according to years of attendance and attainments.

Year of AttendancePupilsAttainmentsPupils
1980198119801981
First731548University scholarship236208
Second4 6524 666University bursary4 8434 981
Third15 89316 115Higher School Certificate3 5993 554
Fourth22 03121 645University Entrance9 3219 224
Fifth14 91615 160Sixth Form Certificate7 5167 326
Sixth and over628513School Certificate (three or more subjects)6 3386 374
   School Certificate (one or two subjects)7 4767 573
   No attainments19 52219 407
Total58 85158 647Total58 85158 647

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils who left secondary schools during 1981 is contained in the next table.

Probable DestinationBoysGirlsTotal
Further full-time education at:
    University3 7772 7586 535
    Teacher training:
    Attending university full-time71194265
    Other (including kindergarten)99506605
    Technical institute1 3733 0994 472
    Other full-time education (business colleges, seminaries, ballet or drama school, agricultural college, e.g., Flock House)101235336
To join labour force:
    Technical or professional work requiring further part-time or directed education—
    Health services1071 1171 224
    Technicians and other9725231 495
    Apprenticeships4 7476325 379
    Clerical, sales, or related work2 8627 35610 218
    Production, service industries, agricultural, or manual occupations8 3333 82512 158
    No occupation or unknown7 8808 08015 960
        Total30 32228 32558 647

CURRICULUM AND RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT—The principal functions of the Development Division of the Department of Education are to develop, co-ordinate, and revise curricula and syllabuses at all school levels; to provide handbooks and resource materials for teachers; to initiate pilot schemes of new courses and methods; to bring new or revised methods to the attention of teachers; and to assist teachers themselves in developing curricula at the local school level. Professional officers in the division have responsibility for development in subjects including science, mathematics, English, social studies, Maori language and studies, foreign languages, music, drama, physical education, reading, health education, technical education, home economics, arts and crafts, libraries, agriculture, and audio-visual media and evaluation.

The division also contains the School Publications Branch, the Visual Production Unit, and the National Film Library.

MAORI LANGUAGE TEACHING—In 1982 a total of 174 secondary schools taught Maori to 14 084 pupils while more than 1989 candidates sat the School Certificate Maori Examination.

The 40 itinerant teachers of Maori continued their work as teacher-trainers in 600 primary schools with 1065 teachers engaged in the training of 32 454 children. Work in bilingual education, which began in 1979, continued in 1982 in four rural schools situated in Maori communities.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been a feature of the last 30 years. Composite schools have been developed in recent years to bring together larger concentrations of children from Form 1 and above. These are known as Form 1 to 7 schools and area schools.

The first Form 1 to 7 school was opened in 1962 and by 1982 there were 51 of these schools. This type of school usually developed from the translation of the secondary department of a district high school with the addition of Form 1 and 2 pupils from neighbouring primary schools. They receive improved staffing, accommodation, and equipment in the endeavour to promote equality of educational opportunity for country children.

However, a large number of Form 1 and 2 children remain in the country districts too small to support a Form 1–7 school. In these districts, area schools have been established. The area school is a unified school providing education from the infant stage to Form 7 for all children in the immediate vicinity, and from Form 1 upwards for children from contributing schools over a wider area. The first area school was opened in 1969. At 1 July 1982 there were 34 of these schools.

Transport Assistance and Boarding Bursaries—During the 1982 school year just over 16 percent of the total school population received transport assistance. Most pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education.

The school transport service carried nearly 110 000 students to and from school daily on 2791 separate transport services which covered over 42 million kilometres. A further 6265 children received private and public transport allowances. It is estimated that $47,465,000 will be spent on school transport in the 1982–83 financial year.

The value of school boarding and course bursaries will increase from $750 to $900 a year as from term 1, 1983. The number of pupils receiving boarding bursaries during 1982 was 2850 compared with 3008 the previous year. A total of 710 course bursaries were awarded in 1982 compared with 804 in 1981.

The attached table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding bursaries as at 20 August 1982, according to the type of school attended.

Type of SchoolPupils on RollPupils Transported to SchoolPupils Receiving School Boarding BursariesPupils Receiving Course Boarding Bursaries
State primary schools460 29864 43859
State secondary schools (including district high schools)204 12749 7121 885445
Private primary schools27 19999647
Private secondary schools19 374801859265
Total710 998115 9472 850710

CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL—The Correspondence School provides courses for students in 4 major categories:

  • full-time students obtaining all their education through the school.

  • students enrolled in New Zealand secondary schools but doing 1 or more subjects with the correspondence school.

  • part-time adult students who wish to continue their basic education.

  • teachers who wish to obtain additional qualifications at a tertiary level.

The school roll on 1 October 1982 was 17 100, made up of 390 pre-school; 841 primary; 429 special-needs section (pupils with significant educational handicaps); 839 individual programme section (pupils needing remedial tuition); 1001 secondary; 2584 students at secondary schools; 8252 part-time students; and 2764 undertaking advanced studies for teachers (including diploma of teaching and service increment courses, 2105; trained teachers certificate, 127; teaching the intellectually handicapped certificate, 14; early childhood and childcare courses, 380; and certificate in social education and training of the handicapped, 138).

The 1001 full-time secondary students were enrolled for a variety of reasons—256 for isolation, 103 medical, 180 New Zealand children living overseas, 121 pregnancy, 32 in institutions, 136 remedial, 82 school suspensions, 33 school phobia, and 58 adult full time.

For full-time students the school provides daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and active parents' and ex-pupils' associations. In 1982 the school produced 4 pilot educational television programmes for Correspondence School students, completing a series of 5 begun in 1981.

The personal link between student and school is strengthened by 7 resident teachers, based in major centres, who visit families regularly. Visits are also made by teachers from the school. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held periodically. A residential school for invited pupils is conducted each year to enable the children to gain the opportunity for social education by taking part in group activities. This school is of 4 weeks' duration.

The total staff of the Correspondence School in 1982 was 452. Of this number, 279 were secondary teachers, 74 primary (including those in special-needs and individual programme sections), 13 preschool, 14 tutors for teaching diplomas and certificates, and 72 administrative staff.

AGRICULTURAL CLUBS—For many years a practical interest in agriculture has been featured in rural schools through the boys' and girls' agricultural clubwork movement. The pupils undertake home projects associated with livestock rearing and/or vegetable/flower growing. These projects frequently culminate in an annual school field day.

Efforts are now being made to foster the development of the clubwork movement in urban schools and particularly home garden projects. All pupils completing projects satisfactorily, are eligible for the award of a boys' and girls' agricultural clubs project certificate.

The advisers on school science employed by education boards play an important part in promoting the movement in schools. They encourage and assist teachers to establish the clubwork movement. They also provide guidance notes for the organisation, rearing activities and cultural details associated with a wide range of agricultural based projects.

The boys and girls agricultural clubwork movement receives a good deal of active, supportive involvement from parents, teachers, farmers, and others associated with agricultural/horticultural organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5a, Health and Medical Services.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS—In 1982 there were 8 teachers colleges: North Shore, Auckland, Auckland Secondary, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch (primary and secondary), and Dunedin, with full-time staffs totalling 528 (384 males and 144 females). The transfer of North Shore to the Auckland Teachers College campus was completed by the end of the year, thus reducing to 7 the number of teacher colleges. At 1 July 1982 there were 5614 students in training. This number includes 881 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 227 holders of primary teachers studentships (Division S) who were attached to teachers colleges while attending universities as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and 427 graduates undertaking training for secondary teaching, and 6 Division T undertaking full-time technical institute study.

Secondary training was also available at teachers college outposts established in the Hutt Valley, Rotorua, Hawke's Bay, Palmerston North, and Invercargill, but for 1983 will only be available at the Hutt Valley centre.

The minimum entry qualification for admission to primary teacher training (Division A) and for entry to the secondary 3-year commercial course and the 3-year home-economics course, is Sixth Form Certificate with acceptable grades in 4 subjects. University Entrance is required for the 3-year Division B course in general secondary subjects and the 1-year Division C course is for graduates.

The following table shows the number of students attending Teachers Colleges at 1 July.

YearDivision ADivision BDivision CDivision EOther Courses*Total
MFMFMFMFMF
* Includes metalwork, music, home economics, commercial, Division M.
19789723 5961611853033514333712586 234
19798823 3661531532633446288782875 820
19807913 34014822032342610271942965 919
19817503 4711341843033877282872945 899
19825552 752137186177250622811724 464

The normal course of training for Division A students is a period of 3 years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of *** year as a probationary assistant attached to a State primary school. Specialist training courses are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of deaf children.

Although the normal period of Division A training for teaching is 3 years, courses may be shortened to 2 years for students wholly or partway through degree courses. The Division E course for early childhood teachers is also available in all the teachers colleges except secondary teachers college: Auckland. This is a 2-year course after which students must apply for positions in the kindergartens.

A concurrent secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for up to 3 years of concurrent training at a university or a technical institute and at a teachers college, and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at the secondary division of Christchurch Teachers College.

Successful Division B students may complete the teachers college course with 6 units of a degree or equivalent and apply for a year of full-time university study in order to complete a degree. Under the provisions of this concurrent course a successful student may commence his career of teaching as a teacher-trained university graduate in 4 years. This is the same period of time taken by students who through Division U complete 3 years full-time university study followed by the 1-year course of teacher training for graduates in Division C.

The ages and classification of students at teachers colleges at 1 July 1982 are shown in the following table.

CourseAge of Students (in Years)TotalTotal
Under 171718192021–2425 and over
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined
* Includes metal work, music, home economics, commercial. Division M.
Division A—First year996352152489173219171028114477591
Second year112025256457291585213143892011 0881 289
Third year31324443396124286381662181 0951 313
Specialist36161191746198099
Graduate (1 year-course)2101231215
    Total10975547393796905921984631093315552 7523 307
Division B—
    First year1714317432331274976
    Second year373011131861394961110
    Third year27713374115156176137
    Total1714341641182957503125137186323
Division C total1151331934342177250427
Division E—
    First year12137157911329395
    Second year22154192201204135139
    Total12159169262292336228234
Other courses*9344432291241172173
    Total 198211125706001109501096943907641864558763 5884 464
Note—The following students on studentships and bursaries were enrolled at teachers colleges in 1982
 MFT
Division S (primary teacher studentship)34193227
Division U (secondary teacher studentship)361520881
Division BS (secondary bursar studentship)132336
Division T (secondary teacher studentship for study at technical institutes)156

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks are supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—Established in 1941 the School Library Service section of the National Library is responsible for providing library support services for children and young people through the school system. It operates from a total of 12 district centres, of which the largest is in Auckland, and a head office in Tawa, Wellington. A request and information service for both fiction and non-fiction of a recreational and cultural nature, as well as for specific topics, is offered to all schools and long-term loans of books are made to enhance the collections in primary school libraries.

An individual service is given to children enrolled with the primary section of the Correspondence School, while a significant number of books are allocated to its secondary school library. Over 2 million books are circulated annually through these services.

The objectives are to give children and young people access to the most rewarding books written for them in addition to material to support and enrich curriculum topics and thereby advance the goals of education and literacy in the widest sense.

Advisers assist teachers and aides with aspects of library organisation and use, either by working alongside them in individual schools, or by housing courses and seminars, or by analysing and reporting on needed developments.

Publications include School Library Review, a quarterly specialising in reviews of children's literature and articles on topics of interest to those working with children in school libraries, a variety of subject lists, and guides and manuals of a specialist nature.

Library Schools—Since 1980, library education has been given by 2 schools at Victoria University of Wellington and at Wellington Teachers College.

AUDIO PRODUCTION UNIT—With the transfer of the former broadcasts to schools function from Radio New Zealand to the Department of Education late in 1979, there has been a change in emphasis from live broadcasts to the development of a tape-bank service to schools.

Pre-school, current events, and correspondence school programmes are contracted to Radio New Zealand. The department had 2 studios commissioned in the Correspondence School complex during 1981. These produce a wide range of audio cassettes, as part of learning packages in support of many curriculum subjects. The studios will also produce tapes for the Correspondence School.

NATIONAL FILM LIBRARY—The National Film Library was founded in 1942. It is now the responsibility of the Department of Education. Films are loaned to financial members and distributed to the north half of the North Island by the Auckland branch, to the South Island by the Christchurch branch, and to the remainder of the country by the Wellington branch. In addition, the Wellington office also offers a service to the Chatham Islands and to Western Samoa, Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, and the Cook Islands.

Each year the library spends substantial amounts on films, and stocks have been further augmented by valuable gifts from many of the diplomatic missions, from other Government departments, from various organisations, and from commercial enterprises. The National Film Library now holds many of the diplomatic film libraries, which are supplemented by the embassies from time to time.

In its 16 mm film section the library has approximately 47 000 prints of some 10 000 titles, and each week over 12 000 films are issued to some 3000 educational institutions and over 2000 community organisations. In addition to films, the Wellington branch also offers a record and cassette loan service, an audio-tape reel/cassette copying service, and a sample sheet music service. These services at present are limited to educational institutions only.

The record and cassette library has in stock some 12 000 items, comprising 5619 titles. Issues during 1982 totalled over 4432. The tape duplicating section each year issues 55 759 copies of the 1841 masters at present held by the library and sells recorded cassettes to schools at cost.

MUSEUMS—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers college in each of the 4 main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

SCHOOL PUBLICATIONS—The School Journal, an illustrated magazine, is published in 4 separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published 5 and 6 times a year, while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear 4 times a year. The School Journal celebrated its 75th year of publication in 1982. Bulletins dealing mainly with literature and language, social studies, science, history, and geography (particularly of New Zealand) are published occasionally for primary and secondary schools. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all schools, both State and private.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language published 3 times a year, and Te Tautoko a supplementary reader, are issued free to secondary pupils studying the Maori language. He Purapura is a publication for primary pupils who are learning Maori.

The Education Gazette is published by the department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—On 1 April 1978 the Vocational Guidance Service was transferred to the Department of Labour and so became part of the new Employment and Vocational Guidance Service created to provide an educational, social, and occupational guidance and counselling service available to students and adults throughout the country (See Section 32—Employment).

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION—There are 6 separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee, which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory subcommittee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of a Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibility in respect of regulation of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements of candidates for admission as barristers and solicitors of the High Court.

The right to a university education is conferred by qualifying for University Entrance but Seventh Form work is now taken by the majority of entrants to universities.

Apart from the income from students' fees and the relatively small amounts now available to some of the universities from endowments, the block grants from the Government determine the income of the universities to meet their running costs for each 5 years. Under the block grant system, grants have been calculated and approved 5 years in advance to enable the universities to plan their activities ahead in the knowledge of what their income from the Government will be. They are block grants in the sense that they are not itemised and their detailed calculation is not disclosed to the universities. This has the effect of making the governing bodies—the university councils—not only responsible for arranging their budgets within their incomes, but also free to make their own decisions about the allocation of new expenditure among the many competing academic proposals which arise within the institutions. With these grants the university councils have an obligation to expand existing classes as necessary where student numbers increase and, subject to the scrutiny of the Curriculum Committee, to offer such courses as they see to be warranted by the demands put on them by the students and by the New Zealand community in which they exist.

The universities offer courses in the usual faculties of arts, science, and commerce, and some in law and music. Most specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine, dentistry, mineral technology, home science, physical education, and pharmacy; the University of Canterbury in forestry, engineering and fine arts, and Lincoln College specialises in topics related to agriculture; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering and medicine; and Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in architecture, public administration, and social work. Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as extramural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. Joint courses leading to the degree of bachelor of education are available at Waikato, Massey, Canterbury, and Otago universities in association with the local teachers colleges.

University Scholarships—The most prestigious awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for 3 to 6 years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full time, could complete the recognised course taken under the

scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $400 a year and is tenable with a tertiary study grant (see below). These scholarships, together with private endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include senior scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. Scholarships awarded at the end of the university course are listed in full in the university calendars. Most of the postgraduate scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships are tenable in New Zealand.

University Bursaries—A and B Bursaries of $200 or $100 a year are awarded to students who gain A or B passes in the university bursaries examination.

All these grants are subject to strict rules as to terms and suspension. A student who in any year does not pass a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his grant suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in a subsequent year of study he is credited with a prescribed number of passes.

Tertiary Study Grants—The grant and bursary provisions for students entering upon tertiary courses of education were substantially revised for 1980.

Fees Grants are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university. These bursaries provide payment for 75 percent of tuition fees.

Tertiary Study Grants are awarded to students who hold University Entrance and Higher School Certificate, or certain Sixth Form qualifications, and are tenable for any recognised course at a university in each year of the grant. Also, a student who is credited with 2 units in any year or 3 units over … period of years will qualify for a tertiary study grant.

A tertiary study grant may be held with a fees grant. It provides for a basic grant of $27 a week.

Accommodation Grant—Those awarded with a tertiary study grant and receiving payment under it, may be eligible for an Accommodation Grant if:

  1. They are 20 or over on 31 January in the year they are applying and not living at home.

  2. They will not be 20 until after 31 January in the year they are applying, their parents live outside the Accommodation Grant boundary around the nearest tertiary institution offering the course, and they will not be residing with parents during the academic year.

Hardship and Special Hardship Grants—Students awarded a tertiary study grant may also apply for either or both of these grants.

A Hardship Grant is available only to students who have abnormally high costs in certain specified areas (recognised as not generally borne by the majority of students), and who in addition, are able to demonstrate severe hardship.

There is provision for a student with dependants, or students in some exceptional circumstances, to receive a Special Hardship Grant of up to $43 a week. This will be paid in addition to the study grant and, if applicable, the Accommodation Grant.

The Tertiary Study Grant is also tenable for full-time courses at technical institutes and teachers colleges.

Further details of the amounts payable and other conditions for these grants and bursaries are available from university liaison officers and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

Students—In 1982 there were 45 311 students actually in attendance at the universities. In addition, there were 8838 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures. Comparable figures for the latest 5 years are given in the following table. Students now exceed 1.4 percent of the population.

YearInternal StudentsExternal StudentsTotal
MolesFemalesMalesFemales
197824 98216 8532 8433 64548 323
197925 08217 4562 8383 77449 150
198025 55418 3793 0924 27451 299
198125 67319 0633 2124 81652 764
198225 41119 9003 4365 40254 149

The following table gives the names of courses (including degree, diploma and certificate courses) taken by all internal students in 1981 and 1982.

Course19811982
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture and Horticulture2 0636192 6822 1017132 814
Architecture and Town Planning568168736542168710
Arts4 4217 85712 2784 1918 19912 390
Commerce and Business Administration4 7371 7236 4604 8201 8986 718
Dentistry2196728619279271
Divinity and Theology7620969226118
Education6922 1432 8355791 9862 565
Engineering2 271792 3502 3421162 458
Fine Arts123159282124163287
Forestry Science1131112412713140
Home Science12952962292294
Law and Jurisprudence2 0271 1713 1982 0351 3393 374
Medicine1 4277502 1771 3777392 116
Mineral Technology89291988106
Music125212337127203330
Optometry361652351954
Parks and Recreation603393584098
Pharmacy66661325759116
Philosophy582583583088
Physical Education143169312136165301
Regional and Resource Planning494493584199
Science4 8792 1417 0204 8922 3197 211
Social Sciences309463772384501885
Social Work6823730565223288
Surveying12641301142116
Technology and Food Science500110610522120642
Valuation81201018119100
Veterinary Science285194479242203445
Others1 0788511 9291 1299732 102
Total26 69019 64946 33926 58020 65647 236
Adjustment for students enrolled in more than 1 course1 0175861 6031 1697561 925
Total25 67319 06344 73625 41119 90045 311

Students on the books of the university institutions in 1982 are shown in the following table.

 AucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Universities
 MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMF
Internal students—
    Full-time5 1543 3541 1649422 9931 8902 6301 9963 3801 8311 1904022 9452 20519 45612 620
    Part-time1 8362 1284681 0145127901 3111 2399531 30072238037865 9557 280
    All internal students6 9905 4821 6321 9563 5052 6803 9413 2354 3333 1311 2624253 7482 99125 41119 900
External students—
    Taking courses at Massey University4710715373 2425 2557712252965242703 4805 689
    Taking courses at own university1471719105153116194147
    All external students6111415373 2425 2559414162101521951863 6745 836
    All students7 0515 5961 6471 9936 7477 9354 0353 3764 3953 2321 2674273 9433 17729 08525 736
    Overseas students included in total3621641046223911123813434810710425134601 529663

Internal students by years of university study in 1982 are shown in the following table.

Year of University StudyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMFTotalMFTotalMFTotal
First5 1083 6278 7357831 6902 4735 8915 31711 208328216544
Second4 2952 8697 1646571 4982 1554 9524 3679 31922691317
Third3 9262 7756 7015449431 4874 4703 7188 188227114341
Fourth2 7461 5484 2947608701 6303 5062 4185 92423577312
Fifth1 4567602 2168007171 5172 2561 4773 73315371224
Sixth or later1 9251 0412 9662 4111 5623 9734 3352 6036 93936094454
        Total19 45612 62032 0765 9557 28013 23525 41119 90045 3111 5296632 192

The ages of internal students at universities in 1982 are shown in the following table.

Age, in Years at 1 JulyFull-time StudentsPart-rime StudentsAll Internal Students
MenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotal
Under 1834242476634136170376560936
183 0032 4665 4691585266843 1612 9926 153
193 6672 5796 2462536499023 9203 2287 148
203 5942 3855 9792815147953 8752 8996 774
212 8071 4944 3014294759043 2361 9695 205
221 8178112 6285393869252 3561 1973 553
231 1254361 5615043108141 6297462 375
246552749293992916901 0545651 619
25–291 5297772 3061 4701 1332 6032 9991 9104 909
30–345434309738429451 7871 3851 3752 760
35–392272424694396931 1326669351 601
40 and over1473024496071 2221 8297541 5242 278
        Total19 45612 62032 0765 9557 28013 23525 41119 90045 311

Direct government assistance to internal university students in 1981 and 1982 are shown in the following table.

Form of AssistanceNo. of Awards
19811982
Tertiary fees grants (full time)17 07817 418
Tertiary fees grants (part time)1 1711 212
Tertiary study grants24 07124 479
Supplementary hardship grants7 9706 480
Special hardship grants15490
A Bursaries8 8578 856
B Bursaries5 4145 451
Teachers university studentships338325
Secondary teacher studentships899455
Teachers bursaries2837
Teachers college students fees2 9092 450
Rehabilitation and war bursaries84
State Service study awards354294
Post Office study awards121120
Railways study awards912
Armed Forces3845
Government employees on leave with pay to complete degrees (including teachers)157159
Medical bursaries1813
Mining bursaries3
Maori and Polynesian scholarships5145
Other3356
        Total number of awards69 68168 001
Note—This table does not include overseas students. Students may receive more than one award.  

The nature of residence of full-time students at universities in 1982 is shown in the following table.

Nature of ResidenceAucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Full-time StudentsOf These. Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMF
Living at home4 9704241 2292 5432 5012971 1087 9645 10813 07214152
In halls of residence581559960443757701 0982 7071 7614 468335181
Boarding55285357133503646831 5837762 359166108
Sharing flat or house
with others2 0701 0152 1708141 4485062 7226 3634 38210 745594203
Other or not known335231676932731398395931 4327429
        Total8 5082 1064 8834 6265 2111 5925 15019 45612 62032 0761 310573

Occupations of part-time university students in 1982 are shown in the following table.

OccupationMalesFemalesTotal
No occupation other than study7645701 334
University staff539378917
Teacher3806241 004
Teachers college student4191 6392 058
Government employee1 0007761 776
Local body employee365272637
Private employment1 9321 1783 110
Self-employed person252161413
Housewife or housekeeper291 3131 342
Full-time student at technical institute112435
Other occupations264345609
Total5 9557 28013 235

Total of assisted overseas students at New Zealand universities in 1982, by the nature of the assistance, are shown in the following table.

Nature of AssistanceMalesFemalesTotal
Assisted by the New Zealand Government—
    Bilateral aid and assistance226103329
    Island Territories Scholarships11
    Commonwealth Scholarships32941
    Exchange Students7512
    Others426
 270119389
Other assistance from—
    Fijian Government27431
    Other Governments21829
    Fulbright, Awards112
    Lee Foundation15520
    World Bank77
    Others522577
 12343166
    All assisted overseas students393162555

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities for the years ended with the graduation ceremony in 1981 and 1982 are shown in the following table.

CourseFirst DegreePost-graduate
198019811982198019811982
Agriculture211232247254340
Architecture988411132
Arts1 6941 8451 809416421460
Commerce and business administration/studies892945987566392
Dentistry525357433
Divinity and theology1574479
Education206227283262420
Engineering440411446506340
Fine arts2316151044
Forestry science302018162
Home science24302211
Horticulture443550442
Law and jurisprudence414398380101617
Management studies7279
Medicine361366424563
Mineral technology10910131
Music45556113717
Pharmacy222323233
Philosophy4188165163
Physical education7151311
Regional planning141010
Science1 0811 1611 207233234285
Social sciences1129087242529
Social work2833441
Surveying2726381
Technology4637392
Town planning20312412
Veterinary science6153563
Total5 9816 2846 5441 0821 1031 193

Staff—The staffing of university institutions in 1982 is shown in the following table.

PositionFull-time StaffParr-time Staff
MenWomenTotalMenWomenTotal
Pilled teaching posts—
    Professors373113843838
    Senior lecturers (including readers, associate professors, lecturers-in-charge)1 6061211 7273966402
    Lecturers489131620452065
    Junior or assistant lecturers14063203683098
    Instructors and demonstrators (if engaged in teaching)74631377123411 053
    Subtotal2 6823893 0711 2593971 656
Vacant teaching posts—
    Filled by temporary staff....23....28
    Not filled at time of return....101....38
    Subtotal....124....64
    Total established teaching posts....3 195....1 720
Non-teaching staff—
    Technicians, research assistants, and other technical staff not engaged in teaching8502891 1392694120
    Library staff7931439334131165
    Administrative staff, clerical and office staff3959341 3297228235
    Others (groundsmen, tradesmen, cleaners, etc.)52620773342220262
    Total non-teaching staff1 8501 7443 594109673782

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—In 1945 technical education was a variant form of secondary education. It was provided by separate technical high schools and technical departments in other secondary schools, and was avowedly vocational in purpose. During the past 15–20 years technical education has been transferred from the secondary to the tertiary sector of the educational system. Technical high schools as such no longer exist. Vocational education and training is now provided by 13 technical institutes and 6 community colleges supported by apprentice and other tertiary vocational courses provided in 2 senior technical divisions of secondary schools.

This transformation is the result of a number of policy decisions which have created a demand for types of education and training in the post-secondary phase of a person's career.

The passing of the Apprenticeship Act 1948 made it compulsory for apprentices to undertake technical classes; the establishment, in 1949, of the Trades Certification Board and of national trades examinations gave point and direction to apprentice studies; the passing of the Technicians Certification Authority Act 1958 and the introduction of New Zealand Certificates gave encouragement to technician studies; the approval by the Government, in 1969, of the establishment of technical institutes in centres where there is sufficient technical work to occupy 10 tutors full-time advanced the opening of minor institutes in provincial centres by several years; the approval by the Government, in 1972, of the establishment of community colleges allows traditional technical education to be provided in conjunction with other educational services meeting the specific circumstances of the local community, particularly in the non-metropolitan provincial centres. There has been increasing investment in technical institute buildings; more than $14.5 million was spent in the 1981–82 year alone. Technical institute bursaries, which were introduced first in 1965, have now been discontinued and from 1976 technical institute students on full-time year-long courses are eligible, along with university students and teacher trainees, to receive the tertiary assistance grant.

Technical education in New Zealand is still developing and expanding. It is being developed through national and regional technical institutes as well as smaller technical institutes or community colleges in provincial centres. The Central Institute of Technology, at Heretaunga near Wellington which gives a predominantly national block course service but also provides some special courses of a national character such as pharmacy, chiropody and occupational therapy, opened in 1960. Technical institutes have been opened in the 6 main centres of population, and, with the opening of Manukau Technical Institute in 1970, the first of a number of suburban institutes was opened to serve the Greater Auckland area. The second, Carrington, opened in 1976. Since 1971, institutes or community colleges have also been opened in the provincial centres, Invercargill, Nelson, New Plymouth, Gisborne, Tauranga, Napier, and Whangarei.

The full list of technical institutes is as follows; Auckland, Manukau, Carrington, Waikato, Taranaki Polytechnic, Palmerston North, Central Institute of Technology, Petone Technical Institute, Wellington Polytechnic, Nelson Polytechnic, Christchurch Polytechnic, Otago Polytechnic, and the New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute. The first community college was Hawke's Bay Community College established at Napier in 1975. Since then, Northland (at Whangarei), Waiariki (at Rotorua), Tairawhiti (at Gisborne), and Tauranga community colleges have been established. In 1978 Southland Polytechnic changed to a community college. There are also 2 senior technical divisions (S.T.Ds), at Wanganui and Timaru.

A standing committee on relationships in tertiary education has been set up to consider the problems of placement of courses and the rationalisation of tuition in the technician, semi-professional, and professional fields.

Technician Courses—The beginnings of technician training date from the early 1950s and were a result of the efforts of the engineering profession to specify a role for a highly-trained person whose qualifications were derived, not from study in a university school of engineering, but from theoretical studies taken in conjunction with industrial experience. The New Zealand Certificate of Engineering was introduced in 1954. This led, in 1960, to the establishment of the Technicians Certification Authority to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations for technicians, and to grant diplomas or certificates. In 1979 further recognition of the scope of the work of the TCA was given, its base broadened and it was renamed the Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards (AAVA). Both 5-year New Zealand certificates and 3-year technicians certificates are offered in the following subjects.

New Zealand Certificate: advertising, building, commerce, computer technology, data processing, draughting (architecture), draughting (survey/town and country planning), engineering, forestry, land surveying, quantity surveying, science, statistics, and town planning.

Technicians Certificates: garage management, automotive, civil, draughting, electrical, engineering, mechanical, radio, survey, telegraph and data, telephone, and hospital officers certificate.

The instruction for New Zealand Certificate courses is part-time, or by regular intermittent periods in full-time classes, or by correspondence from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in science and workshop subjects by short practical courses at an institute. In a few cases, study can be taken at full-time courses in a technical institute, but for the first 2 or 3 years only. All New Zealand certificates require students to be suitably employed during the last 2 stages of the course.

During the last 15 years there has been a spectacular increase in the range of technician courses and the number of students studying for New Zealand Certificates. New Zealand Certificates awarded annually have increased from 29 in 1960 to a total of 1408 in 1981.

Trade Courses—Apprenticeship training accounts for over 40 percent of the enrolment load of technical institutes. Examination prescriptions for a full range of trade courses are prescribed by the New Zealand Trades Certification Board (TCB), which conducts 2 qualifying and trade certificate examinations for apprenticeship, and usually an advanced trade certificate examination to be taken at about the end of the apprenticeship. Up to 31 March 1982, this board has issued 59 290 New Zealand trade certificates and 16 688 Advanced Trade Certificates.

Apprentices in almost all trades are obliged to spend at least 3 years in vocational part-time studies. However, the long established pattern where apprentices attend evening theory classes and short block or day release courses for practical training, is undergoing a radical change. An incentives scheme, approved by Government in 1974, subsidises the wages of apprentices on block training and encourages the adoption of lengthened block courses, particularly in the first year of training. The board also conducts examinations in typing and shorthand.

Other Courses—In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include courses in commerce, work study, electronic data processing, journalism, and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations such as the New Zealand Society of Accountants, the Chartered Institute of Secretaries, and the New Zealand Institute of Valuers.

Health Services Education—Health-related education accounts for nearly 34 percent of the full-time technical education load and has been a major growth area over the last 5 years. With the transfer of nurse training to the education vote there are now some 1648 students enrolled each year in nursing programmes alone. There are currently some 10 diploma and certificate programmes in the health-related areas, making up a total of 2478 health science students.

Statistics of students taking full-year courses in technical education at 1 July in 1981 and 1982 are shown in the following table. Courses are classified according to the International Standard Classification of Education.

Full-time Courses: As at 1 July19811982
MalesFemalesTotal StudentsMalesFemalesTotal Students
Level 3
    Education, science and teacher training1212211920
    Fine and applied arts186246713
    Commercial and business administration91 7131 722121 8481 860
    Mass communication and documentation8253372532
    Service trades9514123672179251
Medical science and health related37373131
    Trade, craft, and industrial programmes3136838124366309
    Transport and communications152171414
        Total4592 0132 4723552 1752 530
Level 5
    Education, science and teacher training1616
    Fine and applied arts5912718668120188
    Commercial and business administration421468889443532975
    Mass communication and documentation305585295685
    Natural science1951702476100
    Mathematics and computer science522274801393
    Medical science and health-related2751 9762 2512792 1992 478
    Engineering4371945642228450
    Architecture and town planning472168552277
    Trade, craft, and industrial programmes178148326185159344
    Agriculture, forestry and fishing369
    Humanities, religion, and theology58131010
        Total1 5422 9014 4431 5853 2154 800
        Grand total2 0014 9146 9151 9405 3907 330

Students taking part-time courses as at 1 July 1982 are shown by the type and level of course in the following table.

Part-time Courses: As at 1 July 1981MalesFemalesTotal
Level 27591 9292 688
Level 3
    Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards1 5731061 679
    Trade Cert. Course16 5731 52018 093
    Other9 27117 00526 276
Level 5
    Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards8 3172 78711 104
    Trade Cert. Course2 992463 038
    Other9 7274 53214 259
Level 9
    Non-vocational14 75839 56554 323
    Total63 97067 490131 460

New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute—The Department of Education established the Technical Correspondence School (now the Technical Correspondence Institute) in 1946, and from small beginnings, with a staff of a half dozen or so, this institute now employs over 500 full-time staff. With over 30 000 students on the roll, the Technical Correspondence Institute is easily the biggest single educational institution in the country. It teaches one-third of all vocational students enrolled at technical institutes in New Zealand. The institute writes, illustrates, and prints the material for all the courses offered by it, as well as writing and publishing authoritative textbooks on technical subjects with accent on New Zealand law, practice, and conditions. The 8 text books at present in print are widely used not only by Technical Correspondence Institute students but also by all other technical teaching institutions, tradesmen and technicians, and the general public.

The Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching standards of other technical institutes, and also provides instruction in many subjects not taught elsewhere. Of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board, some 40 percent are directed to enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute.

The institute also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards examinations in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations. Voluntary students studying for advanced trade, technician or professional qualifications comprise about two-thirds of the roll. The Technical Correspondence Institute offers over 900 subjects, from ladies' hairdressing, plumbing, and agriculture to airline pilots' licence and professional accountancy. To enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute students must be engaged in the vocation relevant to their course of study, hence their correspondence studies are supported by practical experience. In some cases, laboratory work or practical instruction is required as part of the course. In such cases students attend short block courses at the Central Institute of Technology or other institutes.

EDUCATIONAL LEVELS OF ADULT POPULATION—The 1981 Census of Population included a question on the highest level of education attended and two further questions on the highest qualification gained at school and on qualifications gained since leaving school.

The first of the following tables shows the educational levels of the usually resident population aged 15 years and over by:

  1. attendance (current and past) at school;

  2. past attendance (prior to 1981) at other places of education.

The second table shows, by age group, the highest school qualification gained. All figures in these tables have been subject to a process of random rounding. All cell values including row and column totals have been rounded, using simple random rounding to base three. Individual figures, therefore, will not necessarily sum to give the stated totals.

Highest Level AttendedMalesFemalesTotal

* Includes those still at school.

† Usually resident population aged 15 years and over.

School Attendance*—
No primary/secondary education10 96211 46022 419
Primary up to Form 2163 131180 006343 137
3rd, 4th, or 5th Form610 581632 7001 243 281
6th form192 969222 228415 197
7th form113 40679 872193 275
Not specified39 29440 10179 395
Total†1 130 3401 166 3642 296 704
Post tertiary attendance
No past attendance at any place of tertiary education, or still attending primary or secondary school638 620701 4841 339 701
University84 79534 704119 499
Teachers college7 15534 47341 625
Polytechnic, technical institute, or community college178 68371 892250 575
University and teachers college15 70223 49639 198
University and polytechnic, technical institute, or community college13 1524 57817 733
Other tertiary29 442107 997137 436
Not specified163 188187 743350 931
Total1 130 3401 156 3642 296 704
School QualificationAge Group (Years)
15–1920–2425–4445–5960 and OverTotal

* University Scholarship or ‘A’ or ‘B’ Bursary.

† Higher School Certificate or Higher Leaving Certificate.

‡ Endorsed School Certificate or Sixth Form Certificate in 4 or more subjects.

§ In 1, 2 or 3 subjects.

‖ School Certificate or 3 or more subject passes in School Certificate.

No school qualification124 59097 626437 028315 060333 8851 308 189
University Scholarship*11 57719 62924 2823 7142 02861 230
Higher School Certificate†7 48514 92245 21317 01910 54595 187
University Entrance35 18437 35377 49636 63333 810220 476
Endorsed School Certificate‡12 42012 27634 5756 3902 35268 013
Sixth Form Certificate§9 40211 74211 0522 1871 80936 195
School Certificate‖50 74837 485122 46029 8178 211248 721
Pass in 1 or 2 School Certificate subjects33 33930 14743 9385 2921 485114 201
Other qualifications2521772 9463 0061 6958 076
Not specified21 6308 28337 42528 75540 326136 422
Total306 633269 640836 415447 879436 1372 296 704

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it with grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the council has been supported principally by State funds, the remainder coming from contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. It has remained, however, under independent control as provided for in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945 (updated in 1972).

In its research programme, the council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and its main publications (more than 60 research reports and numerous shorter studies in education) include critical surveys of major policy issues in New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. These have brought about or helped reshape major developments in such areas as secondary, university, and adult education, intermediate schools, consolidation of rural schools, and care of children with special needs. The council also publishes two periodical publications; the New Zealand Journal for Educational Studies, and a special research information package called Set for teachers.

Since the 1930s, the council has served as the main source of supply for overseas and locally standardised educational and psychological tests used by universities, Government agencies, hospitals, business firms, and schools. In 1965 the council established a special Test Development Division to produce achievement tests designed specifically to suit the curricula of New Zealand schools. Known as the Progressive Achievement Tests, they are now used extensively in schools throughout this country, and also in Australia.

The council employs its own permanent research staff as well as temporary research fellows or project assistants, and it also assists honorary research workers in other institutions such as universities, teachers colleges, and schools. Its current research programme includes major projects related to educational planning, families, women and parents, the supply of qualified people in the community, teaching practices, Maori education, and adult education, early childhood education, and services for children with special needs. The council also acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters and maintains 8 local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, Hamilton, Manukau, and Suva (Fiji).

National Council of Adult Education—The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963. One of the council's most important functions is to take an overall cognizance of the development of adult education in New Zealand. In practice the council seeks to encourage complementary activities, and provision in a wide and growing range of institutions, agencies, and organisations which provide learning opportunities to the community in the post-compulsory phase of learning.

The council advises the Director-General of Education and various organisations on adult education, it co-ordinates and conducts pilot projects and experiments, maintains a national library and documentation centre on adult education and publishes magazines and occasional papers as well as a periodical entitled Continuing Education in New Zealand.

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION—Although full responsibility and control of their continuing education activities rest with the universities, they use various systems to ascertain the views of (and in some cases to seek advice from) various community interests.

A typical centre for continuing education in a university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers in a range of academic disciplines. In addition to teaching, the lecturers may plan and develop sections of the department's programme or have special responsibility for a geographical area and its programme. All 6 universities now carry out extension work, but they show marked differences in their approaches and systems of organisation. A large number of university academic staff are co-opted in order to supplement the activity of the full-time staff (totalling about 30). The work is carried out by various methods—lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses. While most universities continue to provide for the general public with substantial extension programmes in the liberal studies area, there has been a significant increase in programmes designed for specialised groups, largely occupational. Some of these are national in scope.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS—Most organised adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. Since the revision of the School Certificate regulations to allow single subject passes, there has been some increase in adult classes leading to the School Certificate examination, but there is a very wide range of other examinable and non-examinable courses. A provision to the Education Act in 1975 allowed adults to return full-time or part-time to secondary schools, in day classes. There followed for the next few years a rapid increase in the number of adult admissions to day classes. Although the momentum has not been maintained, in 1982 there were 764 full-time, and 2609 part-time adult students. This is in addition to the evening class programmes.

CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION—The main agencies in the field of education by correspondence are the Correspondence School (with over 10 000 adult students enrolled), the extramural studies of Massey University (8900), and the Technical Correspondence Institute (approximately 30 000 enrolments in 1982).

Voluntary Agencies—Many voluntary organisations make some provision for continuing education. For most of them, such as the Play Centres Federation, continuing education is incidental to other purposes. The following 3 organisations, however, have continuing education as their primary purpose.

New Zealand Workers Educational Association—The WEA is an independent voluntary organisation which provides further educational opportunities for adults. District councils exist in Auckland, West Auckland, Waikato, New Plymouth, Kapiti Coast, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and branches exist in East Auckland, Onehunga, Upper Hutt, Lower Hutt, and South-East Christchurch. District councils and branches run varied programmes, including seminars, courses, summer schools, public forums, and literacy programmes. Special courses are run for the elderly, the unemployed, and trade unions. The WEA Book Discussion Scheme has 108 groups throughout the country. The coordinating body is the New Zealand Workers Educational Association, located in Wellington. It publishes the WEA Review.

Workers Educational Association Trade Union Postal Education Service—This is an independent correspondence service administered by the trade unions and representatives from the Federation of Labour, the Workers Educational Association, and the National Council of Adult Education. It provides non-formal correspondence programmes for members of affiliated trade unions and their families.

Countrywomen's Co-ordinating Committee—This national liaison committee of the Countrywomen's Institute and the Women's Division of Federated Farmers has regional committees at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and over 50 district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

There are a number of other locally-based continuing education programmes supported by the Government. The Rural Education Activities Programme has led to community education organisers being appointed in a number of rural centres.

Community Centres—Community centres which opened experimentally some 40 years ago in Feilding, Christchurch, and Westport were the forerunners of the newly established school-based community learning centres. Generally the centres receive professional and ancillary staffing and an annual grant. In effect, 11 community learning centres have been established.

Several other schools which have developed large community programmes have been given lesser levels of support in the meantime.

Still another group of schools have developed successful programmes within their own resources, or with additional support from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport.

All these schools have developed community education programmes which aim at increasing the community involvement in continuing education by making a wider use of schools for expanded extension programmes and, by using the resources of the community, to enrich the programmes of pupils still at school.

The Community Action Programme (CAP) in the Wairarapa region has now merged with the Wairarapa REAP together they provide a range of continuing education programmes to meet a wide variety of learning needs in the area. The Community Education Service (CES) in the Nelson region, has recently merged with the Nelson Polytechnic and together they provide for the continuing learning needs of people in the Nelson area.

Special Employment Scheme—A scheme to assist young unemployed people was introduced in 1978. Special advisory committees co-operating with the Department of Labour's district offices assess local needs and employment opportunities in their area and courses ranging from a few days to 6 weeks are provided in the skills and pre-employment fields.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION—The Department of Education provides technical advice to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on education activities under New Zealand's Overseas Aid Programme. This includes advisory visits to Pacific Island schools preparing students for New Zealand examinations. In 1981, 139 such schools presented 9963 candidates for School Certificate and 90 schools presented 4077 candidates for University Entrance. The department assists with the appointment of some 40 New Zealand teachers to Pacific Island schools each year.

In conjunction with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Department of Labour and the University Grants Committee, the Department of Education provides advice to Government on policy for the admission of private foreign students to New Zealand educational institutions. It is also responsible for the placement in schools of students sponsored by their home governments. Since 1980, the department has administered the collection of the fee which foreign students are required to pay for their education in New Zealand universities and technical institutes.

The Department of Education administers a range of bilateral educational and cultural exchange activities. Each year, some 20 teacher exchanges are arranged between New Zealand and both the United Kingdom and Australia. The New Zealand - Japan Exchange Programme provides financial and administrative support for a wide range of activities for school teachers, artists and scholars and the Agreement for Industrial Technological and Scientific Co-operation (SINTESD) between New Zealand and Singapore enables activities with a commercial orientation in technical education and training. Other activities concern overseas in-service training for teachers of French and German, the French Language Assistants Scheme, and courses for teachers of English in China.

New Zealand is a member of various intergovernmental organisations concerned with Education. It thus participates in the education activities of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), the Commonwealth, the South-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO), and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). New Zealand participates in the work of the Education Committee of OECD and is a member of the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) and the Programme on Educational Building. The New Zealand Minister of Education also participates in the meetings of the Australian Education Council.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development—Membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1973 enabled New Zealand to participate in the activities of its Education Committee. In 1975 New Zealand also became a member of OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) and the programme on educational building.

Census of Services—The State has direct control, as the main supplier of funds, over 90 percent of all primary schools, 72 percent of all secondary schools, and more than 90 percent of tertiary educational establishments in New Zealand. In addition, private establishments, particularly the Catholic education system and other approved independent schools and pre-school facilities.

The following table gives a general summary of education statistics which were covered in the 1980–81 Census of Services. For further details, and definitions used in the Census of Services, refer to Section 21B in this Yearbook.

ServiceEnterprise GroupsEnterprisesOperating UnitsPersons EmployedSalaries and Wages
EstablishmentsAncillary
Number$(000)
Pre-school education*1692761 478542 81516,116
Primary education2692692 513131 512373,920
Secondary education26526536120 659319,563
Tertiary education343444115 891197,433
Other education services†46152460822 62719,929
Ancillary units servicing education77847714
Total education services1 1851 3325 0046673 551927,675
ServicePurchases and Operating ExpensesTotal Sales and Other IncomeValue AddedNet Capital Additions

* Includes kindergartens, playcentres, etc.

† Includes special schools for the handicapped, private correspondence schools, and schools in art, business, driving, language, music, dancing, etc.

$(000)
Pre-school education*21,35821,81114,4381,061
Primary education427,582431,263382,06343,435
Secondary education368,532372,637328,35942,367
Tertiary education258,004259,904195,63121,080
Other education services30,42531,96020,6051,424
Ancillary units servicing education1,4301,17369610
Total education services1,107,3311,118,748941,792109,377

Further Information—For statistics on Maori school leavers' qualifications and years of attendance at secondary schools, and the Maori Education Foundation, refer to Section 3B of this Yearbook. A small selection of the many books on education is included in the Bibliography near the back of this Yearbook.

The following official publications deal with statistics and administration rather than with pedagogy.

Report of the Department of Education Yearbook Parl. paper E.1).

Education Statistics of New Zealand—Department of Education.

Reports of the University Grants Committee and University Institutions (Parl. paper E.3).

Report of the Maori Education Foundation (Parl. paper E.24).

Report of the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation (Parl. paper E.21).

UN Statistical Yearbook—United Nations.

7 B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH: Agricultural Production—Adverse terms of trade for meat and wool, and rising internal costs emphasise the importance of technological advances which enable the farming sector to increase outputs.

New Zealand's research in agriculture is undertaken by the DSIR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Regular meetings are conducted between the two departments to ensure co-ordination of programmes and resources. Research in pastoral agriculture continued with the aim of increasing pasture production by breeding new pasture species, improving efficiency of fertiliser use, controlling pests and other products, and designing more productive pasture plant communities for environments such as Northland, Southland, moist North Island hill country and dryland.

A major breakthrough was made when it was discovered that the animal disease ‘ryegrass staggers’ is associated with an endophyte fungus in the ryegrass.

Plant breeding remains a dominating force in the development of New Zealand's land-based primary industries. It has the capability of creating new products, improving the quality of existing ones, and reducing costs associated with production.

Horticulture is a major area of research and development expansion, particularly in the fields of fruit crop propagation and tropical fruit breeding. Research is also being done on suitability of soils, control of pests and diseases, and improvement and retention of product quality by breeding and cultural techniques.

Processing of Primary Products—The processing and storage of primary products continues to be a high priority area of work particularly in horticultural and fish processing fields, and in ensuring adequate protection of quality during transport to market. Research is aimed at maintaining the product in the form it was picked or caught, and in modifying the produce through processing to improve its acceptability to the consumer, or to recover high value components as the final product.

The DSIR is currently investigating the production in New Zealand of orange roughy oil, as a substitute for sperm whale and jojoba plant oils, which are used in liquid wax. This work has included the production of derivatives of the oil for use in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and lubricant industries.

In Auckland DSIR scientists are also carrying out a programme of product and process development particularly for subtropical and berry fruits. Products such as fruit nectars, fruit “leathers”, and Kiwifruit wine are being developed, in close association with New Zealand industry.

Since 1981 the DSIR has had responsibility for oenological (wine-making) research, but the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is continuing viticultural work.

Energy—Substantial costs of imported energy have encouraged the search for economic sources of energy within New Zealand, and the development of techniques to make better use of the known resources. The department is investigating methods for prospecting new energy sources, developing knowledge for using natural gas, investigating the chemical reactions occurring in the conversion of methanol to gasoline, and studying the suitability of high methanol blends (M85) as a direct automotive fuel.

Work includes explorations for new coalfields, geothermal areas, and petroleum deposits. An investigation into the influence of water in the draw-off of gas from gas fields is of world-wide interest. Work on motor fuels continues, and the production of gas cylinders, some alternative fuels, and methanol to gasoline catalysts. Studies for new methods for solar cells show promise for New Zealand's future.

Geological assistance continues to be provided to the Ministry of Works and Development, and to the Ministry of Energy on hydro-electric power schemes.

Manufacturing—Increasing pressure from overseas markets, the gradual freeing of import restrictions, and growing consumer awareness within New Zealand are forcing manufacturers to place much more emphasis on the quality of their goods and services than in the past. Support by the DSIR for manufacturing industries has increased with particular emphasis on the electronics industry, including microprocessor and silicon chip developments.

Industrial divisions within the DSIR, both independently and in conjunction with the New Zealand Organisation for Quality Assurance, have been helping a wide range of industries to improve product quality at all stages of manufacture. Of particular importance has been the identification and correction of problem areas as early as possible in the manufacturing chain. This assistance has been in the form of assessment of companies’ ability to produce to contracted quality levels, direct advice on specific quality problems, and the presentation of training sessions on quality control techniques and quality assurance methodology throughout New Zealand. Manufacturing categories in which direct assistance has been given include light and heavy engineering, electronics, meat, dairy, food processing, and pharmaceuticals.

Members of the Heavy Engineering Research Association have asked Auckland Industrial Development Division staff to assist them by carrying out quality audits of their companies. These audits are aimed at improving the quality control procedures of New Zealand contractors to bring them into line with overseas quality assurance standards.

Natural Environment—Development of New Zealand's natural resources has resulted in an increased demand for information and practical advice, which is provided by the DSIR.

The department also contributes to studies on the prevention of environmental damage.

The Biological Resources Centre, established in 1981 in the DSIR, supplies information used for environmental assessments.

Oceanography work supports the fishing industry, and obtains scientific results relating to offshore mineral deposits such as the Chatham Rise phosphorite and offshore.

A National Civil Defence Planning Committee on Volcanic Hazards has been established. The aim of the committee is to review volcanic risk throughout New Zealand in the light of current knowledge, to present this in such a manner that Civil Defence contingency plans can be drawn up to be put into action in the event of eruption, and to recommend effective means of monitoring volcanic processes. Several of the department's geologists together with their colleagues in universities have been involved in producing these reports.

The DSIR has devoted most of its physical volcanology research to the volcanoes of Tongariro National Park, because they are obviously intermittently active, and because large numbers of people now use their slopes as a winter playground. Since the last war the population and productivity of the rest of the central volcanic region has expanded enormously and some form of physical monitoring of potential eruptive centres is now desirable.

Scientific Services—The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research carries out work in a wide range of fields in addition to those within the preceding categories. For example, DSIR provides the scientific services required by many Government departments in administering their areas of responsibility (areas such as human health, transport, administration of justice, forestry, social science and communications). Centralised laboratory services are supplied to commissions of inquiry, to coroners, and to the police in their investigations of crime.

The DSIR publishes seven research journals, making available internationally the results from both Government department and university research. The department has also begun a series of popular publications, called Alpha, aimed at the better utilisation of research results within the community.

The DSIR maintains the primary measurement standards for the country, and the standardisation and calibration services based on these are being heavily utilised as the New Zealand manufacturing industry seeks to increase its product range and quality.

In collaboration with many private and Government organisations, advice and specialist technical assistance is given to the building, fishing, communications and mineral industries.

The department's activities and organisation are described in its annual report to Parliament, available from the Government Printer.

Grants paid in 1981–82 to research and allied institutions by DSIR are shown in the following table.

InstitutionAmount
$(000
Universities (grants, contracts and joint funding of instruments)361
Research associations—
    Building Research Association689
    Coal Research Association297
    Concrete Research Association316
    Dairy Research Institute1,355
    Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association267
    Heavy Engineering Research Association172
    Leather and Shoe Research Association189
    Logging Industry Research Association135
    Meat Industry Research Institute1,091
    Pottery and Ceramics Research Association126
    Research Institute Textile Services55
    Wool Research Organisation893
New buildings500
Overseas institutions—
    Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux147
    International Atomic Energy Agency252
    Others77
New Zealand institutions—
    Carter Observatory213
    Cawthron Institute477
    Royal Society of New Zealand374
    Testing Laboratory Registration Council263
    Other57
    Total8,306

Staff numbers and expenditure by DSIR for 1981–82 in scientific activity classifications are given in the following table.

ActivityStaff at 31 March 1982Expended 1981–82
DepartmentalGrantsTotal
  $(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture—Production80622,70969323,402
Agriculture—Processing972,4693,7856,254
Energy2216,8387757,613
Manufacturing2958,9426419,583
Natural environment38612,79369713,490
Other activities38611,8861,71513,601
  Subtotal2 19165,6378,30673,943
Public building construction..8,249..8,249
                Total2 19173,8868,30682,192

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES: Agricultural Research Division—Almost all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is conducted by the Agricultural Research Division.

The division has 271 scientists, 567 science technicians, 271 other support staff and 41 apprentices and trainees. The activities of the division are administered from its head office in Wellington by the director and four assistant directors through the 5 regional directors and the director of Wallaceville Animal Research Centre. Work is carried out at 7 main centres and stations, 34 smaller stations and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country.

The Agricultural Research Division's role is to provide the technical information needed for policy decisions, to help increase the quality and quantity of primary products, and improve the economic efficiency of their production.

The following represent the main areas of research.

Animal—sheep, cattle, deer, goats, rabbits, and opossums (including genetics, reproduction, nutrition, management, and diseases).

Soil and plant nutrition—soil and plant chemistry, fertiliser and trace-element technology, soil and plant tissue testing techniques, fertiliser requirements, modelling, and growth substrates.

Pasture and crop—plant species and cultivar evaluation, management, microbiology, and weed and pest control.

Horticulture and viticulture—cultivar evaluation, cultural practices, management, pollination, water requirements, harvesting methods, and quality evaluation (for most established crops and for a range of new ones, including floricultural and nursery crops).

Irrigation—pasture and crop water-use efficiency and response to irrigation.

Energy—evaluating crops for ethanol production.

The division is also involved in developing new products, production systems, and agricultural equipment; in evolving methods of measuring and monitoring product constituents and environmental contaminants, acceptable within New Zealand and internationally; and in providing producers with essential services such as comprehensive soil and plant analyses and the associated fertiliser advice.

Programmes are designed to accommodate local, regional, and national development objectives, as well as to integrate all aspects of crop production (including harvesting, processing, and marketing).

Pasture Research—Pasture research is aimed at achieving the maximum pasture response from the minimum inputs of energy, labour, fertiliser, and capital. Maximum use is made of this production by matching animal requirements as closely as possible to pasture growth. (The calving of dairy cows, for instance, is timed to ensure that maximum milk production coincides with maximum pasture growth, thus minimising the need for expensive conserved fodder, such as hay or silage.)

The use of nitrogen-fixing legumes (such as white clover) obviates the need for nitrogen fertilisers on pasture. Some urea fertiliser is used to stimulate pasture growth at the beginning of the season or to speed recovery from drought. Legumes get their nitrogen-fixing ability from rhizobia (bacteria which infect the roots of legumes). Research identifies the most efficient rhizobia strain for each legume species and ensures that each legume is infected with the right strain. There have been problems establishing new strains in the soil environment. Mychorrizal fungi in the soil can also infect plant roots, stimulating clover and ryegrass growth, and resulting in more efficient use of phosphate fertiliser. Methods of establishing efficient strains in pastures are being studied.

New legume cultivars, adapted to certain conditions may increase production without large inputs of fertiliser (for example, “Grasslands Maku” lotus will outproduce white clover on acid, low fertility soils). Scientists from the divisions are involved in evaluating new cultivars and species, and in developing management techniques for them.

New Zealand perennial-pasture species and lucerne produce large quantities of protein, surplus to the requirements of grazing ruminants. Techniques for utilising this have been developed at Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre. Some protein and the associated pigments are extracted and dried into a concentrate that has a high biological value (particularly for egg and chicken production), and fetches a good price in the United States and Japan. The partially deproteinised forage residue is a suitable diet for growing and finishing cattle; or it can be converted into ethanol, for use as an energy source.

Insect pests cause large pasture and crop losses each year. Integrated pests-management systems offer the most effective and economical control—they are being developed for the major pests. The procedures include relating pest numbers and stages of development to plant damage; monitoring changes in pest populations; identifying, selecting, and propagating plant species which are either pest tolerant or resistant (for example, lotus is resistant to grass grub); screening insecticides and identifying the most cost-effective dose levels; Identifying and evaluating the significance of natural pathogens; and establishing the extent to which varying farm management procedures can contribute to control.

Fertiliser is increasingly expensive. Recent concern over the falling quality of superphosphate fertilisers has resulted in the adoption of citric-acid-soluble phosphate as a measure of agronomic effectiveness. Research emphasis is on investigating more efficient ways of applying fertilisers.

A comprehensive, chemical soil-testing service is provided by the division for farmers. A fertiliser-recommendations bulletin, for use by farm advisers, has been published. It includes many years of research information and produces models of nutrient cycling in New Zealand in order to predict nutrient requirements and thus to formulate its recommendations. Soil, crop, and stock types; rainfall; stocking density, the degree of pasture utilisation, and its carrying capacity are all taken into account, as well as the results of the soil tests.

Several of the division's scientists are researching into chemical, cultural, and management systems of controlling weeds—gorse, thistles, ragwort, and hieracium (hawkweed), as well as weeds affecting crops.

Animal Production—Animal production can be improved by genetic selection. Selection research is being carried out at Ruakura, Templeton, Invermay, and Woodlands. A new animal-breeding research station has been established at Rotomahana. It aims to assess the genetic resources of sheep, and to develop breeding strategies by which they can best be exploited to improve the national production.

Improvement of stock can be achieved by selecting the best animals within a breed, or by crossing breeds (e.g. the high-fertility Booroola Merino can be crossed with other breeds to increase their lambing percentage). The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is preparing to import genetic material from overseas for use in cross-breeding programmes to improve lambing percentages and carcass composition (for lean-meat production). The favoured strategy is to import fertilised ova to minimise the chances of introducing new diseases. The previous gene-import programme had to be abandoned in 1976, when one of the sheep was suspected of having scrapie disease while still in quarantine. All the imported sheep and their offspring were destroyed.

The overfat-lamb problem can be overcome by selecting rams whose progeny are fast growing but lean. The division has a working party which considers how best to respond to chronic lamb-marketing problems (due partly to the changing consumer preference, towards leaner meat).

“Special interest” field days are organised on a variety of topics. They are a popular and effective way to communicate research results.

Animal Diseases—In the North Island, facial eczema continues to be a problem. Sheep vary in their resistance to it, and can thus be genetically selected for this factor. An enzyme has been identified as being produced by livers that have been damaged by facial-eczema toxin. Concentrations of the enzyme can be related to liver damage, and thus used as the basis for selecting the tolerant sheep.

Animal diseases still cause large losses and are under continuous study. Pneumonia and pleurisy, for example, cause death and carcass down grading or rejection (perhaps even slower growth rates). A wide variety of micro-organisms have been isolated from field cases, but the exact causes of the diseases are unknown. Researchers at Wallaceville have now managed to reproduce the diseases in experimental animals. This has resulted in the development of vaccines and preliminary field tests are encouraging.

Recently, Ruakura scientists have isolated and identified the apparent cause of ryegrass staggers among farm livestock—the toxin is caused by an endophytic fungus which infects ryegrass. Fungus and toxin-free ryegrass have been obtained, but it is highly susceptible to attack by the Argentine stem weevil.

Irrigation—Winchmore Irrigation Research Station is investigating the large areas of potentially irrigable land in the South Island, some of which are already under irrigation. Effective use of the water is needed to achieve the most economic return on the investment. Programmed systems of cropping involve combinations of crops which have different peak-water requirements. Various crops are studied, as well as the efficiency of different methods of applying the water and the responses of different soil types to irrigation.

Locally grown crops and potential crops are studied at most of the division's stations. Cultivars are compared, and their fertiliser requirements, yields, and management systems are examined.

Horticulture—Horticulture is increasingly important in primary production. Northland has a particularly large potential horticultural production because of its climate and soils. The division is establishing a horticultural research and development station at Kerikeri which will focus on the development, culture, management, harvesting, processing, and marketing of existing and new crops in Northland.

The division's main horticultural research centre is established in Levin. The following aspects of horticultural production are at present being investigated: husbandry and management; pest, disease, and weed control; soil and plant analyses; harvesting; and post-harvest physiology. Regional horticultural research stations at Pukekohe and Hastings also collaborate in this research.

Container-grown plants are increasing in popularity, necessitating research into plant-nutrient requirements and into soilless media (e.g. peat and sand), and timber wastes (e.g. sawdust and bark). Attempts are under way to gain export-market approval for processed bark as a soilless medium for potplants. A rapid “soil” test kit has been developed to enable growers to measure the nutrients in these soilless substrates, and to adjust the concentrations to get maximum plant growth.

Other Areas of Research—As well as the more traditional forms of farming, the division studies deer, opossum, and goat farming; rabbit farming and control; animal behaviour; beekeeping; environmental contamination; aquatic-weed control; energy farming; forest farming; greenhouse design and construction; fencing; and the development of agricultural and horticultural equipment. A major international conference on deer biology and management has been held at the Invermay Agricultural Research Centre.

OTHER GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are responsible for about 70 percent of the total Government science expenditure.

The Water and Soil Division of the Ministry of Works and Development conducts considerable research on water and soil at the 3 Water and Soil Science Centres at Hamilton, Aokautere (near Palmerston North), and Christchurch.

The centre at Hamilton is chiefly concerned with water quality studies, Aokautere is the main centre for soil conservation research and is the site of the National Plant Materials Centre, and the Christchurch centre focuses on water quality research.

An increasing number of other departments do, however, undertake or sponsor research. The departments concerned and the expenditure involved are listed later in this section and more details of their research activities are contained in the appropriate departmental sections.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OUTSIDE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The bulk of university funding comes direct from the Department of Education's Vote but university research is funded through the University Grants Committee. A number of Government departments are, however, substantially increasing their contact with the universities by granting research contracts for specific programmes of research.

There are 12 industry research associations which are funded jointly by Government and the industry they serve. The present associations are the Building Research Association, the New Zealand Coal Research Association, the New Zealand Dairy Research Institute, the New Zealand Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, Heavy Engineering Research Association, the Research Institute Textile Services (formerly Launderers, Drycleaners and Dyers) the New Zealand Leather and Shoe Research Association, the Logging Industry Research Association, the Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand, the New Zealand Concrete Research Association, the New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association, and the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand. The total cost of the Government funding through the Vote—Scientific and Industrial Research for 1981–82 was $5,585,000.

The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand is the Cawthron Institute at Nelson which was established in 1920 with a bequest of $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest had declined the institute has received increasing income from other bequests, chemical services earnings, and from a Government grant which comprises about 43 percent of the institute's income.

The organisation of medical research is described in Section 5a, Health and Medical Services, under the headings Medical Research Council and National Health Institute.

THE PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—Decisions on national scientific policies are made by the Minister of Science and Technology and the Cabinet, subject to the guidance and control of Parliament during the annual consideration of the Estimates.

Scientific research in New Zealand is carried out by the research divisions of Government departments, universities, joint Government/industry-funded research associations and private organisations, which receive Government assistance. Accurate statistics on proportionate expenditure on research are not yet available but means of obtaining the necessary information are being studied, as the data are needed both for internal use and for OECD comparative purposes. It is certain, however, that the majority of research in New Zealand is funded by Government departments, of which 70.4 percent is expended by DSIR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

The National Research Advisory Council—Advising the Government on a co-ordinated national policy for scientific research, which takes into consideration the work of all these agencies, is the role of the National Research Advisory Council (NRAC), which was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science and Technology on;

  1. the promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand;

  2. the planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including;

    1. the determination of priorities among activities of Government departments having regard to research done by other organisations;

    2. the provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers;

    3. the association of Government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations;

    4. the collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals;

  3. the promotion of co-operation with the governments of, or organisations in, other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters;

  4. any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any of the above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The National Research Advisory Council Act 1963 provides for 6 to 9 members, including the chairman, to be appointed by the Governor-General and for 3 ex-officio members, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Director-General of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Secretary to the Treasury. The council is assisted by 4 advisory committees (each chaired by a council member), covering the fields of primary production, manufacturing and processing, environment and energy, and social services research.

Over the past 4 years there has been zero growth in Government funded research and development. The council has therefore increased efforts to ensure effective use is made of the existing resources, to secure growth in research effort and to maintain a favourable climate innovation.

In order to assess the scientific needs of each sector, NRAC, working with the New Zealand Planning Council, has begun a sector-by-sector review which will lead to a national plan for technology. The Planning Council has under action a study of the economic prospects and development opportunities of New Zealand industries.

While the main focus has been on research with potential economic benefits, the council has endeavoured to maintain emphasis on environmental and social research as a component of the total research effort.

By Government directive, all departmental proposals involving the establishment of new scientific activities or the major expansion, reduction, or modification of existing activities are referred to the council for evaluation, as are proposals likely to make substantial demands on scientific manpower or other scientific resources.

The following tables show the Government expenditure and manpower by department and scientific activity. Expenditure on research contracts ($1,882,000 in 1981–82) and on public buildings is excluded.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY DEPARTMENT
DepartmentGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1979–801980–811981–821979–801980–811981–82
* Included in gross expenditure in previous columns.
 $(thousand)$(thousand)
Agriculture and Fisheries27,57235,36844,3071,1421,2001,535
Defence4,3823,0233,531
Education1,6612,0822,3951,4081,8192,005
Energy1,1621,3191,4239111,0071,208
Forest Service9,25511,73314,624676292
Internal Affairs1,0201,7322,041393
Justice140163224403147
Labour*8601,0503294346-*
Lands and Survey335489526272402423
DSIR49,42361,13273,6865,5826,9338,049
Social Welfare34535255812554169
State Services Commission130143199
Trade and Industry2,8882,9783,0492,7192,6822,679
Transport8,54011,81913,4529597
Works and Development4,4804,8316,046
Total112,193138,214166,39012,40414,27516,307
GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY
Scientific ActivityGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1979–801980–811981–821979–801980–811981–82

* Included in gross expenditure in previous columns.

† Includes elements from other activities such as Manufacturing and Minerals.

 $(thousand)$(thousand)
Agriculture43,74254,13666,1954,5314,5585,160
Forestry9,52211,98014,400166277245
Fisheries4,2855,6847,359423642
Minerals1,0051,1441,35281014
Manufacturing8,91611,57713,7083,1144,0694,396
Building and construction1,9692,4462,7418199841,083
Transport1,9522,4413,091101421
Natural environment23,25530,69136,366566570763
Social sciences3,1943,8753,5821,6171,9512,227
Human health1,6681,9492,654536779
Energy†9,6058,37210,5761,2441,4541,979
Other scientific services3,0803,9194,366234285298
Total112,193138,214166,39012,40414,27516,307
Note—The Government expenditure on buildings solely for scientific use is not included in the above tables. The figure for 1979–80 was $4,031,900, for 1980–81, $4,316,700, and for 1981–82, $11,580,700.
SCIENCE BUDGET MANPOWER: STAFF CEILINGS
Activity1979–801980–811981–82
Agriculture1 9231 9431 985
Forestry462461454
Fisheries135139149
Minerals504445
Manufacturing303327336
Building and construction676256
Transport93111110
Natural environment1 0371 0481 058
Social sciences10510871
Human health808091
Energy270276281
Other scientific services149133130
Total4 6744 7324 766
GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFOR
Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on Science*Percentage of Total Government ExpenditureTotal Staff Employed
* Including expenditure on public buildings for science.
$(000)
197880,1601.184 751
1979101,8021.214 655
1980116,2251.234 674
1981142,5311.274 732
1982179,8531.294 766

The figures of Government expenditure are not complete. They include expenditure on scientific, technical, and support staff of the main science units within the Public Service; grants by these departments to research associations and other agencies; and expenditure on the science buildings and equipment of these departments. They do not include expenditure on scientific research and servicing in the trading areas of the State services such as New Zealand Railways and the Post Office or by the Reserve Bank; in the universities; the grants made to the non-government sector by the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee; the assistance to industry for research provided by the Development Finance Corporation ($3,214,000 in 1981–82); the allocation of Golden Kiwi lottery funds for scientific research ($450,000 in 1981–82); and the revenue foregone through taxation concessions to individuals and companies for expenditure on research or donations to research foundations (Income Tax Act 1976).

From the most recent figures available, OECD has calculated research and development expenditure as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) to give the following country comparison.

CountryYearPercentage of GDP
Australia1978–791.0
Belgium19791.4
Canada19801.2
France19791.8
Japan1979–802.0
Netherlands19792.0
New Zealand1979–800.9
Norway19791.4
United Kingdom1978–792.2
United States1979–802.5
West Germany19792.4
Source; OECD Member Countries, 1982.

FURTHER INFORMATION—A number of publications in which research is published are mentioned in the text. Other information on Government-funded research is included in the annual reports to Parliament of the Government departments involved, and in the separate reports of some research divisions and institutions.

Report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parl. paper G. 21).

Report of the National Research Advisory Council (Parl. paper G. 20).

DSIR's First Fifty Years—DSIR (1976).

Report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Parl. paper C. 5)

Report of the Director-General of Forests (Parl. paper C. 3)

See also the Forest Research Institute report and the annual reports of the research associations.

Chapter 8. Section 8; CULTURAL AND RECREATIONAL SERVICES

8 A—SUPPORT OF THE ARTS AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

In New Zealand, as in most other countries, both the Government and local authorities have recognised the importance of the arts in the life of the community and have provided increasing support.

The traditional sources of assistance to the arts in New Zealand are the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, which had its origins in 1947 as a cultural fund; the New Zealand Literary Fund, administered by the Department of Internal Affairs, which was established in 1946; the New Zealand Historic Places Trust; and the National Art Gallery and Museum. More recently established are the New Zealand Authors' Fund, which compensates authors for the loss of royalties through having their books loaned out by libraries; a fund to assist art galleries and museums; and a lottery profits scheme to assist art organisations with capital projects. All three are administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The following table shows grants made in 1982–83 by the Government and from lottery profits

GroupGovernment AssistanceLottery Grant
 $(thousand)
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council2,8992,180
New Zealand Literary Fund8835
National Art Gallery and Museum627200
New Zealand Historic Places Trust199588
New Zealand Authors' Fund240
Cultural facilities450
Art Galleries and Museum Scheme250
Total3,8533,703

A major contribution to cultural activity is the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra which is administered by the Broadcasting Corporation.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has been involved in fostering the arts through its Cultural Exchange Programme, established in 1974. Modest in financial terms, the programme's objective is to facilitate exchanges in all branches of the arts, including music, theatre, painting, crafts, sculpture, and writing, so as to enable New Zealanders to gain a closer first-hand knowledge of the culture of other countries. At the same time, it is hoped that the programme will stimulate the already active cultural scene in New Zealand and through tours and exhibits abroad extend overseas knowledge of New Zealand's cultural achievements. In planning and implementing the programme the Ministry of Foreign Affairs works closely with such organisations as the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, art galleries, and other groups and individuals.

Financial contributions are also made to arts organisations through the Ministry and Council of Recreation and Sport. For a list of awards available in literature and the arts refer to page 977 of this Yearbook.

QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND ARTS COUNCIL—The Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council was formed in 1964 to promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand.

The council assists individuals working in the arts, and incorporated and non-profit making organisations, which have consistent levels of artistic achievement, maintain sound standards of management and promotion, and can offer career opportunities to trained and gifted people. Activities which are professional in character and standard thus receive priority for financial support.

In 1974 the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council Act was amended and the Arts Council was expanded to include 3 regional councils and a national network of community arts councils. A council for Maori and South Pacific Arts was also established in 1978. These new statutory provisions have led to the introduction of a range of programmes which complements the existing pattern of arts support. Schemes designed to assist the arts at a community level including the preservation and extension of Maori and Polynesian cultural traditions now absorb 13 percent of the council's annual grant.

During 1981–82 the council received funds totalling $5,079,000, of which $2 million was provided from New Zealand Lottery Board profits. Forty-five percent of these funds were used to support 5 professional theatres, 1 modern-dance, 1 ballet, 1 opera and 4 orchestra companies.

The maintenance of training schools and grants for individual artists absorbed a further 22 percent of the council's funds, and about 10 percent of the grant was used to assist touring exhibitions and performances, and a variety of practical support programmes.

NEW ZEALAND FILM COMMISSION—The New Zealand Film Commission was established on 13 November 1978 and its functions, powers, and duties are defined in the New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978. Administration expenditure is met by the Department of Internal Affairs. In the 1982 Budget it was announced that the commission was to receive an allocation of $1,750,000 for film investment during 1981–82, which would diminish proportionately over a 5-year period.

Each year, the Film Commission offers financial assistance to a considerable number of film projects, both for development and for production. Details are provided in its annual report.

INTERIM CONSERVATION COMMITTEE—In September 1979 an Interim Advisory Committee for the Conservation of Cultural Property was appointed to advise the Minister for the Arts on all conservation matters for cultural property. Specific areas include paintings and works of art, books and documents, films, photographs, machinery, and textiles.

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS—In 1973 a fund was set up to subsidise capital works of art galleries and museums. Subsidies are made available by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the recommendation of an advisory committee. A small proportion of the fund is made available each year to the 6 major metropolitan art galleries and museums in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, to enable them to assist smaller art galleries and museums in their areas with approved non-capital expenses.

NATIONAL MUSEUM—Situated in Wellington, the National Museum was established in 1865 and is the only Government-financed museum in New Zealand. Under the National Art Gallery, Museum and War Memorial Act 1972, its functions are to acquire, preserve and display collections of material related to New Zealand and the Pacific.

The. National Museum's collections specialise in Maori and Pacific culture, colonial history, entomology, plants, birds and marine animals. There is also a large specialist research library and a photographic archive containing over 84 000 glass plate and other historical negatives.

Museum research staff provide a servicing function for other Government departments and the public in ethnological, biological and historical research (including antiquities under the 1976 Antiquities Act).

The museum publishes research results in National Museum Records, National Museum Bulletin, National Museum Miscellaneous Series, and other Government publications.

General booklets and brochures are also produced in connection with educative and display functions.

PROTECTION OF ANTIQUITIES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES—The Antiquities Act 1975 came into force on 1 April 1976 and includes provisions controlling the sale of Maori artifacts within New Zealand. All artifacts found after 1 April 1976 are deemed to be prima facie the property of the Crown. In addition, there are export controls on a wide range of items of historical significance; Maori artifacts; chattels relating to the European discovery, settlement or development of New Zealand; written and printed matter; works of art, reproductions, prints, films and sound recordings; type specimens of animals, plants and minerals; meteorites; remains of extinct fauna; and items of shipwreck.

Whereas the Antiquities Act is essentially concerned with “portable” objects, the Historic Places Act 1980, deals more specifically with the protection of archaeological sites. It is necessary to obtain the consent of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust before damaging, destroying, or modifying any archaeological site or undertaking a scientific archaeological investigation of any site.

To enable the purchase of Maori artifacts and historic paintings, the Government continues to make grants to the National Museum and to the National Art Gallery.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES—National Archives selects, preserves, and makes available records of state which are of permanent value to the people of New Zealand. These records are drawn from various areas of government; Parliament, Ministers of the Crown, departments, the armed services, the courts, commissions of inquiry, and other agencies.

The prime purpose of keeping archives is set out in the Archives Act 1957. Archives preserve evidence of the functions, policies, transactions and decisions of government which have affected New Zealanders' lives, liberties, property, rights and status as citizens. These documents provide information on events, great and small, which have influenced the course of New Zealand's development. To ensure their preservation, National Archives has been granted statutory control over the disposal and destruction of public records. The National Archives headquarters is situated in Wellington, and branches in Auckland and Christchurch are to open soon. In other centres records are cared for by nongovernmental libraries or museums which are designated as “official repositories".

In addition the Local Government Act 1974 enables National Archives to advise and assist local authorities in preserving their archives.

In 1982 National Archives held an estimated 16,000 linear metres of written and typed documents, and in addition some 400 000 maps and plans as well as a large number of photographs and pictures. The holdings constitute the largest source of unpublished information on a whole range of public and private activity in New Zealand—political, social, economic, scientific, and technological.

Amongst the more significant and frequently consulted archives are those relating to land usage, works, foreign affairs and defence, immigration and the New Zealand Company, and the papers of the Governors and Colonial Secretaries.

An interesting series of historical records are those from the British Resident in the Bay of Islands in the 1830s. The papers of famous politicians such as Richard John Seddon and Sir Waiter Nash are also held.

In carrying out its function of making archives available, National Archives arranges and describes the archives and provides reading and reference services. Those who make use of these services include public servants (in the course of their administrative duties), historians, geographers, economists, sociologists, scientists, students, lawyers, genealogists, and private citizens.

National Archives headquarters are located in the Air New Zealand building, 129–141 Vivian Street, Wellington. The postal address is National Archives, P.O. Box 6148, Te Aro, Wellington.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST—The New Zealand Historic Places Trust is empowered under the Historic Places Act 1980 to protect and foster public interest in historic places and areas, and to assist others in the preservation of such places.

The trust is governed by a board of trustees which includes representatives of various interested organisations. The board has the power to issue protection notices to prevent demolition or damage to buildings which have historical significance or architectural qualities which merit preservation.

Professional staff work in the trust headquarters in Wellington and regional archaeologists are employed in Auckland and Otago. More than 13 000 members provide financial and practical support, and regional committees operate locally to advance the trust's aims.

Over 3 000 nineteenth century buildings have been classified by the trust's Building Classification Committee, and recently the committee has turned its attention to early twentieth century buildings.

Under the 1980 Historic Places Act the trust has responsibility for a number of historic buildings and sites, some of which are opened to the public. In addition the trust administers properties owned by other organisations and a number of historic reserves. Technical advice and financial assistance is given to private owners to assist in the preservation of historic building-, and sites. The trust also maintains a register of archaeological sites, and has the authority to investigate sites and prohibit unauthorised tampering.

To stimulate public interest the trust has marked many historic places with plaques and noticeboards. It also publishes leaflets, a quarterly magazine on historic preservation in New Zealand and books, including two major works on historic buildings of the North and South Islands.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on support for the arts and cultural activities will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper. G. 7).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand (Parl. paper G. 11).

Report of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (Parl. paper G. 10).

Report of the Board of Trustees, National Art Gallery, National Museum, and National War Memorial (Parl. paper G. 12).

Report of the New Zealand Film Commission (Parl. paper G. 19).

Report of the New Zealand Lottery Board (Parl. paper G. 7b).

8 B—LIBRARIES

In general, New Zealand is well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a comprehensive system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF NEW ZEALAND—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library, and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand.

A comprehensive collection of New Zealand material within the requirements of the Act is maintained by the Alexander Turnbull Library.

The National Library is responsible for maintaining and developing a central reference and lending collection as a national resource in many subjects and as support stock for major subject collections, such as medicine, where there is no national subject library. User Services hold major reference material and has access through OASIS to overseas data bases. The SATIS service, with regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, has its headquarters in User Services and the National Library is steadily increasing its stock of technical material for business and industry. On 31 March 1982 the central collections of the National Library comprised over 515 000 volumes, together with 103 000 volumes of periodicals, and 100 000 microfiche.

The New Zealand Bibliographic Unit is responsible for producing New Zealand National Bibliography, a comprehensive listing of books, pamphlets, art prints, music scores, sound recordings, maps and serials, and Index to New Zealand periodicals, as well as the maintenance of the national agencies for international standard serial and book numbers.

The library also acts as purchasing agent for most Government department libraries operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and library advisory service for departments.

The library has facilities for the preservation and restoration of items of intrinsic value. Microfilming and photographic programmes ensure preservation of items primarily of information value.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The chief librarian is guided by a committee of members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the library has been the depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It receives regularly copies of all New Zealand newspapers and about 1700 New Zealand periodicals. Back files of both are very extensive. It also has one of the largest collections in the country of books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The library, which holds over 500 000 volumes, has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography, and history. The National Documents Collection of overseas government publications, mainly from English-speaking countries, is available for public use. It is particularly strong in parliamentary papers and debates as well as publications of international organisations such as the United Nations and its subsidiary organisations, the OECD, and the EEC.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library is a research library responsible for maintaining a comprehensive collection of library material relating to New Zealand, together with other specialist research collections. The original collection of 55 000 volumes bequeathed by Alexander Horsburgh Turnbull (1868–1918) has been increased to approximately 290 000 volumes of books and periodicals, 2000 metres of manuscripts, 36 000 pictures of which 19 000 are original paintings and drawings, 20 000 maps, 405 000 photographic prints and negatives, and 12 000 reels of microfilm. The collections are augmented regularly by purchases, bequests, and donations from individuals and organisations.

The Trustees of the National Library in 1966 designated the Turnbull as the national collection of printed materials relating to New Zealand, and the library now receives all New Zealand publications under the compulsory deposit provision of the Copyright Act. Supporting the collections of printed books, periodicals, and newspapers are extensive collections of private papers and archives, paintings, drawings and prints of historical and topographical interest, maps, photographs, and sound recordings. The library also possesses research collections on the Pacific and the Antarctic with particular emphasis on history, early voyages, and ethnology. The general collections are strong in English literature, early printed books, and the development of the art of printing. The collection on John Milton and the mid-seventeenth century, a particular interest of Alexander Turnbull, is of international standing.

Extension Service—Public libraries are assisted by the Extension Service, which was formed in 1979 from the Country Library Service. Extension Service centres are situated in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch, supported by a Wellington headquarters unit.

Public libraries outside major metropolitan areas, which operate a free library service maintained at a reasonable standard of efficiency, are eligible for a variety of supplementary services. These include exchanges of books from bookvans, a request and information service, bulk loans of books from the centres, loan collections including large print books, spoken word cassettes for the disabled, books for adult new readers, advisory services, and the provision of seminars and workshops. People in rural areas, where no other library service is available, may use many of the above services at the annual rate of $25 for 50 books from one of the nine bookvans. Hospital patients and prison inmates also have access to many of the above services.

Libraries receiving books and services from the Extension Service at 31 March 1982 included 164 free public libraries, 691 small community libraries and groups, and 133 other libraries ad institutions. The number of books lent to theses libraries totalled 372 166 and 140 818 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

School Library Service—Established in 1941 the School Library Service section of the National Library is responsible for providing library support services for children and young people through the school system. It operates from a total of twelve district centres, of which the largest is in Auckland, and a head office in Tawa, Wellington. A request and information service for both fiction and non-fiction of a recreational and cultural nature, as well as for specific topics, is offered to all schools and long-term loans of books are made to enhance the collections in primary school libraries. Circulation for the year ended 31 March 1982 was approximately 2 million volumes.

An individual service is given to children enrolled with the primary section of the Correspondence School, while a significant number of books are allocated to its secondary school library. Over two million books are circulated annually through these services. Tangible support is also given to work with children in public libraries. The objectives are to give children and young people access to the most rewarding books written for them in addition to material to support and enrich curriculum topics and thereby advance the goals of education and literacy in the widest sense.

Advisers assist teachers and aides with aspects of library organisation and use, either by working alongside them in individual schools, or by holding courses and seminars, or by analysing and reporting on needed developments.

Publications include School Library Review, a quarterly specialising in reviews of children's literature and articles on topics of interest to those working with children in school libraries, a variety of subject lists, and guides and manuals of a specialist nature.

Library Schools—Since 1980, library education has been given by two schools at Victoria University of Wellington and at Wellington Teachers College.

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

PUBLIC LIBRARIE
CountryPopulation in Year of Library Census (million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesNumber of BorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes
* 191 systems covering 268 libraries.
(thousand) 
New Zealand3.11979191*6 3141 15129 389
Australia  84711 476x....
Canada23.1197675437 534..112 240
United States211.919748 337387 565..892 854
NATIONAL, TERTIARY, SPECIAL, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIE
CountryPopulation in Year of Library Census (million)YearType of DataCategory of Library
NationalTertiary*SpecialSchool

* UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1980–81.

† In 1978.

‡ In 1974.

New Zealand3.11979Libraries1392411 487
   Volumes (000)4 8033 8162 5178 443
Australia*14.11977Libraries192....
   Volumes (000)1 82316 311....
Canada*23.31977Libraries..255..8 692
   Volumes (000)..43 601..49 412
United States*216.41977Libraries3†3 0211 14374 625‡
   Volumes (000)20 799481 44219 832507 000

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES, 1979—The Census of Libraries for the year ended 31 March 1979 covered a total of 2044 libraries. These comprised 276 public libraries, of which 67 were suburban branches; the National Library; 39 libraries of tertiary education institutions; special libraries comprising 88 libraries of Government departments, 12 special/public libraries of the Armed Forces, and 141 other libraries attached to local bodies (mostly medical libraries), commercial firms, learned societies, interest groups, and charitable organisations; and finally, 1487 school libraries.

The 1979 Census recorded the establishment of computer technology in New Zealand library services. This has brought new dimensions to these services, with its facilities for computerising various facets of library administration and for accessing overseas and local bibliographic data bases.

In the period 1974 to 1979, the number of volumes held by public libraries increased by 37 percent, membership by 11 percent, and circulation by 32 percent. During the year 1978–79, public libraries had an average of 5 books in stock per member and an average circulation of 23 books per member. In addition to books and periodicals, public libraries had gramophone records, tapes, cassettes, art prints, and music scores available to borrowers. The number of library staff increased to 2469 from 1860 in 1974, and those holding library qualifications numbered 409 compared with 353 five years previously.

Tertiary institution libraries included the libraries of 6 universities (with one closely associated special library), 8 teachers' colleges, 7 theological colleges, and 12 technical institutes, of which 4 were polytechnics and 4 community colleges. The number of books and periodicals held by these libraries increased by 39 percent to 3.8 million in the intercensal period, and staff from 819 to 988.

The number of books and periodicals held by Government department libraries increased only slightly from 1.4 to 1.5 million in the 5-yearly period and staff from 271 to 281.

The remaining special libraries held a similar-sized stock of books and periodicals to that in the 1974 Census, but their staff numbers showed an increase of 78 percent to 453, nearly half of them working part-time.

In addition to books and periodicals, the National Library, tertiary institution libraries, and special libraries held stocks of microforms, photographs, maps, research reports, pamphlets, filmstrips, films, and slides. Some libraries held items specific to the function of their controlling body, such as patents, standards, and art originals.

In 1979 the coverage of school libraries war. extended to smaller primary schools, those designated Grade VA (minimum 156 pupils). As in 1974, Grade VI and above primary schools, as well as intermediate and secondary schools were surveyed. Coverage was extended because Grade VA primary schools had become entitled to a library/multi purpose room under the Department of Education building code in the intercensal period. The number of primary schools surveyed increased to 963 from the 1974 figure of 581. Similarly, there were more intermediate schools (141 compared with 126) and secondary schools (383, up from 360). Books and periodicals held by schools numbered 8.2 million at 31 March 1979 compared with 4.8 million at the same date in 1974. As well as books, library stock of schools included tapes, cassettes, gramophone records, films, and filmstrips.

The census of book clubs or commercial libraries carried out in 1973–74 was not repeated in 1979, mainly because of response difficulties and the comparatively small number of volumes recorded.

Although previously the Census of Libraries has been taken at 5-yearly intervals, it will not be taken in 1984.

The following tables summarise the results of the 1979 Census. The full results are given in a report Census of Libraries 1979 available from the Government Printer.

PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 197
Class of LibraryNumber of Library SystemsOwn StockTotal*For Reference Only (Included in own stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJunior
RentalFree FictionFree Non-fictionFiction and Non-fictionAdultJunior

* A number of libraries could not separately identify categories of adult and junior bookstock and their holdings are represented in the total column only.

† Includes only the recreational sections of special/public libraries located at RNZAF bases.

‡ 199 library systems covering 276 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—(thousand)
  50 000 and over12x4053811 537780x3 38466x171
  20 000–49 999221481655153461 22849x3613
  10 000–19 999311061122742006937x373
  5 000–9 9994413564115984123x5513
  3 000–4 9992341223027128214
  Under 3 0004177362627168195
Subtotal173911x7802 4971 4786 012x128x18544
Armed forces† and penal institutions26361462642x7
Grand total199948793x2 5031 4806 077130x19245x
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—CIRCULATION DURING YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 197
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesIssue from Own StockIssues from Country Library Service StockLibrary Interloans
AdultLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed from Other Libraries
RentalFree FictionNon-fictionPeriodicalsJuniorTotal*AdultJunior

* A number of libraries could not break down circulation figures into categories shown and these are absorbed into total circulation figures.

† 199 library systems covering 276 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—(thousand)
50 000 and over122 3011 0822 1391883 26515 09536624
20 000–49 999221 3507851 6501921 8616 7331092322
10 000–19 999319776419201241 1023 76518135119
  5 000–9 99944730341373374742 03021371114
  3 000–4 9992320772874137520761825
Under 3 00041159394018033663214
Subtotal1735 7242 959x5 2095476 920x28 4806771681188
Armed forces and penal institutions2640622153124
Grand total1995 7642 9665 2115496 92128 5326891681192
NATIONAL, TERTIARY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AND CIRCULATIO
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesBook Stock at 31 March 1979Circulation During Year Ended 31 March 1979
Items Lent to Library UsersItems Lent to Other LibrariesItems Borrowed From Other Libraries
BooksPeriodicalsTotal
* Special and public libraries located at army camps and navy bases and technical sections of libraries located at RNZAF bases were classified as special libraries.
 (thousand)
National Library14 4863174 8032 584x211
Libraries in universities, etc.392 8749423 8162 4213836
Special libraries—
    Learned societies, local bodies, commercial firms, etc.1415183578754471324
    Government departments and associated organisations886048801 4842936046
    Armed forces*1215261588413
    Total2818 6332 50211 1355 829x133111
SCHOOL LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AND CIRCULATIO
School TypeNumber of SchoolsBook Stock at 31 March 1979Circulation During Year Ended 31 March 1979
BooksPeriodicalsEducation Department PublicationsTotal
 (thousand)
Primary (Grade VA and above)9634 434181404 59213 968
Intermediate1418844219092 934
Secondary3832 9241262 9424 295
Total1 4878 243331678 44321 197
Note: Because of rounding, totals in the previous 4 tables may differ slightly from the sum of the individual items.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on libraries will be found in the following publications. The select bibliography of New Zealand books, at the end of this Yearbook, may also be found informative.

Census of Libraries 1979—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Trustees of the National Library of New Zealand (Parl. paper G.13).

UNESCO Statistical Yearbook.

8 C—TELEVISION AND RADIO BROADCASTING

The Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand was created by the Broadcasting Act 1976 and came into existence on 1 February 1977. It united under 1 central board, 4 independent statutory bodies—TV1, TV2, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand—which had been established by the Broadcasting Act 1973. In their place, 3 programme services (TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand) and a Central Services Division were established. Under the Broadcasting Amendment Act 1979 the 2 television services were amalgamated on 16 February 1980 into a single television service—Television New Zealand, which is responsible for producing and scheduling programmes on both the TV1 and TV2 networks of the corporation. The Central Services Division has since been redesignated the Corporate Services Division. In the exercise of its duties and functions the Act stipulates that the corporation “acts as a trustee of the national interest” and “operates its services with the maximum independence", and provides programmes which “inform, educate, and entertain". The announced intention of the 1976 legislation was to restore the ultimate accountability of the broadcasting system to Parliament through the Minister of Broadcasting, to improve administrative efficiency and financial viability, and to establish a tribunal with powers to control some aspects of broadcasting, including the establishment of further private radio stations. At the same time it was intended to preserve those features of the preceding system which were thought to be advantageous to listeners and viewers in general.

Earlier forms of control dating back to the introduction of the first “wireless” stations in New Zealand were the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand Ltd. (1925–31); the Broadcasting Board (1931–36); the National Broadcasting Service and the National Commercial Broadcasting Service (1936–45); the New Zealand Broadcasting Service (1945–62); and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation (1962–75). Information on these organisations appears in the relevant Yearbooks.

BROADCASTING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—The corporation consists of not less than 7 and not more than 9 members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting. Since 1977 the chairman of the corporation has served in the capacity of an executive chairman. There are Directors-General for Radio New Zealand and Television New Zealand. The secretary of the corporation is in executive charge of all centralised functions.

In general terms the corporation's responsibility is to carry on public broadcasting services and to develop, extend, and improve them in the public interest. In doing so, it must have regard for the general broadcasting policy of the Government. The Minister may direct the corporation in writing although not on specific programmes or complaints, the gathering and presentation of news and current affairs material, the editorial content of the New Zealand Listener, and personnel matters. Any such direction by the Minister must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

The corporation is required to maintain standards of accuracy, impartiality, decency, and good taste; and to this effect must promulgate rules governing programmes and advertising. The Independent Broadcasters' Association is represented on the committee formulating these rules. Additionally the corporation is charged with maintaining a New Zealand identity in its programmes, with respecting the privacy of the individual, and with avoiding the coincident presentation on the 2 television channels of programmes of a like nature. Formal complaints from the public alleging breaches of the prescribed programme standards, may be laid with the corporation or private radio stations. Cases of alleged unfair treatment or invasion of privacy are referred to the Complaints Committee, which was established by the 1982 Broadcasting Amendment Act. All complaints must receive proper consideration, and complainants dissatisfied with the decisions of these bodies may refer to the Broadcasting Tribunal for final adjudication.

The corporation is responsible for the publication of the New Zealand Listener and for the administration of the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. Up to two-thirds of the cost of operating the orchestra may be met by Government appropriation.

The corporation is empowered and expected to promote and encourage artistic, cultural, and educational development in the community.

BROADCASTING TRIBUNAL—A tribunal of 3 members, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting, is empowered to consider applications and grant warrants for additional radio stations, public or privately-owned, and to renew existing warrants. The tribunal has no authority over any shortwave station. Neither may it grant a warrant for any television station additional to TV1 and TV2 without the express permission of the Minister of Broadcasting. In October 1982, the Government authorised the tribunal to call applications for a private television warrant to operate during morning hours on the TV1 network.

The tribunal is also empowered to consider and determine complaints which in the opinion of the complainant have not been satisfactorily dealt with by the Broadcasting Corporation, a private radio station or the Complaints Committee. The tribunal must have regard for Government policy on broadcasting and must comply with any written direction from the Minister which does not derogate from its duty to act judicially. Any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

RADIO—Radio New Zealand provides programmes for 60 medium-wave broadcasting stations, and 2 short-wave transmitters of the External Services Division, the latter having a number of assigned frequencies. Of the 60 medium-wave stations, 40 broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. All Radio New Zealand stations maintain a daily 24-hour service, apart from shutdowns for maintenance purposes once a month, between 11.15 p.m. and 5.30 a.m. The shutdowns are staggered to give the minimum loss of coverage to listeners.

Coverage of Short-wave Service—The External services Division of Radio New Zealand broadcasts the National (Home Service) Programme (including news and magazine programmes in Maori, Tongan, Samoan, Niuean and Cook Island Maori) to the South Pacific from 1800 to 2100 hours U.T.C. daily.

One frequency beams the National Programme to Australia and Melanesian countries, and another beams it to the South Pacific Islands until 1200 U.T.C.

Radio New Zealand's Overseas Programme Unit supplements this with weekly dispatches of taped programmes; news, current affairs, talks and comment including vernacular programmes.

Local Broadcasting—Whereas in many Commonwealth countries local broadcasting has only recently begun, in New Zealand it is in many ways the most important part of the national system. Local stations not only provide a wide range of entertainment and information programmes, but also play a valuable

social role through new community services and participation in cultural activities. Decentralisation of administration enables local radio stations to be highly responsive to the communities they serve.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Non-commercial)—Three private non-commercial stations are now in operation. One (Radio Alpha) is operated by the Otago Radio Association Incorporated and has been broadcasting since 1922 from studios located in Dunedin. It broadcasts on Wednesday, Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday nights from 1800–2230 hours and Sunday mornings from 0900–1230. The other two stations are owned by Radio Rhema Inc. with studios in Christchurch and Wellington. Transmissions began from Christchurch in November 1978, and from Wellington in March 1982. Broadcasting hours are Monday to Friday 0600–1805 and Saturdays, Sundays, and public holidays from 0600–2400 hours.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Commercial)—The first warrants for private commercial broadcasting stations were issued on 30 June 1970 to Radio Hauraki and Radio i, both located in Auckland, and transmissions began on 26 September 1970 and 31 October 1970 respectively. Radio Waikato was issued with a warrant on 31 July 1970 and began transmission on 2 November 1970, followed by Radio Whakatane with a warrant dated 24 November 1970 which began transmission on 30 June 1971, and Radio Otago with a warrant dated 8 June 1971 which came into operation on 20 November 1971. Later warrants enabled Radio Avon in Christchurch and Radio Windy in Wellington to begin operations late in 1973, Radio Pacific in Auckland in April 1979, Radio Central Otago in mid-1980, and Radio Foveaux (Invercargill) and Radio Manawatu (Palmerston North) in mid-1981. Advertisements are not permitted to be broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. If Anzac Day falls on other than a Sunday, advertisements are not permitted before 1300 hours.

Independent Broadcasters Association—In 1970, holders of warrants for private commercial radio stations formed a federation which was subsequently approved by the Broadcasting Authority in August 1971. The general objects of the federation are to conserve the rights and interests of the members in broadcasting. The name was subsequently changed to the Independent Broadcasters Association (Incorporated).

TELEVISION—In August 1958 the Government decided that the 625-line system would be the standard for any television service in New Zealand. The service began regular transmissions in Auckland in 1960, in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962.

Colour telecasts (using the PAL system) began in a limited way in October 1973, and conversion of the remaining transmission equipment was completed by March 1975. By September 1982, approximately 83 percent of licensed television sets were colour sets.

Extension to Coverage—Television coverage has been steadily extended to all areas of New Zealand. By the end of 1981 the first television programme (the TV1 Network) was being disseminated by six 100 kW transmitters, 1 50 kW, 18 of from 1 to 25 kW, and 238 installations of less than 1 kW. These transmissions reached over 99 percent of the population.

Some 141 small units are operated by private individuals or societies, the latter receiving financial assistance from the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand. These small transmitters cover less than 1 percent of the population.

Transmission of the second television programme (the TV2 Network) began from 300 kW transmitters at Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. By the end of 1981 it was carried by five 300 kW transmitters, two 100 kW, 8 of from 1–25 kW, and 90 installations of less than 1 kW. Thirteen small installations were operated by private groups. Approximately 94 percent of the population was covered by second programme transmitters. By the mid-1980s TV2 should have full nationwide coverage.

Second programme transmitters for other areas are to be provided progressively until identical coverage is achieved for both programmes.

At the 1981 Census of Population over 67 percent of households in permanent private dwellings had colour T.V., and 34 percent had black and white T.V.—in some cases, as a second set.

Television Programmes—The BCNZ Television New Zealand Service operates 2 national networks in colour—the TV1 network which originates programmes from the Avalon television complex in Lower Hutt and the TV2 Network which originates programmes from the Auckland studios. TV1 transmits some 88 hours of programmes per week and TV2 some 71 hours. Five days are commercial. Sundays are non-commercial on each network. Fridays are non-commercial on TV1 and Saturdays are noncommercial on TV2.

TVNZ has production studios at Auckland (3), Avalon (3), Christchurch (2), and Dunedin (2). Colour outside-broadcast units are stationed at each of the 4 main centres (Auckland 3, Wellington 2, Christchurch 1, Dunedin 1) and are deployed for live coverage of sport and programme production from towns and cities in both islands. Comprehensive film facilities are installed at each centre.

With the change in the administrative organisation of TV1 and TV2 into a unified 2-channel operation from 16 February 1980, the stated intention was to give a wider range of programming to viewers and to rationalise the use of facilities by the channels. The specific BCNZ objectives were to provide the kind of complementary programming which a two-channel co-operative system could offer the public; offer wider scope for regional television; eliminate competitive practices which annoy viewers; cater to minority and cultural audiences at more suitable times than had previously been possible; and to fulfil the social, cultural, and educational potential of television. Local output for the 1981–82 financial year was estimated at 2989 hours. This content included drama, news, and current affairs, light entertainment, religion, service programmes, and sport. The balance of programme output is purchased from overseas, mainly from Britain, the United States, and Australia. The use of satellite links permits same-day presentation of world news items and live telecasts of significant overseas events, particularly in the field of sport.

NEW ZEALAND SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA—The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra was formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra and adopted its present title in 1975. It is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries, along with resident soloists and New Zealand choirs, appear regularly with the orchestra. As a national orchestra, its tour programme is one of the most extensive in the world, involving some 15 000 miles of internal travel annually. The playing strength is 89 players, which enables the orchestra to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

In 1974 the orchestra undertook its first overseas tour to 3 Australian cities. Its second, in February 1980 was to Hong Kong. As well as presenting nationwide concerts the orchestra has given many studio recordings for both radio and television. It has also made several commercial recordings. There is also a small training orchestra of string players which was established in 1961 as a scheme to develop promising students wishing to gain experience of the orchestral profession. The NZSO also organises an annual season by the National Youth Orchestra which was established in 1959.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for national television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The circulation of the Listener as at the end of September 1982 was 374 600, The readership is estimated to be 1 337 000. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, articles, and reprints of broadcasts as well as fiction, poetry, and criticisms. Through its editorial and correspondence columns, the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussions on important issues.

FINANCES—There are two principal sources of revenue, licence fees and radio and television advertising. Since 1975 the proportion of total revenue contributed by licence fees has been steadily diminishing, and at the end of the 1982 financial year it accounted for only 22.5 percent of the total. Under the 1976 Broadcasting Act, licence fees are collected by the New Zealand Post Office and paid by the Post Office into the Broadcasting Account, established under the Act, through which all the BCNZ's income and payments are handled. The corporation subsequently repays to the Post Office the costs which the latter has incurred in collecting the fees.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest 5 financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82
 $(thousand)
TV licence fees29,74131,71933,60035,40438,083
Radio advertising14,85016,62120,49325,95833,338
TV advertising39,09543,74955,31068,80590,997
Total83,68692,089109,403130,167162,418

LICENCES—As from 1 October 1971 the radio licence, which stood at $3 a year, was abolished and the monochrome television licence raised from $13 a year to $20. A colour television licence fee of $35 was introduced on 1 November 1973. On 1 January 1975 licence fees were increased to $27.50 (monochrome) and $45 (colour).

The following table summarises licences for television receivers issued by districts.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinTotal*Number of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences

* Including other.

† Included in preceding figures.

‡ Includes 394 195 colour sets in 1978, 499 210 in 1979, 583 183 in 1980, 655 348 in 1981, and 733 447 in 1982.

1978298 896226 004118 80470 953843 555‡131 898
1979298 516222 356119 36069 035859 885‡150 618
1980300 340228 738116 88370 121883 021‡166 939
1981295 218223 316118 95569 270887 463‡180 704
1982302 656229 501117 27869 296913 837‡195 106

FURTHER INFORMATION—Data collected on radio and television broadcasting in the 1980–81 Census of Services is available in Section 21B of this Yearbook. Further information on broadcasting will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper F. 3).

Report of the Broadcasting Tribunal (Parl. paper F. 4).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

8 D—NEWSPAPERS AND CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—Although printing in New Zealand began peacefully enough with the production of hymns in the Maori language, the early years of the New Zealand press appear to have been stormy, acrimonious, and marked by frequent shortages of the basic necessities of newspaper production. The first newspaper to be printed in New Zealand was the New Zealand Gazette of 18 April 1840, but like most early New Zealand newspapers it was short-lived. Much of the newspaper writing of early days was powerful, dogmatic, sometimes virulent and irresponsible, and the Government or other target of attack reacted with equal force. One way of closing down a rival or too-critical newspaper was to buy up the press on which it was printed. When this method of silencing was used against the Auckland Times in 1842 the proprietor continued publication with the aid of a job-lot of assorted old type, a load of coarse paper, and a mangle. Another paper appeared for some weeks printed on red blotting paper, and others appeared on occasion on green or blue paper or in varying paper sizes or qualities. Appeals for supplies of paper sometimes appeared in advertisements and one paper made a despairing appeal for treacle, apparently an essential ingredient in inking-rollers. One Auckland paper was made to yield to a unique form of forceful persuasion. In 1865 the New Zealander published an article which gave offence to the Navy, whereupon a large number of sailors passed a hawser through the newspaper office and back over the roof, and threatened to overturn the building unless there was a full retraction.

Since 1840 about 500 different newspapers have appeared in New Zealand, but relatively few have survived. The oldest surviving newspaper is the Taranaki Herald, started in 1852. A number of the large metropolitan dailies still in existence were started in the 1860s.

By world standards, New Zealand has had (and continues to have) a large number of newspapers for the size of population. In the past, difficulties of geography and the scattered nature of the centres of population prevented any daily newspaper achieving a national circulation. Today, aided by distribution during the dead hours before dawn, the morning papers published in Auckland and Wellington are, between them, able to cover much of the North Island, while the Christchurch morning paper covers much of the South Island. Nevertheless, the provincial press remains fairly strong. New Zealand still has a relatively large number of local papers published daily, weekly, or 2, 3, or 4 times a week which, by offering a detailed coverage of local news, are complementary to the newspapers published in the main centres rather than in competition with them. Most of the provincial dailies are evening papers.

There are 7 daily newspapers in the 4 main metropolitan areas, with a total circulation of approximately 703 000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are about 24 daily newspapers. New Zealand also has about 120 general-interest non-dailies, of which about 95 publish once to 3 times a week.

The total number of magazines, periodicals, and journals printed and published by large establishments and ancillaries in 1978–79 was approximately 27 million. The total number of copies of daily newspapers printed and published in 1978–79 was 330 million, and of newspapers other than daily, 30 million.

In the following table, based on the UN Statistical Yearbook, the total circulation of daily and non-daily (including Sunday) newspapers is shown per 1000 inhabitants for selected countries.

CountryYearCopies per 1000 Inhabitants
DailiesNon-dailies
* 1973.
Australia1977310648
Canada1977221514
Denmark197736232
France1977205291*
Germany, West1977423..
Italy197797..
Japan1977546..
Netherlands1976315*67
New Zealand1976272..
USSR1977396261
United Kingdom1977410..
United States1977287..

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table for the latest available years.

Type of Publication1974–751975–761976–771978–79
 $(thousand)
Newspapers, daily53,37858,56169,87687,074
Newspapers, other than daily5,8986,6408,05610,367
Magazines, journals, and periodicals3,4843,2372,7844,446

CINEMAS—The Census of Cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1981 formed part of the Department of Statistics' 5 year series of integrated economic censuses. For this reason, any comparison with previous censuses, the last of which was for the year ended 31 March 1975, should be treated with caution.

Previous censuses covered the activities of all motion pictures screened in New Zealand and included many small operators, such as clubs, associations, religious societies, etc., whose main activities are now classified to other areas within the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Most of these small operators were previously classified as screening “odd days per week".

Included in the latest Census of Cinemas were 154 cinemas with a total seating capacity of 89 364. During the year ended 31 March 1981 there were 84 775 performances at these cinemas and admissions totalled 12 177 305, or approximately 3.87 per head of mean population. The total income of the cinemas, plus that of the ancillary units servicing them, amounted to $37.4 million, of which $26.5 million represented admissions. The term “ancillary unit” covers administrative and general servicing units such as head offices, stores, and laboratories, and also the activities of confectionery bars at many cinemas.

The coverage of the census is summarised in the following table and this is followed by tables giving census values in accounting and economic terms. Further information on motion picture distribution and projection collected in the 1980–81 Census of Services is available in Section 21B of this Yearbook.

Census Coverage
Cinemas—
    250 seats or less19
    251 to 500 seats57
    501 to 750 seats40
    751 to 1 000 seats27
    Over 1 000 seats11
        Total establishments (cinemas)154
Total seating accommodation89 364
Average seating accommodation per cinema580
Total performances during the year84 775
Average attendance per performance144
Ancillary units servicing cinemas70
Paid employees and working proprietors or partners1 617
Census Values in Accounting Terms
Expenditure—$(000)
    Materials, including fuel and power8,923 
    Employers contributions to pension and welfare schemes and accident compensation levies447 
    Salaries and wages8,227 
    Depreciation333 
    Indirect taxes (land tax, road user charges, licence fees, and rates)616 
    Insurance137 
    Interest, etc.103 
    Other expenditure13,232 
    Total expenditure 32,018
Stocks—  
    Closing stocks429 
    Less opening stocks339 
  90
Income—  
    Interest, etc.470 
    Rents, etc.2,794 
    Admissions26,484 
    Other income7,565 
    Total income 37,313
Net Profit—  
    Total income adjusted for stock change37,403 
    Less total expenditure32,018 
  5,385
    Less salaries of working proprietors or partners 238
    Net profit 5,147
Census Values in Economic Terms (NZSNA)
Operating surplus—$(000)
    Total income adjusted for stocks37,403 
    Less interest, etc., received470 
  36,933
    Total expenditure32,018 
    Less interests, etc., paid103 
  31,915
    Operating surplus 5,018
Value added—  
    Operating surplus5,018 
    Employer contribution447 
    Salaries and wages8,227 
    Depreciation333 
    Indirect taxes616 
    Total value added14,641 

Classification by Statistical Areas—In the following table, cinemas have been classified by statistical areas; further information has been withheld to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Statistical AreaNumber of CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Seating Capacity Per CinemaPerformances During the YearAttendances During the YearAverage Attendance Per PerformanceAdmission ChargesAverage Admission Charge
 $(000)$ 
Northland63 0625102 333295 8371276072.05
Central Auckland3620 86458026 2593 758 2961439,1242.43
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty2713 40149611 8901 688 9881423,2911.95
East Coast2       
Hawke's Bay79 2276597 4671 148 0341542,2141.93
Taranaki5       
Wellington2718 36768015 3492 332 4961525,1392.20
Marlborough1       
Nelson414 11154314 4361 965 3641364,1222.10
Westland1       
Canterbury20       
Otago126 1785154 852615 4441271,3522.20
Southland64 1546922 189372 8451706351.70
Total15489 36458084 77512 177 30414426,4842.18

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics for the principal urban areas have, where necessary, been combined to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Urban AreaNumber of CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Seating Capacity Per CinemaPerformances During the YearAttendances During the YearAverage Attendance Per PerformanceAdmission ChargesAverage Admission Charge
       $(000)$
Northern Auckland2       
Western Auckland316 74464421 3503 333 4591568,1012.43
Central Auckland21       
Southern Auckland62 7304553 708329 011897832.38
Upper Hutt Valley1       
Lower Hutt Valley1       
Wellington917 86661620 7023 189 6501547,5232.36
Christchurch13       
Dunedin5       
Total6137 34061245 7606 852 12015016,4082.39

8 E—RECREATION AND SPORT

New Zealanders are fortunate in living in a country which provides a wide choice of recreation and sporting activities in a relatively small area.

Many competitive recreational activities are organised through local clubs, some of which are affiliated to national organisations. Promising players, performers, and artists have opportunities to reach national levels in their activities. In many sports the ultimate level to be reached is to represent New Zealand at the Olympic and Commonwealth Games.

Opportunities and facilities exist for those interested in outdoor education and recreation. The Youth Hostels Association of New Zealand operates hostels in centres ranging from Kaitaia in the north to Invercargill in the south. In the more remote areas the New Zealand Forest Service and several tramping clubs have built huts.

Short courses in outdoor recreation are run by the Outward Bound School in Queen Charlotte Sound, and the Outdoor Pursuits Centre near Turangi. Educational authorities and some voluntary organisations have established outdoor recreation and education camps throughout the country where young people are encouraged to enjoy and make use of the natural environment.

Social education programmes have been introduced into many secondary schools and this has involved the introduction of a wider range of recreational activities, with encouragement to students to continue with these activities after leaving school.

Most of the tertiary education institutions have facilities and staff available to serve the physical recreation needs of the students.

Council for Recreation and Sport—In November 1972 a Minister of Recreation and Sport was appointed. The Recreation and Sport Act 1973 provided for the establishment of a Ministry of Recreation and Sport and a New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The general functions of the council are to promote the total wellbeing of, and the fullest use of leisure by, New Zealanders; to advise the Government on matters relating to recreation and sport; to investigate developments in recreation and sport, and disseminate knowledge and information about such developments. The sum of $4.9 million was expended through the ministry during 1981–82 to support community recreational activities, together with an additional $3.15 million made available by the New Zealand Lottery Board to provide funds for community development activities and community facilities.

During 1981–82 Government moneys provided for the recreation and sport programme, $3,145,500 was distributed through local authorities to assist local activities, and $1,100,600 was allocated to national recreational organisations. Subsidy assistance for the salaries of new recreation advisers employed by local authorities totalled $127,000, and $179,000 was provided to national youth organisations by way of capitation and physical welfare grants. A further $66,500 was provided to assist special recreational and sport projects.

The Youth Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs' Recreation, Arts and Youth Division administers the following programmes which are designed to assist young people in practical ways.

Detached Youth Worker Funding Scheme—During 1981–82 community organisations and local authorities were provided with grants amounting to $415,000 to employ and train detached youth workers.

Detached youth workers generally work with young people whose basic needs are not adequately met by existing services.

Youth Initiatives Fund—The fund is administered by a national advisory panel comprising 7 young people, and provides financial assistance for projects which are of a social, cultural, recreational or community nature.

During 1981–82 the fund attracted 70 applications and grants were made totalling $120,000.

Youth Services Distribution Committee—Administered by the New Zealand Lottery Board, the committee makes money available to youth organisations and other groups of young people. During 1981–82 the committee was allocated $500,000, 40 percent of which was distributed as salaries for youth workers.

New Zealand is party with other Commonwealth nations in the Commonwealth Youth Programme. Established in 1973 the Commonwealth Youth Programme is a six-point plan of practical action: operating regional youth development centres, administering youth bursaries and study fellowships, investigating applied research, developing youth information services, assisting local youth projects, and supporting youth programmes. In New Zealand the Commonwealth Youth Programme is administered by a National Liaison Committee serviced by the Ministry of Recreation and Sport. The National Liaison Committee is composed of representatives from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Department of Education, the Department of Maori Affairs, and the National Youth Council.

The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council and the New Zealand Water Safety Council, which are also serviced through the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, received allocations from lottery profits of $283,000 and $350,000 respectively in 1981–82. These councils work closely with 41 local mountain safety committees and 54 local water safety committees in promoting the safe use of New Zealand's mountain, bush, and water areas.

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITIES

Fishing—A wide variety of salt-water fish abound around the coasts, in bays and harbours, and in both North and South Islands many streams, rivers, and lakes provide excellent rainbow and brown trout fishing.

Sizes of trout vary from district to district depending on environment, climate, food available, and angling pressure. Average trout weights are as follows:

North Island—rainbow 1 kg and brown 2¼ kg in the Rotorua lakes, rainbow 2¼ kg and brown 2 kg in Lake Taupo, rainbow and brown 1 kg in river systems;

South Island—rainbow and brown 1–1½ kg in lake systems, sea-run brown 2¼ kg in West Coast rivers, sea-run “Quinnat” salmon 52½ kg in the east coast rivers, land-locked salmon 1–12¼ kg.

Big-game Fishing—The warm waters off the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and scuba fishing in the world. The main bases for line fishing from charter boats are at Whangaroa, Bay of Islands (Russell, Otehei Bay, and Waitangi), Tutukaka, Mercury Bay (Whitianga), and Tuaranga (Mayor Island).

The most prized catches are broadbill, black marlin, striped marlin and blue marlin, while other types of big-game fish found in New Zealand waters are mainly tiger shark, hammerhead shark, mako shark, thresher shark, kingfish (yellow tail), and tuna. The best catches are usually made in February but fishing is good from December to April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the main season usually extending for about 6 weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions on stalking—no limit on the number of game animals that can be taken, no licence required, and the season is open all year round. However, commercial hunting operations have severely limited the numbers of some game animals (deer of several species, elk, chamois, and thar) that once abounded in the forest and alpine regions. Wild pigs, goats, and wallaby are still numerous in several areas of the country. For tourists and inexperienced hunters, a guide is essential for the success of a hunting expedition.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing season in New Zealand extends from mid-July to late October in the North Island and from early July to late September in the South Island. With the operation of ski planes and helicopters in the Mount Cook region, very good spring ski-ing is available to experienced skiers in the alpine snowfields in and around the Mount Cook National Park.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include 4 chairlifts, 2 T bars, and many rope tows. A new ski field has been developed at Turoa on the southwest slopes of Mount Ruapehu and facilities include 3 chairlifts and 1 T bar. Mount Egmont is the North Island's other principal ski area.

In the South Island the principal areas are Coronet Peak (Queenstown), Mount Hutt, Tekapo, Lake Ohau, Porter Heights, Treble Cone (Wanaka), and the Mount Cook region (access by ski plane or helicopter). Coronet Peak, 19 km from Queenstown, has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand, lying on extensive undulating slopes of varying gradients. Facilities at commercial ski fields are of a high standard and equipment and professional instruction is available at reasonable rates.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiordland and Golden Bay, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Walking—Since the New Zealand Walkway Commission was established in 1976 considerable emphasis has been placed on the opening up and development of walking tracks in both urban and rural areas. While priority is given to walkways near urban centres, the commission is also developing long-distance routes including a 3-day hutted walk from Taranaki to the Wanganui River already open and proving very popular, an east-west walkway across the North Island, and long-distance routes in Nelson and Southland. The growing number of pleasant walks in urban and rural settings is designed to provide enjoyment for both the casual stroller and the more dedicated walker.

SPECTATOR SPORTS

Horse Racing—Horse racing is a popular sport and is a source of interest and excitement to the punter; of income to the racing clubs; and of taxation to the government. Private bookmaking is illegal. On-course betting is by totalisator and off-course betting through the Totalisator Agency Board (TAB), which has branches in every centre.

The following table shows numbers of racing days, races, and other data for the latest 3 years. The racing year ends on 31 July, although horse racing takes place throughout the year. Fuller information, including totalisator duty, etc. is included in Section 26B, Public Account Taxation.

ItemGallopingTrotting
198019811982198019811982
Racing daysNo.307321322182193194
RacesNo.3 0103 1133 1511 7821 9161 933
Stakes$(000)9,79611,26112,0075,3286,1626,970
Average per Race$3,2543,6173,8102,9903,2163,605
Totalisator turnover—$(million)
On Course87.894.8100.848.153.760.4
With TAB254.1265.6309.6111.4118.5131.9
  341.9360.4410.4159.5172.2192.3
Amount paid in dividends276.8289.4328.0129.1138.3153.7

Greyhound Racing—Greyhound racing is growing in popularity and the Racing Amendment Act 1980 extended off-course betting through the TAB to greyhound meetings. Thirty full totalisator meetings for greyhounds were held during the year ended July 1982. Data on greyhound racing are shown in the following table.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19811982
Number of racing days8581
Number of races847801
 $(thousand)
Amount of stakes127156
Totalisator turnover—
    Win and place3,1003,029
    Other1,6271,656
Total4,7274,685
Amounts paid in dividends3,7953,749
Government Taxes—
    Totalisator duty269329
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs608403
Unpaid fractions2525

OTHER LEISURE TIME ACTIVITIES

Liquor Consumption—New Zealanders have always been among the heaviest drinkers of beer in the world but, in recent years, they have tended to drink less beer and more wines and spirits, which have a considerably higher alcohol content (pure alcohol by volume in beer, unfortified wines, fortified wines, and spirits is about 4, 11, 18, and 42 percent respectively).

The following table shows, for purposes of comparison, the percentage of total alcohol consumption in New Zealand in the form of beer, wine, and spirits in 1967–68 and 1979–80.

Beverage1967–681979–80
 Percentage
Beer7454
Spirits1527
Unfortified wines27
Fortified wines912
 100100

In addition to the trend towards beverages with a higher alcoholic content, the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council has indicated a trend towards drinking at increasingly early ages and more drinking by women than in the past.

The increase in wine-drinking, in particular, may be considered in conjunction with the rise in the popularity of dining out, the increase in the number of licensed restaurants, and the growing practice of drinking wine or beer with meals.

The following table shows the estimated consumption of beer, wine, and spirits in total and per head of mean population.

Year Ended 31 DecemberTotal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Mean Population
BeerWineSpiritsBeerWineSpirits

* Years ended June.

† Litres, not proof litres.

 litres (m)litres (m)proof litres (m)litreslitresproof litres
194083.31.52.0†50.90.91.2†
1970329.215.95.4116.85.61.9
1975389.826.3*9.6126.38.6*3.1
1978398.736.1*11.0127.411.5*3.5
1980378.741.4*10.8120.913.3*3.4
1981384.645.5*11.1121.814.5*3.5
1982385.441.8*11.0121.113.2*3.5

A brief description of the liquor licensing laws is included in Section 38, Miscellaneous.

Gaming and Lotteries—Lotteries and raffles are popular both with participants and as a means of fund-raising for sports bodies and other organisations. Financial results of the New Zealand lotteries, the net profits of which are distributed for purposes beneficial to the community, are shown below. Housie remains the most popular of the licensed games of chance. From time to time the idea of establishing gambling casinos in New Zealand has been advanced. The long-standing Government policy of not permitting casino gambling has been reviewed twice in recent years but on each occasion has been reaffirmed.

The Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977, which came into force on 1 April 1978, discarded many of the former restrictions. The basic principle that gambling may not be conducted for private gain was retained, but for minor forms of gambling it is not necessary to obtain licences or permits provided conditions laid down in the Act are met. Provision has also been made for the authorisation of additional forms of gambling if the public demand for them becomes sufficient. Some prohibitions are considered necessary in the public interest. Where large numbers of participants and substantial amounts of money could be involved, licences continue to be required.

The 1977 Act identifies, and provides for the control of, four forms of gambling: games of chance (such as housie); bookmaking and betting (other than betting on horse rating and greyhound racing); prize competitions (such as football pools); and lotteries (previously called raffles). It is a self-contained body of New Zealand statute law on gambling with the exception of betting on horse racing and greyhound racing which is still controlled through the Racing Act 1971.

New Zealand Lotteries—During the year ended 31 March 1982 a total of 66 Golden Kiwi Jackpot Lotteries, 13 Golden Kiwi 5 + 5 Lotteries, and 4 $20 Lotteries were drawn. The aggregate financial results of New Zealand lotteries are shown in the following table.

Item1979–801980–811981–82
Number of lotteries868883
 $(thousand)
Gross sales53,75062,24968,345
Commission on sales4,1204,6235,260
Expenses1,7482,5103,320
Prizes31,49336,55040,838
Lottery duty5,3756,2256,835
Direct profit11,01412,34112,092

The net profits from the lotteries are required by the Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977 to be distributed for charitable, philanthropic, or cultural purposes or for other purposes beneficial to the community. The New Zealand Lottery Board has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various distributing authorities which consider applications for assistance and make grants. Allocations made by the board in recent years are shown in the following table.

Recipient1980–811981–821982–83
 $$$
Welfare of Aged Persons Distribution Committee1,200,0001,350,0001,000,000
Welfare Services Distribution Committee2,000,0002,000,0001,850,000
Youth Services Distribution Committee..250,000500,000
Medical Research Distribution Committee400,000450,000750,000
Scientific Research Distribution Committee400,000450,000350,000
General Purposes Distribution Committee6,443,0006,831,0007,214,000
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council1,200,0001,725,0002,180,000
Minister of Internal Affairs (S. 93)1,250,0001,280,0001,665,000
New Zealand Film Commission700,000800,000800,000
 13,593,00015,136,00015,309,000

FURTHER INFORMATION—Data collected on recreational and cultural services in the 1980–81 Census of Services is available in Section 21B of this Yearbook. Some information on recreation and sport will be found in the following official publications.

Report of the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport (Parl. paper E. 20).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Report of the New Zealand Lottery Board (Parl. paper G. 73).

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust (Parl. paper C. 2).

Report of the Director-General of Forests (Parl. paper C. 3).

Outdoor Recreation Planning Symposium Proceedings—N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport (1978).

New Zealand Recreation Survey—N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport (1977).

Recreation Studies in New Zealand: A Bibliography—Ministry of Recreation and Sport (1977).

Social Trends—Department of Statistics.

Outdoor-recreation Planning: Marlborough Pilot Study—Department of Lands and Survey (1977).

The N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport has been associated with a number of publications mainly offering guidance on club administration, etc., and also produces 3 regular newsletters.

Chapter 9. Section 9; LAW AND ORDER, AND PUBLIC SAFETY

9 A—JUSTICE

SOURCES OF LAW—The law of New Zealand consists of the common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, and regulations, bylaws, and other forms of subordinate legislation made under statutory authority.

The Common Law—The common law, sometimes referred to as case law or judge-made law, has been built up over the centuries by the courts in England and, later, in New Zealand and other countries where it was introduced. Like any living law, the common law continues to develop.

In New Zealand the policy of the courts has been to preserve uniformity with the common law in England. This is partly for reasons of convenience and partly because of the assumption prevailing in New Zealand that there is a single common law, the law of England, and that there are not separate, though similar, common laws in different countries.

United Kingdom Statutes—United Kingdom statutes in force in New Zealand comprise those passed before 1840 which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date, and those passed between 1840 and 1947 which extended to New Zealand expressly or by necessary implication. Many of these statutes have, of course, since been repealed.

New Zealand Statutes—In 1947 New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, and our Parliament has since been the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country. There are no constitutional restrictions on the laws Parliament can pass.

LAW REFORM—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility for bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. The Minister is assisted in carrying out his responsibilities by the Law Reform Division of the Department of Justice and by 5 standing committees, each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the Minister and report thereon to him. Until recent years the Law Revision Commission, also assisted the Minister of Justice. In 1975 it was replaced with a smaller and more informal Law Reform Council. The council comprises the Minister of Justice, the chairmen of the 5 standing committees, the Solicitor-General, the Secretary for Justice, and the Chief Parliamentary Counsel. Its aim is to provide a means of communication among the committees and with those involved in the implementation of their reports. Public Acts and regulations are drafted in the Parliamentary Counsel Office.

COURTS: Hierarchy of Courts—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and the District Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. The Children and Young Persons' Courts hear cases against those under 17 years of age.

Court of Appeal—As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a president and 4 judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional judge or judges of the High Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal. The judges of the Court of Appeal are also judges of the High Court, but have seniority over all other judges of that court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings or may sit in divisions and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters. This court, unlike other courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the High Court, certain other proceedings in inferior courts may, on an order from the High Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $5,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

High Court—The High Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The members of the court are a Chief Justice and 26 other judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional judge or judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of judges, together with the provision that the salary of a judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives. The retirement age for judges is now 68 years, with the exception that those appointed before 2 January 1981 may continue to 72 years. The High Court exercises jurisdiction with respect to major crimes, the more important civil claims, appeals and reviews.

In 1968 a separate administrative division of the High Court was created. It consists of not more than 6 judges of the High Court assigned to the administrative division by the Chief Justice. The administrative division hears appeals from many administrative tribunals including those constituted under the following Acts: War Pensions Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Animal Remedies Act, Medical Practitioners Act, Pharmacy Act, Nurses Act, Commerce Act, Distillation Act, Mining Act, Coal Mines Act, Town and Country Planning Act, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, Accident Compensation Act, and Clean Air Act. It also hears and determines such proceedings, other than appeals, where legislation confers jurisdiction on the division. e.g. Citizenship Act 1977. Other classes of application, including applications for review under the Judicature Amendment Act 1972, may be referred to it by the Chief Justice.

District Courts—Under the District Courts Act 1947 District Courts possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases and domestic proceedings. The jurisdiction of the court is exercised by District Court judges, whose number is limited by statute to 75. A Chief District Court Judge has been appointed to oversee the running of the District Courts in addition to himself sitting in court. District Court judges hear civil claims up to $12,000. Certain District Court judges are specially warranted to preside over jury trials, although trials on charges of murder, rape, drug-trafficking and other more serious offences must be heard in the High Court.

Justices of the Peace can sit as a District Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges. Justices of the Peace now deal with many prosecutions brought under the minor offences scheme. This is limited to offences that do not carry any liability to imprisonment, nor to a fine of more than $500.

Family Courts, which are established as a division of the District Courts have jurisdiction over most family matters, including dissolution of marriage, and are presided over by specially warranted District Court judges known as Family Court judges.

District Court judges must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the High Court for at least 7 years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Other Courts—Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several courts with specialist functions. These include the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

There are also numerous administrative tribunals exercising functions of a judicial nature and performing an important and increasing role in the legal system.

JURIES—The institution of the jury is to be regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1981, which substantially revised the previous Act of 1908. The changes of major significance are the abolition of special juries, talesmen, and pretrial views.

The Crown's unilateral right to stand aside is altered to an ability by either party to stand aside with the consent of the other party.

Every person between the ages of 20 and 65 is eligible for jury service subject to the exceptions set out in the following paragraphs.

The list of persons not eligible for jury service and grounds for excusal has been substantially revised. Only those persons who because of their occupation are not appropriate to serve on a jury are ineligible and a person may be excused if jury service would cause serious inconvenience or hardship to some other person or members of the public generally.

The following persons are not qualified to serve on a jury in any Court on any occasion.

  1. Anyone who, at any time, has been sentenced to imprisonment for life or for a term of 3 years or more, or to preventative detention:

  2. Anyone who, at any time within the preceding 5 years, has been sentenced to imprisonment for a term of 3 months or more, or to borstal training.

The list of persons who will continue to be automatically ineligible is:

Members of the Executive Council of New Zealand:

Members of the House of Representatives:

Judges of the High Court, Judges and members of the Arbitration Court, Judges and Commissioners of the Maori Land Court, and District Court Judges:

Visiting Justices and members of the Prisons Parole Board:

Justices who have agreed to make themselves available from time to time to exercise the summary jurisdiction of District Courts:

Barristers and solicitors holding current practising certificates under the Law Practitioners Act 1955:

Members of the Police, and Traffic Officers:

Officers of the Public Service who are—

  1. Employed in the Head Office of the Department of Justice;

  2. Officers of the High Court or a District Court;

  3. Officers of any penal institution or pre-release hostel or work centre; or

  4. Probation Officers:

Mentally disordered persons:

Persons who are incapable of serving because of blindness, deafness, or any other permanent physical infirmity.

PENAL SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries emphasis is placed wherever possible on the rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who, by reason of the nature of their offences or character of their offending, are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that, the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the courts in dealing with offenders outside of prison are fines, probation, periodic detention, and community service.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the courts often content themselves with fining him.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of punishment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than 1 year or more than 3 years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and it is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time. The probation method is widely used.

Persons on probation at 31 December of recent years were as follows: 1975, 7268; 1976, 7299; 1977, 7349; 1978, 7734; 1979, 9533; 1980, 9253; and 1981, 8403.

Community Service—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1980 provided the court with power to impose a sentence of community service on convicted offenders instead of sending them to prison. The offender so sentenced continues to live and work in the community, but during leisure hours gives unpaid service to some community group. The sentence can be from 8 to 200 hours' service. Before imposing this sentence the court takes into account the character and history of the offender and the public interest.

For community service to succeed there are two other elements needed—

  1. The offender must agree to do community service.

  2. The community must produce a number of groups prepared to guide an offender into useful community activities for the number of hours required by the court.

Community service is an addition to the existing range of non-custodial sentences, such as fines, probation, and periodic detention. The court may impose a fine or probation in addition to community service.

The emphasis is on the active participation of the local community, and on the benefits to both sponsor and offender. The offender works not only for but with the local sponsor group. The group accepts the services of the offender and treats the offender as a member of the group. As at 31 December 1981, 1833 persons have been sentenced to community service.

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation, work centres have been set up in Auckland, Otahuhu, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. These are available for offenders of all ages. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. Under the sentence the offender is required to attend a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Centres have also been opened at New Plymouth, Papakura, North Shore, Taupo, Hastings, Levin, Masterton, Whangarei, Tokoroa, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Tauranga, Nelson, Dunedin, Invercargill, Whakatane, Greymouth, Blenheim, and Timaru. At 31 December 1981 there were 2254 detainees reporting.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense, various other means are available to the courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the courts may impose are as follows:

  1. Corrective training, the term fixed by statute being 3 months. The offender must be between 15 and 20 years of age, and he may be eligible for early release after serving two thirds of his sentence. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may be eligible for early release after serving three quarters of his sentence, or in some cases two-thirds.

  3. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Minister of Justice on the recommendation of the Parole Board, but in any event not less than 7 years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving 7 years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the board is of opinion that he is not likely to continue to commit sexual crimes. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto, it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on Imprisonment—The policy is to restrict the use of detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable, consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals.

In 1975 a restriction on detention prohibited a sentence of detention (other than a sentence of periodic detention) being imposed on any person not legally represented at some time before conviction unless he had the means to pay for legal representation but declined to employ a solicitor, or he was offered legal aid and refused it.

A court in dealing with any one convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment is now required in each case to have regard to the desirability of keeping the offender in the community so far as is practicable and consistent with the safety of the community.

Penal Policy Review—A Penal Policy Review Committee was set up in 1981 to assess the appropriateness of existing penal policies and reports to the Minister of Justice.

The findings of the 8-person committee, headed by the Hon. Mr Justice Casey was the product of the widest inquiry into penal policy ever undertaken in New Zealand. The committee made detailed and wide-ranging recommendations in the light of its review of at least 120 areas of penal policy.

Following the release of the report in early 1982 the Justice Department established a steering committee to oversee the development and implementation of the report's recommendations. A number of working parties subjected those recommendations to detailed examination and preparations are presently underway to incorporate proposals requiring legislative change in a new Criminal Justice Bill.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Court of Appeal—This court hears appeals against convictions and sentences imposed in the High Court and in District Court trial courts.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried.

Applications lodged in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table.

YearAppeals LodgedAppeals Heard
AllowedRefusedOther*Total
* Reserved decisions or cases adjourned.
197820669145214
1979230511751227
1980299851973285
1981272562395300
1982316902162308

Trial Courts—Until 1 April 1981, criminal trials were held only in the High Court. From that date District Court trial courts, located in 17 centres, may hear cases for all except the most serious of indictable offences, thus relieving the High Court of a heavy work load.

Criminal cases in the trial courts are of 2 classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the lower courts and has been committed to the High Court or to a District Court trial court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the trial courts.

The following tables show summaries of criminal cases dealt with in the High Court (formerly the Supreme Court) during each of the latest available 5 years, and for the District Court trial courts for 1981. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total counts and charges, and distinct persons.

YearTried in High CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal Sentences
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMFTotal
Total Counts and Charges
19771 7972171 106148481131 5871611 748
19781 8581891 116117468591 5841761 760
19792 1091741 317110637311 9541412 095
19802 5502751 543156763192 3061752 481
19811 7763461 049126848421 8971682 065
Distinct Persons
19777046152645113363948687
197870277528471351566362725
197973263514411481166252714
198091574643472211386460924
198167362490432292071963782
YearTried in District Court Trial CourtsSentences in Cases of Committal for SentenceTotal Sentences
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMFTotal
Total Counts and Charges
1981901100535468254348591
Distinct Persons
198132748229193223221253

Of the 1110 distinct persons indicted in all trial courts during 1981, 781 were convicted, 7 were still awaiting trial at the end of the year, 184 were acquitted, 9 were found insane, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 129 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the High Court during each of the latest 5 years, and in District Court trials courts in 1981.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotal
High Court
19774551 0162771 748282235170687
19785308733571 760339205181725
19796429305232 095311172231714
19806411 3345052 480404255264923
19816038366262 065372164246782
District Court Trial Courts
1981853861205915413564253

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the trial courts during each of the latest 5 years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence1977197819791980High Court 1981District Court Trial Courts 1981
* Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder131410716
Attempted murder36312
Manslaughter*1621161928
Traffic offences involving death or injury139664
Assaults and wounding17419916426224342
Sexual offences7493108108726
Other offences against the person131152
Burglary and breaking and entering726550544739
Theft, receiving, and fraud141115921668586
Other offences against property18232425297
Forgery and uttering4261033
Drug offences10312116318218937
Other offences676068825727
Total687725714923782253
Per 10 000 mean population2.202.312.292.953.28

Sentences imposed in the trial courts during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

Sentence19771978197919801981
* Also includes persons committed into the care of the Department of Social Welfare. Community service is a new penalty operative from 1 February 1981.
Probation or community service*61705693116
Ordered to come up for sentence1917212239
Discharged2241012
Fined95906887103
Imprisoned381443468533583
Detention centre or corrective training9341315
Periodic detention906663134154
Borstal training232628288
Preventive detention141
Detained in mental institution64225
Total1 035687725714923

The death sentence for murder was abolished in 1961. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

District Courts—District Court judges deal with the majority of indictable offences. They have jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. A District Court judge may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the High Court or a District Court trial court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he: is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than 3 months.

A defendant may be prosecuted at a court hearing for several charges of one or more offences. All are included in “total charges", which will therefore exceed the number of persons charged. The principal charge (i.e., that for which the heaviest sentence is imposed), for each person at each court appearance is selected to arrive at the “distinct case” classification. As a person may appear before a court on more than one occasion during the year, the number of distinct cases will not necessarily correspond with the number of individual persons involved.

With the introduction in 1977 of a centralised computer source for criminal and traffic offence data, offence and other variable groupings were revised to provide information in a form for which there is now a demand. However, technical problems were experienced in the production of statistics from information supplied from a computer source which was primarily designed for other purposes. As a result some informations laid in earlier years were lost from the statistical record. The effect will have been greater for more serious offences, as these tend to take longer to be dealt with by the judicial process.

Because of the revised groupings, data in the following District Courts table, are not directly comparable with those in the corresponding table shown as a time series in earlier Yearbooks. The figures refer to total charges convictions for each offence group, followed by total distinct case convictions.

Type of Offence1977197819791980

* Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person was charged simultaneously with 2 or more offences.

† Includes breaches of the Road User Charges Act (effective 1 March 1978) and careless driving.

Offences involving violence or threats of violence5 6235 1844 5795 201
Sex offences611469428457
Other offences against the person2 3862 1912 1942 621
Unlawful taking of property (includes conversion of vehicles)25 10423 74517 74223 459
Fraud and false pretences6 0856 4666 0007 682
Wilful damage and trespass3 4033 1882 8273 572
Forgery, uttering, and currency offences1 8051 5449531 270
Drug offences2 6123 3853 9826 297
Offences against the administration of justice2 9202 7812 3943 045
Drunkenness and drunken driving offences15 12816 56017 18521 359
Other imprisonable traffic offences6 9356 7366 6477 987
Other offences against good order8 1037 1287 7108 693
Offences against decency216231186325
Maintenance and Social Welfare offences2 8801 4787851 156
Offences against the Sale of Liquor Act8 5528 2657 2999 246
Other offences16 35116 96813 49517 531
Subtotal108 714106 31994 416119 901
Minor traffic offences†258 158242 464264 371261 340
Total366 872348 783358 787381 241
Distinct cases*295 612276 199325 469306 272

The next table classifies distinct-case results of hearings for the latest available 3 years.

Result of Hearing197819791980

* Minor traffic offences accounted for most of the cases where fines were imposed.

† Most cases sent for trial or sentence were not reported.

‡ Not reported for 1980.

Committed for trial or sentence11†475
Imprisonment3 8063 9194 319
Detention in detention centre541438555
Periodic detention5 3705 0196 141
Detention in borstal institution, etc.866609634
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)4 5383 5124 062
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required2 2241 7112 366
Fined*249 680296 244275 569
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)7 45913 06110 476
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)701319516
Orders made1 0146371 634
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out24 82633 75532 609
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act2 5342 3733 006
Total, distinct cases303 570362 072341 887

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form a large proportion of summary convictions. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed. Since 1 April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law and from 1 July 1971 some local authorities and the Ministry of Transport have imposed speeding infringement penalties. From late 1981 a number of traffic breaches formerly classified as offences have also been dealt with by infringement notice.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in District Courts for the latest available 3 years. A list of traffic offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport will be found in Section 13d, Roads and Road Transport.

Offence197819791980
* Includes breaches of heavy vehicle licensing and from 1978 also includes breaches of the Road User Charges Act.
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death1237370
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury543467619
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death211913
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury344438
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury374250
Driving, or in charge of, motor or other vehicle under the influence of drink or drug12 41211 13013 556
Exceeding speed limits62 49767 70270 433
Reckless, dangerous, careless, or inconsiderate use or driving of motor vehicle35 91341 69041 980
Offences relating to the registration, or licensing of motor vehicles*10 01714 15613 175
Offences relating to driver's licence25 74126 52920 384
Breaches of parking regulations38 80532 26732 535
Other traffic offences76 22788 67490 881
Total262 370282 793283 734

Disqualifications of drivers by length of disqualification are shown in the following table for the latest 3 years.

Period for which Driver Disqualified197819791980
Under 3 months6147331 023
3 months and under 6 months1 8972 1112 379
6 months and under 1 year9 87410 94514 884
1 year and under 2 years8 5026 3236 533
2 years and under 3 years1 4621 0191 108
3 years and under 4 years419374357
4 years and under 5 years514955
5 years and over145102154
            Total disqualifications22 96421 65626 493

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness for each of the latest available 3 years. These do not include drunken driving offences. Data on Children and Young Persons' Courts, in which there were 220 cases proved for drunkenness in 1980, are also excluded from this table.

YearConvictions for Drunkenness
MalesFemalesTotal
19783 8343144 148
19795 4825736 055
19807 1236767 799

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the preceding table. In 1980 there were 11 557 distinct case convictions for driving under the influence of drink or drugs and driving with excess alcohol concentrations on the breath or in the blood. In addition 922 distinct case convictions were recorded for refusing or failing to take blood tests or to deliver up the keys of a vehicle.

Offences by Women—Of the 432 506 charges dealt with in the District Courts in 1980, 58 041 or 13.42 percent were preferred against females. Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against females are of a relatively trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations. Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence197819791980
Violent offences300306420
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.403286352
Theft and receiving3 1432 5513 066
Fraud and false pretences2 1122 1322 737
Forgery and uttering545375408
Offensive conduct or language388590668
Drug offences526591836

Women received into prison under sentence during 1981 numbered 260, compared with 314 in 1980.

Totals for each offence group in 1981 (with 1980 figures in parentheses), were: offences against the person, 28 (37); property offences, 142 (174); drug offences, 26 (13); offences against good order, 3 (7); traffic offences, 2 (3); breach of probation or periodic detention, 22 (41); breaches of Immigration Act, 1 (12); breaches of Social Security Act, 5 (7); and all other offences, 21 (20).

Assessment of Crime—One important index of crime in the community is the number of those who are convicted of offences. This gives a useful guide to the amount of crime, providing the proportion of crime reported and the proportion of known crime whose perpetrators are detected remains more or less constant. This, of course, may not be a justified assumption. A greater number of court convictions might mean merely more efficiency by the police and a greater willingness on the part of the public to report offences that previously went unreported. Care should therefore be taken to avoid reading too much into figures for court convictions.

History and current experience alike testify that crime almost invariably flourishes in large cities, particularly those that are growing rapidly and drawing large numbers of young people from a less sophisticated environment. This is less a penal problem than a social one. In New Zealand it has occurred to a marked degree only in recent years.

The following table shows the ages of persons sentenced to custodial detention. In each year represented in the table, over 30 percent of all prisoners were aged 15 to 19. At the time of the 1981 Census of Population the 15 to 19 age group formed 13.2 percent of the total population aged 15 years and over.

Age, in Years197519771978197919801981
Number of Persons Sentenced
15605656665887
16309278240250248267
17454473382391409394
18486421418406433426
19393434376399424396
20444357339378394405
21–241 0911 1381 1221 1911 1401 047
25–29686679660708725697
30–34363327367350336380
35–39242211225217207182
40–44179118149162127141
45–4914511111110485100
50–54886772656956
55–59445147414034
60–6433182618179
65–691394664
70 and over433223
Total5 0344 7514 5974 7544 7204 628
Prisoners aged 19 or younger as a percentage of all prisoners33.835.032.031.833.333.9

PROBATION—The following figures show the number of persons placed on probation during the latest 5 years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
19775 4821 2966 778
19785 8421 3797 221
19795 1031 5976 700
19805 4721 6897 161
19814 9721 3566 328

PRISONS AND PRISONERS—A new sentence of corrective training, effective 1 April 1981, applies to both males and females aged 15 to 20 years. Borstal and detention centre training were abolished from that date, but a few borstal trainees were still serving borstal sentences at the end of the year. The New Zealand prison population is accommodated in 28 institutions comprising 20 prisons, 6 corrective training centres, and 2 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than 8 days may be detained at any police station, which is also deemed to be a prison for that period.

For a comparison of numbers of Maoris, Pacific Island Polynesians, and Europeans held in prisons, refer to Section 3B of this Yearbook.

The prison population during the year 1981 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at 1 January 19812 6851162 801
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)10 34068311 023
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)10 65170911 360
Persons in prison at 31 December 19812 374902 464
Daily average number of prisoners2 4581092 567

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Of the 11 023 receptions, 5859 referred to persons who were remanded in custody pending a court hearing and who were later released after acquittal or on a successful application for bail, given a sentence not involving custodial detention, or sent after sentence to an institution other than that in which they were remanded. In 1981, 142 debtors were also received for non-payment of civil debt and 9 persons were transferred to mental institutions.

Persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1981 are shown by age group and type of offence in the following table.

Age, in yearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft and Fraud*Conversion, Wilful Damage, etc.DrunkennessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesViolent OffencesOther

* Includes forgery and currency offences.

† Includes all other property offences.

‡ Includes driving with excess blood alcohol or excess breath alcohol concentration.

Under 213529813837287284771 975
21–2424156836780463661 047
25–292110372183733278697
30–39127581532354237562
40–49171528083584241
50–59166191153390
60 and over128516
        Total125654381 6764362191 4804 628

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1981.

Age, in YearsLength of SentenceTotal
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months* and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 years and OverBorstal Training

* Includes detention in a detention or corrective training centre.

† Includes life imprisonment.

Under 21911411 36620931141231 975
21–248917748823837181 047
25–29731203091492818697
30–39781032431002117562
40–494154795755241
50–59162230152590
60 and over933116
Total3976202 518769124771234 628

Special types of detention imposed during 1981 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time when received into custody.

SentenceAge, in YearsTotal
151617181920
Borstal training—
    Males13212924171105
    Females6343218
Corrective training—
    Males50141193163814632
    Females411116436
    Detention centre263720125100

Of the total of distinct persons received into penal institutions in 1981, 83 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 60 percent had been convicted more than 6 times.

The number of prisoners received to serve a sentence imposed during the year 1981 for criminal offences was 5025, but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 4628 (4368 males and 260 females). The corresponding total for 1980 was 5054, involving 4720 distinct persons (4406 males and 314 females).

An analysis of distinct persons received into penal institutions according to nature of sentence is given below for the 5 latest years.

Nature of Sentence19771978197919801981
Imprisonment3 4603 4523 6383 5833 737
Detention centre548460456527100
Borstal training742682660609123
Preventive detention131
Corrective training668
        Total4 7514 5974 7544 7204 628
Rate per 10 000 of mean population15.1914.6915.2215.0714.66

The following table showy the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 5 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in PrisonProportion per 10 000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
19772 7111492 8608.609.07
19782 4241702 5947.698.23
19792 5931492 7428.238.70
19802 6251762 8018.308.85
19812 3001642 4647.207.71

Classification—To assist the prisons administration classification committees operate in the main reception prisons (Mt. Eden, Wanganui, Wellington, and Christchurch) and at Auckland Maximum Security Prison. Similar committees also function at the reception youth institutions. An important objective is to ensure that prisoners are held in humane conditions and in the minimum degree of security consistent with public safety.

Classification and Treatment of Prisoners—Wherever possible prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, an attempt is made to teach some particular skills. A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are 17 full-time teachers serving in Auckland Maximum. Security Prison, Mount Eden Prison, Christchurch Prison, Tongariro Prison Farm, Rangi Po Prison Farm, Christchurch Women's Prison, Wellington Prison, Wi Tako Prison; and in Waikeria, Manawatu, and Invercargill Youth Institutions. Part-time teachers supplement the work in these institutions and also provide a service for all other institutions. Teachers seek to help those prisoners whose educational attainment is such that they are disadvantaged in the community. They also assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses either by correspondence or in prison classes. Such courses may be at any level ranging from illiteracy to university degree work. The interest thus shown by prisoners is encouraging, as in many cases it gives a prisoner better social and employment skills thereby aiding the chances of resettlement.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well-chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Psychological Services—Psychologists from the Department's Psychological Service provide advice and evaluation for the Penal Division on policy planning, institution programme development and implementation, individual programme development and implementation, psychological treatment for individuals and groups, and in-service training for prison officers.

Advice is given on the best way to provide continuing psychological services. A public or private psychological agency, private practitioner, or the Department's own Psychological Service may be suggested. Where psychological work is undertaken for the Penal Division by another agency or individual, the Department's Psychological Service gives them advice and assistance, and monitors and evaluates the service provided.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure. The balance of the earnings is paid to the inmate upon his or her release to help meet financial commitments during the first few days of freedom.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the superintendent, who may impose a penalty or at his discretion refer the case to a visiting justice or to the court. A visiting justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and youth institutions.

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for young male offenders at Auckland, and Wellington, and at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch for adult male inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community.

Release to Work—Inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a district court judge. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of corrective training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a probation officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is for the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and guidance during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of long sentences designed to protect society against the hardened criminal has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the Prisons Parole Board which has the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to imprisonment for 5 years or more preventive detention, or life imprisonment.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a judge of the High Court as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least 1 but no more than 5 other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and being eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

YearImprisonmentPreventive DetentionLife Imprisonment
1977981124
1978881628
1979971616
198081920
1981781123

International Comparison—The following table provides a comparison of numbers and rates of people on probation, parole and held in prisons for selected countries within Asia and the Pacific as at 1 July 1982.

CountryPrisonersProbationersParoleesProportion, per 100 000 Population
Total in PrisonTotal on ProbationTotal on Parole

* Based on the daily average number of prisoners for June 1982.

† Released to serve Extramural Punishment and Compulsory Supervision Orders.

‡ Figures as at 1 April 1982.

Australia9 698*20 9784 74864.0138.431.3
Fiji894..399†141.7..63.2
Hong Kong5 3392 9362 536102.056.148.5
Japan53 81223 2426 25845.619.75.3
Malaysia13 05293.2
New Zealand2 6356 3652 15884.1203.068.8
Papua New Guinea‡4 30523..119.60.5..
Singapore2 755114.3
Thailand67 1274 374842142.89.31.8
Tonga‡103104.0
Western Samoa2135121134.832.313.3

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were originally established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into force on 1 April 1975, renamed these Children and Young Persons Courts.

All offences except murder or manslaughter and minor traffic offences committed by those under 17 years of age are dealt with in Children and Young Persons Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years of age comes before a regular court, the court may order his case to be heard in the Children and Young Persons Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children and Young Persons Court are not held in a courtroom. Proceedings in Children and Young Persons Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding judge.

When a child or young person is in need of care, protection or control, the matter is dealt with by way of complaint. This category includes offending by children under 14 years, except where a child over the age of 10 years is charged with murder or manslaughter.

When a young person is brought before a Children and Young Persons Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction has been recorded.

In the tables which follow, “Distinct Cases” relate to court appearances, the most serious or most heavily penalised of the charges against each person at one court hearing being selected as the distinct case.

The table which follows shows court decisions for offending for the years 1977, 1979, and 1980. Statistics for 1978 are not available from the Department of Statistics. Further information concerning the Children and Young Persons Courts will be found in Section 6a, Social Welfare and Social Work.

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
1977x197919801977x19791980

* Includes periodic detention.

† Includes probation, ordered to come up for sentence, convicted and discharged.

Dismissed or withdrawn2 2272 2082 3681 1171 2181 308
Admonished and discharged3 2253 7353 3481 9622 0992 080
Committed to care of Department of Social Welfare1 1451 0691 137347315352
Placed under supervision5 6435 8436 0402 3072 4852 513
Committed to an institution*2 5953 2943 163684970958
Fined3 9773 8063 8392 8992 8272 806
Otherwise dealt with†3 4643 3145 3771 6471 6042 387
Total cases, offending22 27623 26925 27210 96311 51812 404
Males18 73419 81221 5368 9569 48010 268
Females3 5423 4573 7362 0072 0382 136

Detailed statistics for Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court offence cases during each of the latest available 5 years are as follows:

Type of Offence1975197619771979x1980

* Includes forgery and uttering.

† Includes traffic offences.

 Total Charges
Sexual offences16116210874112
Assaults964833761835873
Other offences against the person72147187200228
Burglary, and breaking and entering5 3434 7855 1955 5755 685
Theft, receiving, and fraud7 0236 3716 3005 9506 984
Unlawful conversion3 7363 6003 7684 2864 666
Wilful damage and arson836798x8371 121819
Other offences against property*370226x209185163
Offences against good order†2 8352 7642 8023 2263 361
Other offences2 2191 8562 1091 8172 381
Total23 55921 54222 27623 26925 272
 Distinct Cases
Sexual offences113114815377
Assaults759685633679736
Other offences against the person53117140163160
Burglary, and breaking and entering2 1932 1042 1972 4492 500
Theft, receiving, and fraud3 1342 9352 9822 7683 350
Unlawful conversion of vehicles1 5131 2331 3321 5721 646
Wilful damage and arson420371x417519433
Other offences against property*9940x564354
Offences against good order†1 7881 7391 7192 0152 020
Other offences1 5581 2491 4061 2571 428
Total11 63010 58710 96311 51812 404

The following table shows court appearances by type of complaint and court decisions for 1979 and 1980. The totals exclude complaints dismissed, withdrawn or struck out, of which there were 201 in 1979 and 176 in 1980.

Type of Complaint*19791980
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* Source: Department of Social Welfare.

† Includes failure to exercise parental duty.

‡ Includes offending by children.

§ Includes orders to come up for sentence if called upon and referrals to Children's Boards or District Courts.

Neglect or illtreatment†425438863444400844
Beyond control‡1 0276351 6629095411 450
Truancy67771446865133
Breach of supervision order602989503282
Total1 5791 1792 7581 4711 0382 509
Court Decision      
Admonished and/or discharged358165523318131449
Admonished and returned to care or supervision14418241135
Supervision order7065971 3036635201 183
Committed to care of Department of Social Welfare451386837412352764
Other§502777542478
Total1 5791 1792 7581 4711 0382 509

CIVIL JURISDICTION: High Court—The jurisdiction of the High Court (previously the Supreme Court) is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the High Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower court. An appeal to the High Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the District Courts are subject to appeal to the High Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the High Court in the latest 5 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount of Judgments
     $(000)$(000)
19773 956674206919,7626,153
19784 0113548485311,7428,389
19794 3993648599017,24212,891
19803 0691748170111,36410,030
19812 902838060421,95818,457

Court of Appeal—During 1982, 119 civil appeals were heard, of which 45 were allowed.

District Courts—Since 1 April 1980, District Courts have been able to hear civil claims cases up to $12,000, whereas previously Magistrates' Courts could only hear claims up to $3,000. However, if the parties agree in writing that the court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the High Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the District Courts during the latest 5 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for which Judgment Entered
  $(000) $(000)$(000)
1977144 30945,05782 05920,89318,056
1978142 26245,77583 08528,94719,892
1979123 51549,29071 81223,76620,539
1980127 90473,78870 19929,88526,435
1981125 06179,62270 65935,23530,795

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts.

The Accident Compensation Scheme, administered by the Accident Compensation Corporation, now caters for all personal injury by accident in New Zealand, and thus covers the whole range of listed criminal injuries, including pregnancy by rape and criminal infection with disease. This scheme is designed as a fund of first resort.

LEGAL AID—The Legal Aid Act 1969 introduced from 1 April 1970 gave affect to the principle that no persons should be prevented by lack of means from having their grievances heard and determined fairly by the courts of the land. The aid is available for almost all civil proceedings other than dissolution of marriage. In order to receive legal aid the applicant must have a sufficiently meritorious case. Except in special cases of hardship, every aided person is required to make a contribution of $25 towards the cost of proceedings, and is also liable to make an additional contribution proportionate to his income and capital resources.

The number of applications for legal aid received during 1982 was the lowest since 1974. The apparent reason for this reduction was the introduction of the Liable Parent Scheme contained in the Social Security Amendment Act 1980. Total applications declined by 4933, 4872 of which were in the domestic jurisdiction.

The Department of Social Welfare is responsible, in accordance with the Act, for investigating the resources of persons applying for legal aid; for assessing their “disposable income” and “disposable capital” within the statutory limits and reporting to district committees on the maximum contribution, if any, that applicants should be expected to pay towards the cost of the proceedings in respect of which legal aid is sought.

THE LAW AND THE FAMILY—The main features of principal family law statutes are set out below.

Matrimonial Property Act 1976—This Act reforms the law of matrimonial property. It recognises the equal contribution of husband and wife to the marriage partnership and provides for a just division of the matrimonial property between the spouses when their marriage ends by separation or dissolution.

Domestic Protection Act 1982—This Act aims to mitigate the effects of domestic violence by providing for non-molestation orders, non-violence orders, and emergency occupation and tenancy orders.

Family Proceedings Act 1980—This Act establishes one ground only for the dissolution of marriage (formerly divorce)—that “the marriage has broken down irreconcilably". However, the Act requires that the dissolution of marriage is to be preceded by two years living apart. A counselling referral service is provided. Husband or wife can ask a Registrar of a Family Court to arrange counselling if they have marriage problems. The Act aims to help couples to come to agreement over disputes without going to a formal court hearing. The Act recognises that husband and wife have equal rights and responsibilities in maintenance matters.

Guardianship Amendment Act 1980—This Act requires custody applications to be heard in a Family Court and requires the judge to appoint a lawyer to represent children's interests. The concept is emphasised that the more suitable parent is to be given custody of a child or children irrespective of the sex of the parent or age of the children. An offence of wilfully hindering access to children is created by the Act and the court is given power to require medical, psychiatric, or psychological reports on children. The Act also gives to Family Courts a power to call witnesses.

Family Court Act 1980—This Act provides for the establishment of Family Courts. The courtrooms are less formal; the usual court procedures and ritual are simplified; and the judges do not wear wigs and gowns. In addition, the sittings are in private and are confidential.

Social Security Amendment Act 1980—This Act introduces a scheme known as the Liable Parent Contribution Scheme which aims to provide a fair and uniform method of deciding the contributions a liable parent must make to support his or her children if the other parent is receiving a Domestic Purposes Benefit.

Counselling and mediation provisions of the Family Proceedings Act have already affected the numbers of separation, maintenance and custody orders made by the courts. Maintenance orders, particularly for ex-nuptial children, have also been affected by the liable parent contribution legislation operative from 1 April 1981.

The following tables give statistics for the year ended 31 December 1981 of applications and orders made under the provisions of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968 (to 30 September 1981) and the Family Proceedings Act (from 1 October 1981).

Nature of OrderApplicationsOrders Made

* Custody, 1685; guardianship, 9; Custody order in favour of mother, 1399; in favour of father, 166; in favour of other parties and divided, 120.

† Maintenance also granted in 951 cases, 857 of these in conjunction with a paternity order.

Separation3 5121 429
Maintenance3 4901 456
Custody or guardianship3 8871 694
Non-molestation1 492160
Tenancy37597
Matrimonial home2 107382
Paternity2 0171 426†
Consent to marry4723
Minor's contracts33

Relative ages of parties when separation orders were made in 1981 are given below.

Age of Husband (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years)
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and OverNot KnownTotal
16–19336
20–24321421341192
25–295103153255291
30–34127129122173299
35–3962685729198
40 and over15361122271391
Not known2154452
      Total41283337272207244451 429

The next table shows, in the case of separation orders for 1981, the age of wife at separation and duration of marriage.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years) at Date of Separation Order
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and OverNot KnownTotal
Under 11214
1921752549
22352135591108
38561915213104
453207510297
539281366395
63329116281
71843174385
89451545179
9591247183
10–1473132412313282
15–1939106343182
20–2420794103
25 and over59261
Not known1211216
      Total41283337272207244451 429

Numbers of children involved in custody orders granted in 1981 are shown below.

ItemNumber of Children InvolvedTotal
123456789 and Over
Numbers of orders568627323111401511 685
Total children5681 2549694442009093 534

Appeals to the High Court against decisions in the Domestic Proceedings Courts were tabulated for the first time in 1978. The following table shows the number of appeals heard and allowed in 1978 and subsequent years.

YearAppeals HeardAppeals Allowed
1978309111
197923491
198016576
198119870

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on justice, crime, the Police, and kindred subjects will be found in the following publications:

Justice Statistics—Dept. of Statistics (annual).

Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. paper E. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. paper G. 6).

Crime in New Zealand—Dept. of Justice, 1974.

Juvenile Crime in New Zealand—Dept. of Social Welfare, 1973.

Royal Commission on the Courts (1978).

The New Zealand Policeman—N.Z. Institute of Public Administration.

N.Z. Supreme Court Criminal Statistics: Time Series to 1976 (Dept. of Statistics bulletin).

Report of the Prisons Parole Board (Parl. paper E. 5a).

Reports of Borstal Parole Boards (Parl. paper E. 5b).

Annual Report of the Legal Aid Board (Parl. paper E. 7).

Social Trends in New Zealand—Department of Statistics, 1977.

Family Statistics in New Zealand—Department of Statistics, 1978.

The Prediction of Juvenile Offending: A New Zealand Study—Joint Committee on Young Offenders.

9 B—POLICE, FIRE SERVICE, AND CIVIL DEFENCE

NEW ZEALAND POLICE—New Zealand's national police service was established as a civil law-enforcement body, following the passing of the Police Force Act in 1886. Previously police work had been in the hands of the New Zealand Armed Constabulary and provincial police forces.

The Armed Constabulary were raised in 1846 and 1867 to fight in the Maori-Pakeha Wars and to maintain civil order. The abolition of the provincial police forces because of a requirement for centralised control coincided with the demise of the Armed Constabulary.

Today the Police service is controlled under the Police Act 1958.

Organisation—The national administrative and operational control of the Police service is vested in a Commissioner who is responsible to the Government through a Minister of Police.

For operational purposes New Zealand is divided into 16 police districts. Auckland District, by virtue of its greater population, is controlled by an assistant commissioner. Other districts, because of their varying size, are commanded by officers ranging in rank from chief inspector to deputy assistant commissioner. Police district commanders are responsible for the general preservation of peace and order, for the prevention of offences, and for the detection of offenders in their areas of command.

Policing is maintained by a system of mobile patrols and foot “beats” co-ordinated by a communications network.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming and Lotteries Act, Misuse of Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, and the Secondhand Dealers Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other departments of the Government service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold additional appointments such as registrars and bailiffs at District Courts, probation officers, and honorary fishery officers.

Recruiting—Recruit applicants for the police must be between 19 and 34 years of age. All applicants must meet certain minimal physical qualifications, otherwise they are ineligible to lodge an application. Different physical requirements are made for female applicants, but otherwise all applicants must meet the same strict educational, character, and medical standards.

On appointment, recruit trainees attend an 18-week training course at the Police College. This course was recently extended to include additional training to assist police officers to cope with the changing role of society.

The large recruit intakes of 3 a year have now been replaced by a “trickle” system. This new scheme allows for the recruitment of smaller numbers of new trainees on a more regular basis as and when required.

Examinations for promotion to non-commissioned and commissioned ranks are aimed at selecting members who have shown the necessary potential to become effective supervisors and administrators.

Members who show a particular aptitude for the various specialist sections within the Police receive additional training at the Police College and in the field.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1982 was 5000 sworn personnel, including 205 female members who have equal status and opportunity with their male counterparts. In addition to these members the department employed 707 civilian staff.

Transport—At 31 March 1982 the Police vehicle fleet totalled 922, including 722 cars, 123 vans of various types, 34 landrovers, station sedans, estate cars, command vehicles, omnibuses, trucks, and other vehicles.

Crime Situation—Crimes and offences reported to the Police during 1981 totalled 362 010, an increase of 3.6 percent on the previous year's total of 349 193.

Violent offences increased by 7.9 percent, but much of this increase is attributable to minor assaults which rose by 9.6 percent. During the year a total of 49 murders were reported representing a 32.4 percent increase over the previous year.

A most disturbing trend has been the 28.4 percent increase in reported rape offences. A total of 316 offences were reported of which 252, or 79.1 percent, were cleared. Of the 122 offenders apprehended 82 percent were in the age bracket of 17 to 30 years.

Offences involving dishonesty, which comprise 61.7 percent of all reported offences, rose by 3.7 percent from 215 582, in 1980, to 223 554 during 1981. The clearance rate for these offences improved slightly to 28.6 percent compared with 27.9 percent in 1980. Reported burglary offences rose by 8 percent to 58 829 but at the same time the clearance rate improved from 21.8 percent in 1980 to 22.8 percent in 1981. The clearance rate for offences involving fraud also improved and 53.1 percent were cleared.

Property damage offences increased by 7.3 percent and much of the increase was in the arson area which rose from 856 to 964 reported offences. Property abuses also showed an upward trend with 17 993 reported offences compared with 16 608 in the previous year and in percentage terms represents an 8.3 percent increase.

During 1981 children under 17 years were responsible for 26 percent of cleared offences and 59 percent of all offenders were in the under 20 age group. Some 84.1 percent of offenders were male and the remaining 15.9 percent were female.

Property to the value of $105,780,822 was criminally appropriated during the year, of which $51,368,784 worth was recovered, representing a recovery rate of 48.5 percent. Motor vehicles formed the largest group with 22 642 vehicles, valued at $51,286,628 stolen. Of those stolen, 18 696, valued at $42,896,327, were recovered which is a recovery value of 83.1 percent.

National Drug Intelligence Bureau—During 1981 a total of 8017 persons were charged with drug offences. Ninety percent of these offences related to the controlled drug cannabis. A total of 41 091 plants and 154.09 kg of cannabis leaf were seized in 1981. The largest cannabis plant seizures were made in remote areas in many parts of the country.

Heroin supplies and arrests during 1981 were at a very low level.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has again emerged as a drug of prominence in New Zealand. This is consistent with international illicit drug trends. During 1981, 17 484 tabs of LSD were seized. The bulk of this LSD is known to have been imported from the United States.

The power of search without warrant under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 was used on 363 occasions during the year. On 246 of the occasions drugs were seized. During 1981, 14 drug-related deaths were reported, 10 less than the previous year.

Interception Warrants—In accordance with the Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 1978, 15 interception warrants were issued during 1981 (3 of these were multiple warrants involving several locations at one time) and 9 were renewed.

The average duration in which listening devices were used was 43 days, with the longest individual period being 67 days. Twenty-six prosecutions have resulted through evidence obtained directly or indirectly from the use of listening devices.

Armed Offenders Squads—Since the formation of armed offenders squads in 1964, weapons have been fired at individuals on 6 occasions. Deaths resulted in 4 of these incidents. On 2 occasions the .357 Smith and Wesson revolver with semi-jacketed ammunition (soft-nosed bullets) was used during squad operations. In 1 case a person was injured, and death resulted in the other. A total of 177 members throughout the country now perform armed offenders squad duties. During 1981 armed offenders squads attended 131 incidents compared with 155 in 1980. Callouts to gang-related incidents similarly show a decrease to 14 in 1981, compared with 21 in 1980.

Anti-Terrorist Squad—The anti-terrorist squad of 30 selected members of armed offenders squads are provided with specialised training to enable them to deal with a terrorist situation. During 1981 training was carried out in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, where sections of the squad are based. Training has also been carried out with Ministry of Defence Forces.

Search and Rescue—There were 762 police-controlled search and rescue operations during 1981–82, compared with 803 in 1980–81. In 693 of the 1981–82 operations the police were assisted by volunteers.

General—To ensure that they keep abreast with developments in other law enforcement agencies throughout the world the Police continuously review and experiment with new policing concepts and organisational changes.

The following table shows figures of crimes and offences during 1979, 1980, and 1981.

OffenceYear Ended December
197919801981
* Includes burglary (49 000 offences in 1979, 54 462 in 1980, and 58 829 in 1981) and theft (90 000 offences in 1979, 101 983 in 1980, and 102 021 in 1981).
Violence15 25315 61216 860
Sexual offences2 5522 6952 804
Drugs and anti-social behaviour48 66553 22851 939
Dishonesty191 407*215 582*223 554*
Property damage20 49722 01623 639
Property abuses15 03716 60817 993
Administrative1 2991 8711 730
Traffic19 38621 58123 491
Total314 096349 193362 010

Youth Aid Section—The total staff employed on youth aid work throughout the country, as at 31 March 1982, was as follows:

General youth aid officers69
General youth aid officers (part-time)45
Youth aid education officers25
Community constables, youth aid6
National Headquarters4

During 1981 general youth aid members spoke to 60 363 children at schools, outside meetings, and at police stations. Also, in an effort to enlist the co-operation of parents and to explain the police role within the community, members spoke to 13 813 adults in group settings.

Further Information—Further information on the police and crime will be found in the following publications: Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. Paper G.6.); Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. Paper E.5); Justice Statistics (Department of Statistics); Crime in New Zealand (Justice Department, 1974); Juvenile Crime in New Zealand (Department of Social Welfare, 1973); The New Zealand Policeman (New Zealand Institute of Public Administration). Section 8A Justice may also be consulted.

NEW ZEALAND FIRE SERVICE—An integrated fire service controlled directly by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission was established by the Fire Services Act 1975. One of the main aims of the Act was to avoid the divided control which was a feature of the previous system. However, the volunteer system remains a central feature of the reorganisation.

The New Zealand Fire Service is organised in a 4-tier structure as follows:

  1. The New Zealand Fire Service Commission: The successor of the Fire Service Commission has 3 commissioners, one (the chairman) with a special knowledge of administration, while the other 2 have senior operational experience in the fire service. The Secretary for Internal Affairs is also a member of the Commission.

  2. Fire Regions: There are 6 administrative regions based in Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Their primary task is to co-ordinate their operational units to work in a close-knit organisation.

  3. Fire Areas: The fire regions are divided into fire areas, of which there are 20 in all. They are responsible for developing the fire fighting resources of their areas and for the training and operational efficiency of the brigades in districts within them.

  4. Fire Districts: Every united urban fire district, urban fire district, and secondary urban fire district which existed immediately prior to the commencement of the Fire Service Act 1975, was declared a fire district under the new Act. There has been some adjustment of fire districts since 1976. As at 1 November 1982 they numbered 270.

The New Zealand Fire Service Since 1 April 1976—From 1 April 1976 the operation and administration of the New Zealand Fire Service became the total responsibility of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission dealing through duly appointed commanders of regions, areas, and districts. Twenty of the 270 fire districts are served mainly by permanent firemen but with a leavening of nearly 1000 volunteers. The remaining 250 fire districts are manned by volunteer firemen who are an essential part of the New Zealand Fire Service. During 1982 there were 2538 employees and 7850 volunteer firemen and fire policemen. Two women were recruited and are now employed as operational firemen in Auckland. Facilities for women have been provided at all permanently manned fire stations with the exception of Dunedin, which will be up to the required standard during 1983.

The New Zealand Fire Service Commission currently owns 1264 vehicles and 570 buildings.

The Fire Service Act 1975 revised the apportionment of costs for the annual estimates of the New Zealand Fire Service between the insurance industry (including the levy on fire insurance policies) and the Government in the ratio of almost 3:1. This aspect is being reviewed at present by the Government.

Fire Safety—Under Part II of the Fire Service Act the Fire Service Commission is required to take an active and co-ordinating role in the promotion of fire safety. Giving effect to this is a Fire Safety Division at National Headquarters, with Fire Safety Departments in each of the fire districts served by permanent firemen providing a New Zealand-wide fire safety survey and advisory service.

Fire Calls—The total number of calls attended by brigades throughout New Zealand during 3 recent years are shown below.

Calls197919801981

* Including other.

† 1981 total is not comparable with previous years due to introduction of new data.

False alarms, malicious1 7861 7001 886
Accidental6 6406 6198 220
Defective apparatus6 1445 9625 623
Total, false alarms14 57014 28115 729
Special services8 2929 2617 076
Chimney fires3 4753 1912 907
Gorse, grass, rubbish7 4086 2468 678
Structure fires....5 209
Mobile property fires....2 465
Assistance calls....2 226
Ovens, demolitions, derelict cars....1 073
Total, all calls44 357*42 912*45 363

Loss of Life—Forty-three lives were lost by fire during 1981 compared with 44 the previous year and 53 in 1979. The most common known causes were the careless disposal of smoking materials (7 deaths), deliberately lit fires (3 deaths), and smoking in bed (3 deaths). Thirteen deaths resulted from fires of which the cause was unknown. Thirty of the fatalities occurred in private houses or flats, and 3 in private cars.

Further Information—Further detailed fire statistics are contained in the New Zealand Fire Service Commission's Annual Report to Parliament (Parl. paper G.8).

CIVIL DEFENCE—The planning, organisation, co-ordination, and implementation of the measures necessary for the safety of the public (except for those emergencies which can be dealt with by the normal emergency services) are described as civil defence. Communities using their own resources and drawing upon volunteers have an obligation to take the steps necessary to prevent or reduce loss of life or distress. Assistance to territorial local authorities in meeting their obligations and the co-ordination of the support of Government planning and resources are the responsibilities of the Ministry of Civil Defence. The declaration of a state of “civil defence emergency” grants special powers to territorial local authorities, to civil defence controllers appointed by them, to the Police, and to the Director and Regional Commissioners of the Ministry of Civil Defence.

The Ministry of Civil Defence was established in April 1959 as an integral part of the Department of Internal Affairs. Three Regional Commissioners of Civil Defence were appointed in June of the following year, 1 each to the Northern and Central Regions dividing the North Island and 1 to the Southern Region covering the whole of the South Island together with Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands. The current concept of civil defence dates from December 1962 when the Civil Defence Act 1962 came into force. The setting up of regional and united councils under the Local Government Act 1974, each with a mandatory responsibility for civil defence, has led to a significant change in local government responsibilities and overall civil defence organisation. The 3 Ministry of Civil Defend Regions (Northern, Central and Southern) have very largely been replaced as each local government region is constituted a civil defence region.

Every territorial local authority has an obligation to prepare a civil defence plan, to set up a civil defence organisation, and to appoint a Local Controller of Civil Defence for the purpose of dealing with a disaster in its district should the use of civil defence measures be warranted. Neighbouring local authorities may unite for civil defence purposes and then together they have an obligation to prepare a joint local civil defence plan, to set up a combined civil defence organisation, and to appoint a Group Controller of Civil Defence. At 31 December 1982 there were 115 local and combined civil defence organisations (i.e., excluding regional organisations).

Every regional or united council has an obligation to prepare a civil defence plan, to appoint a Regional Controller of Civil Defence, and to set up the organisation necessary for dealing with a disaster in its region beyond the capability of any one particular local or combined civil defence organisation. Those regions in existence under the Local Government Act 1974, the Auckland Regional District, and the Chatham Islands County are constituted as Civil Defence Regions in the charge of a Regional Commissioner of the Ministry of Civil Defence located at Auckland, Palmerston North, or Christchurch. Each Regional Commissioner has several civil defence regions in his charge grouped for administrative convenience into the Northern, Central or Southern Civil Defence Zone. By 31 December 1982 the following civil defence regions had been constituted:

Auckland

Bay of Plenty

Northland

Waikato

Canterbury

Southland

Clutha-Central Otago

East Cape

Taranaki

Wanganui

Wairarapa

Manawatu

Thames Valley

Tongariro

Nelson Bays

Marlborough

West Coast

Horowhenua

Wellington

Each Regional Commissioner exercises powers and functions established in the Civil Defence Act 1962 under the general direction of the Director of Civil Defence in Wellington. The National Civil Defence Committee comprising the permanent heads of 14 Government departments most closely involved in disaster relief measures, together with the Chief of Defence Staff and the Chairman of the Fire Service Commission, has a responsibility to advise and assist the Minister and Director of Civil Defence in the planning and implementation of civil defence measures. Representatives appointed by members of this committee form regional civil defence advisory groups at Auckland, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch to provide a like service for Regional Commissioners.

A National Civil Defence Operational Headquarters is established in the sub-basement of the executive wing of Parliament Buildings and is in the charge of the Director of Civil Defence. This headquarters is ready for use but is activated only when required. It provides the means for coordinating the use of all Governmental and non-Governmental resources and, where necessary, for the control of the overall civil defence effort where a disaster situation makes demands which cannot be met by a Regional or United Council and the appropriate Regional Commissioner of Civil Defence. Each Regional Commissioner has an established operational headquarters (Auckland, Palmerston North, and Christchurch) to enable him to meet his operational responsibilities towards each civil defence region in his zone.

Further Information—The Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. Paper G.7) contains further information on the Civil Defence.

Chapter 10. Section 10; DEFENCE

The maintenance of defence forces and a defence potential in New Zealand are related to the support of broad national objectives. Some of these objectives are relatively fixed because they reflect unchanging basic factors, such as resources, geographical remoteness, and dependence on overseas trade. Others are the products of history or circumstances. The objectives of New Zealand's defence policy may be summed up as the preservation of national security and control of our own area, including the Exclusive Economic Zone, and the promotion of security in the region around us.

EVOLUTION OF THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE—Prior to 1 January 1964 there were 3 separate departments—Navy, Army, and Air—each responsible directly to the Ministry of Defence. Although this system was effective in the immediate post-war period, it became clear by the early 1960s that there was a need for a more fully co-ordinated system.

Following the passing of the Defence Act 1971 administration of the Armed Forces became more centralised.

For further information on the evolution of the Ministry of Defence refer to previous Yearbooks.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief is empowered to raise and maintain the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. These forces, together with public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, constitute the Ministry of Defence, which is responsible under the Minister for the central control of the whole field of national defence.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the ministry and principal civilian adviser to the Minister, responsible in particular for co-ordinating the business of the ministry as a whole, including long-term financial planning as well as supervision of defence expenditure. In accordance with the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the Secretary of Defence prescribes the pay, allowances, expenses, and other conditions of employment of all servicemen.

The Chief of Defence Staff is principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the services and reports to the Minister.

Defence Council—The Defence Council is responsible for the administration and, through the officers appointed for the purpose, the command of the New Zealand Armed Forces. The Defence Council consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the 3 services. The Secretary to the Treasury and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs are associate members. In addition, the council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of Defence Staff, the Defence Council assists the Minister in formulating defence policy or recommendations thereon.

MISSIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND ARMED FORCES—To achieve the objectives of New Zealand's defence policy, the armed forces have the following missions:

  1. To provide forces capable of quick response to any threat to New Zealand itself, of controlling the Exclusive Economic Zone, and at the same time of upholding New Zealand's wider national interests in the area of prime concern—the New Zealand region and the South Pacific.

  2. To demonstrate the force of New Zealand's commitment to ANZUS by participating effectively alongside allied units in military exercises.

  3. To maintain trained, mobile, and self-sufficient forces to provide, on request, military assistance, technical aid, surveillance of outside activities, search and rescue, and disaster relief services in the South Pacific.

  4. To maintain a capability for limited support of national research and other interests in Antarctica.

  5. To undertake limited joint training and exercises by invitation in South-east Asia, as a demonstration of continuing interest in stability and security in that region, and to continue to respond to requests from the ASEAN and South Pacific countries for limited military training in New Zealand.

  6. To provide a capability to contribute to international peacekeeping operations.

  7. To provide assistance to the New Zealand community.

CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—To facilitate exchanges on military matters, New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Jakarta, and Bangkok. In addition, some members of these staffs are duly accredited to other countries. The United Kingdom, Australia, and Malaysia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are service attachés on the staffs of the French, Indonesian, and United States Embassies in Wellington. Several other countries have service attachés accredited to, but not resident in, New Zealand.

DEFENCE SCIENCE—Co-ordination of defence science policy is carried out by the Ministry of Defence, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Advisory Council. Commonwealth and allied co-ordination is achieved by membership of specialised bodies.

The Defence Scientific Establishment in Auckland is the main research centre in the Ministry of Defence and carries out research in fields which involve all three services. The establishment also undertakes metallurgical and other specialised studies related to the adaption of equipment to the New Zealand environment.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—Expenditure on defence in the 4 latest years ended 31 March was made up as follows:

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1979198019811982
 $(million)
Personnel179.02203.32252.43306.65
Travel, transport, and communications12.0413.0716.6820.36
Maintenance, operation, upkeep, and rental23.0727.0333.2238.68
Materials and supplies47.6661.3690.53116.09
Services6.088.329.4310.93
Other operating expenditure1.832.683.856.54
Grants, contributions, subsidies0.590.780.900.62
Capital works9.239.1511.3515.55
Capital equipment19.9920.3837.5578.23
Total299.51346.09455.94593.65

About 79 percent of the Defence Vote is spent within New Zealand, mainly on salaries, capital works, servicing, and general operating costs. There is a deliberate policy to encourage greater logistic self-sufficiency both within New Zealand and in conjunction with Australia.

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross domestic product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Gross Domestic Product
* Excludes repayment of public debt.
 $(m)percentpercent
1978252.174.11.7
1979299.514.11.7
1980346.094.21.7
1981455.944.61.9
1982593.654.82.0

STRENGTH OF ARMED FORCES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the 3 services over the last 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19772 7265 4414 28912 456
19782 8255 7224 21712 764
19792 8275 6704 24212 739
19802 7565 6664 21912 641
19812 8115 7234 33412 868
19822 8615 6764 27112 808

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Navy vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Navy ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Naval Staff exercises command and control of the Royal New Zealand Navy assisted in the performance of his functions by the Naval Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

State of the Navy—Seagoing ships:

* HMNZS Taranaki was withdrawn from service and is to be sold for breaking up.

† On loan from U.S. Navy.

  
            Frigates (Leander class)Wellington 
Waikato11th Frigate Squadron.
Canterbury
            Frigates (Otago class)*Otago 
            Survey shipMonowai 
            Research shipTui  
            Patrol craftHawea        First New Zealand Patrol Craft Squadron. 
Taupo 
Rotoiti 
Pukaki 
            Inshore survey craftTakapu  
Tarapunga  
            RNZNVR motor launchesKoura  
Mako  
Paea  
Kahawai  
Kuparu  
            Diving tenderManawanui  
            Dockyard service craftArataki  

Shore Establishments—The naval base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore Auckland (the operational authority of the RNZN), HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and base support establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, the Naval Supply Depot, and the Dockyard.

HMNZS Tamaki is the training establishment for the Navy and is located at Narrow Neck, Devonport, Auckland.

The Dockyard is under the charge of a Captain Superintendent and is capable of refitting all units of the RNZN. The RNZN Armament Depot is situated at Kauri Point and the RNZN Hydrographic Office is at Takapuna.

HMNZS Irirangi is the naval radio receiving and transmitting station and is situated at Waiouru.

HMNZS Wakefield is the administrative unit for RNZN personnel in the Wellington area.

Strength of the Navy
CategoryAt 31 March
1979198019811982
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)307316325347
    Ratings (male and female)2 5202 4402 4862 514
        Total2 8272 7562 8112 861
Non-regular Forces
    Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve (officers)6060394
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve (all ranks)431293377452
    Royal New Zealand Navy Emergency List (officers)......46
    Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve (ratings)1 5471 712945785

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the 4 main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin — where reservists are given the basic elements of naval training.

THE NEW ZEALAND ARMY—The Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Defence Act 1971, and the policy outlined in the 1978 Defence Review. It comprises a Regular Force, Territorial Force, and Reserve elements. It is structured to provide:

  1. a group of Regular Force units available for rapid deployment on military operations or civil assistance tasks;

  2. a framework of integrated Regular Force/Territorial Force units as a basis for expansion as and when required.

New Zealand has maintained militia forces since the passing of the Militia Act of 1845. The first regular forces were the Armed Constabulary formed in 1846. The oldest continuously serving unit in the Army traces its history to February 1864.

Formed Army units have been dispatched overseas on active service in the South African War, World War I, World War II, occupation forces in Japan, plus Korea, Malaya and Borneo and subsequently Malaysia, and Viet Nam. Units have been stationed in Malaysia and subsequently Singapore since the termination of active service in Malaysia in 1966.

Command and Administration—The Chief of General Staff commands the Army, assisted by the General Staff and the staffs of Defence Headquarters. Command is exercised through a Headquarters; Land Forces, 3 Regional Headquarters, and the Army Training Group.

State of the Army

Major Regular Force Units—

2 infantry battalions (1 in Singapore)

Major Integrated Regular Force/Territorial Force Units—

6 infantry battalions

2 artillery regiments

3 armoured squadrons (1 cavalry, 2 armoured personnel carriers.)

1 field engineer regiment

5 signals squadrons

1 SAS squadron

3 transport regiments

3 field workshops

3 supply companies

2 field ambulances

Major Weapons and Armoured Fighting Vehicles—

5 light tanks

72 M113 armoured personnel carrier-type vehicles

10 5.5 inch medium guns

44 105 mm guns/howitzers

19 106 mm recoiless rifles

Strength of the Army
CategoryAt 31 March
1979198019811982
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)701717723712
    Other ranks (male and female)4 9694 9495 0004 964
    Total5 6705 6665 7235 676
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Force (all ranks)5 9036 0046 1506 289
    Officers Reserve581631629636
    Class A Reserve
                                    Other ranks
    Class B Reserve
 
1 ***1 4121 5821 389

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—The Royal New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service by the Air Force Act 1937 and its administration was vested in an Air Department which was responsible for military aviation and the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand. With the passing of the 1964 Defence Act the Air Department was absorbed into the Ministry of Defence.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Air Staff exercises command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Air Force assisted in the performance of his functions by the air staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—The RNZAF in New Zealand is divided into 2 groups and 1 independent base; in addition, 1 support unit with rotary winged aircraft forms part of the New Zealand forces based in Singapore. Operations Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base Auckland, is responsible for all operational functions and operational flying training, and Support Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base, Wigram, is responsible for all formal individual training (except advanced pilot training) and certain support functions. RNZAF Base, Shelly Bay, acts as the supporting administrative and domestic base for all RNZAF personnel assigned to Wellington for duty in Air Staff and Defence Headquarters.

The RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area, and for the New Zealand civil defence organisation. In addition, the RNZAF provides support to civil and government agencies, which cannot be provided by civil aviation facilities.

The operational units of the RNZAF comprise: a utility helicopter support unit based in Singapore as part of the New Zealand Force, South-east Asia; maritime, long- and medium-range transport and helicopter squadrons based at RNZAF Base Auckland; fighter and medium-range transport communications squadrons at RNZAF Base, Ohakea. Flying training units are located at RNZAF Bases, Wigram and Ohakea, while ground training is carried out at RNZAF Bases, Auckland, Woodbourne, and Wigram. The RNZAF Museum is also located at Wigram.

Engineering—Direction of RNZAF engineering services is co-ordinated by Air Staff, Defence Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to bases and squadrons. A range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture of aeronautical equipment is carried out at No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Base Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry in New Zealand and overseas.

Strength of the Air Force
CategoryAt 31 March
1979198019811982
Regular Forces
      Officers (male and female)654662657711
      Airmen and airwomen3 5883 5573 6773 560
            Total4 2424 2194 3344 271
Non-regular Forces
      Territorial Air Force164147189205
      Active Reserve9161 0091 069947
      General Reserve470314285238
            Total1 5501 4701 5431 390
State of the RNZAF 
AircraftPrimary Role
16 StrikemastersAdvanced flying training, strike-role training
12 SkyhawksOffensive air-support operations
2 Boeing 727Air transport
5 HerculesAir transport
10 AndoversAir transport
3 Cessna 421CAir transport
5 OrionsMaritime operations
14 Iroquois helicoptersUtility helicopter operations
9 Sioux helicoptersLight observation helicopter operations
3 Wasp helicoptersShipborne helicopters
4 AirtourersInitial pilot training
15 Airtrainers
3 FriendshipsNavigation training

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS: Five Power Defence Arrangements—The Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, under which New Zealand had maintained forces in Malaysia as part of a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve was terminated in *** 1971. It was replaced by the Five-power Defence Arrangements, effective November 1971, *** Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom separately concluded agreements with Malaysia and Singapore. Within the framework of these arrangements, and at the request of the governments of Malaysia and Singapore, the 3 first-mentioned nations agreed to station elements of their armed forces in these countries. These elements were initially grouped into an ANZUK force, but the decision by Australia in 1973 to withdraw a substantial portion of its ground forces from the region led to a decision by New Zealand and the United Kingdom to establish separate national command arrangements. Accordingly, with effect from 31 January 1974, command of the New Zealand elements of the ANZUK force was transferred to the Commander, New Zealand Force South-east Asia. This New Zealand contribution to stability in the area currently comprises an infantry battalion, a utility helicopter support unit, a headquarters, periodic deployment of RNZAF strike aircraft to the area, and sundry supporting units. The withdrawal of British Forces from the area was completed in 1976.

United Nations Observers—New Zealand currently has 4 United Nations observers stationed in the Middle East.

Sinai Multinational Force and Observers—New Zealand is a contributor to the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) in Sinai which was set up to verify compliance with the terms of the Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel. Australia and New Zealand are jointly providing the helicopter element of the MFO Aviation Support Group. New Zealand's contribution is 35 military personnel and 2 Iroquois helicopters.

MUTUAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME—New Zealand maintains a Mutual Assistance Programme with 8 Pacific and ASEAN countries (Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Tonga). The programme aims to support New Zealand foreign policy objectives by strengthening bilateral relations in defence with countries which share common strategic interests with New Zealand, and to increase the effectiveness of the Armed Forces. In return, New Zealand seeks access to training facilities and deployment opportunities in these countries. Training is given in New Zealand in a wide range of military activities from individual training courses to company-sized joint exercises. In addition, training teams are regularly deployed overseas to conduct courses to provide advice and practical assistance, and a small number of New Zealand military officers are sent to other countries for periods of up to 2 years as instructors. Senior officers are invited to this country for familiarisation and planning visits and, where opportunity offers, items of minor equipment are supplied from New Zealand stocks.

Antarctica Support—Between November-December 1981 the RNZAF made 10 return trips to McMurdo Sound transporting 329 549 lbs of freight and 173 passengers. RNZAF and Army personnel provided cargo handling assistance at Harewood and McMurdo Sound in support of United States National Science Foundation operations in Antarctica during October 1981-February 1982. A cargo handling team of 22 Army personnel deployed to Antarctica during the first week of October 1981, was replaced by a similar team in early December. A third team of 13 RF and TF Army personnel was deployed to Antarctica over January 1982 to help with the unloading of sea cargoes at McMurdo Sound.

The RNZAF provided an air movements specialist to assist with cargo handling operations for the whole season. Dialing September 1982-January 1983 17 Royal New Zealand Engineer personnel assisted with the accommodation rebuild at Scott Base.

COMMUNITY ASSISTANCE: Hydrographic Survey—The RNZN has undertaken marine surveys since 1949 and is the sole authority for the production of nautical charts in New Zealand. The area of charting responsibility covers a wide area of the South-west Pacific from Tuvalu in the north to the Ross Sea in Antarctica. To undertake this task HMNZS Monowai which entered service in 1978 carries out oceanic and off-shore surveys, and the two inshore survey craft, Takapu and Tarapunga carry out inshore and minor surveys around the New Zealand coast. HMNZS Monowai also regularly conducts surveys on behalf of South Pacific countries.

Fishery Protection—The introduction of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone on 1 April 1978 increased the need to maintain a surveillance and policing effort. To undertake this task, the frigates are employed part time and the 4 patrol craft are employed full time on fishery protection patrols. Surveillance flights are undertaken by RNZAF Orion, Andover, and Friendship aircraft.

Search and Rescue (SAR)—The RNZAF flew a total of 352 hours in search and rescue operations during the year ended 31 March 1982. Thirty-one people were brought to safety in66 incidents. The RNZAF, in conjunction with the Army and the Police, provided SAR training assistance during the year in the form of demonstrations, lectures, and static displays to local SAR organisations. RNZN vessels took part in 8 SAR operations, most of which were mounted for missing vessels.

Miscellaneous—Other assistance provided to the community includes fire-fighting and co-operative tasks with the Forest Service, NZR, NZED, and Meteorological Service; explosive ordnance disposal; assistance in civil emergencies; participation in ceremonial occasions; and the carriage of supplies and personnel to New Zealand's offshore islands on behalf of other Government departments. The RNZN, RNZAF and the Army gave assistance to Tonga following cyclone Isaac.

NEW ZEALAND CADET FORCES—The Cadet Forces were established under the Defence Act 1971 and comprise the Sea Cadets, Air Training Corps, and School Cadet Corps.

The Cadet Forces are primarily community-based youth training groups aimed at teaching leadership, comradeship, self confidence, and good citizenship to boys and girls between the ages of 13 and 18 years. Sponsorship is jointly provided by the community, the Government through the Ministry of Defence, the Navy and Air Cadet Leagues, and the schools in which cadet units are established.

On 30 June 1982 the Cadet Forces comprised 949 sea cadets led by 98 officers in 16 town and 3 school units, 3459 Army school cadets led by 118 officers in 16 units, and 3151 Air Training Corps cadets led by 226 officers in 50 town and 3 school units.

STRENGTHS OF ARMED FORCES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18—A total of 124 211 persons (including 91 941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these, 100 444 went overseas.

Second World War, 1939–45—The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—during the Second World War was 194 000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10 000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140 000 persons served overseas.

Korean War, 1950–53—During the period of hostilities June 1950 to July 1953, a total of 3271 army personnel, almost all volunteers, served *** Korea.

In addition the RNZN maintained 2 frigates continuously in Korean waters, involving 1310 RNZN personnel.

Vietnam War, 1964–1972—Armed forces involved in active service in Vietnam included 3760 New Zealand Army, 24 RNZN and 58 RNZAF personnel.

SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE—The New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969 gave statutory recognition to the New Zealand Security Service, which was established on 28 November 1956.

Subject to the control of the Minister in Charge of the Security Intelligence Service, the functions of the service are to obtain, correlate, and evaluate intelligence relevant to security; to advise Ministers on security matters; to co-operate as far as practicable and necessary with State Services and other public authorities in New Zealand and abroad in the performance of its functions; and to inform the New Zealand Intelligence Council on any new area of potential espionage, sabotage, terrorism, or subversion in respect of which the Director has considered it necessary to institute surveillance.

It is not a function of the Security Intelligence Service to enforce measures for security nor to institute surveillance of any person or class of persons by reason only of his, her, or their involvement in lawful protest or dissent in respect of any matter affecting the Constitution, laws, or the Government of New Zealand.

There is a Commissioner of Security Appeals, to whom complaints may be made in writing at the office of the High Court in Wellington.

During the year ended 31 March 1982, 5 interception warrants were used. The average length of time the warrants were in force was four months and nine days. For the same period in 1981, 4 interception warrants were issued, 1 of which was not executed. Each warrant involved the use of a listening device, and the average length of time the warrants were in force was 3 months and 20 days.

Expenditure on the Security Intelligence Service for the 5 latest years is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross ExpenditureIncrease Over Previous YearIncrease in Total Government Expenditure
 $(000)percentpercent
19781,2103421
19791,6743818
19802,2153213
19813,3415122
19823,8791621

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Ministry of Defence (Parl. paper G. 4).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Abbotsford Landslip Disaster (Parl. paper H. 7).

Report of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service (Parl. paper G. 35).

Chapter 11. Section 11; LAND DEVELOPMENT AND USE

11 A—PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

Planning for economic development and growth is the concern of a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, manufacturing, transport, forestry, building, mineral development, and energy production. New Zealand is at present undergoing complex structural change with high resource costs and pressure on financial resources, and therefore a need for more careful selection of investment, even though demand has slackened. Within the urban areas themselves, competing demands for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational land have arisen as proponents of each particular use have sought their most suitable available location. Left unchecked, these conflicts of interest could lead to unsatisfactory and uneconomic patterns of development. This has necessitated a planning framework within which competing demands can be resolved.

In recent years, world opinion has had forced upon it an appreciation of the damage to the environment, in the form of pollution and the destruction of natural resources, that can result from uncontrolled economic development. New Zealand, during the early years of the last century, suffered what is now recognised to have been irreparable damage from the destruction of native forests and wildlife. However, during the last decade New Zealand has taken warning from the unfortunate experiences of some more highly developed countries. Concern for possible future effects of economic growth on the environment led to the holding of the Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 and has resulted in the enacting of what is, by world standards, advanced environmental legislation.

LAND USE—With almost 27 million hectares of land and a population of 3.2 million, New Zealand has not in the past been conscious of the problems of resource utilisation experienced in the more densely settled countries. An extensive coastline (approximately 11 000 km), great variety of landscape and responsive soils, and a generally favourable climate at lower altitudes are some of the assets which, because of the small population, have been utilised without any serious detrimental effects on the social and economic fabric. In retrospect, however, it is apparent that some of the land and other resources have been wastefully exploited. Maori settlement brought significant ecological changes, largely through fires and hunting. The impact of European settlement was much greater, measured by the large areas of indigenous forest cover destroyed, the extensive native grasslands burnt for sheep grazing and ploughed for crops and sown pasture, the wetlands drained and reclaimed, the unsightly tailings left after gold mining, the increase in soil erosion, and the general loss of wildlife habitats.

The growth and changing distribution of the population have been strongly influenced by the distribution of the most productive soils. In the nineteenth century, when the population was small, the ultimate results of preferential settlement of the best agricultural land were not appreciated. Generally, the most productive areas became the most prosperous when the towns within them grew, and it was at the expense of the most productive soils. Later, manufacturing and tertiary industries tended to be located in these towns because of the labour, markets, and services they offered.

Between 1949 and 1964 urbanisation claimed about 15 800 hectares of good farming land, and expansion up to 1984 could require another 30 000 hectares of land. Considering that the total area of good farming land includes approximately 8 300 000 hectares of first-class pastoral land and 500 000 hectares of first-class cropping land and that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, this is not considered a serious problem on a national scale. In certain localities, however, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on agricultural production in the future. The problem is most acute around the Auckland area, the population of which is now about 840 000. It is not possible to reverse the historical factors that have determined the present population distribution, but the national policy for the protection of the soils potentially most productive may avoid this in future. In the past, economic growth has been pursued with scant regard for its impact on the environment. Single and immediate use rather than balanced long-term use of resources has been the common practice, and has tended to place the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps.

The problem now is how to combine the economic and social pressures on soil, water, plant, and fauna resources with the maintenance of ecological and aesthetic qualities.

The general purpose of regional or district planning schemes under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 is the wise use and management of the resources, and the direction and control of the development of a region, district, or area for the overall benefit of the whole community.

Emphasis is given to the conservation, protection, and enhancement of the physical, cultural, and social environment, the wise use and management of New Zealand's natural resources, and the preservation of the natural character of the environment.

In New Zealand the provision of extensive national parks and smaller reserves has done much to preserve (at least in selected areas) the characteristic beauty and ecological values of the landscape, and to make it accessible to the general public for recreation and enjoyment.

Development schemes causing modification of natural features can, in the planning stage, make provision for restraint, restoration, and even the addition of compensating amenities. The rate of development in New Zealand must make this an essential ingredient of planning. But it must be stressed that there will be no more completely unmodified or true wilderness country. Once it is destroyed, wilderness is gone forever. Wilderness is extremely fragile, and soil erosion, degradation, of vegetation, and destruction of animal species can come about through any alteration of the environment, even the most innocent access road.

Scientific investigations and research have reinforced the validity of the beliefs based on sentiment and aesthetics that there are dangers in any disturbance of natural equilibrium of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and stabilised land-forms, or in the pollution of any of them. Changes in the balance of dominance of even obscure organisms or a slowly declining water-table can be factors in the deterioration of countryside. It is essential to retain reference areas from which the changes in soils, plants, and animals resulting from man's activities can be assessed. A whole catchment will usually be the desirable minimum effective area.

Conservation, however, means much more than the preservation of scenic and scientific values. It implies the maintenance without diminution of the basic land resources on which New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based. Of these resources the most important are soil, water, and vegetation, the last both natural and introduced, and both forests and grasslands. The concept of conserving soil, water, forest, and grassland resources is dynamic rather than static, and embodies the principle of preservation through wise use.

The problems are capable of solution provided there is a sufficient understanding by administrators and by the public of the importance (and often the interdependence) of the different values involved and of the ecological implications of any decision affecting land use. Conflicts between different demands on the countryside are inevitable, but with adequate planning and management they are mostly capable of resolution. For example, an agriculturally productive landscape can provide such rich and satisfying contacts with the diversity of nature that in many ways the man-made landscape based on agriculture or forestry need be little less interesting and satisfying than the wild one. Likewise, soil conservation practices not only restore vitality and health to the soil but also create pleasing patterns in the landscape.

The total area of New Zealand, excluding the Ross Dependency in the Antarctic, but including minor islands, is estimated to be 26 880 800 hectares.

The broad grouping of land use is shown in the following table.

Land UseHectares (million)
* Includes relatively small areas in cities and boroughs.
Occupied farm land—
  Improved grassland9.47
  Tussock and other native grassland used for grazing4.68
        Total grassland14.15
  Land for crops, nurseries, and fallow.0.45
  Plantations of exotic trees0.88
  Other land on farm holdings5.76
        Total occupied farm land21.24
Land in cities and boroughs0.37
National parks, reserves, and domains2.69*
Other land, including waste land, such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.2.58
        Total land26.88

Land Use Advisory Council—The Land Use Advisory Council has the task of developing criteria on which sound land use decisions can be made; and its terms of reference require it to have regard to physical, ecological, economic, social, environmental, and other relevant factors. Members of the council represent Maori, departmental, farming, scientific, and geographic interests. As its name implies, the council is an advisory body to the Government. The criteria are intended to guide the use of lands of the Crown but these and related guidelines will also assist all who are required to make rural land use decisions. The council has reviewed the experiences of a number of overseas countries in planning land development, use, and management. Consideration has also been given to the various legitimate uses of the nation's land, including such non-productive use (in terms of food or goods) as recreation, soil conservation and water management, the preservation of wildlife, and historic and ecological management; and some thought has gone into the means for determining which use shall take priority in the event of there being strong competing claims.

The council has sponsored a series of seminars aimed at encouraging wider community awareness of the physical, biological, economic, social, and environmental values which influence (or should influence) rural land use decisions. The findings from the seminars have assisted in developing a national land use policy and guidelines.

FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING—New Zealand's principal planning legislation, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, provides a process by which needs, opportunities, and issues relating to land and water use can be identified and appropriate objectives and policies formulated. Measures can then be embodied in regional, district, and maritime planning schemes.

The purpose of planning is defined in the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 as being “the wise use and management of the resources, and the direction and control of the development of a region, district, or area in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the health, safety, and convenience, and the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare, of the people and the amenities of every part of the region, district, or area”.

Opportunities for public participation in town and country planning were enhanced by the 1977 Act. The third-party rights of objection now include “ any body or person representing some relevant aspect of the public interest”.

The revision of the Town and Country Planning Act also provided an opportunity for greater emphasis on environmental matters, and for the implementation of the Government's policy of integrating the procedures laid down in the various “environmental” statutes such as the Reserves Act, the Forests Act, and the Historic Places Act.

Matters to be dealt with in district schemes in particular include (to quote the Schedule to the Act):

"The preservation or conservation of—

  1. Buildings, objects, and areas of architectural, historic, scientific, or other interest or of visual appeal;

  2. Trees, bush, plants, or landscape of scientific, wildlife, or historic interest, or of visual appeal;

  3. The amenities of the district."

In the administration of district planning schemes, there must be regard to section 3 of the Act which includes specific reference to the protection and enhancement of the environment as a matter of national importance.

In considering appeals against any public work the Planning Tribunal is required to have regard to criteria whether the site is suitable for the proposed work, and the economic, social, and environmental effects of the proposal.

All public bodies, including the Crown, are now required to adhere to the provisions of any approved regional planning scheme. All public works are subject to the procedures laid down in Part VI of the Act, which requires that all Crown proposals which are not in conformity with the provisions of the relevant district scheme are to be advertised and to be subject to rights of objection and appeal. In the case of Crown works, the Minister of Works and Development can (as an alternative to an appeal) request the tribunal to conduct a public inquiry which must take into account the “economic, social, and environmental effects of the proposal and such other matters as the Minister may determine”.

National Planning—In the preparation, implementation, and administration of regional, district, and maritime planning schemes the following matters, which are declared to be of national importance, must be recognised and provided for:

  • the conservation, protection, and enhancement of the physical, cultural, and social environment;

  • the wise use and management of New Zealand's resources;

  • the preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and the margins of lakes and rivers, and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development;

  • the avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of, land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food;

  • the prevention of sporadic subdivision and urban development in rural areas;

  • the avoidance of unnecessary expansion of urban areas into rural areas in or adjoining cities;

  • the relationship of the Maori people and their culture and traditions with their ancestral land.

The first two and the last two of these considerations were introduced under the 1977 Town and Country Planning Act.

Regional Planning—Regional planning is concerned with establishing policies and programmes at all levels of government which reflect the needs and desires of the people of each region, and which are reconciled with the national interest and competing demands for national resources. Urban centres and rural areas cannot be planned in isolation from each other or from the nation as a whole.

Under the 1977 Town and Country Planning Act regional planning has four main features, all of which are new:

  1. Regional planning is the responsibility of united and regional councils.

  2. Regional planning schemes are to be approved by the Government before they come into operation.

  3. Approved regional planning schemes must be adhered to by the Crown and every local and public authority.

  4. District and maritime planning schemes must conform with approved regional planning schemes.

Matters to be dealt with in regional planning schemes have been greatly expanded under the new Act to embrace social, economic, and environmental policies. Reference is made for example to “natural resources and environment—the identification, preservation, and development of the regions' natural resources including water, soil, air and other natural systems, farmlands, forests, fisheries, minerals … and areas of value for the enjoyment of nature and the landscape”.

Under the Local Government Act 1974 regional or united councils are being established for all regions of New Zealand, and these will all have regional planning responsibilities and powers given under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977. The combined effect of these Acts is likely to emerge as a major constitutional innovation. The regional planning process offers a means by which local and Central Government, representing the regional communities and the national interest respectively, can reach agreement on development and welfare policies and priorities for the allocation of resources for each region. Agreement can be expressed in the regional planning scheme, and changes of policy can be worked out within the process of changing the scheme.

The new system does not introduce another tier of government, rather it is aimed at giving a regional dimension to Central Government programmes and a common policy base to local government activity.

Regional Planning Process—The key provision of the new legislation will be the requirement that once regional schemes have been agreed to by the Central Government, all public authorities, both central and local, will be required to give effect to their provisions. The significance of this step lies in the practical necessity it creates for local and Central Government agencies to take a constructive part, along with the regional community, in the formulation of the objectives, policies, programmes, and other provisions of each scheme. Responsibility for initiating regional planning action lies with the regional and united councils, which will operate through regional planning committees that include a representative of the Crown.

What the new regional planning legislation aims to provide is a process that allows for the public evaluation of options and alternatives—the determination of objectives and policies, and the adoption of a programme of implementation that is related to community priorities and the resources available.

National policies, or changes in policy, on such matters as energy development, transportation, afforestation, or housing finance can have marked regional implications and significantly affect regional prosperity and well being. It is important therefore that expressed regional preferences and priorities are considered as an integral part of national policy formulation, and that the regional consequences of national policies are understood before they are adopted. Two-way communication between the Central Government and the regions must be a vital element in any new process. The new regional bodies and the regional planning system provide the opportunity for this, and for expressing agreed measures in regional planning schemes.

District Planning—Every district scheme under the Act is required to have as its general purpose the wise use and management of the resources of the district, and the direction and control of its development, in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare of the people and the preservation of the amenities of the district. It must also recognise and provide for matters of national importance defined in the Act. Every city, borough, and county council or other authority responsible for the general administration of a district must provide and maintain a district scheme unless exempted by the Minister of Works and Development. Any such exemptions are likely to apply only to districts of small population where little change is expected.

Councils are now beginning to recognise the potential of the district planning scheme as an effective instrument for bringing about innovative change not only in land use control but also in environmental management and local administration in general. The key to this is the greater emphasis being placed on the scheme statement as a means of expressing policies which have been subjected to the formal approval procedures, including objection and appeal, that the Planning Act provides. A renewed concern for a more humane basis to planning has focussed on the destruction of areas of natural beauty near urban areas, the loss of historic areas of cities, and the destruction of neighbourhood communities as past errors which must not be repeated. With this in mind, a number of councils have recently made provision for Special Character Zones. These are zones which have a special character derived from the age, condition, or character of the buildings or general layout. In these zones the aim is to preserve the special character (using controls where necessary) by encouraging new buildings designed in sympathy with the existing environment, and by more liberal approaches to the rehabilitation and use of existing properties. Currently there are also moves towards allowing far greater social and economic diversity in rural areas.

The need to plan for areas below mean high water mark, which are subject to increasing pressures from various demands, led to the introduction of maritime planning under Part V of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977.

The provisions provide a statutory procedure to establish maritime planning areas on the joint recommendation of the Minister of Works and Development and the Minister of Transport; and to appoint maritime planning authorities.

Four maritime planning areas have been established covering the Waitemata, Manukau, and Wellington Harbours, and the Marlborough Sounds.

In each case the respective harbour board has been appointed the maritime planning authority.

If the maritime planning area is within harbour limits, the appropriate harbour board becomes the authority, unless it declines the appointment.

The authority is required to set up a maritime planning committee with representation on it from the regional or united council, the regional water board, territorial local authorities, and the Central Government. Maritime planning schemes are not expected to cover the whole of the coast, but only those areas where there are problems of conservation and management or conflict between the use of the water and adjacent land areas.

In addition, under Part I of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Minister of Works and Development may extend regional boundaries to include adjacent water areas and this provides for the planning of land and water to be brought together under the same administration. Many united or regional councils are having their regional boundaries extended to include harbours and coastal waters.

National Development Act 1979—The National Development Act provides for “the prompt consideration of proposed works of national importance by the direct referral of the proposals to the Planning Tribunal for an inquiry and report and by providing for such works to receive the necessary consents” (preamble to Act).

Under the Act, application can be made to the Minister of National Development for the status of national importance to be applied to a proposed work. The procedures which follow are initiated by Order in Council which may be made by the Governor-General if he considers that the work is major and likely to be in the national interest, and that it is essential that a decision be made promptly as to whether or not the consents sought should be granted. The Governor-General must also be satisfied that the work is essential to the development of New Zealand's resources, or self-sufficiency in energy, or expansion of exports, or import substitution, or to the development of significant employment opportunities.

Following the Order in Council the application is referred to the Planning Tribunal. Details of the proposal are sent to all authorities who might normally grant approvals under the terms of 22 statutes listed in the schedule to the Act, notably the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 and the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967. These authorities send a report to the Planning Tribunal. At the same time an environmental impact report, prepared by the applicant, is submitted to the Commissioner for the Environment who calls for public comments. The report is audited by the commissioner and the audit is made available to the public.

The Planning Tribunal then considers, at a public inquiry, the matters concerning consents being sought by the applicant. Any body or person affected by the work or representing some relevant aspect of the public interest have a right to be present and heard at the inquiry, as of course does the applicant himself. The Minister of Works and Development, the Commissioner for the Environment, and every statutory authority which would otherwise grant consents (and had earlier reported to the tribunal) must be represented and available for cross examination at the inquiry.

Following the inquiry, the tribunal reports and makes recommendations to the Minister of National Development. The report is made available to the public. After taking into account the tribunal's report and recommendations and the criteria to which a work of national importance must conform, the Governor-General by Order in Council may then declare the work to be of national importance, granting the consents sought in the application, with such modifications, conditions, restrictions, or prohibitions as he thinks appropriate. The effect of the Order in Council is therefore to apply consents to the construction and operation of a particular work as if the consent had been granted under the provisions of the various Acts which would have applied.

The Act includes provisions and procedures for the variation or cancellation of such conditions as might be specified in the Order in Council. Any legal proceedings arising from any consents relating to work approved under the Act are subject to priority proceedings in the courts.

The National Development Amendment Act 1981 clarifies the power of the Planning Tribunal to award costs to any party and empowers the Tribunal to order an applicant to pay costs incurred by statutory authorities in investigating and reporting on consents sought. The act also clarifies that the Planning Tribunal's power to consider the consents sought is the same as under other legislation and that all legal challenges are referred directly and finally to the Court of Appeal.

The Act is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development.

RECREATIONAL LAND—New Zealand is fortunate in that a large area of native forests was set aside in the early days in reserves of various types (climatic reserves, scenery preservation reserves, reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna, and reserves for the growth and preservation of timber). As a result New Zealand is well endowed with forested wilderness and with other native forests having scenic, recreational, and wildlife values. Per head of population, New Zealand probably has a larger area of forests of this type than any other developed country. Early land administrators laid the basis for a national park, a forest park, and a protection forestry system which is widely envied.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for the study of wildlife (plant and animal); for walking and tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the attractive forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation; recreational use can be allowed in almost all such protection forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting can be of benefit through its contribution in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes the improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

In order to avoid the mistakes inherent in haphazard development, the National Parks and Reserves Authority has for some years been encouraging national park boards to prepare management plans for their respective parks. These plans establish concepts and guidelines for the preservation and use of national parks, and afford the means by which park use and management can be reconciled with the preservation in perpetuity of the park's scenic beauty, and natural and historic features.

The older exotic forests also offer the attractions that only a sylvan setting can provide and have the advantage of accessibility. In many places, walks and picnic spots have been prepared for use by the public, and selected areas will be preserved from felling for their scenic value.

A related topic is the protection and conservation of bush and trees within urban areas. Not only do trees and areas of bush provide beauty and additional amenities in urban surroundings, but they provide habitats for birds and other wildlife, encourage the cycling of water and nutrients, and assist with erosion control. Local authorities have the power to require that, when land is subdivided, trees and bush areas shall be preserved.

Until recently little was done to secure in public ownership those areas where most New Zealanders take their holidays—by the water. Along the north and north-east coasts, where the climate is best and the population densest, many of the most desirable areas of coastline have already been subdivided, notably on the North Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Coromandel coasts. Besides limiting public access, this can destroy scenic values. Similar considerations apply in respect of lakes, rocks, and offshore islands. In recent years the Crown has purchased a number of islands or parts of islands for reserve purposes. Some of these are grouped in the Hauraki Gulf and Marlborough Sounds Maritime Parks. Moves are being made to control subdivision in coastal and lakeshore areas.

Access along rivers 3 metres wide, lakes in excess of 8 hectares, and foreshores has usually been provided: on all alienations of Crown land since 1886, on private subdivision for towns near rivers or the sea coast since 1923, and on partitions of Maori land in counties since 1967.

The Land Act has provided since 1948 that around every lake with an area of 8 hectares or more there shall be laid off a strip not less than 1 chain in width.

ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES

In addition to the Government departments with responsibilities for administering a diversity of legislation for the protection of the physical environment, there are several authorities with responsibilities for the physical and social environment. Some of the more prominent of these are discussed below.

COMMISSION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT—The ministerial portfolio for the environment and the Commission for the Environment were established in 1972. The Minister's responsibility is to ensure that the Government has before it the best information available on the environmental aspects of projects and policies under consideration and on the possible effects of current trends on the future environmental well-being of the country.

The commission functions as a small investigatory and advisory agency without executive or management responsibility apart from the administration of the Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973. It undertakes studies for the Minister and investigates and makes recommendations on the environmental implications of proposed Government projects and policies. It can have an initiating and co-ordinating role on environmental issues which are assuming new importance in a changing society, or for which responsibility is shared by several management agencies. The commission's overall role is to assist in the development of policies designed to promote sound physical and social environmental management.

A major responsibility of the commission is to audit environmental impact reports. These are written appraisals of the environmental consequences expected from new developments or policies. The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures which have been in force since 1 March 1974 and which were revised in 1981 require environmental impact reports for all major projects of the Central Government and for all other projects that need Government approvals or funds. The steel mill expansion, two petro-chemical plants, the proposed aluminium smelter, options for transporting iron sand concentrate, and additional hydro-electric power development on the Clutha River have been among the projects recently reported on. More than 80 such reports have been subject to commission audit since the procedures came into being.

The procedures which the commission administers provide for the critical examination of environmental effects expected from the projects or alternatives to them and include provision for public submissions to the commission, which produces a written audit of the environmental impact report and the project. The audit is sent to the authority promoting the project and is published before a decision is taken on the proposal.

The National Development Act 1979 and its 1981 amendments require an environmental impact report to be prepared on all Government and private projects which follow the approval procedures of that Act. Under the Act, the Commissioner for the Environment is required to audit such reports and is given independent standing to appear in subsequent hearings. The Petralgas methanol plant, the synthetic petrol plant (both in Taranaki) and the Aramoana aluminium smelter (now indefinitely postponed) are projects so far audited by the commissioner under this legislation. The commission stimulated the initiation of a social sciences project to assess the impacts of energy developments in Taranaki.

Aside from its role under these procedures, in which it is largely reacting to the proposals of others, the commission also initiates studies aimed at drawing attention to important environment questions facing the country. The possible environmental effects of the use of new technologies and toxic chemicals, the protection of sections of wild water in the river systems of the country, community noise, landscape quality, waste disposal, packaging, and produce charges on packaged goods, are some examples of studies initiated by the commission. Other initiatives are taken in organising discussion groups and seminars on a wide range of issues that often involve bringing together representatives from Government departments, agencies, industry, and environment groups. The commission has spearheaded the production of a New Zealand coastal atlas, and participated in the formulation of a proposed New Zealand conservation strategy. In addition to the development and production of education resource material for school and community use, the commission has taken part in developing the theory of environmental education, formulating a proposal for a national strategy, and designing education courses.

The Commission for the Environment also services the independent guardian groups established to advise the Government on the ways in which areas of important environmental interest should be safeguarded. Three such groups have been appointed—the Guardians of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, the Guardians of the Rotorua Lakes, and the Guardians of Lake Wanaka.

Liaison between New Zealand and international agencies concerned with environmental matters is a further function of the commission. At the Government's invitation the OECD Environment Committee undertook a review of New Zealand's environmental policies and management and published its report, Environmental Policies in New Zealand. The other major liaison role is with United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); New Zealand participates in a number of UNEP activities and helped to establish the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) which became operative in 1980. In 1981 and 1982 Commission officers undertook two SPREP assignments in the South Pacific; a report to the Government of Fiji on environmental evaluation procedures, and a feasibility study for a proposed environmental atlas of the South Pacific.

The commission's staff covers a wide range of environmental disciplines but an important feature of its operations is collaboration with other agencies with the expertise required for the evaluation of particular aspects of projects under study.

ENVIRONMENTAL COUNCIL—The Environmental Council was established in 1970 following the Physical Environment Conference held in May of that year. It reports to the Government through the Minister for the Environment.

The constitution of the council provides for 16 members, including the chairman who is not a serving Government official. Five Government departments are represented—Treasury, Health, New Zealand Forest Service, Works and Development, and Lands and Survey. Three positions are drawn from those

with experience in municipal and county local government, and regional planning; the remaining positions are filled by private citizens with knowledge and experience in environmental matters or appropriate qualifications.

The council has no executive powers. Its terms of reference are:

  1. To advise the Minister for the Environment on such matters as he may refer to it and on such matters as the council may raise itself on the state and trend of the environment and on measures to be taken to manage it.

  2. To publish from time to time such information upon environmental problems as the council considers necessary to serve the public interest.

  3. To co-operate with other sector councils in matters of mutual interest; in particular, to provide the Planning Council with information, forecasts, and data arising from the above, and requested by the council to enable it to carry out its functions.

The main role of the council is to advise on general matters of policy and principle rather than to examine the environmental consequences of specific projects. It has, however, alluded to specific developments to illustrate its concerns. Examples of the policy issues in which the council has been involved are the environmental implications of wetland use and management, energy policy and mining developments.

NATURE CONSERVATION COUNCIL—The Nature Conservation Council was set up by statute in 1962. It can enquire into the effects of any proposed public or private works in areas of scenic, scientific, or recreational interest, and it makes recommendations to the Government through the Minister of Lands. The council's concerns include electric power schemes, location of power and telephone lines, roading, harbour reclamations, native forests, mining applications, air and water pollution, recommendations for reserves, and aspects of town and country planning. Although it has access to Government information, it speaks with an independent voice, and is able to make public any of its reports or recommendations.

The council frequently advises non-Government conservation groups and co-ordinates their views. It also keeps the general public informed through its environmental publications, and through its sponsorship of Conservation Week each year. The Government grant for Conservation Week activities was withdrawn in 1982.

As a member of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (which held its 15th General Assembly in Christchurch in October 1981) the council has published the Red Data Book of New Zealand, which describes rare and endangered species of endemic terrestrial vertebrates and vascular plants, and initiated the preparation of a proposal for a New Zealand Conservation Strategy.

The aim of the New Zealand Conservation Strategy is to achieve five main objectives. These are to:

  • protect ecological processes, and life-support systems (such as freshwater and coastal systems, soil, forest, scrub, grassland, urban and agroecosystems) on which human survival and development depend;

  • provide for cultural, spiritual and other non-material needs of society by the protection of, and development of diversity in the use of, natural resources;

  • preserve genetic diversity (the range of genetic material found in organisms) on which depends the functioning of many life-support systems and actual and potential commercial, medical, and scientific uses;

  • ensure the sustainable use of renewable resources (especially fish, forests, pasture and arable lands) on which the New Zealand economy is largely based; and

  • ensure that non-renewable resources are depleted at a rate that enables transition to use of more abundant materials and ultimately to the sustainable use of renewable resources.

The council considers that these objectives must be achieved as a matter of urgency because, among other things:

  1. the resource base of some important industries is shrinking and sometimes poorly managed. For example, more than three-quarters of New Zealand soils show signs of erosion; potential agricultural exports to the value of $100 million a year are lost because prime agricultural land has disappeared under buildings and roads; and over 30 out of 300 estuarine systems which support fisheries are moderately or grossly polluted:

  2. some living resources are being over-exploited. For example, rock lobsters, scallops in Tasman Bay, trevally in the Bay of Plenty, elephant fish in the Canterbury Bight, and snapper in the Hauraki Gulf are in danger of being overfished; the genetic resource is being lost and 531 threatened and endangered species are in danger of extinction; and less than 10 percent of the original freshwater wetlands are unmodified; and

  3. opportunities for spiritual and cultural development are being lost because of the scarcity of accessible open space and wilderness near urban areas, the fact that only remnants of the former widespread lowland indigenous forests remain, the loss of natural and wild areas to hydro and geothermal development, and the threat to recreational facilities from irrigation schemes, hydro development, and waste discharge.

CONTROL OF MINERAL EXPLOITATION—Mining has in the past left small areas of the landscape so scarred that their visual impact today suggests that mining in general produces only perpetual devastation. In fact most areas where mining has ceased need show no sign that they were ever mined.

To ensure that the land is maintained in a suitable condition, the Minister of Energy is empowered under the Mining Act 1971 to impose whatever conditions he thinks fit on a mining licence, and he may impose or vary these conditions at any time, even after the grant of the licence. Over public reserves and foreshore a condition may be attached in exchanging a prospecting licence for a mining licence that the licensee should provide a contribution towards a community asset.

Problems can occur where mineral exploitation takes place on freehold land. Local authorities have the necessary power to make regulations to control these activities, and they may use this power to maintain the long-term quality of the environment.

REAFFORESTATION MEASURES—In recent years Government-sponsored loans and grants have encouraged afforestation on private land, which has assisted in restoring the balance of forests on induced grasslands. In addition the Forest Service has embarked on a programme of revegetating eroded upland areas in important river catchments and also establishing dual-purpose forests where production of wood may be complementary to the protective nature of forests, for example, in East Cape - Poverty Bay where over 100 000 hectares will be planted over the. next 40 years.

The New Zealand Forest Service prepares regional development plans for major timber supply regions throughout New Zealand, covering both State and private forestry. These plans set out the potential of the regions. For those forests under State control the Forest Service prepares regional management plans which describe and prescribe State forest activities in both indigenous and exotic production forests as well as protection forests in the mountains.

SCIENTIFIC STUDY—About one-fifth of the staff of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is engaged on research on physical environment matters including ecological studies of national parks, investigations into beech forest ecosystems, and identification of marine animals and plankton. The department has undertaken bathymetric studies of lakes and the ocean floor around New Zealand. Basic geological, soil, and botanic surveys provide information for the land use surveys which guide urban development. Further information is given in the Science and Scientific Services Section of this Yearbook.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO) has statutory responsibility for integrating research and survey activities in the field of water and soil conservation. The work is carried out by the Water and Soil Division of Ministry of Works and Development (MWD) and catchment authorities throughout New Zealand.

Three MWD science centres at Aokautere, Christchurch, and Hamilton carry out investigations in land resources, physical water resources, and water quality respectively.

The NWASCO land resource inventory, published as 1 inch to the mile worksheets and available as computer-stored data, is a major milestone in assisting land development planning providing, as it does, the first such inventory with truly national coverage.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BY INDUSTRY—Statistics of expenditure, on environmental protection have been obtained in the integrated economic census of manufacturing and are shown in the following table for 1978–79. The expenditure shown is that incurred directly on processes or operations which are for the benefit or protection of the general public, such as the disposal, eradication, or cleansing of effluents, wastes, poisons, vapours, or similar obnoxious matter; protection from radiation; land stabilisation or beautification; the replacement of overburden; and similar work designed to protect or restore the environment. The total relates only to manufacturing establishments employing 10 or more persons engaged full time, and excludes ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry.

New Zealand Standard Industrial ClassificationExpenditure on Environmental ProtectionPercentage Environmental Expenditure of Value Added
 $(000)percent
Major Division 3—Manufacturing (total manufacturing industries, excluding single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 people, and ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry)9,5010.27

WATER RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT—Recent estimates put New Zealand's consumption of water at 1900 million cubic metres per year, of which agriculture uses 60 percent. The remaining 40 percent is split nearly equally between industrial and domestic use.

Approximately 87 percent of the population are supplied by public water supply systems. The remainder rely on an independent domestic supply (rainwater collecting, aquifer bores, etc). Industry obtains about 33 percent of its requirements from public supply systems and 66 percent from its own independent sources.

While the country has, on the whole, abundant water resources these are by no means evenly distributed. As may be seen from the rainfall map and statistics provided in the Geography section of the Yearbook, high mountains, especially in the South Island, create substantial rain shadow areas. In a few areas, annual falls of over 10 000 mm have been measured, while in others as little as 340 mm may fall in a year.

National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation—The heavy consumption of water, combined with the geographical spread of water resources, demands careful management. This is achieved largely through the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967, with protection against flooding provided by the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941. These acts are administered by a central policy-making organisation, the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO), and a complementary regional structure.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO) consists of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, and the Water Resources Council. The national authority and the 2 councils include representatives of counties, municipalities, and catchment authorities; farming, manufacturing, and recreational interests; and appropriate departments of Government. The main functions of the national authority are to set broad national policy on water management and soil conservation and to advise the Government through the Minister of Works and Development, who is the chairman of the authority, on water and soil matters. As their names suggest, the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council (under the 1941 Act) and the Water Resources Council (under the 1967 Act) promote soil conservation (and flood control) and water management policies respectively. Some 20 catchment authorities administer the 1941 Act throughout the country and, as regional water boards, administer the 1967 Act.

Water Allocation—By the 1967 Act all rights for the use of natural water were vested in the Crown and in general the management and administration of these rights was given to regional water boards to carry out on behalf of the Crown. Those wishing to use water for any except domestic and stock purposes, or requiring to discharge wastes into natural waters, require a water right from the regional water board. The boards are thus able to ensure that available supplies are not overtaxed. Several boards have commenced studies of the total water resource in major catchments within their districts to assess the availability of the water resources and present and future demands on the resource.

In this process of water allocation planning, the public is given the opportunity to participate. The goal is the preparation of a water allocation plan for each region. This provides a framework within which a regional water board will operate when considering applications for rights to water. It also provides a guide to existing and prospective users of water regarding the manner in which their rights to water may be reduced in times of water shortage.

Maintenance of water quality also comes within the purview of regional water boards. Some waters of New Zealand have been classified. A classification fixes the minimum standards of water quality and provides a permissible range of water quality within which regional water boards must operate when controlling discharges of waste.

The exercising of water rights may be restricted or suspended in order to maintain minimum standards of quality and, if a minimum flow in a river has been fixed, water rights may also be restricted or suspended to maintain that flow. If there is a serious temporary shortage of water a regional water board may issue an order restricting, apportioning, or suspending rights to take and use natural water.

A 1983 amendment to the 1967 Act provides for water conservation orders to be placed on rivers, streams, or lakes. They may preserve wild and scenic characteristics of rivers and protect other natural features and instream uses of the country's natural water. Recreational, wildlife, fishery, scenic, or scientific interests can apply under these provisions for protection of water uses and the retention of natural conditions.

Underground Water—In some parts of the country, including the Canterbury Plains, the Heretaunga Plains in Hawke's Bay, and the Waimea Plain near Nelson, underground water is an important resource. The cities of Christchurch, Lower Hutt, Napier, and Hastings draw at least some of their domestic and industrial supplies as well as irrigation water from such sources. In the Heretaunga Plains, there are 2000 registered irrigation bores. Management of underground water, and its protection from contamination, is an increasing part of regional water board work in these areas.

Irrigation—Irrigation was initially practised in New Zealand early this century as a drought protection measure. It was not until the 1940s that the benefits of irrigation as a farm management tool were realised. Most of the earlier irrigation was concentrated in areas of Central Otago and South Canterbury. In both areas a high soil moisture deficit is experienced during summer, with hot drying winds. More recently, irrigation schemes have been promoted in North Canterbury and in Nelson and in parts of the North Island suitable for horticulture.

Pastoral irrigation is predominant in the South Island and was traditionally centred around major rivers, drawing from them on a run-of-the-river basis. More recent schemes include storage for better water management for the needs of crops. In total, about 180 000 hectares are now irrigated, but a substantial potential still exists.

The promotion of community irrigation schemes is the responsibility of the Minister of Works and Development. While several irrigation schemes are still being constructed under previous policies and different levels of Government assistance, from November 1982 a revised irrigation policy has been in force. The Government provides a 70 percent grant for approved community irrigation scheme headworks to take or store water, and also for the distribution works which deliver the water to the individual farm boundaries. The landholder's 30 percent share of these expenses is recovered by water charges. Support for on-farm irrigation development costs is provided through Rural Banking and Finance Corporation loans.

Private irrigation undertaken by individuals or groups of farmers is practised over much of the country. Private development normally qualifies for Rural Banking and Finance Corporation loans. Water for these schemes is generally drawn from underground sources, or pumped from rivers and drains and applied by spray or trickle methods. Private flood irrigation is limited to small gravity supply schemes, which are comparatively few in number.

Throughout the country there are presently 20 community irrigation schemes covering an area of 74 000 hectares at various stages of construction. The Lower Waitaki Scheme to serve 14 500 hectares and the Morven-Glenavy Scheme to serve 12 150 hectares are nearing completion. The Waiau Plains Scheme of 17 000 hectares in North Canterbury is proceeding well, with over half of the area receiving water. The Kerikeri trickle irrigation scheme in Northland will, when completed, supply 3550 hectares, chiefly of horticultural land. The southern half of the area began to receive water on 1 October 1982. Another major work is the Maniototo Scheme in Central Otago, which will include a hydro-electricity scheme at the headworks.

The latest schemes approved by the Government include the Waimea East Scheme of 1100 hectares in Nelson and the Tablelands Scheme in Eastern Bay of Plenty, both to supply water for horticulture; and the Balmoral Scheme in North Canterbury, a pastoral irrigation scheme of 5500 hectares adjacent to the Waiau Plains Scheme.

Rural Water Supply Schemes—To provide reliable water supplies in rural areas, especially for stock water in drier pastoral districts, the Government has subsidised 96 rural water supply schemes, providing water to 970 000 hectares. A further 33 schemes are currently in train.

SOIL CONSERVATION—The changes in vegetation consequent on land development have been reflected in disturbed soil conditions in many parts of New Zealand. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on a compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soil. Natural erosion, caused by climatic factors (such as high-intensity rainfall and frost heave) combined with the geological instability of much of the country, has thus been aggravated by man-made effects. Soil erosion now occurs on more than 8 million hectares of hill country and mountain land, about one-third of the total area of New Zealand.

The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council began in the 1940s a number of measures to control soil erosion and to rehabilitate eroded catchments with the help of catchment authorities. Successful techniques that have been developed to control erosion include control of burning and animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, soil conservation, fencing, stock-water ponds, gully control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and open and close tree planting. Grants at varying rates are available to farmers carrying out these control practices.

In the 1970s the New Zealand Land Resource Inventory was completed for the main islands of New Zealand. This lists the physical factors of rock type, soil, slope, erosion and vegetation and describes, in coded form, land parcels or units in terms of those combined factors. The inventory then identifies the land use capability of each unit. Coverage at a scale of 1:63360 has been completed and 89 000 land management units have been mapped. The national coverage, coupled with its computer storage of both boundaries and codes, is a very effective and flexible physical base for soil conservation and general land use at regional through to local levels. Information on stock carrying capacity, fertiliser requirements, and potential for exotic forestry have now been added to the inventory, and national map series on erosion and vegetation are now in preparation.

Information from the inventory is also compiled at more detailed scales by catchment authorities for small catchments and individual form properties, allowing soil conservators to recommend the best conservation practices and management of particular areas of land to ensure sustained permanent production. A plan is formulated by a soil conservator and then discussed with the landowner concerned. The plan may then be adjusted to suit the landowner's ability to carry it out over several years.

Planning—Soil conservation and water management activities are increasingly involved in planning. Catchment authorities make submissions to regional territorial local authorities, providing land and water resource information and soil conservation and water management objectives and policies, so that physical risks to development can be considered when social and economic factors are evaluated at the planning stage. Consideration of physical risks to development is required under the Town and Country Planning Act. This will help prevent some of the costly mistakes made in the past.

In particular, the identification of land of physical suitability for urban development, and the calculation and identification of areas susceptible to coastal erosion are making positive contributions to improved land planning.

Coastal Erosion—The coastlines of New Zealand total about 11 000 km in length, of which 80 percent is exposed to the open sea. For the exposed part, about 56 percent is static, 25 percent is eroding, and 19 percent is accreting. History has shown that even the accreting section of coastline may revert to erosion, so that, in total, almost half of New Zealand's coastline has a high susceptibility to erosion.

Coastal erosion has proved expensive in the past. The planning section of the Water and Soil Division, Ministry of Works and Development, is providing a coastal planning service through the department's works districts and the catchment authorities. Based on geological data, coastal hazard zones delineating land highly susceptible to erosion processes are being identified to assist planners.

River Control—The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941 provides for the prevention of damage by erosion and the protection of property from damage by floods. The river control projects carried out by the 20 catchment authorities around the country often serve both these objectives. River training works are designed to give the river channel a stable alignment that will prevent bank erosion. Stopbanks are constructed to provide flood relief to low lying and mostly highly-productive agricultural lands.

The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council encourages a catchment-wide approach to water and soil problems. Comprehensive catchment control schemes embrace land retirement from grazing and protection planting of trees in the upper catchment, bank protection works in the middle reaches, and flood alleviation and drainage works in the lower reaches of a river. The Government, through the council, made $31,227,000 in grant assistance available to catchment authorities for schemes to meet these purposes in the 1982–83 financial year.

Grants are given to schemes that are in the national interest but which for some reason would not be implemented or would only be carried out partially or inadequately without Government incentives. Riparian landowners, for example, may not be able to afford isolated bank protection works defending individual properties whereas an integrated river control scheme bringing in a larger benefit area, and with a Government contribution in recognition of the wider community benefits of such a scheme, would enable sufficient local funds to be raised.

Most major and many smaller rivers in New Zealand are now covered by control schemes for at least part of their length. As natural river systems change continually in response to variations in average rainfall and sediment supply, a sustained works programme is required on many rivers so that the standards of protection can be maintained. In addition, some areas may require augmented schemes or even new and more comprehensive river control schemes offering higher standards of protection and control to prevent unacceptable levels of damage to increasing assets and to intensified patterns of land use which would otherwise be at risk.

POLLUTION—Public concern for the environment has led to an increased awareness of pollution problems. Organisations have responded by involving the public in the decision-making processes and by amending legislation to provide the appropriate controls.

At present, different parts of the physical environment are protected by different organisations, with co-ordination provided by the Commission for the Environment. The problems of water pollution are being controlled by the Water Resources Council and the regional water boards and, as might be expected, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, through the Fisheries Act, and the Department of Internal Affairs, through the Wildlife Act, also have statutory powers to control water pollution; those of air pollution by the Department of Health under the provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972; and many local authorities have introduced bylaws to control noise problems in their areas.

Within the territorial sea and harbours, the Marine Pollution Act 1974 controls the discharge or dumping of oil or any other substance declared a pollutant. New Zealand also has a contingency plan for dealing with oil pollution in coastal waters and on the shore.

Pollution of our rivers and lakes can be caused by soil erosion, farm run-off, industrial waste, or domestic sewage. The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 provides for the control of waste discharges through water rights. These include conditions ensuring that the discharge has had adequate treatment sufficient to protect the receiving waters.

Diffuse forms of pollution like soil erosion and fertiliser run-off, require different approaches, such as through changing land use practices.

Sewage and farm run-off add nutrients to the water which in some lakes (e.g., Lakes Rotorua and Horowhenua) has caused excessive growth of weeds and algal blooms, to the detriment of water quality. Waste disposal from cities and the forestry and meat industries are also major contributors to pollution.

Urban solid-waste disposal is largely by the land-fill technique, and most major cities are establishing tip sites planned to last up to 50 or 100 years. Until recently large amounts of wood were left in the forest during logging or dumped near sawmills. Now, much of this waste wood is chipped for use in pulp mills, either within the country or overseas.

Organic chemical pesticides and herbicides are widely accepted as essential for efficient agriculture and horticulture. The use of such chemicals is controlled by the Agricultural Chemicals Board under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The board controls the import of chemicals and has an approved list of proprietary herbicides and pesticides for use in different situations such as in or near water, and also gives guidance on the application of those chemicals.

Several divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are concerned with monitoring pollution. The Chemistry Division conducts surveys of mercury contamination of fish and water, arising from geothermal outflows. Nitrate concentration in ground waters, and insecticides in water are measured, and checks are kept on heavy metals in foods. The Oceanographic Institute traces the biological effects of heated water discharges from thermal power stations. The Physics and Engineering Laboratory participates in the Earth's Resources Technology Satellite programme. The department also assists such organisations as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association, which are industrial research groups all supporting projects to reduce pollution and increase the use of by-products from their industrial processes which have in the past been wasted.

New Zealand's geographical shape and location is, in general, favourable to the dispersal of air pollutants, although some areas, such as Christchurch, suffer from air pollution problems. The Clean Air Act 1972, the first part of which came into effect on 1 April 1973. established the principle of air pollution control on industry by the best practicable means. Provision was also made for the establishment of smokeless zones. The first clean air zone under the Act has been established in Christchurch.

The Clean Air Council was established under the Clean Air Act 1972 to advise the Minister of Health on all aspects of air pollution. It advises local authorities on their work under the Act and co-ordinates the work of control authorities and voluntary organisations. It publishes reports from time to time, and is undertaking research work through four committees studying respectively clean air zones and domestic heating, motor vehicles and air pollution, rural pollution, and planning co-ordination.

MARGINAL LANDS LENDING—The purpose of the Marginal Lands Act 1950 is to assist farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on properties that are not economic but are potentially so. The Marginal Lands Board fulfilled its role as a last resort lender by providing finance where it was not available through normal private lending institutions. The board financed development work, purchase of livestock and chattels, purchase of additional land for amalgamation to make farms economic units, and refinancing of existing securities where the need was most critical. The board was also empowered to lend to landless farmers for the purchase of uneconomic ("stepping stone") farms to enable them to be established on their first unit. These farms can either be built up to an economic level with outside income from related farm work and board assistance, or sold when developed to provide a deposit for an economic property.

The board comprised the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy-chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and 4 private persons with a farming background appointed by the Minister.

To assist the board in undertaking its activities, local committees were established in each land district consisting of a representative of the Department of Lands and Survey (chairman), the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a private farmer selected and appointed for each district by the board.

The pattern of the board's lending over the last 4 years of its existence is illustrated by the figures in the table below.

Purpose of LoansYear Ended 31 March
1919198019811982
 $(thousand)
Development (including stock, plant, and seasonal)1,3521,4751,5022,510
Purchase of additional land1,8861,7771,868x990
Refinance875590317307
Uneconomic purchases (“stepping stone” units)44885333214
          Total4,5613,9274,0194,022

In total, to 31 March 1982, the board had assisted 2054 farmers to the extent of $63.4 million.

The Marginal Lands Board ceased operations at the end of July 1982, when its responsibilities were taken over by the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the relationship of the environment and economic growth will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Report of the Commission for the Environment (Parl. paper C. 7).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust (Parl. paper C. 2).

Report of the Director-General of Forests (Parl. paper C. 3).

Report of the Nature Conservation Council (Parl. paper C. 4).

Report of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority (Parl. paper D. 2).

Report of the National Parks and Reserves Authority (Parl. paper C. 10).

Ministry of Works and Development Statement (Parl. paper D. 1).

Proceedings of Soil and Plant Water Symposium 1976—DSIR (1977).

Land Application of Treated Sewage Effluent—DSIR (1976).

Research into Aquatic Weeds in New Zealand Waterways—DSIR (1976).

Slope Stability in Urban Development—DSIR (1977).

Eutrophication of Lake Rotorua—DSIR (1977).

The Physical Environment Conference 1970: Reports, Papers and Proceedings.

See also the special article The New Zealand environment and changes in environmental management since 1970 in the 1980 Yearbook.

11 B—PUBLIC LANDS

CROWN LAND—There are 5.5 million hectares of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Land permanently set aside for national parks and public reserves comprises 2.70 million hectares. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 0.67 million hectares of land, of which 0.37 million hectares is intended for subdivision and settlement as individual farms.

Administration—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Valuer-General, a representative of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, the Deputy Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than 4 other persons appointed by the Minister.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more land settlement committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of 3 members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and 2 private farmer members.

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, is considerable.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and the successful applicant decided by ballot, although in exceptional circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at an undisclosed minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an unset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial, or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. Annual rent is reviewed at 11-yearly intervals.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding 5 years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1981–82

TenureNumber of SelectionsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges
* Area and rent not shown. Licence on royalty basis only.
  hectares$(000)
Freehold2391 4151,403
Renewable leases9017 211463
Pastoral leases and licences---
Deferred-payment licences1522 763333
Special leases (s. 67 Land Act)421 50062
Licences to occupy40815 324253
Licences for removal of minerals*---
Leases of endowment and other lands1146 99794
          Total 1981–821 04545 2102,608
          Total 1980–8196945 2012,030

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences under the Land Act 1948 current as at 31 March 1982.

TenureLeases and LicencesAreaAnnual RentAnnual instalments*
* Including improvement loading.
 No.hectares (000)$(000)$(000)
Renewable leases4 8285202,15252
Pastoral leases and licences4232 6061793
Special leases787913398
Deferred-payment licences10 9161 206-11,476
Miscellaneous leases and licences21---
Licences to occupy4 209122680-
Leases of endowment and other lands51710338945
          Total 1981–8221 7014 6483,73911,584
          Total 1980–8122 2834 8192,8088,853

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences under the Land Act 1948 freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments, during the year ended 31 March 1982.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.hectares$(000)
Cash592 405952
Deferred payments330103 78417,415
          Total 1981–82389106 18918,367
          Total 1980–8131458 64610,226

Further details on other leases and licences may be obtained from the annual report of the Department of Lands and Survey, Parliamentary paper C.1.

LAND DEVELOPMENT AND SETTLEMENT—The Land Settlement Board was constituted in 1948 and is responsible for the administration of land policy and the development and settlement of Crown land through the Department of Lands and Survey. The development of land in preparation for ultimate subdivision and settlement of farm units involves clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, the erection of essential improvements, and the installation of water supplies under a development programme undertaken annually. As at 31 March 1982 some 373 057 hectares were under development by the Department of Lands and Survey for eventual settlement. It is expected to yield an estimated 910 farms for settlement by landless farmers before the turn of the century. The major development districts as at 31 March 1982 were Southland with 125 748 hectares; Rotorua-Taupo district, 46 669 hectares; North Auckland, 58 950 hectares; Te Kuiti, 40 290 hectares; Gisborne, 29 498 hectares; and Otago, 24 099 hectares.

Despite the state of the economy and the need to reduce expenditure, the Government has maintained a settlement programme over recent years. Where suitable properties are available consideration will be given to purchase for medium- or long-term development in conjunction with adjoining Crown land. The policy of making funds available annually for the purchase of sheep and cattle properties has been discontinued, but the situation is likely to be reviewed when the existing land bank has been reduced.

From the inception of the settlement programme in 1941 to 31 March 1982 a total of 4664 ex-servicemen and civilian settlers have been settled on farms of their own. The aggregate area of the farms has totalled 784 401 hectares.

The Department of Lands and Survey is continuing to pursue its policy of heavy culling of stock to improve stock quality and to establish top class flocks and herds with proven genetic background. The main concentration on breeding is at Waihora Farm Settlement near Taupo where results to date have been impressive. High fertility rams are still being made available for use in the department's development programmes in other districts, and a limited number are sold annually to the public. This large-scale programme is the biggest of its kind in New Zealand and the department's involvement in this field is of interest to the farming industry generally both in this country and overseas. Starting in 1979 the department has also sold a limited number of surplus Angora goats to the public from its flock at Waitangi.

The Department of Lands and Survey in association with the New Zealand Forest Service has established joint farm/forestry ventures operating in North Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury and Otago. This is a relatively new concept in New Zealand, involving the grazing of stock among widely spaced trees. Indications are that it could be a profitable one.

Over recent years the Department of Lands and Survey has continued to diversify its farming operations. The fields in which it is currently involved include Angora goat farming, deer farming, exotic sheep and cattle breeding, citrus fruit growing, grape growing, raising olive trees, and similar operations.

NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES: History—Royal Instructions issued to New Zealand's first governor—Captain William Hobson—who reached this country in 1840, included the concept of reserving land for public use and enjoyment. Natural areas retained at a time when much of the country was relatively unmodified are still available today in the form of national parks, and scenic and allied types of reserves.

National Parks—The national park system in New Zealand had its origin in 1887 when Te Heuheu Tukino and other Maori chiefs gifted to the Crown the summits of their sacred mountains of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The gifted area provided the nucleus of the first national park—Tongariro—which was formally constituted by Act of Parliament in 1894. Special legislation in 1900 established Egmont as a second national park, while Fiordland had its beginning in 1905 with the reservation of over 800 000 hectares as a public reserve for “a national park”.

The Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act 1928 and the National Parks Act 1952, which have been the stepping stones for national park legislation, have now been superseded by the National Parks Act 1980.

The 1980 Act established a National Parks and Reserves Authority as an independent statutory body comprising 10 people representing private organisations and the public. Four members are appointed by the Minister of Lands from public nominations; one member representing the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, and Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand (Incorporated) on the recommendation of each organisation; and three members are appointed after consultation with the Minister of Tourism and the Minister of Local Government. The authority has general oversight and responsibility for the formulation of policy and management planning for national parks and reserves of national importance, and the Department of Lands and Survey looks after the day-to-day administration as well as servicing the authority and boards.

At district level, twelve National Parks and Reserve Boards have been set up to have general oversight for the management of national parks and reserves of national importance within their specific region. Each Board has 10 members appointed by the Minister of Lands after public nomination and consultation with the authority. Nominations are considered on the basis of the individual's special knowledge or interest in matters connected with the policy for, and management of, national parks and reserves. Also taken into consideration are the nominated individual's interest in regional or community affairs, tourism, recreation or conservation.

Rangers employed in the Public Service for the Department of Lands and Survey are responsible for development, protection, interpretation, and management in each park and their work (chiefly in the area of park protection) is supplemented by the voluntary help of honorary rangers.

The status of national park land cannot be changed except by Act of Parliament.

Description—New Zealand's 10 national parks, covering 2 157 851 hectares (or one-thirteenth of the country's land area) of beautiful or unique natural features and scenery. Accommodation, transport, and other services in or near the parks are provided by the Department of Lands and Survey, Government agencies, private enterprise, and voluntary organisations. Although the National Parks Act provides for freedom of entry and access by the public, this is subject to conditions and restrictions "necessary for the preservation of the native plants, and animals or for the welfare in general of the parks”. Access to “special areas” constituted under the Act is (if the circumstances warrant) by permit only. The Act also requires parks to be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; and that as far as possible, native plants, and animals are preserved, and introduced plants and animals exterminated.

Development permitted by the National Parks Act includes the erection of houses for rangers and park staff, and the provision of camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses and other buildings, ski tows and similar facilities, parking areas, reading and tracks. In “wilderness areas”, established in terms of the Act, development is restricted to foot-track access and the erection of huts for essential wild animal control operations or to facilitate scientific research. Authority policy and park management plans provide guidelines and criteria for the extent of acceptable development in national parks.

Virtually all the finance for national parks is provided by the Government but cash donations by private individuals and organisations are encouraged: these earn a $2 for $1 subsidy from the Government.

Of the 10 national parks, 3 are in the North Island and the remainder are in the South Island. Brief descriptions of the national parks are given below.

Urewera National Park (207 462 hectares, established in 1954), surrounds the beautiful Lakes Waikaremoana and Waikareiti. As the traditional home of the Tuhoe, “the Children of Mist”, it is rich in Maori folklore. The park protects the largest remaining area of native forest in the North Island and provides a home for many species of native birds.

Tongariro National Park (76 504 hectares, established in 1894), includes the three active volcanic cones of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. Ruapehu's snowfields are the winter playground of the North Island. Lake Rotopounamu, still free from exotic fish, and Mount Pihanga are two other focal points of the park.

Egmont National Park (33 529 hectares, established in 1900), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains, known to the Maoris as “Taranaki”. and preserves magnificent scenery and vegetation within a 9-kilometre radius of the summit. Dominating Taranaki province in the west of the North Island, the near perfect cone varies from heavily-forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock. snow, and ice at the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (22 509 hectares, established in 1942), with a broken coastline and rich in historical significance, has numerous tidal inlets and beaches of golden sand fronting Tasman Bay. Botanically, the park is unique as its bush-clad slopes show a blending of the natural cover of both the North and South Islands, a phenomenon of nature not found elsewhere in the country.

Nelson Lakes National Park (57 508 hectares, established in 1956), is named after the chief focal points for visitors, the beautiful Lakes Rotoiti and Rotoroa. These nestle in rugged mountainous country with extensive beechforest-clad lower slopes. The Mount Robert area, with its magnificent views, provides visitors with winter recreational opportunities on its ski fields.

Arthur's Pass National Park (94 422 hectares, established in 1929), is a rugged and mountainous area straddling the main divide of the Southern Alps It is an area of high peaks (at least 30 over 1800 metres), snowfields, deep-cut valleys, snowgrass-clad ridges, forest-dad hillsides, high waterfalls, wide shingle riverbeds, and rushing torrents, all providing endless scope for physical endeavour or quiet appreciation.

Mount Cook National Park (69 958 hectares, established in 1953) and Westland National Park (97 067 hectares, established in 1960) share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Their magnificent alpine scenery, containing almost all of the 27 peaks over 3050 metres in height, includes New Zealand's highest mountain, the 3764-metre Mount Cook, known to the Maoris as “Aorangi”'—freely translated as “Cloud Piercer”. Their attractions are as varied as their altitude, ranging from well known glaciers such as Tasman (at 29 km in length one of the longest outside polar regions), Franz Josef and Fox, to hot springs, placid lakes, and the subtropical luxuriance of the rain forests.

Mount Aspiring National Park (287 311 hectares, established in 1964), is a complex of impressive glaciated mountain scenery which includes the headwaters of seven major rivers. The park's distinctive character is enhanced by bush-covered mountainside and pleasant river flats and valleys. Its focal point, often referred to as the Matterhorn of New Zealand, is the 3036-metre Mount Aspiring, a 4-ridged peak rising from the Bonar Therma-Volta ice shelf, and the country's highest peak outside Mount Cook National Park.

Fiordland National Park (1 211 578 hectares, established in 1952), is one of the largest national parks in the world, and is renowned for the rugged grandeur of its scenery which includes fiords, mountains, forests, waterfalls, and lakes. The better known lakes are Manapouri, backed by snow-capped peaks, and Te Anau. The park is the only known habitat of two flightless birds, the takahe (notornis) and (except for a small colony on Stewart Island) the kakapo.

In addition to the national parks there are large numbers of reserves including scenic reserves, recreation reserves (many of these are designed primarily for organised sport), historic reserves, and nature reserves. There are also 3 maritime parks.

Forest parks, under development by the New Zealand Forest Service, are briefly described in Section 15, Forestry.

RESERVES—The main legislation providing for the setting aside of land for public use, e.g., for the preservation of flora and fauna, scenery preservation, or recreation, are the Land Act 1948 and the Local Government Act 1974 and its subsequent amendments. The Land Act enables land owned by the Crown, including foreshore areas, to be reserved for any purpose desirable in the public interest, while under the Local Government Act local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made for public reserves on subdivisions of land.

The current legislation governing the administration, management, and control of reserves is the Reserves Act 1977. This Act established 7 distinct categories of reserves, each with its own management requirements. The 7 categories are: recreation, historic, scenic, nature, scientific, Government purpose, and local purpose. In addition there is provision to declare any reserves of national or international significance to be national reserves which can be revoked only by Act of Parliament. All reserves are currently being classified into the above categories. The classification process will take some time to complete but considerable progress has been made. Until finally classified, all reserves are to be administered for the purpose of their existing reservation.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 1108 with an overall area of 334 713 hectares, are set aside to preserve features or areas of scenic interest such as native forest, limestone and glow-worm caves, thermal areas, sea coasts, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, scenic vantage points, and forested areas with considerable conservation value. Some of these reserves are mainly of local or regional significance while many of the larger ones, which are in the nature of small national parks, are of national importance. Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, ranging from off-road parking and picnicking to camping, tramping, and hunting (subject to written permit).

Scenic reserves in excess of 2000 hectares include Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua, South Cape (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuku Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge), and Waioeka Gorge.

Improved maintenance, management, and control of scenic reserves has been accomplished through the classification of their principal values and most appropriate usage. The appointment of salaried reserves rangers in the Public Service to ensure that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state “in the public interest” and for the “benefit, enjoyment, and use of the public” has also been of considerable assistance. In addition, native trees and shrubs are being propagated at the Department of Lands and Survey's Taupo Nursery to promote scenic restoration activities in reserves throughout the North Island with particular emphasis on the Taupo basin in the wake of power scheme works. A nursery has also been established at Home Creek in Southland to service requirements for the South Island.

Land of special scenic interest may, while remaining in private ownership, receive the benefits of preservation and protection of the Reserves Act 1977 through being declared private protected land. Areas which have received such protection include White Island in the Bay of Plenty, where petrels and gannets nest in large numbers annually, and a large area of the Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust property, near New Plymouth, and adjoining Egmont National Park, which is in native bush.

Historic Reserves—One hundred and thirty-six areas of historic interest totalling 2164 hectares are set aside as historic reserves. The Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. (The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not a historic reserve in the strict sense.) Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

Nature Reserves—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. In all there are 49 reserves in this category with a total area of 184 827 hectares. Some of them are mainland areas, but most are off-shore and outlying islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park; Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for nature purposes and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands. Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

Access to these reserves is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and animal life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there. The reserves are administered by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is administered by a board of 10 members.

Marlborough Sounds Maritime Park—This park was established in 1973 under the Reserves Act 1977 by a 13-member board. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other public reserves located within the coastal region stretching from Cape Soucis in the west to Rarangi in the south-east. Appropriate island reserves are also included.

Bay of Islands Maritime and Historic Park—This park was established in 1978 under the provisions of the Reserves Act 1977. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other reserves located within the coastal region, stretching from the Whangaroa Harbour in the north to the Whangamumu Harbour in the south, and includes many reserves on the mainland in and around Kerikeri and Russell and on many of the adjacent islands. The park is administered by a board of 10 members.

Wildlife Reserves—There are 3 classes of wildlife reserves, namely wildlife sanctuaries, wildlife refuges, and wildlife management reserves. These may be proclaimed over land of any tenure, and any such proclamation prohibits only certain actions in respect of wildlife but does not affect the land ownership. In addition, any of the 3 classes may be declared in respect of lands of the Crown. In such cases the declaration is made pursuant to the Land Act 1948, thus conferring upon the lands reserve status pursuant to the Reserves Act 1977.

Wildlife Sanctuaries—The role of Wildlife Sanctuaries is to protect fragile wildlife habitats from the effects of entry by humans or animals; and protection of wildlife species which are low in numbers regionally or nationally, or are confined within a small number of habitats which are sensitive to disturbance.

The major administrative and management objective is the total or partial exclusion of the public from such areas. Written permits to enter a sanctuary are required from the Secretary for Internal Affairs.

At present there are 16 wildlife sanctuaries, all but three of which are on off-shore islands.

Wildlife Refuges—This status is given to wildlife habitats which require protection to ensure the well-being of the habitats and to maintain the natural regional or local distribution and presence of wildlife.

The primary management functions are to carry out habitat maintenance, and to allow the public freedom of access, except that firearms and domestic animals are prohibited.

Wildlife Management Reserves—The objective for this class of reserve is similar to that of wildlife refuges, but the primary management functions are to manipulate and improve the habitat for wildlife, and to allow freedom of public entry together with a variety of activities, including the hunting of game species of wildlife.

Recreation Reserves—Recreation reserves, including public domains which are now categorised as recreation reserves administered by the Department of Lands and Survey, number 692 covering 24 299 hectares. These provide for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. While many such reserves are designed primarily to provide for organised sport there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive and natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal reserves are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Widely known city reserves are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on reserve land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1982.

Type of ReservationNo.Hectares
National parks102 157 851
Scenic reserves1 108334 713
Historic reserves1362 164
Nature reserves49184 827
Recreation reserves69224 299
Scientific reserves313 193

QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND NATIONAL TRUST—The Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust was established by Act of Parliament in December 1977 to encourage and promote the provision, protection, and enhancement of open space for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of New Zealand. The formation of the trust commemorates the Silver Jubilee of Her Majesty the Queen.

The trust was set up to fill a growing need for an independent body to oversee the development of an overall open space plan and policy.

The main specific functions of the trust are to advise the Minister of Lands, other ministers, Government departments, and other bodies on all matters concerning open space; to investigate, identify, and classify potential reserves and recreation areas as to their significance; to promote research into open space; to co-ordinate the activities of interested Government departments and other bodies or persons; to negotiate open space covenants; and to acquire open space in its own name.

The trust is administered by a board of 10 directors, 3 of whom (including the chairman) are appointed by the Minister of Lands, 2 by election by the members, and 5 by the minister after consultation with Federated Farmers of New Zealand Inc., the New Zealand Maori Council, the New Zealand Counties Association Inc., and the Municipal Association of New Zealand Inc.

Board meetings are attended by the permanent heads of the. Departments of Lands and Survey, Internal Affairs, Maori Affairs, the New Zealand Forest Service, the Ministry of Works and Development, and the Commission for the Environment.

An essential part of the trust is the membership. A list has been opened for individual, corporate, and life membership of the trust. As well as electing 2 directors, it is hoped that the members will form an integral part of the trust's operation, particularly on a local level.

Present Activities—The promotion of open space covenants is an important aspect of the trust's work. A covenant ensures the preservation of an area in perpetuity without the landowner losing title to the land. Two types are being negotiated. One provides a service for farmers with areas of native bush or other important landscape on their property that they wish to see preserved.

The other requires a series of covenants with all landowners in an area to preserve a major landscape such as a peninsula or river valley.

The trust may purchase land in its own right when a need is recognised. Local Authority grants and other donations to the trust for the purchase of land attract a $2 for $1 Government subsidy. It may also accept gifts of land and property as valuable open space and owns two such areas: Hollard Gardens in Taranaki and the Jackson farm in the Wairarapa.

The trust makes its position known and recommends appropriate action when deficiencies in the existing system for provision of open space come to its attention. Its role in this respect is to ensure that all aspects of open space are adequately taken into account by the proper authorities. As a general rule the trust adopts a role of consultation rather than become the principal advocate for particular causes.

Existing bodies are encouraged by the trust to acquire or set aside open space where the need is seen to be greatest, e.g., in or close to areas of greatest population density.

The trust is becoming increasingly active in the broad landscape field and is currently working with two regional bodies to this end. A number of landscape demonstration farms are also envisaged.

NEW ZEALAND WALKWAYS—The purpose of the New Zealand Walkways Act 1975 is to establish “… walking tracks over public and private land so that the people of New Zealand (can) have safe, unimpeded foot access to the countryside for the benefit of physical recreation, as well as for the enjoyment of the outdoor environment and the natural and pastoral beauty and historical and cultural qualities of the areas through which they pass”.

To promote, supervise and co-ordinate this development, the Act constituted the New Zealand Walkway Commission and charged it with the responsibility for walkway administration, with power to delegate duties to 12 district walkway committees, one for each land district constituted under the Land Act 1948, and also to other controlling authorities. In recognition that public, local authority, Government agency, and private lands would be used for walkways, the composition of the commission was structured accordingly, with the members of the commission being the Director-General of Lands (chairman), and the Director-General of Forests, and a representative each of the Municipal Association of New Zealand, the Counties Association of New Zealand, the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and the Federated Farmers of New Zealand. Similar representation composes each district walkway committee.

Between the commission's inception in 1976, and 31 March 1982, a total of 72 walkways having a combined length of 625 km were opened for public use. There are also numerous urban walks established by local authorities which are regarded as being complementary to the New Zealand Walkways System. These will not be brought under the provisions of the New Zealand Walkways Act 1975 unless it is the wish of the local authority.

FURTHER INFORMATION—The Government Printer has produced a number of publications dealing with the National Parks, both individually and in total, and with scenic reserves. Other publications dealing with public lands include the following:

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust (Parl. paper C. 2).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Report of the National Parks and Reserves Authority (Parl. paper C. 10).

11 C—SURVEYS

The Department of Lands and Survey is the national survey and mapping organisation. Its major functions include the maintenance and extension of the survey control system, examination of all land title surveys, regulation of survey standards, provision of the survey planning and aerial photograph requirements of the Government, and the publication of all topographic, cadastral, and special maps of New Zealand.

SURVEYING—The New Zealand survey control system, in the form of trigonometrical and other geographically located stations, provides the basis for effective integration of surveys executed by all sectors for land title definition, land development and utilisation, engineering construction, communications, mapping production, scientific studies, and the location of marine and air navigation aids.

Examination and approval by the department of all land title surveys ensures the security of tenure essential to development, and the maintenance of all survey records on a microfilm system provides for ready access and utilisation of data. The control of survey standards, maintenance of discipline, and training of professional surveyors is effected through the statutorily constituted Survey Board under the chairmanship of the Surveyor-General.

Other departmental services provided to Government include surveys for land title, land development, navigational purposes, earth deformation studies, administration of justice, land and environmental planning, draughting services related to local government administration, census and electoral activities, and mining applications.

The practising surveyors in the private sector play a major role in surveys of private lands under the Land Transfer Act 1952, the planning and development of housing projects, and the execution, under contract, of some government surveys.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY—Extensive use is made of aerial photography in the production of photogrammetric mapping and in the annual provision of basic physical resource and planning data. Photography is undertaken by private aerial survey firms under contract to Department of Lands and Survey, which maintains a comprehensive library of air photos for all national purposes and general public usage.

Under agreement with the authorities in the USA the department now receives and holds multispectral imagery collected by earth resources satellites for use in studies associated with land use and management, regional planning, and scientific research in New Zealand.

MAPPING—Both the imperial maps and the basic metric topographical and cadastral maps now under production provide a reliable inventory of physical resources and an up-to-date identification of land parcels and legal situations. They are in constant demand for planning, construction, development of land, extension of public and social services, protection of the environment, the general use and guidance of the public, administration of central and local government, and defence.

Regularly updated street maps cover all significant urban areas.

The Department of Lands and Survey also produces and publishes a wide range of other maps for various purposes including recreation, national parks, and miscellaneous and general maps of New Zealand, the Pacific, and Antarctica. As the mapping agency for the Government in New Zealand, the department produces maps needed to service the activities of other departments, particularly aeronautical charts for military and civil use, meteorological maps and charts, and maps for the Ministry of Works and Development, the New Zealand Forest Service, and other Government departments.

Topographic and orthophoto mapping produced by photogrammetric methods for projects and special purposes is executed at larger scales to provide an essential base for investigation and design of energy, irrigation, forestry, and communications projects.

Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey which also holds bulk map supplies and maintains a world reference library of maps at its Map Centre. In addition, a large number of private selling agents have been appointed throughout New Zealand and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue Of Maps published by the department.

Maps for the New Zealand Land Inventory are being produced with first priority being given to areas where land use change can be anticipated. These maps are produced from authoritative data and are published to uniform standards and presentation. They show the physical and cultural data about land, and overlays can be prepared to assess physical suitability for appropriate land uses.

11 D—REGISTRATION OF TITLES AND TRANSFER OF LAND

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Title to land in private ownership in New Zealand is a matter of public record. The keeping of these records is the function of the Land and Deeds Division of the Department of Justice.

Almost all privately owned land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system, presently embodied in the Land Transfer Act 1952. The system was introduced to New Zealand by the passing of the Land Transfer Act 1870. This Act was based on legislation enacted in South Australia in 1858, largely at the instigation of Sir Robert Torrens. Today the principles enunciated by Torrens are the basis of land registration throughout Australasia. The principal features of the system are registration of title and guarantee of that title by the State.

The objects of the Land Transfer Acts since 1870 have been to provide security of title by means of state guarantee, simplicity by use of standardised forms in language readily understood by the layman, accuracy by the use of precise survey data, the reduction of costs by simplification of conveyancing procedures, expedition by streamlining and constantly revising recording procedures, and suitability to circumstances by relating our land registration system directly to our social and economic structures.

Under the land transfer system, land and interests in land do not pass by the execution of an instrument of transfer but by the registration of that instrument. A person acquires a legal interest in land not because he has entered into an agreement to purchase the land, but because he has registered the instrument of transfer and it is recorded on the register that he is the owner.

The certificate of title is the pivot on which the whole land transfer system turns. A certificate of title is issued under the hand and seal of the District Land Registrar which guarantees to the registered proprietor of the land described in that certificate his rights of use, occupation, and enjoyment, the extent and position of his boundaries, and the nature of any encumbrances or interests affecting his land, such as mortgages or rights of way. Two copies of the certificate of title are issued; one copy forms the Land Transfer register, and the duplicate is held by the owner. This duplicate must be presented to the Land Registry Office for noting whenever documents affecting the estate for which it was issued are submitted for registration. Any change in the registered proprietorship which occurs through transfer, death, or other devolution, and the encumbrances to which the land is subject may be entered on the register by the registration of the appropriate documents in the manner prescribed by the Land Transfer Act.

Interests in, and charges against, land arising from many other statutes may be noted against the Land Transfer register. Successive governments have charged the Land and Deeds Division with duties of surveillance under the laws relating to the subdivision and aggregation of land, disposition of public reserves, anti-slumming requirements of local authorities, and many other aspects of land use and occupation.

Certain leases and licences of Crown land may be registered under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, and Maori land when vested in any person for a freehold estate comes automatically under the land transfer system.

Settlement of matrimonial homes as joint-family homes has been a widely used procedure since its inception over 30 years ago and, until recent years, there was a steady increase in the number of settlements registered (see section 19).

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 6 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
197753 196
197849 516
197942 176
198043 816
198134 332
198236 472

ACQUISITION OF LAND—Safeguards have been made for long-term planning in the use of land, whether publicly or privately owned, in order to ensure that it and its resources are used to the best advantage of the community as a whole. Legislation introduced in 1968 and 1969 (by amendment to the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952) prevents, where there is an operative regional plan or proposed or operative district scheme, the acquisition by overseas interests of land of 4000 sq metres or over designated or zoned as reserves for recreation or other purposes, and all islands or parts of islands within 150 kilometres of the mainland, and the Chatham Islands. The legislation covers rural and farm land of 2 hectares or over. Here a purchase may be approved if specified conditions, directed to ensuring beneficial use of the land from a national viewpoint, or permanent future residence, are met.

The court shall grant its consent where the purchaser or lessee is a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand, i.e., who has resided in New Zealand for 2½ years and the court is satisfied that he intends to continue to reside in New Zealand. Where the purchaser or lessee is not a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand or is an overseas company, the court shall not grant its consent unless it is satisfied that the land is not required for any reserve purpose and that the land is not an island or forms part of the Chatham Islands. In the case of farm land, the court must be assured that the purchaser or lessee intends to conduct experimental or research work on the land which will benefit agricultural industries in New Zealand or the community generally, or that the land will be used for purposes other than agricultural with greater advantage to the community, or in the case of an individual that he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand and farm the land exclusively for his own use and benefit and has the ability and means to do this.

Part I of the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production.

Part II deals with the control of sales and also leases (for 3 years or more) of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The consent of the court is required unless the purchaser or lessee owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents the purchase of farm land, without the consent of the court, by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are fewer than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years (or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction).

Land Transfers—The following table shows property transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest available years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TransfersTotal Consideration
NumberPercentage Change*AmountPercentage Change*
* On the previous year's figures.
   $(m) 
197885 705−16.02,538.6−5.7
197991 229+6.42,964.6+16.8
1980100 176+9.83,575.9+20.6
1981110 282+10.14,400.2+23.05
1982135 460+22.86,575.6+49.44

During 1978 a significant decrease in the number of land transfers and a decline in total consideration, was followed by a sustained rise in both number of land transfers and total consideration.

The 1982 year showed the greatest growth, with an increase of over 20 percent in the number of transfers and almost 50 percent in the consideration involved.

The following table shows all land transfers by consideration group for the year ended 31 March 1982. The division into freehold and leasehold demonstrates the relatively small percentage of land transfers involving leasehold property.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeaseholdAll Transfers
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration
$ $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
Under 4,0003 6586.71.82020.41.83 8607.01.8
4,000–7,9995 28831.66.01370.85.95 42532.46.0
8,000–9,9993 90034.48.8720.68.73 97235.08.8
10,000–14,99910 293124.812.12002.412.010 493127.312.1
15,000–19,9999 458162.217.22263.917.29 684166.117.2
20,000–49,99962 2162,071.133.31 46347.532.563 6792,118.633.3
50,000–199,99933 9672,728.280.371461.185.634 6812,789.380.4
200,000 and over3 5481,258.1354.611841.9354.83 6661,299.9354.6
        All groups132 3286,417.148.53 132158.650.6135 4606,575.648.6

Land transfers by size groups during 1981–82 are shown in the following table for both Islands and for New Zealand as a whole.

Size Group (hectares)North IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares (000)$(m) hectares (000)$(m) hectares (000)$(m)
Under 291 85710.83,813.731 4343.51,070.4123 29114.34,884.0
2 and under 62 5559.4210.28813.250.03 43612.6260.1
6 and under 111 0338.1108.33853.225.81 41811.3134.2
11 and under 2080912.187.12714.119.91 08016.2107.0
20 and under 501 72656.1235.755718.059.32 28374.1295.0
50 and under 7573244.2139.523214.130.796458.3170.2
75 and under 10048841.2104.819616.832.468458.1137.2
100 and under 20064890.8142.049771.3102.61 145162.1244.7
200 and over721389.6219.6438223.0123.61 159612.6343.2
          Total100 569662.35,060.934 891357.21,514.7135 4601 019.66,575.6

This table includes both urban and rural land transfers. The majority of the urban transfers are in the Under 2 hectares size-group, which includes 91 percent of the total number. Besides normal residential properties, this size-group will include many business, commercial, and industrial properties, and high-density residential properties (such as blocks of flats) in urban centres.

A final table shows all land transfers during the 2 latest available years by land registration districts. The urban areas of Auckland are in the North Auckland Land Registration District.

Land Registration District1980–811981–82
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares (000)$(m) hectares (000)$(m)
North Auckland37 659105.71,545.046 898167.12,396.9
South Auckland17 340142.2757.821 882140.31,172.4
Gisborne1 33471.064.41 66065.094.9
Hawke's Bay4 31356.4190.65 31382.4306.4
Taranaki3 32645.1126.84 26261.7203.3
Wellington17 283147.2653.120 554145.9887.0
Marlborough1 17246.546.51 53732.071.1
Nelson2 80124.4102.23 16439.2138.5
Westland6069.316.871911.819.9
Canterbury15 010114.9531.818 351106.2785.1
Otago6 121102.7213.66 81494.5286.3
Southland3 31766.5151.64 30673.5213.9
          Total110 282931.94,400.2135 4601 019.66,575.7

Figures of average consideration, and indeed all land transfer data, should be used with caution owing to the great diversity of property transactions covered by the figures. These transactions include, for example, sales of residential properties, farms and farmland, all classes of commercial, industrial, and business properties, sections, and parcels of land bought for such purposes as large-scale manufacturing, forestry, recreation, reserves, and later sub-division. Movements in prices of individual types of properties are better indicated elsewhere. The Building and Construction section of this Yearbook includes an urban house property and section index, compiled by the Department of Statistics and designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties and sections sold during each half-year. Recent annual figures from a freehold farmland sale price index, compiled by the Valuation Department, are shown below. Family sales are excluded, as are leasehold sales and sales for uses other than primary production. The base is half year ended June 1980 (= 1000).

Half Year EndedNo. of SalesTotal Sale PriceIndex NumberPercentage Change from Previous Year
 $(m) 
Jun 19802 376321.81 000
Dec 19802 349317.51 091+9.1
Jun 19812 595443.51 305+19.6
Dec 19812 635482.01 531+17.3

FURTHER INFORMATIONThe Monthly Abstract of Statistics shows monthly data on land transfers and also publishes an annual supplement. Other information on land registration and titles will be found in the Parliamentary reports of the Department of Maori Affairs (E. 13), the Department of Justice (E. 5), and the Valuation Department (G. 26).

11 E—VALUATION OF LAND

Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land tax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate (a) the value of the land; (b) the value of the buildings (if any) and other improvements (if any) upon such land; and (c) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, not to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, is incorporated in the “land value”. “Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land. With the introduction of land value in 1970 (in place of unimproved value) the term “improvements”, correctly speaking, includes only those items of work done or material used which result in structural additions to the property.

The “capital value” is, broadly speaking, the unencumbered market value of the land at date of valuation, and the “value of improvements” is the added value given by the “improvements”.

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property, including rates postponement and special rateable values where these are required to be determined.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than 5 years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—form the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district valuation roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, the owner and any local authority affected by the alteration in the valuation have a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the High Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE HIGH COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948 as amended in 1968 and 1977 provides for objections under the Valuation of Land Act to be determined by the Administrative Division of the High Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952. Land valuation tribunals for particular localities operating under the general jurisdiction of district courts exercise prime jurisdiction in all matters except those where provision is made for them to be heard in the first instance by the Administrative Division. There is a right of appeal from a tribunal's decision to the Court with a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal in certain cases.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Court's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may, within 14 days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll, so long as it continues in force, is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the land value is framed.

The third major rating system is the annual (rental) value system, where the annual values are assessed by valuers appointed by the local authorities concerned. The Valuer-General may be so appointed. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

Parts IV and V of the Rating Act 1967 provide for local authorities to grant applications for rates postponement in respect of certain residences in commercial and industrial zones and for farmlands in counties with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development. Rates postponement values are determined either under the Valuation of Land Act or the Rating Act, according to the system of rating in force. Special rateable values for non-conforming commercial or industrial land in residential or rural zones are also provided for in order that these classes of properties will not enjoy a rating advantage. Likewise special rateable values may be determined for rural or residential land in commercial or industrial areas, for single or double unit dwellinghouses in areas where values are influenced by demand for multi-unit housing, and for “existing use” properties, i.e., properties used for any purpose for which the owner or occupier is entitled to use the land pursuant to section 90 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977.

Part VI of the Rating Act provides for rating relief for farmlands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farmlands lower than the normal rateable values.

Equalisation of Values—The Rating Act, Part IX, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times. Provision is also made for equalisation to be done where the several ridings of a county have been revalued at different dates.

CAPITAL VALUE AND VALUE OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. Valuation figures back to 1878 were given in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

As at 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*

* Included in previous column.

† Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 on the “land value” basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970, which came into effect on that date. Earlier figures are on the basis of unimproved values only.

 $(million)
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0
196911,349.73,705.2
197012,515.64,170.7
1971†13,305.74,489.0
1972†14,331.35,046.3
1973†15,657.25,704.1
1974†17,871.76,778.3
1975†24,383.510,433.6
1976†30,011.513,386.7
1977†35,575.215,981.5
1978†41,228.718,696.5
1979†45,650.720,651.8
1980†50,040.522,367.2
1981†54,227.223,942.6
1982†63,220.827,899.1

In the following table the gross values and net values for the latest years are analysed in more detail. Net values include all rateable property and all properties on which local authorities recover grants in lieu of rates. In interpreting these figures it is essential to realise that substantial boundary changes take place from time to time.

As at 31 MarchGross ValuesNet Values
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*
* Included in previous column.
$(million)
Counties
198018,849.610,342.317,650.39,985.1
198121,274.811,529.419,896.411,167.9
198226,806.114,893.525,315.914,483.1
Cities and Boroughs
198031,168.112,019.328,811.911,240.5
198132,924.612,406.230,266.411,607.9
198236,383.512,998.233,395.312,204.7
Town Districts
198022.95.520.85.0
198127.87.025.56.5
198231.27.427.76.9
Grand Totals
198050,040.522,367.246,483.121,230.6
198154,227.223,942.650,188.422,782.3
198263,220.827,899.158,738.926,694.7

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up-to-date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal, an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be an impossible task but by using the principle of valuation equalisation mentioned earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. The gross capital value figures shown below have been compiled on the level of values as at 31 March for the latest 3 years.

Territorial AreasGross Equalised Capital Value
198019811982
 $(million)
Counties and communities24,618.331,010.143,250.5
Cities and boroughs34,217.539,094.150,695.9
Town districts30.632.738.5
          Total58,866.470,136.993,984.9

A comparison of these figures with the gross values given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying the appearance of current movements in the property market.

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 31 March 1982, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts, also as at 31 March 1982.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationNet Property Values (Equalised)
Capital ValueValue of LandValue of Improvements
 Percentage Distribution
Counties and communities98.524.246.5262.3433.67
Cities and boroughs1.575.753.4437.6566.28
Town districts-0.10.040.010.05
          Total100.0100.0100.00100.00100.00

VALUERS REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. Of the 1511 valuers registered as at 31 March 1982, 564 have taken out annual practising certificates for the current year. The majority of the remaining 947 registered valuers are either employed in Government departments or do not make valuations for members of the public and thus are not required to hold annual practising certificates.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Particulars of values for each county, borough, and town district in considerable detail are contained in the research publication, The Real Estate Market in New Zealand, published by the Valuation Department and in the annual report, Local Authority Statistics, published by the Department of Statistics. The parliamentary report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26) may also be consulted.

Chapter 12. Section 12; NATIONAL PLANNING

The need for long-term planning in order to achieve a faster, more balanced, economic growth rate coupled with consideration for environmental, social, and other non-material factors first came to the fore in the early 1950s. Following a number of “key sector” conferences on growth and development during the 1950s and 1960s, the Government called a National Development Conference, with plenary sessions in August 1968 and May 1969, to examine the question of economic planning on a national basis. The planning structure which succeeded the National Development Conference consisted of a National Development Council and eventually 16 sector councils, including 7 bodies already in existence before the conference.

Considerable changes were made during succeeding years (for example, the National Development Council was abolished and its functions taken over by the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities, and the Targets Advisory Group was renamed the Planning Advisory Group), but by the mid-1970s there was a general feeling that momentum had been lost and a major overhaul or replacement of the central planning organisation was necessary.

During 1976 the Government established a task force on social and economic planning. The objectives were to review past planning activities in New Zealand, to advise on major trends and issues, and to recommend a planning mechanism that would assist in the development of New Zealand's economy and society. As a result of its recommendations a New Zealand Planning Council was set up in March 1977 as a first step towards the development of a national planning system as envisaged by the task force.

THE NEW ZEALAND PLANNING COUNCIL—In selecting the council members the Government was influenced by a task force recommendation that membership should reflect wide experience in many fields rather than represent particular sectional interests. Other notable departures from the NDC experience include a full-time chairman and secretariat, and the presence on the council of a senior Minister of the Crown with portfolio responsibilities directly relevant to the council's work (the Minister of National Development). The first chairman, Sir Frank Holmes, was succeeded at the end of his term in September 1982, by Mr Ian G. Douglas.

Although the council had been in operation since April 1977 a Statute (the New Zealand Planning Act 1977) was enacted in December 1977 to formally establish the council.

The New Zealand Planning Act 1982 redefined the council's functions and powers, and its main role now is to monitor and report on trends', prospects, issues, and options in relation to the social, economic and cultural development of New Zealand.

In carrying out this function the council may:

  1. Assist and advise the Government in the process of consultative planning.

  2. Foster discussion among Government and private planning agencies.

  3. Prepare reports and submit them to the Minister, as it sees fit.

  4. Encourage public understanding and discussion by publishing documents and reports on planning topics.

Before the New Zealand Planning Council was established, the Government was assisted in its long-term economic planning and the development of natural resources by the Planning Advisory Group and a number of councils with a wide coverage of economic, social, and cultural affairs.

Most of these were originally sector councils under the National Development Council. Although the Planning Council maintains close links with those that still exist, they are not part of its formal structure; and it has also developed a wide network of consultation with many other individuals and agencies involved in planning.

In February 1978 the Monetary and Economic Council was disbanded and its role in monitoring economic trends and policies was assigned to the Planning Council. An Economic Monitoring Group (EMG), which works independently of the council, was set up in April 1978. It has produced a number of reports in a series Economic Trends and Policies.

The Commission for the Future was formally disbanded in October 1982 and its work on social and economic planning has also been assigned to the Planning Council.

Planning Council Publications—During 1982 the New Zealand Planning Council published the following documents.

NZPC Series
  No. 20. Who Makes Social Policy?1982
  No. 21. Rural Change1982
  No. 22. The Public Sector—An Overview1982
Planning Papers
  No. 13. Government in the New Zealand Economy1982
  No. 14. National and Sectoral Development: A Framework for Discussion1982
  No. 15. The State in Business1982
  No. 16. Dimensions of the Public Sector1982

Fuller information on the work of the Planning Council is given in Parliamentary paper D. 9 Report of the New Zealand Planning Council.

THE SOCIAL ADVISORY COUNCIL—In July 1982 it was announced that the Social Development Council and the New Zealand Council of Social Service were to be replaced by a single social advisory body.

The new body, the Social Advisory Council, was established to strengthen advice to the Government on social policies and social services. It met for the first time in December 1982, and has 4 members representing Government departments, and 8 private members chosen from the community.

The function of the council is to advise the Minister of Social Welfare and the Chairman of the Cabinet Committee on Family and Social Affairs on social policy issues, including the effects of urbanisation on family and community welfare.

Other duties include:

  1. Undertaking specific tasks at the request of the Minister;

  2. Providing a link between Government departments and other advisory and statutory planning bodies, including the New Zealand Planning Council;

  3. Identifying priorities in social policy issues for monitoring, evaluation or research;

  4. Promoting co-ordination of social services and liaison with district councils of social services;

  5. Making public statements which are considered in the public interest.

OTHER PHASES OF NATIONAL PLANNING—Other phases of national planning are dealt with in other sections of this Yearbook. Land development and use, and the sometimes-conflicting claims of economic growth and the preservation of the natural environment, are discussed and described in Section 10A—Physical Environment and Economic Growth. Energy planning comes into Section 20—Energy Resources; industrial planning into Section 18—Manufacturing; and the scientific, agricultural, and industrial research that provides the essential background information for meaningful planning is briefly described in Section 7B—Science and Scientific Services. The question of finance for development comes into the Finance sections, especially Sections 29 and 30.

Transport Storage and Communication

Chapter 13. Section 13; TRANSPORT, STORAGE, AND COMMUNICATION

13 A—GENERAL SURVEY

Transport in New Zealand is complicated by the geographic configuration of the country, the separation into 2 main islands, the location of the main urban areas, the number and situation of the main ports, the seasonal nature of much of the production, and the large proportion of one-way loading in the internal transport system. In its overseas trade the country is still largely dependent on overseas shipping companies to carry its exports to distant markets and bring in imports.

Transport is an integral part of the production process. It supplies the factories with raw materials, and carries away the manufactured goods. It supplies the transport services by which the men and women who work in the factories travel to and from their homes. The efficiencies which have been achieved as a result of the greater concentration of industrial plant in recent years can to a certain extent be attributed to the development of technologically advanced and efficient transport services.

The priority given today by the international financial institutions to transport development in the less economically advanced countries of the world is recognition of the importance of an adequate transport system as one of the foundations for national development.

One of the key elements in the attainment of a high standard of living in this country has been the development of an efficient internal transport system. There is no doubt that the establishment of rail and road links from the interior to the coastal ports was a prerequisite to the large-scale development of New Zealand's primary industry during the last century, and that it was the growth of international sea-transport and of a fast, regular service of refrigerated cargo ships that enabled New Zealand to evolve from a subsistence economy to one of the world's major exporters of meat and dairy produce.

Transport, as a key means of the mass distribution of goods, ensures that ample supplies and a wide variety of goods are readily available within all centres of population. The standard of living enjoyed by people living in the ever-growing urban concentrations that are a feature of developed countries depends ultimately on efficient national and international transport systems. The roads, airports, ports, railways, and pipelines of this country have an effect on the communities surrounding these facilities. They affect the location of manufacturing, retailing, and the distribution industries and influence the character of an area. They can create noise and aesthetic problems as well as problems of pollution. Environmental and aesthetic considerations have received increased attention in recent years. A city or town can be dominated by its port or its rail facilities just as a suburb can become, owing to its transport system, largely a “dormitory” suburb of a distant commercial area. An efficient network of roads and other transport services both serves to knit together a community and discourages narrow parochialism by providing the means of cheap, convenient, and comfortable travel by which mental horizons are widened and the bonds of family or friendship kept strong. If the economic life of a country is heavily dependent on its transport system, so too is its social and cultural development.

The effect on a community of a change in transport policy must therefore be carefully evaluated by those responsible for running the country.

Communications, transferred to this section of the Yearbook mainly because of the introduction of the first Census of Transport, Storage, and Communication, is a science that has developed rapidly in recent years. The introduction of cheap, efficient postal systems in the last century, going hand in hand with the increase in literacy, had important social consequences in enabling members of families and friends to keep in touch at a distance. No longer did the son who went beyond the next village or town to look for work (or who even emigrated!) vanish into the unknown. The letter post was later supplemented by the electric telegraph and the telephone, allowing virtually immediate communication over increasing distances. Telecommunications, inaugurated in New Zealand in the 1860s when a telegraph system was introduced, are revolutionising communications. Submarine cables between continents have been supplemented (and may eventually be replaced) by communications satellites in space. Computers and terminals, radio telephones, electronic document transfer services, improved international telephone services, Telex, and an ever-increasing range of data transmission services have contributed to what has been described as the “Information Explosion”. Television can give world-wide live coverage of important events. Instant communications is just one more of the “instant” goods the modern world expects to be available.

CENSUS OF TRANSPORT, STORAGE, AND COMMUNICATION 1979–80

The first 5-yearly Census of Transport, Storage, and Communication was taken for the year 1979–80 as an integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in that activity.

The census formed part of the Department of Statistics 5-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and classified the industries under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification:

  • viz:

  • Railway transport

  • Road transport and supporting services

  • Water transport and supporting services

  • Air transport and supporting services

  • Storage and warehousing

  • Communications

The statistical tables which follow give summaries of these activities. The definitions used in the tables are the same as listed in the Census of Manufacturing statistics (see Section 18), with the following exceptions.

Establishments—The actual depots have been classified as establishments for the larger enterprises; whilst home-addresses form establishments for many of the one-man operations in the general carrier and taxi industries.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed, including working proprietors, in the establishments and ancillary units on 28 February 1980.

General Statistics

The following table gives a general summary of the results of the 1979–80 Census of Transport, Storage, and Communication.

Item1979–80 Census
UnitTransport and StorageCommunicationsTotal
Establishments and ancillary unitsNo.8 4021168 518
Persons engaged at 28 February 1980, including working proprietorsNo.70 45635 770106 226
Salaries and wages paid$(000)709,009360,7951,069,804
Depreciation$(000)142,77929,915172,695
Purchases and other expenses$(000)1,514,570115,7831,630,354
Turnover$(000)2,582,182634,0523,216,234
Value added$(000)1,058,765548,0131,606,778
Capital expenditure less disposals$(000)180,72328,698209,421

In the following 2 tables, statistics are given at industry (subgroup) level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at End of FebruarySalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.
$(000)
Railway transport35-8 249*
Urban passenger bus services9364 00234,196
Route passenger bus services5511 40715,833
          Total, scheduled road passenger transport14875 40950,028
Taxi services2 295-3 3654,008
School bus contractors204-9412,842
Bus tour operators69-7636,953
Other road passenger transport13-30*
          Total, other road passenger transport2 581-5 099*
Logging haulage9313422,717
Stock haulage13731 28511,800
Refrigerated haulage56-3913,896
Heavy haulage9741 26210,410
Bulk haulage59152 55517,975
Furniture removal72-4083,001
Route haulage4935033,821
General carrier2 3942611 16674,971
Other freight transport by road491-9451,723
          Total, freight transport by road3 9804218 857130,315
Car and truck rental services17927965,895
Vehicle parking facilities68-1711,543
Other supporting services to land transport4315085,628
          Total, supporting services to land transport29031 47513,066
          Total, land transport7 0345239 089295,558
Ocean and coastal water transport2083 02745,831
Inland water transport42-2321,764
Harbour board operations4633 85456,455
Stevedoring72106 66795,004
Other supporting services to water transport12-2193,107
          Total, supporting services to water transport1301310 740154,566
          Total, water transport1922113 999202,162
Air transport carriers13127 207107,516
Aero clubs5411821.324
Airport operations42-1 65526,796
Other supporting services to air transport17-2065
          Total, supporting services to air transport11311 85728,184
          Total, air transport24439 064135,700
Travel agencies40292 30717,169
Freight agents288333 85036,308
Other services incidental to transport48-2601,587
          Total, services incidental to transport738426 41755,063
Storage and warehousing58-4954,320
          Total, services allied to transport796426 91259,383
          Total, transport and storage8 26611869 064692,803
Post Office40-35 094*
Other communication activities76-676*
          Total, communication116-35 770360,795
          Total, establishments and single industry ancillary units8 382118104 8341,053,598
Ancillary units servicing transport-181 39216,205
          Grand total8 382136106 2261,069,804
IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.
 $(thousand)
Railway transport18,648208,944377,658102,403*
Urban passenger bus services2,63825,44451,50326,56115,418
Route passenger bus services2,11714,21135,35820,5552,320
          Total, scheduled road passenger transport4,75539,65586,86147,11617,738
Taxi services2,05321,32343,21322,3222,016
School bus contractors1,3395,91513,4797,9882,109
Bus tour operators1,36532,43544,63512,8632,079
Other road passenger transport64170470311*
          Total, other road passenger transport4,82159,843101,79743,485*
Logging haulage1,79710,07517,5829,0712,957
Stock haulage4,46624,34346,68725,6626,733
Refrigerated haulage1,2049,33117,0298,7071,579
Heavy haulage4,80917,23035,07619,6674,019
Bulk haulage7,14352,22693,82646,8819,192
Furniture removal5477,98613,1325,464890
Route haulage8405,50711,8017,0551,766
General carrier25,636152,070303,417167,75634,568
Other freight transport by road8747,96316,5018,7431,202
          Total, freight transport by road47,315286,731555,051299,00662,907
Car and truck rental services5,58718,88937,53519,58611,718
Vehicle parking facilities463,2887,3134,3702,959
Other supporting services to land transport903,4459,0845,842866
          Total, supporting services to land transport5,72425,62353,93229,79815,544
          Total, land transport81,262620,7961,175,299521,808102,520
Ocean and coastal water transport18,130200,068269,46567,000−21,933
Inland water transport4784,8348,2683,543344
Harbour board operations12,35948,366146,48899,91031,124
Stevedoring1,69551,604142,68798,7304,252
Other supporting services to water transport2981,2074,5353,3353,223
          Total, supporting services to water transport14,353101,178293,710201,97538,600
          Total, water transport32,961306,080571,443272,51717,011
Air transport carriers18,974383,694493,348121,007−18,053
Aero clubs5183,9075,6711,856455
Airport operations2,43713,87438,52925,43813,034
Other supporting services to air transport119623923312−39
          Total, supporting services to air transport3,07418,40445,12327,60613,449
          Total, air transport22,048402,098538,470148,613−4,604
Travel agencies79030,88156,10625,6581,477
Freight agents2,387126,248181,95057,9024,904
Other services incidental to transport6152,7106,7524,091624
          Total, services incidental to transport3,792159,839244,80987,6517,005
Storage and warehousing1,7987,36518,49011,4322,927
          Total, services allied to transport5,590167,204263,29999,0839,932
          Total, transport and storage141,8611,496,1782,548,5111,042,022124,860
Post Office29,724102,633613,503540,40428,253
Other communication activities19113,15020,5497,609444
          Total, communication29,915115,783634,052548,01328,698
          Total establishments and single industry ancillary units171,7761,611,9613,132.5641,590,035153,557
Ancillary units servicing transport91818,39233,67116,74355,860
          Grand total172,6951,630,3543,216,2341,606,778209,421

A regional summary of the census as a whole is shown in the statistical area table which follows.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at End of FebruarySalaries and Wages Paid During YearCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
    $(000)
Northland28832 80024,9804,857
Central Auckland2 6994431 112321,24122,719
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1 2411511 672108,97832,121
East Coast122-1 0128,2962,010
Hawke's Bay35253 72836,14911,143
Taranaki18522 46722,2365,118
Wellington1 3683926 173274,55470,531
          Total, North Island6 25510878 964796,436148,498
Marlborough8511 32013,8672,317
Nelson16642 29423,7696,513
Westland71-8167,5541,795
Canterbury9981413 806140,24125,798
Otago50265 77555,71814,920
Southland30533 25132,2209,579
          Total, South Island2 1272827 262273,36860,923
          Total, New Zealand8 382136106 2261,069,804209,421

FURTHER INFORMATION—Publications dealing with shipping, railways, roads and road transport, and civil aviation are listed at the ends of the appropriate sections. Two publications discussing transport policy in general are listed below, together with the report on the Census of Transport, Storage, and Communication.

A New Direction for New Zealand Transport (Parl. paper F. 13, 1974).

Interim Report on Transport (Parl. paper F. 14, 1975).

Transport, Storage, and Communication 1980 (Department of Statistics 1982).

The annual report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5) should also be consulted.

13 B—SHIPPING

The development of the container ship, the unitised cargo ship, the roll-on roll-off ship, and barge-carrying systems such as the “lash” (lighter aboard ship) system have brought about a world-wide revolution in the handling of maritime cargoes, and a new concept of the co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations. There is no sign that this revolution is coming to an end. The continuing increase in capital and operating costs, particularly the cost of fuel, has intensified the search for improved efficiency in vessels and cargo handling methods.

Recent innovations include the hybrid vessel, combining for example lift-on and roll-on capability for greater flexibility and speed of turn around, and improved hull and propellor design, as well as more fuel-efficient propulsion units.

New Zealand, as a country that lives by overseas trade, has had to adapt to such technological changes which extend throughout the entire transport chain from factory to port.

PORT DEVELOPMENT—To ensure nationally co-ordinated harbour development the New Zealand Ports Authority was established by statute in 1968. The chief functions of the authority are to maintain an overview of port facilities in New Zealand and to promote an efficient and integrated ports network. The authority's approval for port development is required when the cost exceeds specific capital expenditure limits. Consents granted during the year ended 31 March 1982 amounted to $27.9 million. While container shipping handles the bulk of New Zealand's general cargo trade, development at the four container ports of Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers has virtually stabilised. The downturn in the economy has affected the trade throughput at all ports and has postponed the need for bringing into use the inland container base developed at Wiri. Limited development for specific container operations at Napier and Taranaki has been authorised in more recent times. Consideration is being given to port needs for the handling of hydrocarbon products at Taranaki.

CARGO TRAFFIC—The number of containers handled at cellular container terminals during 1981–32 was 248 145, comprising 123 760 inward, and 124 385 outward. This figure was slightly above the total handled during 1980–81 (222 574). By ports, Auckland handled 100 309 (91 203 the previous year), Wellington 73 533 (63 976), Lyttelton 21 420 (22 526), and Port Chalmers 51 225 (43 151).

The number of containers handled at cellular container terminals during 1981–82 for Pacific Island and Trans-Tasman trade totalled 1658 (1718 the previous year).

SHIPPING SERVICES—New Zealand's heavy dependence on overseas trade and isolation from principal population centres and principal markets combine, to make us more reliant on shipping than most other developed countries. Over 90 percent of New Zealand exports by value are carried by sea. A similar proportion of imports travel the same way.

OVERSEAS LINER SERVICES—United Kingdom/Europe: About 98 percent of New Zealand northbound liner cargo to the United Kingdom/Europe is carried by two closed conferences offering common rates of freight and rationalised services. The New Zealand European Shipping Association (NZESA), which serves Mediterranean and north continental ports, is comprised of four British and eight continental lines together with the Australian National Line (ANL), and the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand (SCNZ). The membership of the N.Z. and U.K. Shipowners' Committee, which serves ports in the United Kingdom (together with ports in South America and the Carribean), comprises three British members of NZESA plus ANL and SCNZ.

The conference lines have had a long history of exclusive contracts with the producer boards for the carriage of all New Zealand meat and dairy exports to the United Kingdom/Europe. The terms of the contracts have ranged from one year to five years. The lines have also dominated the carriage of wool to the same area.

This year, following a review of its shipping arrangements, the Wool Board negotiated a one year freight contract with NZESA from which 10 000 tonnes of wool were excluded. The board subsequently called tenders for the carriage of the reserved cargo to ports in Eire and Egypt. As a result, two independent (non-conference) lines, Zim Israel Navigation Company and the Belgian ABC Container Line, have been designated approved carriers in the New Zealand-Egypt wool trade. In the case of Eire, the board accepted the NZESA tender.

The Meat and Dairy Board's present five year exclusive contracts with the members of the conference lines expire at the end of September 1983. Both boards are currently reviewing their shipping policies in the light of changes in trade patterns and marketing requirements, as well as developments in shipping services, which have occurred since the contracts were first negotiated.

East Asia/South-East Asia—New Zealand's outward liner trade to East Asia/South-East Asia is served by one conference, a joint service, and a number of independent operators. SCNZ is a member of the Australian and New Zealand/Eastern Shipping Conference, the New Zealand arm of which provides a direct container service between New Zealand and Japan.

Americas—United Staves, United Kingdom, and West German flag lines carry the greater part of New Zealand's liner trade with both the West and East Coasts of North America. SCNZ is involved in the Americas trade as a member of a conference serving ports in South and Central America, the Caribbean and the U.S. Gulf.

Trans-Tasman—Trans-Tasman trade is served principally by the roll-on/roll-off vessels operated by the Union Steam Ship Company.

As a result of a downturn in cargo tonnage during the year, the Union Company laid-up one of its five liner vessels while Maritime Carriers Ltd., which had operated a liner service in competition with USSCO since 1978, also withdrew one of its three vessels. Subsequently, the owners of Maritime Carriers, Waitaki-NZR Ltd., announced its intention to withdraw from trans-Tasman shipping.

Some trans-Tasman cargo is also carried on SCNZ and ANL vessels in the course of their participation in the United Kingdom/Europe trade, and towards the end of 1982 the two national lines announced plans to form a joint venture to operate dedicated trans-Tasman tonnage.

Middle East—A direct container service is provided to a number of Middle East ports by two United Kingdom flag carriers. Calls at Jeddah are made by some of the lines involved in the New Zealand-United Kingdom/Europe conference trades, while a number of other liner operators offer container trans-shipment services. However, chartered conventional tonnage continues to play an important part in this trade.

SOUTH PACIFIC—Pacific Forum Line (PFL): A regional shipping venture established in June 1977 under the auspices of the South Pacific Forum (the PFL), operates three modern container vessels (one of which is contributed by New Zealand) in a liner service linking ports in New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, American Samoa, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Australia. During the year the PFL established a feeder service to Tuvalu and Kiribati.

Other Services—The Governments of the Cook Island, Niue and New Zealand maintain a shipping service between their countries using two small conventional vessels. The joint service also trades to Tahiti.

Other liner services from New Zealand to the South Pacific are provided by New Zealand, French, Norwegian and Tongan flag vessels.

Overseas Bulk Services—In tonnage terms most of New Zealand's external trade is carried in bulk vessels. While a certain amount of bulk tonnage is dedicated to the trade—such as the two trans-Tasman forest product carriers owned by Tasman Pulp and Paper and the bulk ore vessel used to carry alumina from Queensland to the Tiwai Point aluminium smelter—New Zealand's bulk shipping needs are served in the main by a fluid mix of vessels.

Cargoes carried by these vessels (frequently registered in open registry countries like Liberia and Panama) include crude oil, phosphate rock and petroleum coke inwards, and ironsands, coal and forest products outwards.

Coastal Liner Services—A regular and frequent ferry service across the Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton, at the head of the Marlborough Sounds, is provided by four rail ferries operated by the Railways Corporation. The ferries, Aramoana, Aranui and Aratika, carry both passengers and freight. The freight vessel, Arahanga. also has limited accommodation for truck drivers and others whose vehicles are being carried. A new vessel, the Arahura, is under construction in Denmark. The Arahura will replace at least one of the existing ferries and will enter service in late 1983 or early 1984.

During the year ended March 1982 the ferries carried 777 101 passengers, 147 248 passenger cars, 11 047 trucks and trade cars, and 1 652 332 manifest tonnes of other goods. Gross revenue amounted to $60,861,802, an increase of $11,820,056 or 24.1 percent, and expenditure totalled $56,050,921, an increase of $10,384,720 or 22.7 percent, resulting in a profit of $4,810,881 compared with last year's profit of $3,375,545. The total number of round trips made by the ships increased from 2005 in the year ended 31 March 1981, to 2250 in the year to 31 March 1982.

SCNZ's roll-on/roll-off vessel, Coastal Trader, operates a liner service between Auckland, Lyttelton and Dunedin while in April 1982 the USSCO commenced a Onehunga, New Plymouth, Nelson, Lyttelton service using a small container vessel, the Union Nelson. Coastal Shipping Ltd., began a conventional service between Onehunga, New Plymouth, Lyttelton, Timaru and Nelson in December 1981.

USSCO vessels also carry coastal cargo as part of their participation in the trans-Tasman trade.

The Government continued to subsidise a freight only shipping service to the Chatham Islands and a passenger/freight ferry service to Stewart Island.

Coastal Bulk Shipping—Bulk cement distribution is handled by three small cement carriers operated by New Zealand Cement Holdings Ltd., the Tarakohe Shipping Company Ltd., and Wilsons (NZ) Portland Cement Ltd.

Other dedicated coastal bulk tonnage includes four oil product tankers operated by the USSCO on behalf of the oil industry. During the year the oil industry announced that one of the tankers, the 20 year old Erne, is to be replaced in mid-1984 with a new 30 000 deadweight tonne vessel.

Shipping Corporation of New Zealand (SCNZ)—The corporation was set up pursuant to the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973 and commenced trading in 1974 as a wholly Government-owned national shipping line. SCNZ's objectives are set out in the 1974 Memorandum of Association and include:

Establishing, maintaining, and operating shipping services both on the New Zealand coast and in foreign trades;

Promoting, encouraging, and improving New Zealand's import/export trades;

Participating in negotiations and conferences within the shipping industry, particularly in connection with freight rates.

LINER SERVICES—United Kingdom/Europe: SCNZ is a member of the liner conference serving the New Zealand/UK-Europe trade. The corporation is also a member of the Australia/New Zealand/Europe Container Services (ANZECS) and its flagship, New Zealand Pacific, is chartered to the ANZECS consortium. In return, the corporation has a 15 percent slot share in all ANZECS vessels.

Americas—SCNZ is a member of liner conferences serving the trade between New Zealand and ports in South and Central America, the Caribbean and the US Gulf. The corporation's geared containership, New Zealand Caribbean, is one of three purpose-built ships engaged in a joint two-way service.

East Asia—The corporation is a member of the Australian and New Zealand/Eastern Shipping Conference, the New Zealand arm of which provides a direct container service between New Zealand and Japan. SCNZ serves its 12 percent trade share by chartering container space aboard the Japanese and British ships, Godwit and Aotea.

South Pacific—SCNZ manages the Cook Islands/Niue/New Zealand Joint Shipping Service on behalf of the governments of the three countries. Two corporation vessels, Tiare Moana and Fetu Moana, serve the trade under charter to the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

The corporation is also the New Zealand managing agent for the Pacific Forum Line and timecharters the Forum New Zealand to the PFL with financial help from the New Zealand Government.

Coastal Trade—SCNZ's roll-on/roll-off vessel, Coastal Trader, operates a weekly service between Auckland/Lyttelton and Dunedin.

Other Activities—During the year the corporation formed a joint venture company with Norwegian shipowner Kristian Jebsens' Rederi to man and manage one of Jebsens' 35 000 deadweight tonne bulk carriers. The vessel, renamed the New Zealand Alliance, will operate internationally within a pool of 35 similar sized bulk ships and will not be confined to New Zealand trades.

The corporation is the managing agent for the ore carrier Bulknes, which transports alumina from Queensland to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point.

SCNZ also manages the seagoing crews for the Stena Constructor, a diving support vessel chartered from Stena Line AB to assist offshore natural gas recovery activities, and the Geco Kappa, a seismic survey vessel.

The corporation's Container Services Division offers a terminal agency service to operators at each of the four container terminals.

The container terminal at Wellington is operated by Container Terminals Limited, a 51 percent owned subsidiary of SCNZ.

The corporation is involved in various forms of broking activity in the international charter market, including ship broking and cargo broking, and acts as the New Zealand agent for a number of overseas shipping lines.

SHIPPING ON NEW ZEALAND REGISTER—At 31 December 1982 there were 1802 ships on the New Zealand Register, the total gross tonnage being 299 284 and net tonnage, 161 647.

Most of the vessels on the register are relatively small. Vessels where net tonnage does not exceed 15 employed in trade solely on the coast or inland waters, are not required to register under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. These small trading vessels, along with yachts and other pleasure craft, may be registered at the request of the owners.

The following table shows registered trading vessels. Ships in overseas trade are mainly engaged in trans-Tasman and Pacific Islands trading movements.

YearNumber of VesselsNet Registered Tonnage*Number of Crew
* 1 ton equals 2.83 cubic metres.
Coastal Trade
19781543 843538
19791544 288540
19801443 811516
19811443 811516
19821444 054517
Overseas Trade
19781884 577526
19791984 870553
19801675 609466
19811575 313439
19821575 808441

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels are illustrated in the following table. Included are arrivals and departures of overseas and coastal vessels. If a vessel calls at more than one New Zealand port during a single voyage it has been recorded as having entered and cleared at each port visited. All figures are provisional for the 1982 December year.

PortArrivalsDeparturesTotal
NumberNet TonnageNumberNet TonnageNumberNet Tonnage
Parengarenga6910 6446910 64413821 288
Houhora59175917101 834
Mangonui81 52781 527163 054
Awanui58655865101 730
Opua1196 0171090 01721186 034
Whangarei3512 546 6813482 527 5766995 074 257
Auckland1 1017 774 2311 1007 788 7292 20115 562 960
Onehunga163150 393162149 704325300 097
Tauranga4772 666 1144742 645 6589515 311 772
Taharoa15502 35614477 01829979 374
Gisborne64123 97364123 379128247 352
Port Taranaki4561 217 4444561 210 5759122 428 019
Napier3181 515 6423181 510 4446363 026 086
Waverley9519 0089519 008181 038 016
Wanganui3619 7553519 7557139 510
Wellington3 3778 559 4093 3718 530 7576 74817 090 166
Other North Island ports248 401248 4014816 802
          Total, North Island6 48925 713 3776 47225 614 97412 96151 328 351
Tarakohe104109 209104109 209208218 418
Nelson357864 200361869 8957181 734 095
Picton2 1983 256 3032 1983 256 3034 3966 512 606
Westport111131 572109129 023220260 595
Greymouth483 636473 556957 192
Lyttelton7152 910 2997172 914 1921 4325 824 491
Timaru190708 570189696 6283791 405 198
Otago3632 428 6693632 435 7287264 864 397
Invercargill (Bluff)3251 160 1013271 183 7136522 343 814
Half moon Bay12034 92012034 92024069 840
Chatham Islands124 728124 728249 456
          Total, South Island4 54311 612 2074 54711 637 8959 09023 250 102
          Total, New Zealand ports11 03237 325 58411 01937 252 86922 05174 578 453

COASTWISE ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES—Included are arrivals and departures of overseas and coastal vessels on coastwise movements. If a vessel calls at more than one New Zealand port during a single voyage it has been recorded as having entered and cleared at each port visited. The following table relates to the 1982 December year. All figures are provisional.

PortArrivalsDeparturesTotal
NumberNet TonnageNumberNet TonnageNumberNet Tonnage
Parengarenga6910 6446910 64413821 288
Houhora59175917101 834
Mangonui81 52781 527163 054
Awanui58655865101 730
Opua322 919766 1741089 093
Whangarei2921 591 3322851 555 6495773 146 981
Auckland5403 180 5236414 230 5391 1817 411 062
Onehunga127126 558116118 171243244 729
Tauranga3381 859 901193986 9335312 846 834
Gisborne2771 7654187 67268159 437
Port Taranaki206837 913217830 3794231 668 292
Napier2401 173 7822191 010 1924592 183 974
Wanganui1917 1292017 4383934 567
Wellington2 5856 540 0162 6837 400 9865 26813 941 002
Other North Island ports248 401248 4014816 802
Tarakohe102106 4719798 832199205 303
Nelson165447 109150415 427315862 536
Picton2 1963 248 7272 1973 245 7184 3936 494 445
Westport99123 360107128 190206251 550
Lyttelton4641 911 4664842 000 6269483 912 092
Timaru92514 62891447 977183962 605
Otago2071 747 925164909 8143712 657 739
Invercargill (Bluff)232659 134217568 4154491 227 549
Half moon Bay12034 92012034 92024069 840
Chatham Islands124 728124 728249 456
Other South Island ports--15371537
          Total, all ports8 17724 242 6608 17324 181 67116 35048 424 331

OVERSEAS ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES—Included are first arrivals from overseas and final departures overseas only. The table relates to the 1982 December year. All figures are provisional.

PortArrivalsDeparturesTotal
NumberNet TonnageNumberNet TonnageNumberNet Tonnage
Opua873 098323 8431196 941
Whangarei59955 34963971 9271221 927 276
Auckland5614 593 7084593 558 1901 0208 151 898
Onehunga3623 8354631 5338255 368
Tauranga139806 2132811 658 7254202 464 938
Taharoa15502 35614477 01829979 374
Gisborne3752 2082335 7076087 915
Port Taranaki250379 531239380 196489759 727
Napier78341 86099500 252177842 112
Waverley9519 0089519 008181 038 016
Wanganui172 626152 317324 943
Wellington7922 019 3936881 129 7711 4803 149 164
Tarakohe22 738710 377913 115
Nelson192417 091211454 468403871 559
Picton27 576110 585318 161
Westport128 2122833149 045
Greymouth483 636463 019946 655
Lyttelton251998 833233913 5664841 912 399
Timaru98193 94298248 651196442 593
Otago156680 7441991 525 9143552 206 658
Invercargill (Bluff)93500 967110615 2982031 116 265
          Total, all ports2 85513 082 9242 84613 071 1985 70126 154 122

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term “tonne” does not invariably denote a weight of 1000 kg. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the tonne. Overseas cargo is recorded in manifest tonnes, 1 cubic metre of space being regarded as the equivalent of a tonne. Coastal cargo is recorded in gross tonnes, which is the actual weight of cargo including packaging but not including the weight of a container. Although a direct comparison of the gross tonne figures with manifest tonnes is not possible, a conversion rate of 1.6 manifest tonnes to one gross tonne may be used for general cargo for comparability.

For the year ended December 1982, overseas cargo was—inwards 10 090 551 manifest tonnes, outwards 7 985 417 gross tonnes. Coastal cargo for the same period was—inwards 5 771 245 gross tonnes, outwards 5 371 153 gross tonnes. It should be noted that coastal cargo figures are provisional. With the rise of ports handling specialised cargoes and major ports mechanically handling bulk loads and goods in containers on and off cellular container ships, the pattern of cargo movements has changed rapidly. Technical developments in packaging (containers, pallets) and transport (bulk loading) has tended to concentrate mechanised handling of cargo through a few ports with the consequent displacement of the manual labour of waterside workers.

The following table shows the tonnage of major items of coastal cargo handled during the year ended December 1982. All figures are provisional.

CommodityInwardsOutwardsTotal
 gross tonnes
Cement622 440635 2391 257 679
Coal and coke227580807
Petroleum products3 243 7993 225 3906 469 189
Sand and shingle41 26443 28684 550
Grain38 59570 305108 900
Motor vehicles273 803275 489549 292
Container goods236 292231 179467 471
Other goods1 314 825889 6852 204 510
          Total5 771 2455 371 15311 142 398

The next table shows for each port inward and outward cargo in 1982. Loadings of bunker fuels are not included. A large proportion of the coastal movement concerns oil tankers working from the Whangarei refinery, while the movements of cars by tourists build up the Wellington and Picton tonnages.

PortOverseasCoastal*
LoadedUnloadedLoadedUnloaded
* Provisional.
gross tonnesmanifesttonnes gross tonnes 
Parengarenga--42 8612 821
Houhora--281756
Mangonui---1 685
Awanui---1 563
Whangarei41 2972 197 6342 483 588635 517
Auckland1 020 3823 119 01078 934878 637
Onehunga40 86722 68740 551165 346
Tauranga1 485 841624 85038 220551 436
Taharoa1 471 416---
Gisborne21 5583-20 866
Port Taranaki122 041314 618819 646203 856
Napier532 136324 833-338 726
Waverley827 633---
Wanganui---33 302
Wellington532 4781 510 270664 3831 313 250
Other North Island ports1 130 -2 290
          Total, North Island6 097 7798 113 9054 168 4644 150 051
Tarakohe16 4264 180227 148-
Nelson533 02685 90927 224171 622
Picton25 894-531 425571 654
Westport21 554-208 047-
Lyttelton398 033836 539127 945332 440
Timaru102 08994 1965 446134 979
Otago424 638292 25730 730230 884
Invercargill (Bluff)365 978663 56544 045177 750
Halfmoon Bay -6791 865
          Total, South Island1 887 6381 976 6461 202 6891 621 194
          Total, New Zealand ports7 985 41710 090 5515 371 1535 771 245

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnage of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled during the year ended December 1982.

PortIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, KeroseneOil, Other MineralsMotor Vehicles and PartsGypsum, Plaster of Paris
manifest tonnes
Whangarei-963164 729-2 011 870-20 072
Auckland406 872150 18641 130393 76225 635359 00877 086
Tauranga5 208-327 27640 611-806-
Napier7 6198 238204 75422 55614 303-
Taranaki11 36633 936202 55429-15 824-
Wellington100 78355 135980300 43848 587358 183-
Nelson--49 824--22 87813 067
Lyttelton65 8809 621126 846164 04710 06664 81916 671
Timaru1 13612 47841 4826 316-924-
Otago14 489251 0273 3611 9801 1855 667
Bluff1 896278186 62219 210..198-
All other ports2176---1204 180
          Total615 251271 0131 397 224950 3302 098 139828 248136 743
PortFresh FruitGrainSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Whangarei-----2 197 634
Auckland103 69775 088172 47198 6931 215 3823 119 010
Tauranga-21 502--229 447624 850
Napier88--6 66570 609324 833
Taranaki-258-3 32647 325314 618
Wellington7 55712 3992 69319 679603 8361 510 270
Nelson----14085 909
Lyttelton33 57568019424 997319 143836 539
Timaru323--57430 96394 196
Otago----214 546292 257
Bluff369---454 992663 565
All other ports1 318-1 288319 78326 870
          Total146 927109 927176 646153 9373 206 16610 090 551

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up approximately 50 percent by value of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the volume of the main items in the outward overseas cargo during the year ended December 1982.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatsHides and SkinsTallowWool
gross tonnes
Whangarei17 218322 70251-4-
Auckland94 98824 66282 402181 44320 17724 50246 332
Onehunga578296653 240-464-
Tauranga79 0911 049134 3421 3182506 8811 890
Gisborne---693---
Napier459-3 86346 6182 19526 81531 295
Taranaki29 6866 09935 30925 65760-4 129
Wellington28 24244 54310 946210 87822 86760864 893
Picton---388-2 097-
Nelson2 162272 19131--25
Lyttelton44969 82266 6658 6926 68040 731
Timaru---48 5069007 6434 632
Otago905 83969134 75811 4071 88092 736
Bluff---56 3553515 83712 415
          Total252 51882 747302 311776 60166 58393 411299 078
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodIron-sandAll Other GoodsTotal
gross tonnes
Whangarei-----1 31941 297
Auckland22 97882619 98220 595-481 4951 020 382
Onehunga2162 4272 594-30 84340 867
Taharoa----1 471 416-1 471 416
Tauranga1 81718246 338538 966-474 8811 486 841
Gisborne-----20 86521 558
Napier50 71623128660 273-309 385532 136
Taranaki1 312901 147250-18 302122 041
Waverley----827 633-827 633
Wellington3 0603 3462 85616 035-124 204532 478
Picton---23 409--25 894
Nelson44 7441 085-98 135-384 626533 026
Lyttelton7315 3578 2168 973-232 324398 033
Timaru-2 4941081 829-35 977102 089
Otago1 6568 2393 51537 323-127 126424 638
Bluff2142029378 764-271 219365 978
All other ports-----39 11039 110
          Total126 59131 894285 812817 1462 299 0492 551 6767 985 417

MERCHANT NAVY QUALIFICATIONS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport conducts regular examinations for merchant service personnel who wish to obtain certificates of competency as master, mate, or engineer. There are different standards of certificates for foreign-going, home trade, and restricted limits ships. The foreign-going certificates as master, first mate, second mate, and first- and second-class steam and motor engineer, are valid in most Commonwealth countries. Examinations are also conducted for skippers, mates and engineers of deep sea, coastal, and inshore fishing boats. Voluntary examinations are held for yachtsmen.

NAUTICAL SCHOOLS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport maintains nautical schools in Wellington and Auckland. Courses leading to the examinations for all grades of masters and mates certificates are available. Courses are also held for able seamen and ordinary seamen, for yachtsmen, and in radar.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport carries out the surveys of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. In 1982, 1301 certificates of survey were issued, compared with 1294 in 1981, and 1176 in 1980.

Seventy-two foreign-flag joint venture fishing vessels were surveyed and issued with an exemption certificate and certifying letter in lieu of a certificate of survey for the 1982–83 season, compared with 75 for the 1981–82 season.

During 1982, 112 certificates were issued under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory, compared with 92 in 1981.

Special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around some 7000 kilometres of coastline and the waters in harbours and lakes controlled by the Ministry of Transport there are 224 navigational aids. These aids comprise 15 manned lighthouses, 108 automatic lights, 71 day beacons, 17 navigational buoys, 1 fog signal, and 12 radio beacons. Their provision, maintenance, and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, and involves an expenditure of approximately $2 million annually. Lighthouse tenders, aircraft, helicopters, and road transport, along with a number of workshops, are used to maintain this service to give the mariner reliable aids to navigation. Light dues collected from overseas and coastal ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Transport, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a district judge, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the Receiver of Wreck for that district has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

Shipping Casualties—During the year ended December 1982, 311 shipping casualties were reported to the Ministry of Transport. The table below shows the type of vessels involved and the nature of the casualty.

Type of ShipMachinery Breakdown and MiscellaneousCapsizing and CollisionStranding and GroundingFounderingFireTotal
Passenger11--24
Cargo122-38
Fishing12141019358
Dredges, tugs, etc.-221-5
Pleasure12958211810236
          Total14377353818311

Fishing boat accidents on the New Zealand coast caused the loss of 23 vessels and 10 lives. As a result of pleasure boat accidents, 48 deaths were recorded.

Casualties involving serious damage, injury, or loss of life were investigated, and as a result, preliminary inquiries were carried out in 19 cases. A formal investigation was carried out into the stranding and loss on 26 September 1981 of the New Zealand fishing boat San Benito, on Tuakua Rocks near Mayor Island, Bay of Islands.

The Auckland Harbour Board tug Tika capsized when assisting the overseas freighter Shereen to leave harbour, and the tug master lost his life.

A Taiwanese fishing boat Yung Pen struck rocks off Owhiro Bay, Wellington on 12 December 1982 and capsized. The vessel was declared a total loss.

SAFETY OF SHIPS—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, administered by the Ministry of Transport, is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the international conventions of which New Zealand is a signatory. These conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

MARINE POLLUTION—The Marine Pollution Act 1974 gives effect to a number of international conventions relating to oil pollution. The most important of these is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954, as amended in 1962 and 1969. The Act prohibits the discharge of oil within the territorial sea and restricts the discharge of oil elsewhere to insignificant amounts. A contingency plan has been developed to deal with a major spillage of oil in the vicinity of New Zealand and a considerable quantity of oil pollution control equipment and oil dispersant is being stockpiled in New Zealand to deal with such an eventuality.

The Act also contains provisions to control the dumping of waste at sea from ships. While the dumping of waste containing substances known to be harmful to the marine environment is prohibited, the Ministry of Transport may issue permits to allow the dumping of other wastes and may impose appropriate conditions. The provisions do not apply to the disposal at sea of ships' operational wastes.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on shipping, ports, and cargo may be found in the following publications.

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Waterfront Industry Commission (Parl. paper G. 2).

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Ports Authority (Parl. paper F. 5A).

Report of the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Parl. paper F. 13).

Turnround of Overseas Shipping—Waterfront Industry Commission (4-monthly).

13 C—RAILWAYS

The New Zealand Railways Corporation is responsible for a network of railways extending over 4400 kilometres and linking almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand. The corporation also operates road services over more than 10 000 route kilometres of highway, and a rail and road vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton. More than 20 000 people are employed by the corporation.

The title New Zealand Railways is used for trading purposes.

RAILWAYS DEVELOPMENT—Recent years have seen notable progress in the development of the railway system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in railway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, computerised monitoring of freight wagons and rail traffic, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

The completion of the 9.5 km Mangaweka-Utiku deviation on the North Island Main Trunk line in 1981, and the opening of the Porootarao tunnel in 1980, have resulted in improved clearances and greater speed for modern railway rolling stock through the North Island Main Trunk line. Since a Traffic Monitoring System (TMS) was established nationwide in 1980, the system has performed to expectations and other stages are being implemented in a continual programme.

One of the most important decisions made in recent years has been the approval in December 1981 to start design work for electrification of the North Island Main Trunk railway between Te Rapa and Palmerston North. The six-year electrification programme will cost an estimated $180 million and tenders have been called internationally and locally for contracts covering locomotives, traction, overhead and power supplies, signals and communications, earthworks and tunnelling. As a third of all New Zealand main rail traffic passes over the main trunk line, electrification will result in reduced fuel costs and faster travelling times.

In the suburban passenger area, work is progressing on the extension of the suburban electrification from Paekakariki to Paraparaumu.

The $1.9 million project is expected to be completed in 1983. The first of the new multiple units, built by Ganz-Mavag of Hungary, went into service in 1982. The 44 two-car Hungarian units will improve suburban rail operations in the Wellington area.

The total route length of railways vested in the New Zealand Railways Corporation and open for traffic at 31 March 1982 was 4418 kilometres—2555 kilometres in the North Island and 1863 in the South Island. In addition, the corporation was working traffic over a further 7 kilometres of railways owned by Government departments. Double line was worked over a total of 254 route kilometres, of which 208 kilometres were in the North Island. A total of 100 route kilometres of railways electrified on the 1500-volt direct current overhead contact system was in use at 31 March 1982.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand were constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works and Development, and handed over to the then Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works and Development to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department (or, now, the Railways Corporation) to lay the tracks and install signals.

Track—All track is laid to a gauge of 1067 mm. The major routes are laid with rails 85 or 91 lb per yard (42.2 or 45.1 kg/m) but these lines will be progressively relaid with rails weighing 50 kg per metre. Secondary and branch lines have generally been laid with rails weighing 55, 70, and 72 lb per yard (27.3, 34.7, and 35.7 kg/m) and the practice is to re-lay these lines with heavier rails from the main lines. Treated Pinus radiata sleepers, laid about 1480 per kilometre, have gradually replaced Australian hardwood sleepers, and locally manufactured concrete sleepers are also being used on selected areas on the main routes. Track with fishplates and bolts at every joint is progressively replaced with rails welded at the joints on all major routes and on some secondary lines.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, about 2600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 90 kilometres. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 55 kilometres south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 1743 metres in length.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier-Gisborne railway 97 metres above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty-one New Zealand railway viaducts carry the rails more than 33 metres above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—There are 183 railway tunnels in New Zealand. The 3 longest tunnels are Kaimai (8.9 km), between Tauranga and Hamilton; Rimutaka (8.8 km), between Wellington and Masterton; and Otira (8.5 km), between Otira and Arthur's Pass.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947. In recent years this service has been considerably affected by the alternative service offered by the rail ferries, and has operated at a loss.

Cook Strait Rail/Ferry Service—Three ferries carrying road and rail vehicles and passengers are operated by the Railways Corporation between Wellington and Picton: the Aranui, Aramoana, and Aratika. A fourth vessel, Arahanga, carries rail wagons and road freight vehicles.

A contract for a new $45 million Cook Strait ferry to replace the 20-year-old Aramoana was signed in January 1982. The ferry will be built by the Danish Firm Aalborg Vaerft and is due for completion in November 1983, in time for the busy summer season.

The new ferry will virtually double the payload of the Aramoana and will be capable of carrying 60 railway wagons, 100 cars and 800 passengers. There will be room for 232 cars or commercial vehicles if no railway wagons are aboard.

It will make the Wellington-Picton crossing in three hours, compared to 3 h. 20 min. taken by Cook Strait ferries currently in service.

ROLLING STOCK: Wagons—The Railways Corporation's fleet of goods and livestock wagons at 31 March 1982 totalled 26 899 with a total carrying capacity of 470 737 290 kg. In recent years thousands of new wagons have been introduced, including long, covered bogie wagons with wide doorways for mechanical loading of palletised freight, for use on express goods trains. Special-purpose wagons include those designed for log traffic, packaged timber, and bulk commodities such as cement, flour, plaster, heated tallow, sulphuric acid, and aluminium sulphate, and wagons for coal traffic for the Mission Bush steel mill. Many bogie flat-top wagons have also been built or modified for the ever-increasing volume of combiner traffic. In addition to the wagons owned by the corporation another 244 privately-owned wagons are also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

PASSENGER SERVICES—In addition to the normal suburban services, New Zealand Railways Corporation run 3 prestige passenger trains. These are the Silver Fern, Northerner, and Southerner.

The Silver Fern daylight express railcar runs 6 days a week, between Auckland and Wellington. This service is licensed, air conditioned, and has hostesses.

The Northerner express runs nightly between Auckland and Wellington, and has both day and sleeping cars. The train, which has a licensed dining car, stops at many of the smaller towns not served by the Silver Fern.

The Southerner runs 6 days a week between Christchurch and Invercargill. This train has hostesses and a buffet car. A service also runs daily between Wellington and Gisborne.

Most provincial passenger services are run by Railways' Road Services following the withdrawal of the older railcars. However, on routes where there are geographical and social considerations, refurbished railcars have been placed in service. These cars, known as “Ac” cars, are hauled by diesel-electric locomotives.

The following table sets out the numbers of rail passenger journeys and the corresponding receipts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of JourneysPassenger Revenue
SuburbanNon-suburbanTotalSuburbanNon-suburbanTotal
 (000)(000)(000)$(thousand)
197815 3961 00616 4024,6955,85210,547
197915 7421 00716 7495,5196,08711,606
198015 01299916 0116,5326,43712,970
198113 94898614 9347,2347,55114,786
198213 44089914 3398,6269,09817,724

GOODS TRAFFIC—The following table shows the volume of goods traffic in tonnes and tonne-kilometres, and the revenue received from goods and parcels traffic consigned by rail.

Year Ended 31 MarchGoods Carried (Excluding Parcels)Total Revenue from Goods and Parcels Traffic
TonnesNet Tonne-kilometresNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal
* Revenue from rail parcels traffic was $4,735,000 in 1977–78, $5,313,513 in 1978–79, $5,770,594 in 1979–80, $6,866,810 in 1980–81, and $8,970,928 in 1981–82.
 (000)(million)$(thousand)
197812 5773 401.7143,57755,062198,639*
197911 7223 281.0157,54164,230221,771*
198012 7603 225.9178,06075,782253,842*
198112 3113 152.5214,98292,863307,846*
198212 4683 264.5259,555111,963371,518*

MOTIVE POWER—Dieselisation of New Zealand Railways began in 1949 and was completed by 1971. The most powerful diesel-electric locomotives in service are the American-built 2050 kW “DX” class.

The rebuilding and modernising of “DA” and “DB” class locomotives under contract by the Clyde Engineering Company in South Australia has continued with the close involvement of New Zealand Railways personnel. At 31 March 1982, 90 locomotives had been shipped to Australia; 78 of the locomotives had been returned to New Zealand rebuilt and were in service.

The programme to fully overhaul 10 “DG” class locomotives for use as “slaves” to the rebuilt “DG” class locomotives is continuing and 4 locomotives have been completed to date.

A programme to rebuild all bogies for “DX” locomotives has been initiated as a forerunner to the full overhaul of these locomotives which is to begin in the 1982–83 year. Two locomotives are at present being fully overhauled and fitted with a number of new features to improve their performance in service.

Toshiba Corporation of Japan has now completed and delivered 12 of the 18 “DSG” class high powered shunting locomotives for work in major yards. The first 6 of these locomotives are working in the Wellington area and the second 6 are working in the Christchurch area.

All “DSC” class shunting locomotives originally built in New Zealand have now been fitted with new diesel engine power units and other improvements. Fifty-two of the locomotives have been fitted with Cummins engines and 18 have been fitted with Rolls Royce engines.

The re-engining of “DJ” class locomotives is continuing and by 31 March 1982, 57 had been fitted with new power units.

The number of locomotives in service at 31 March 1982 totalled 521, comprising 328 main line diesel-electric, 180 diesel shunters of various types, 11 electric, and 2 steam locomotives. As with previous years the locomotive rebuilding programme has necessitated about 15 locomotives being either in transit to or from Australia or under conversion at any one time, and as a consequence on some occasions during the year there were short term locomotive shortages.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue
* Deficit recovered from Vote: Stabilisation.
 $(thousand)
1978266,404304,184−37,780*
1979299,513346,786−47,274*
1980349,126404,931−55,805*
1981420,461471,498−51,036*
1982507,347563,977−56,630*

The chief items of expenditure for 1981–82 were: wages, $329,462,070; fuel (including electricity) for locomotives, road vehicles, and rail ferries, $49,261,837; stores and materials, $72,198,053; depreciation, $23,640,692; and miscellaneous, $65,766,538.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
 $(thousand)
1978212,74853,656251,86352,320−39,115+1,336
1979237,26662,247287,24159,545−49,975+2,702
1980274,36974,756331,36073,570−56,991+1,186
1981331,78388,677384,47787,020−52,693+1,657
1982399,335108,012459,300104,678−59,965+3,334

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1981–82 year.

Section of RailwayRevenueExpenditureOperating Deficit
 $(thousand)
North Island282,258312,86430,606
South Island117,077146,43629,359
New Zealand399,335459,30059,965

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Corporation are set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1978–791979–801980–811981–821978–791979–801980–811981–82
 $(thousand)
Advertising412420532x741374442478598
Corporation houses2,2632,4432,5352,6215,2615,9316,3357,684
Road services—
  Passenger and goods21,61925,95530,882x36,43723,87028,81134,54040,344
Cook Strait rail ferry service33,28240,59649.042x60,86230,04038,38445,66656,051
Miscellaneous4,6715,3405,687x7,351----
        Total62,24774,75688,678x108,01259,54573,57087,020104,677

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods and ParcelsCatering ServicesTotal
 $(thousand)
197810,547198,6393,563212,749
197911,606221,7713,888237,266
198012,970257,1164,283274,369
198114,785312,4404,558331,783
198217,724376,9504,660399,334

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure is shown under various heads in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Catering ServicesTotal
* Includes superannuation subsidy.
 $(thousand)
197865,29753,90440,95271,17213,3947,144251,863
197975,29463,08645,04379,91515,8558,048287,241
198084,68871,65455,44393,50418,0148,057331,360
198199,79774,97568,036x108,74824,8158,106384,477
1982121,12589,38683,383127,49029,3328,584459,300

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment, as well as higher costs of fuel and materials.

Capital Expenditure—Expenditure on capital works and new equipment is set out in the following table.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19781979198019811982
* Includes Capital Equipment Credits.
 $(thousand)
Plant and equipment3,8983,9983,2423,0047,159
Works programme20,35519,82820,55719,89823,483
Rolling stock17,337*27,392*36,361*40,439*64,874*
Motor vehicles5,0674,4142,3283,2502,893
Rail ferries3,203*4,095*40432180
        Total49,86059,72962,89166,62598,590

This capital expenditure has been met from the department's own depreciation reserves, the Loans Account, and overseas credits.

The relative proportions of capital funded from these sources during the latest 3 years were as follows:

SourceYear Ended 31 March
1979198019811982
 $(000)percent$(000)percent$(000)percent$(000)percent
Railway depreciation22,2923726,0743922,2593423,75124
Loans Account21,1303621,1633620,1913051,32452
Overseas credits16,3072715,6542524,1753623,51524
        Total59,72910062,89110066,62510098,590100

RAIL FERRY TRAFFIC—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Return CrossingsTotal Passenger JourneysMotor Vehicles (of all kinds)Freight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnesDeadweight TonnesManifest Tonnes
19781 945724 242157 615866 883999 5021 612 268
19791 906691 615153 410843 755956 5841 725 334
19802 126684 742144 689795 789968 9631 732 936
19812 005705 114147 840813 120910 4922 395 605
19822 250777 101158 295870 622944 1272 522 955

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengerCateringPassengers Motor VehiclesGoods (Rail and Road)Total
 $(thousand)
19784,1387993,82719,75028,51426,868
19794,6488744,42423,33633,28230,040
19805,5709394,92329,16440,59638,384
19816,8401,0966,44134,66349,04245,666
19828,9571,3058,98841,61260,86256,051

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The number of persons employed by the New Zealand Railways at 31 March 1982 was 20 834 (not including 776 sea-going staff employed on the Cook Strait rail ferries), compared with 20 467 a year earlier.

ACCIDENTS AT LEVEL CROSSINGS—Accidents at level crossings resulted in the death of 10 people and injury to 19 others in 1981–82; in the previous year 4 were killed and 37 injured.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and other industrial undertakings. The 11-km line of the Ohai Railway Board, extends from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., in the North Island, operates a 10-km private line from Awakeri to its mill at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services the origin of which dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley and Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the first long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route distance over which licences were held rose from 418 to 9641 km. Now the Railways Corporation maintains in its fleet almost 68 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. At 31 March 1982, the Railways Corporation's road services branch employed a staff of 1477.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Rotorua, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paraparaumu, Dunedin, Westport, and Greymouth, with a fleet of 283 vehicles at 31 March 1982, carried 10 884 712 passengers and earned a total revenue of $6,442,974. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 591 coaches, carried 7 057 484 passengers and earned a revenue of $28,400,502. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1982 covered 10 144 km of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services for which some 55 motor vehicles were maintained, produced a further $1,594,318 in 1981–82. A rail ancillary goods service is operated by the corporation's Traffic Branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the New Zealand Railway's road services operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Kilometres at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges
* Route kilometres for which licences are held.
    (000)$(000)$(000)
197810 14178138519 90018,44920,343
197910 14477437819 74021,61923,870
198010 14477536619 82525,95528,811
198110 14478038618 42930,88234,540
198210 14478035817 96936,43740,344

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Railways Department (Parl. paper F 7).

Transport Statistics (Dept. of Statistics).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics (Dept. of Statistics).

13 D—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

Capital investment in New Zealand's roading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are more than 96 000 kilometres of road and over 1.8 million motor vehicles, and the 1979–80 Census of Transport, Storage, and Communication showed that, at the end of February 1980, 10 508 persons were engaged in the provision of road passenger transport services, 18 857 in providing freight transport by road, and 1475 in supplying supporting services to land transport such as car and truck rental services and vehicle parking facilities.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—The cost of providing adequate roads in New Zealand as a proportion of annual investments is relatively high in comparison with many other countries, largely because of the nature of the country and the wide variety of terrain frequently encountered within relatively short distances. In most years the cost of repairing rain and flood damage is a heavy item under road maintenance.

Annual roading expenditure by Central and Local Government is now over $300 million. Maintenance comprises a little over half the expenditure.

Motorways are expensive to construct and are justified only in areas of high traffic density. They require strong foundations and thick surfacings to stand up to the heavy, fast, and continuous traffic. However, they confer two great benefits—greatly increased traffic capacity and greater safety. The limited number of access points, designed to permit smooth and safe entrance and exit, and the complete absence of ordinary intersections, contribute substantially to safety and the uninterrupted, fast flow of traffic, which also reduces transport costs.

With increased financial stringency, the main emphasis of State highway activities in recent years has been on the maintenance and improvement of existing roading assets.

Details of formed roads and streets at 31 March 1982 are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceUrban AreasTown DistrictsRural AreasDistrict CouncilsState Highways and MotorwaysTotal
 Kilometres
Paved or sealed12 198.021.422 924.82 931.710 943.649 025.5
Metal or gravel655.90.339 682.93 155.3612.744 107.1
  Total, maintained roads12 853.927.762 607.76 087.011 556.393 132.6

There are 14 260 bridges of 3 metres and over with a total length of 321 456 metres.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—From May 1959, when the toll bridge opened, to March 1982, the Auckland harbour bridge has carried 388 million vehicles. In the 1981–82 year the bridge had a daily average of 78 564 vehicles crossing it. The highest daily figure recorded was 106 502 in 1981–82.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1977–781918–791979–801980–811981–82
* Estimated.
 (thousand)
Cars11 91712 44012 37012 96213 511
Motor cycles, etc.252243251275288
Commercial vehicles278271270283311
Exempt vehicles212221224228234
Southbound*12 65013 16413 11713 72914 332
        Total25 30926 33926 23227 47728 676

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Local Government Act 1974, and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways.

The National Roads Board is charged with the responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs. In 1954 the board was formed following the passing of the National Roads Act. This same Act provided for the establishment of the National Roads Fund. Under the chairmanship of the Minister of Works and Development, the National Roads Board is an organisation of 10 members, representative of the private motorists, commercial vehicle owners, counties, municipalities, the Ministry of Works and Development, and Ministry of Transport. It is of interest to note that Government members are in a minority. The representative nature of the board ensures that the widest possible background of knowledge and experience is brought to bear on roading matters. Essentially the board is a politically-orientated policy-making body; it is required to think nationally and to act nationally. The most important functions of the board are:

  1. To administer the National Roads Fund;

  2. To provide a roading system adequate for New Zealand's needs;

  3. To advise Government on all matters concerning roading including the provision of finance;

  4. To assist and advise local authorities on roading problems;

  5. To undertake at intervals of not more than five years a comprehensive survey of the roading position in New Zealand.

The money in the National Roads Fund is derived from road taxation paid by the users, the private motorist and the commercial vehicle operator. Through the roads fund the money is returned to the road user in the form of safer, smoother, more economical travel. It is an inviolate fund. Under the legislation by which it was brought into operation on 1 April 1954, all taxation paid into it must be immediately available and be used for roading purposes. In effect the National Roads Act provided for an independent fund at the disposal of an independent board and removed the element of uncertainty associated with annual appropriation of funds through Parliament. Nevertheless opportunity is provided for Parliament to debate the. board's activities.

The National Roads Board can be likened to a board of directors with the Minister of Works and Development as chairman and the Director of Roading as chief executive officer. The board meets regularly once a month. Most of the business is conducted in open meeting with representatives of the press in attendance.

No staff are employed directly, but the Ministry of Works and Development provides an engineering and administrative service for which it is paid 6.8 percent of total National Roads Board expenditure. The roading division of the Ministry of Works and Development carries out the executive functions of the board and in servicing the board calls on the specialist services of other divisions and branches of the Ministry of Works and Development as required, e.g., bridge design, land purchase, accounts, legal, etc.

For State highways and motorways, the board meets the full cost of construction and maintenance, while the maintenance and construction of county roads and municipal streets are subsidised by the Board. Some 95 percent of the State highways are now sealed. The National Roads Board is the controlling authority for State highways. As the board's agent, the Ministry of Works and Development has responsibility for financial control and technical control. In certain cases, the board has delegated its powers of construction and/or maintenance to local authorities.

In the case of county roads and municipal streets, responsibility lies with the local authority concerned. Apart from the question of standards on major works, there are no strings and no overriding control by Central Government.

Under the National Roads Act, in December of each year the board is required to estimate its income for the following year and to make its primary allocations of funds expected to be available. The board then prepares a final programme of road works for the coming year. At the present time there are two sectors and funds are allocated on the following basis: for local authorities—not less than 39 percent of motor revenue; for State highways—not less than 47 percent of motor revenue; this leaving 14 percent of motor revenue for allocation to any or all of the above, at the discretion of the board.

For purposes of reading administration, New Zealand is divided geographically into 22 roads districts and funds are allocated by the board to each sector in each district as fairly and equitably as possible having regard to particular needs.

In each roads district there is an advisory body known as a District Roads Council. These councils are representative of the same interests as the board itself. Although they have no executive powers, their recommendations concerning relative priorities have considerable influence on board decisions. In addition to its regular meetings the board makes visits of inspection to several roads districts each year. These visits afford an opportunity for board members to get a better appreciation of local problems, needs, and conditions through observation and discussion, and to maintain personal contact with District Roads Councils. The board is thus able to keep in close touch with the roading problems of New Zealand, and is better able to discharge its responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 6c per litre from all lightweight petrol-powered vehicles using public roads is paid into the National Roads Fund. All heavy motor vehicles including trailers, and all remaining lightweight non-petrol-powered vehicles are required to purchase distance licences at a cost that varies according to their nominated maximum gross weight, their axle configuration, and the distance they travel. The income from these road user charges is all credited to the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest 3 March years. Receipts are less collection expenses.

Item1979–801980–811981–82
 $(thousand)
Receipts—
  Petrol tax (net)87,470120,193128,535
  Road user charges51,23468,37082,533
  Fees and charges—
  Contribution from Consolidated Account24,00016,00035,000
Miscellaneous receipts—
  Repayments of advances to local authorities241205254
  Rents2,1442,4022,708
  Sales of land and buildings1,8971,7541,688
  Interest on advances to local bodies181916
Bailey bridging hire18526-
Interest on investments83115179
Miscellaneous456487965
  Total receipts167,729209,571251,878
Expenditure—
  Highways maintenance50,86768,08281,330
  Highways construction35,63340,48345,419
  Local authority roading subsidies and grants70,11084,83698,991
  Special purpose roads-1,4252,108
Administration and general expenses—
  Ministry of Works administration11,40012,54316,256
  Fees and travelling expenses9283124
  Miscellaneous expenses2,4422,5563,021
Bridging expenses—
  Bailey bridging, etc.158185236
Unauthorised expenditure524
        Total expenditure170,707x210,195x247,489
  Balance in fund at end of year3,9824,6659,054

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on motorways and State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last 5 years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82
* Excludes motorway structures.
 $(thousand)
Construction and improvement30,46234,78327,80529,81233,852
Bridges and other structures*6,6786,5257,82810,67011,567
Maintenance, repairs, etc.37,02343,65650,86768,08281,330
        Total74,16384,96486,500108,564126,749

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works and Development. In 1969, the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system and re-affirmed the principle that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. The most important principles in designing a State highway system are that the total length of the system must be based on routes of primary importance; that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; and that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system.

Although urban development with its growing industrialisation is a predominant problem, the National Roads Board is also ware of the need for continued development of a fully effective interregional network with adequate rural feeder roads. Balanced development of the total network is essential if primary production is to increase and production costs are to be restrained.

Highways Standards— In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. The National Roads Board also produces complementary guides to good practice, and standard specifications for roading materials and construction methods.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total length of motorways in use at 31 March 1982 was 111.8 kilometres.

New Sealing—During the year ended 31 March 1982, 21.1 kilometres of new sealing on highways was completed, giving an aggregate of 10 943.6 kilometres of sealed highway, 94.6 percent of the total length.

National Roading Expenditure—Details of New Zealand public reading expenditure financed from the National Roads Fund, the Consolidated Account, and local authority funds (both from revenue and loans) are summarised as follows:

Item1980–811981–82
 $(thousand)
State highways expenditure108,564126,748
Special purpose roads1,4252,108
Local Authority roading expenditure—
  From local authority funds109,485120,026
  From National Roads Fund83,41198,991
  From Consolidated Account (Developmental Roading)6,6636,576
 199,559225,593
        Total309,548354,449
Note—Table above includes subsidies paid under section 12a of the National Roads Act to the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority ($1,000,000).

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a basic subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the board, and approves grants in special cases.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the board makes generous grants for local authority bridge replacements. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In 14 years to March 1982 there were 2799 bridges completed, totalling 66 330 metres.

For the year ended 31 March 1982 $98,991,000 was paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Loan Assistance—To assist counties and municipalities with their planning the National Roads Board meets 30 percent of the cost of approved transportation surveys in urban areas. Plans have been completed or are in the course of preparation in all city areas with a population in excess of 30 000 people.

Needs studies have been made for county and municipal roading and the board has carried out regional surveys to assess relative needs.

It is envisaged that more comprehensive and co-ordinated surveys will become necessary as development increases in complexity, and that the board's criteria will need to extend further into the field of productive economics.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, money is provided annually by the Consolidated Account (Programme: Developmental Roading) for development of road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farmlands being brought into production. This programme also finances access roads to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character and the upgrading of existing roads to meet the requirements of major industries, e.g. forestry, tourism, or energy.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Account (Programme: Developmental Roading) for the year ended 31 March 1982 was $6,576,300.

Overall Roading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the last two years.

 1980–811981–82
 $(000)
National Roads Fund—
  State highways108,564 126,748 
  Subsidies, etc. local roading84,836 98,991 
  Special purpose roading1,425 2,108 
  Administration and general expenses15,487210,31219,641247,488
Consolidated Account (Developmental Roading) 6,663 6,576
Local authority funds 109,485 120,026
        Total 326,460x 374,090

Roading expenditure over the last 5 years is related to Gross National Product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoading Expenditure: Central and Local Gov't.Gross National ProductRoading Expenditure as Percentage of G.N.P.
* Provisional.
 $(million)percent
1978211.8614,8801.42
1979244.5517,121x1.43
1980251.5420,513*1.23
1981326.46x23,615*1.38x
1982374.0928,187*1.33

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—The amounts for initial registration fees are: motorcars, from $62 to $193 according to age or engine capacity; motor cycles, trailers, and traction engines, $39; power cycles, $23; heavy trucks, $193; light trucks and vans, $116; farm tractors, $8; and any other motor vehicle, $77.

Annual licence fees are as follows: motor vehicles $39 (except veteran or vintage motor vehicles, for which there are special rates) trailers (2 tons or less loaded), $23; motor cycles, $23; power cycles, $15; tractors, $31; trade licences for motor cycles are $23, and trade licences for other motor vehicles $39. Other fees include drivers' licences, $2.50, and changes of ownership, $19. All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, have been credited to the Consolidated Account since 1 July 1967. Additional to these fees are the Accident Compensation levies ($14.20 for cars and motor cycles) which replaced compulsory third-party insurance.

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last 5 years are itemised below.

Type of Vehicle19781979198019811982
* Class 3 vehicles under these headings are now listed on their own under Miscellaneous.
Cars1 215 6381 244 7511 283 6611 319 3051 360 477
Rental cars5 5335 4845 9456 1276 247
Private taxicabs84114119174265
Light goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight 2 tonnes and under)161 401173 468176 692186 827200 342
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight over 2 tonnes)75 29074 42476 87277 72180 893
Contract vehicles1 2801 2681 3961 2821 331
Omnibuses2 6222 6592 5562 5752 452
Public taxicabs2 9872 9513 0152 9962 852
Service coaches684757841953973
Motor cycles103 712104 570123 071136 722144 327
Power cycles2 1031 8902 0011 7481 591
        Total, motor vehicles1 571 3341 612 3361 676 1691 736 4301 801 750
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees and caravans*353 007367 335374 490379 525390 052
Dealers' cars4 4263 7164 5134 3614 623
Dealers' motor cycles214302294341335
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (farm tractors etc.)*92 51189 10490 34589 43588 743
Miscellaneous14 64012 37611 70510 89811 384
        Total, all vehicles2 036 1322 085 1692 157 5162 220 9902 296 887

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, cranes, and logging trucks (used on private roads), etc.

The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19772.61.9
19782.61.9
19792.51.8
19802.41.8
19812.41.7
19822.31.7

Motor spirit usage in New Zealand during the latest March years is shown in the following table by grade. The grades shown are 83 octane (regular or standard), 96 octane (super, supreme, or premium) and other, which may include some non-petroleum based racing fuels. The figures are based on returns made by oil companies to the Customs Department in connection with the assessment of motor spirit duty. However, they include motor spirit used for farming purposes and in industrial engines for which the purchaser can claim a rebate of duty.

Year Ended MarchMotor Spirits—Oil Company Deliveries*
96 Octane83 OctaneOthersTotal

* Based on deliveries by oil companies to resellers, bulk sales, and use in own fleet.

† 2 April 1977 to 31 March 1978.

‡ 1 April 1978 to 30 March 1979.

 litres (000)
1978†2 140 120111 8804982 252 500
1979‡2 228 538100 9296432 330 110
19802 121 85779 6577262 202 241
19812 165 62073 7241 5572 240 901x
19822 216 32452 7235162 269 563

Diesel fuel is widely used by heavy trucks and buses, but actual figures of consumption by these vehicles are not available.

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are as follows for the 4 latest years.

December YearNew Cars and Station Wagons—C.C. RatingCars Previously Registered Overseas*New Motor Cycles
850 and Under851 to 13001301 to 16001601 to 20002001 to 50005001 and OverTotal
* Included in previous column.
19793929 00011 00822 1237 96270970 8412 68221 558
19802529 43416 98824 3637 17039178 3712 70129 957
198189629 98222 80431 7195 78019291 3731 90724 571
198274225 82524 03829 2865 38720185 4791 81222 306
December YearNew Commercial Vehicles By Gross Weight in KilogramsTotal Commercial Vehicles
2500 or Less2501 to 45004501 to 90009001 to 14 50014 501 and OverOmnibus and Service Coaches
197914 5052 06067098989026319 377
198016 4621 71682385993423721 031
198120 9241 6171 15080593416725 597
198225 4851 9501 31090487618730 712

Not included in the previous tables are new tractors, of which 2600 were registered in 1980, 2747 in 1981, and 2449 in 1982.

Road Transport—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the road transport operations of the Ministry of Transport; attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure intended to achieve better co-ordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles, and certain harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load, weigh 3500 kg or less and farmers' vehicles with a payload of up to 5000 kg.

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carrier operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles if these vehicles are over the laden weights or carrying the load prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 150 kilometres of rail. However, for some goods such as livestock, fresh meat, fresh fruit and vegetables, poultry, and fresh fish, there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular cases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from the exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 17 transport licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appointed by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to 5 years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

In addition, there is a Regional Transport Licensing Authority for the purpose of hearing applications relating to passenger-service licences (other than taxicab-service licences) or harbour ferry service licences that are operated or intended to be operated within the Auckland Regional Authority's district.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Secretary for Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public inquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 20 000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal, or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Transport to Work—The following table shows the principal means of transport to work used by the full-time usually-resident labour force in 1981. The figures in this table have been rounded, using simple random rounding to base three. Individual figures in this table will therefore not necessarily sum to give the stated totals.

Significant changes since previous censuses are the continued fall in the use of public transport, and the increase in the percentage of the labour force using bicycles. Ten years earlier, at the 1971 Census, 11.8 percent of the labour force were going to work by public bus and 2.3 percent by train. In 1981 the percentage travelling by bus had fallen to 7.2 and by train to 1.7. Bicycles were used by 3.8 percent of the work force in 1971 and by only 3.0 percent in 1976, but by 1981 the percentage of the work force using them had risen to 4.7 percent.

Means of TransportOccupational GroupingPercentage of Workforce
Professional, Technical, Administrative, Managerial, Clerical, and RelatedSales and Service WorkersAgricultural, Animal Husbandry, and Forest Workers, Fishermen and HuntersProduction Workers and Related Workers, Transport Equipment Operators, and LabourersOthers*19761981

* New workers seeking employment, workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described, and workers not reporting any occupation.

† Includes unemployed persons.

Drive car, truck, or van237 537124 59928 245226 6057 64748.346.9
Passenger in car, truck, van, or firm's bus44 30120 24711 65262 6372 2269.910.6
Public bus46 02916 90895130 5521 7409.07.2
Train13 5032 166966 1623902.21.7
Motor cycle or power cycle14 3677 1255 79030 0905853.84.4
Bicycle23 8658 9282 26526 5957173.04.7
Walk42 86130 22812 66043 0412 26811.29.8
Other means1 8241 2211 1822 3131740.50.5
Work at home11 28914 68878 00612 4352 7878.88.9
Not applicable or not specified†9 1447 6175 44817 50231 1313.35.3
        Total444 720233 730146 292457 93549 662100.0100.0

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. During the year ended 31 December 1981, there were 10 660 reported accidents resulting in 670 fatalities, and injuries to 15 483 other people were reported.

Details of the nature of road accidents for the calendar year 1981, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport, are set out in the following table.

Classification of AccidentsFatalInjuryTotal
Overtaking23299322
Head on (not overtaking)92717809
Lost control or ran off road on straight599581 017
Lost control or ran off road while cornering1461 7221 868
Collision with obstruction31628659
Rear end15503518
At intersections or driveways—
  Vehicles moving in same direction, one turning19848867
  Vehicles crossing paths, not turning341 0061 040
  Vehicles crossing paths, one turning14651665
  Vehicles merging9194203
  Vehicles moving in opposite directions, one turning right16903919
Vehicles manoeuvring8514522
Pedestrian crossing road81916997
Pedestrian—other19141160
Miscellaneous187290
Unknown314
        Total58710 07310 660

The ages of persons killed and injured in motor accidents is shown in the following table.

Age Groups (Years)Killed*Injured
197919801981197919801981
* Killed immediately or died within 30 days of accident.
Under 5281917308353308
5–9242824519665519
10–14131619713768766
15–191361211514 1915 0184 594
20–241021201182 5393 0113 133
25–293572491 0531 2521 316
30–34262841687873850
35–39252523579531546
40–44241029341478450
45–49221719346365396
50–54241821392384361
55–59232618305374310
60–64112222271293269
65–69111825235262259
70 and over5055923995581 401
Unknown age-121 0257185
        Total55459667013 90315 90315 483

A classification of road users killed and injured during December year 1981 is given in the following table.

Type of CasualtyKilledInjuredTotal
Driver of—
  Car1754 7764 951
  Rental car26062
  Taxi22426
  Van22493515
  Truck10101111
  Articulated truck21214
  Bus-1515
  Other45710 00210 459
        Total67015 48316 153
Motor cyclist1032 9443 047
Passenger2124 7404 952
Pillion rider8391399
Cyclist21748769
Pedestrian1041 1321 236
Other2225 5285 750
        Total67015 48316 153

Of particular concern is the number of school children and pre-school children killed or injured on the roads while cycling or on foot. During 1981, 7 child pedestrians under school age were killed. Among child pedestrians and cyclists of school age, 23 were killed in 1981 compared with 28 in 1980, and 637 were injured in 1981 compared with 864 during the previous year.

Total road traffic casualties and rates for the latest available years are shown in the following table.

December YearPersons KilledKilled per 10 000 Vehicles on RoadPersons InjuredInjured per 10 000 Vehicles on roadCasualties (Killed and Injured) per 10 000 Vehicles
19777024.2717 525106.7111.0
19786543.9015 17890.694.5
19795543.2013 90380.283.4
19805963.3315 95789.292.5
19816703.6015 48383.787.4
Note: The 1981 figures are no longer comparable with previous years as the school age prior to 1981 was 5 years and under 16 years. It is now 5 years and under 15 years.

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1980 for New Zealand in comparison with recent annual figures for Australia and Great Britain.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10 000 VehiclesKilled per 100 000 PopulationInjured per 10 000 VehiclesInjured per 100 000 Population
New Zealand59615 9033.318.888.9502.6
Australia3 70596 9625.226.0135.1681.0
Great Britain6 831342 9643.812.6188.4631.6

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and other Laws— Traffic on roads in five cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form, however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and a close liaison is maintained with the Police. A traffic officer now has a wide range of tests available to him where he suspects that a driver is affected by alcohol or drugs or a combination of the two.

Those persons a traffic officer suspects are driving while under the influence of alcohol or who commit a driving offence may be required to give a breath screening test. If this proves to be positive the person may be required to give an evidential breath test. If this is positive, the person then has the option of either accepting the breath test reading or providing a blood sample for analysis.

Under legislation introduced on 1 December 1978 a person commits an offence and is liable for prosecution if either:

  1. His/her breath-alcohol concentration as recorded on an evidential breath testing device exceeds 500 micrograms of alcohol per litre of breath; or

  2. His/her blood-alcohol concentration exceeds 80 mg of alcohol per 100 ml of blood.

Wearing of seat belts is now compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers in most classes of light vehicles registered after January 1955. As from 1 November 1979 all new cars registered must have seat belts fitted in the rear passenger seats and it is compulsory for rear seat passengers to wear these. For all people 8 years old and over it is law that they wear seat belts where fitted. Children under 8 years old should be restrained in a proper child restraint, but this is not required by law.

From 1 December 1973 it has been compulsory for all motor cyclists and pillion riders to wear safety helmets at all speeds.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for 6 months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than 1 year, or for 3 months where this number of points are received within 2 years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Breaches of certain laws are dealt with under an infringement system. A motorist is able to pay an infringement fee within a certain time and thus avoid court proceedings if he so desires.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed for highways generally is 80 kilometres an hour. However, lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 70 kilometres an hour for heavy goods vehicles.

A general speed limit of 50 km/h is fixed in cities, boroughs, town districts, or other localities declared to be closely populated localities. Areas with a speed limit of 70 km/h may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited speed zones may be established for which the maximum permitted speed may be either 80 km/h or 50 km/h depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the roads must be inspected every 6 months to ensure that their mechanical and structural fitness is of a satisfactory standard. Most lightweight vehicles are required to have a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled, or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Insurance—Under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 a motor vehicle scheme provides cover for everyone in respect of personal injury caused by motor accidents. There is a Motor Vehicle Fund financed by premiums paid with the annual licence fee. The legislation came into effect on 1 April 1974, replacing the compulsory third-party scheme previously operating.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio, and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time.

The main emphasis in schools and teachers' colleges centres around integrating traffic education into the current social education programmes. Traffic Education Units are co-operatively planned and implemented by traffic instructors and teachers and are based on the special social and traffic needs of the students.

The New Zealand Defensive Driving Council provides a safety course for all licensed drivers.

Traffic safety advice is given to the Government by a permanent parliamentary select committee, by the Road Traffic Safety Research Council, and by a number of other bodies, including the 46 local road safety committees.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES—The following table shows the nature of offences reported during 3 years ended December. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition traffic prosecutions are taken by the police, particularly for serious offences, following accidents or other police investigations. Some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total offences are therefore rather higher than shown.

Type of Offence197919801981
Accident promoting offences—
  Driving or attempting to drive under the influence of drink or drugs219267240
  Failing to surrender keys4411432
  Breath blood-alcohol offences6 1126 3257 974
  Evidential excess alcohol2 0945 8766 591
  Failure to fulfil duties after accident8531 1231 271
  Reckless driving289335380
  Driving in a dangerous manner1 2891 5511 707
  Driving at a dangerous speed830894987
  Driving without reasonable consideration899938654
  Careless use of a motor vehicle8 80010 82511 845
  Overtaking offences2 0951 9091 386
  Failure to keep to the left5 5606 6906 149
  Failure to yield right of way2 8913 2372 828
  Failure to stop in half clear road2 3532 6902 737
  Exceeding 50 km/h36 50240 86079 585
  Exceeding 70 km/h1 6891 4231 888
  Exceeding 80 km/h21 25325 80640 947
  Breaches of limited speed zone201612
  Exceeding temporary speed limits8931 0181 878
  Exceeding by-law, etc.604644
  Failure to stop at traffic lights6 1197 6237 310
  Failure to stop at compulsory stop sign7 5848 98311 836
  Failure to give way at give way sign1 9381 5301 480
  Failure to yield right of way at pedestrian crossing800733578
  Failure to stop/or give way for siren300354359
  Failure to comply with road signs3 4613 1813 631
  Failure to wear safety helmet2 3082 1162 261
  Provisional motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h224262165
  Exceeding 70 km/h with trailer858967961
  Exceeding 70 km/h with heavy motor vehicle447429600
  Exceeding 80 km/h (omnibus)102111
  Exceeding other limits181257147
  Defective brakes757739465
  Lighting offences15 97513 8638 514
  Failure to dip lights357390278
  Mechanically defective or unsafe vehicle16 18115 45811 088
  Trailer offences699633420
        Total (accident promoting offences)152 944169 482219 239
Non-accident promoting offences—
  Failure to obey officer2 6042 4282 399
  Certificate of loading offences1 3431 134910
  Owner failing to supply information1 1272 1021 826
  Failure to pay parking infringement fee101436191
  Failure to pay overloading infringement fee30169279
  Failure to pay speeding infringement fee16892 083
  Failure to pay instruction course fee2273
  Exceeding certificate of loading248267291
  Non-attendance of witnesses--3
  No distance licence carried2 7042 2571 956
  Hubodometer offences5 9875 0204 612
  Driving without a time licence682242200
  Exceeding maximum gross weight—distance—time4 3925 1054 758
  Display of road user licence offences11111866
  Altered or defaced road user licence5661 1311 316
  Driver's licence offences104 631115 65447 282
  Driving whilst disqualified1 6352 0582 755
  Probationary driver's offences1 6641 391940
  Vehicle licences and registration offences13 36813 36611 649
  Breaches of driver's hours regulations44399
  Warrant of fitness offences45 13850 29445 331
  Other miscellaneous offences4 3536 5074 104
  Safety-belt offences9 34411 51215 041
  Noisy motor vehicles4 3823 7102 459
  Emitting excessive smoke385251232
  Loading offences2 6082 2662 039
  Other nuisances40379511
  Certificate of fitness offences1 7822 2551 808
  Stock offences1716828
  Other by-law offences344219271
  Unlicensed goods service334366465
  Breach of goods service licence1 1771 073393
  Exceeding rail restriction limit440751687
  Unlicensed passenger service104611
  Breach of passenger service licence217738
  Rental vehicle offences152186141
  Taxicab offences259125145
  No vehicle authority or not carried603533450
  Other transport licence offences1 125982826
  Fails to display carless day sticker1 00967466
  Operating motor vehicle on chosen carless day1 4511 685106
  Carless day offences tending to mislead128878
  Fuel sale restrictions6344
  Cycling offences3 7153 1213 018
  Pedestrian offences81216155
  Passenger offences283399338
  Horse traffic offences14991
        Total (non-accident promoting offences)220 630240 928162 204
        Parking offences102 138126 202112 485
        Total—all offences475 712536 612493 928
        Parking infringement—notices issued341 604396 612292 507
        Speeding infringement—notices issued40 90463 08328 969
        Overloading infringement—notices issued7 4559 03710 174

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—An Urban Public Passenger Transport Council was established under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968 with the functions of administering Government assistance by way of loans and grants for capital expenditure to urban public and private passenger operators, conducting research into urban passenger transport, and advising the Ministry of Transport on urban passenger transport.

The Urban Transport Council was established under the Urban Transport Act 1980, and replaces the Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.

The main functions of the council are to advise and give financial assistance to regional and territorial authorities on urban transport; to advise the Minister after consultation with the National Roads Board and the Railways Corporation; and to conduct research on matters related to urban transport.

One of the council's aims is to achieve considerable independence for regional authorities, as envisaged in the Act.

A National Implementation Programme was prepared by the council, based on regional and operator requests for assistance. The programme is for 3 years, from April 1982 to March 1985. A base level of funding of $61 million was recommended for urban passenger services, including those provided by the Railways Corporation, plus $12 million for the Bus Replacement Programme in the 4 main centres. (The Bus Replacement Programme was scheduled for completion by March 1981, but has been subject to delays.)

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on roads and road transport will be found in the following publications:

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics, Annual.

Road Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics bulletin, Annual.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Local Authority Statistics—Department of Statistics, Annual.

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Report of the National Roads Board (Parl. paper F. 8).

Roading Statistics—National Roads Board (annual).

Urban Transport in New Zealand (Parl. paper F. 5b, 1977).

Breath Tests in New Zealand—Ministry of Transport, annual.

Motor Accidents in New Zealand—Ministry of Transport, annual.

Traffic Research Reports—Ministry of Transport (Inquiries to M.O.T.).

Road Traffic Safety Research Council—Annual report and research projects.

Report of the Working Party on Road User Charges (Parl. paper F. 5b. 1979).

Report of the New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council (Parl. paper F. 9).

Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. paper G. 6).

Survey on Driving Practices and Opinions 1975—Department of Statistics bulletin, 1979.

Report of the Road Safety Committee (Parl. paper I. 17a).

Statistics of the Licensed Road Transport Industry—Ministry of Transport, annual.

13 E—CIVIL AVIATION

New Zealand ranks amongst the leading nations of the world in terms of air transport per head of population. Modern aircraft provide regular flights on a network of internal air services operated by the domestic division of Air New Zealand supplemented by private operators, while the international division of Air New Zealand competes with other international airlines and provides links with Britain and various nations in the Pacific and South-east Asian regions.

Early days of commercial aviation in New Zealand, and the growth and development of the international service, are described briefly in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

AIR TRANSPORT SERVICES—The state-owned airline, Air New Zealand (Domestic) and the wholly-owned subsidiary Safe Air Ltd., the air freight carrier, are the major domestic air service operators. Safe Air provides a passenger and freight service to the Chatham Islands. Mount Cook Airlines, a division of the Mount Cook Group Ltd., provides mainly tourist-orientated passenger services. There is also an increasing number of third-level operators providing scheduled and non-scheduled services throughout the country. In addition, at most aerodromes there are light aircraft operators licensed for air charter and air taxi services. Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for training and private flying.

International air services are operated by Air New Zealand, together with QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, UTA French Airlines, Singapore Airlines, British Airways, Continental Airlines. Japan Airlines, Air Pacific. Polynesian Airlines, and Air Nauru.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later, under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968, became a Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Air Services Licensing—The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a 4-man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward. There is a right of appeal against the decisions of the Air Service Licensing Authority to the Air Services Appeal Authority.

International Air Services—Changes in the Air Services Licensing legislation have been proposed and are expected to take effect from 1 January 1984. The new legislation will implement qualitative licensing for all air transport services. The move from quantitative to qualitative licensing reflects the Governments' desire to maximise efficiency by removing constraints upon competition. Privately owned operators will have the same opportunity as Air New Zealand to provide appropriate services to the public, but this opportunity will remain a privilege which can be withdrawn from any operator. International air services are governed by intergovernmental air transport agreements and the International Air Services Licensing Act 1947.

New Zealand is a party to the Warsaw Convention of 1929 as amended at The Hague in 1955 and these conventions define the financial liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. New Zealand has signed but has yet to ratify the Guatemala City Protocol which, although not in force, raises the limits of liability from $15,000 to $100,000. Air New Zealand is also a party to the airline agreement known as the Montreal Agreement, which for travel to and from the United States of America imposes a limit of US$75,000. This limit is now being extended world-wide in its application, pending the entry into force of the Guatemala City Protocol. Liabilities of domestic air carriers are governed by the Carriage by Air Act 1967 and the Carriage of Goods Act 1979.

The Airport Authorities Act 1966 empowers local authorities, with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, to establish, improve, operate, or manage airports. In pursuit of these objectives, local authorities may enter into joint-venture agreements with the Crown.

The Aviation Crimes Act 1972, which came into full force in March 1974, gave effect to the Tokyo Convention 1963 relating to offences committed on board aircraft, the Hague Convention 1970 relating to hijacking, and the Montreal Convention 1971 relating to aerial sabotage.

In 1976 an amendment to the Civil Aviation Act 1964 established the Aviation Security Service as a branch of the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. The Aviation Security Service was charged with the screening of passengers and baggage and, where necessary, the searching of passengers, baggage, cargo, aircraft, aerodromes, and navigational installations. It was also to carry out security patrols, and in general, review, investigate, and inquire into security techniques, systems, devices, etc., co-operating where necessary with the Police, airport officials, Government departments, and other responsible authorities.

The International Air Tariff Regulations 1978 control international air tariffs in relation to travel between New Zealand and overseas. The Secretary for Transport is empowered to approve tariffs, and it is an offence to sell or provide international carriage by air otherwise than in accordance with such approved tariffs. Air travel organisers are required to keep records relating to international air travel for 2 years and to make them available to the Secretary for inspection.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport is responsible for the provision of all civil aviation air navigation facilities in New Zealand and at Rarotonga, Cook Islands.

Air navigation facilities include electronic aids such as non-directional medium frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency omni-directional radio ranges (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids such as visual approach slope indicator systems (VASIS).

To promote the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic the Civil Aviation Division has an extensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic services, aeronautical communication services, airport rescue fire services, and aviation security services. The Ground Services Branch also plays a major role in the search and rescue and aerodrome emergency organisations. Elements of the Ground Services Branch are located at all aerodromes served by Air New Zealand's schedule air transport services in New Zealand. In addition to control towers and flight service stations at aerodromes, area control and flight information centres are established at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch airports and provide services to en route aircraft throughout the country. Rescue coordination centres are established at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch and are responsible for co-ordinating search and rescue operations in their respective regions.

The Flight Standards Branch is responsible for flight supervision and standards and is also responsible for the licensing of all categories of aircrew and aircraft ground personnel. A calibration flight with specially equipped aircraft is continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service Section prepares and publishes a New Zealand aeronautical information publication, notices to airmen, and information circulars and collaborates with the Lands and Survey Department in the production of aeronautical maps and charts.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport and regular courses are conducted in air traffic services, meteorology, telecommunications engineering, aeronautical communications, and rescue fire procedures.

AIR NEW ZEALAND: Domestic Air Services—Air New Zealand provides regular services to centres throughout the North and South Islands with a fleet consisting at 31 March 1982 of 9 Boeing 737s and 15 Fokker Friendships.

Statistics of the operations for the domestic services of Air New Zealand in the years ended 31 March 1980, 1981, and 1982 are shown in the following table.

ItemYear Ended MarchPercentage Change
1980198119821981–82
Revenue passengers carried2 403 6742 241 3652 188 768−2.3
Passenger kilometres created1 649 0001 604 0001 555 000−3.1
Revenue passenger kilometres1 161 0001 086 0001 048 000−3.5
Revenue passenger load factor (%)70.667.767.4−0.4
Revenue tonne-kilometres created (000)200 000187 000186 000−0.5
Overall tonne-kilometres used (000)—
  Passenger and baggage  134 000124 000120 000−3.2
  Freight
  Mail
Overall revenue load factor (%)67.066.564.6−2.9
Source: Air New Zealand Annual Report 1982.

AIR NEW ZEALAND: International Air Services—In the international field Air New Zealand provides services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Honolulu, Los Angeles, Tonga, and Tokyo. Its international fleet comprises 3 Douglas DC 8s, 6 Douglas DC 10s and Boeing 747–200's, while B737s are used on short-haul Pacific operations.

Some data on Air New Zealand's international operations during the latest available 3 years are shown in the following table.

ItemYear Ended March
19801981x1982
Passengers carried1 006 2251 047 402991 766
Passenger kilometres flown (million)4 4304 5314 506
Seat kilometres available (million)6 2646 6257 387
Revenue passenger load factor (percent)70.768.461
Cargo and airmail tonne-kilometres (million)152168185
Total revenue tonne-kilometres (million)573598613
Total revenue load factor (percent)70.868.062.3

The following statement shows Air New Zealand's revenue and expenditure for both domestic and international operations during the year ended 31 March 1982.

ItemDomestic OperationsInternational OperationsTotal

* Includes aircraft lease rentals, depreciation and amortisation, interest charges, and exchange losses.

Source: Air New Zealand Annual Report 1982.

 $(thousand)
Revenue—
  Traffic revenue198,130389,552587,682
  Charter revenue3992,2802,679
  Contract revenue15,68831,08346,771
  Other revenue1,62913,76515,394
        Total revenue215,846436,680652,526
Expenditure—
  Flying operations68,489163,546232,035
  Engineering maintenance31,45749,18480,641
  Aircraft and traffic servicing59,41659,939119,355
  Passenger services6,37756,01162,388
  Sales and marketing20,02288,686108,708
  Administration and general17,46233,82951,291
  Other*13,17274,84988,021
        Total expenditure216,395526,044742,439
  Loss from year's operations before extraordinary items and tax credits54989,36489,913

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS: Domestic—The following table gives the summarised result of the operations of scheduled domestic air services during recent years.

December YearKilometres FlownPassengers CarriedPassenger-kilometresFreight Carried (Tonnes)Freight (Tonne-kilometres)Mail (Tonne-kilometres)
   (000)   
197726 5262 4081 123 10163.829 2161 531
197828 2122 5201 179 10561.028 0471 496
197927 2822 6281 234 45747.531 5581 624
198026 1052 4781 171 88449.136 6031 668
198125 6082 3561 134 23844.925 1981 378

International—The following table shows passengers, freight (including excess baggage), and mail carried by international scheduled air services on scheduled routes.

December YearPassengers CarriedFreight CarriedMail Carried
 (000)tonnestonnes
19771 28641 6842 286
19781 40049 2102 361
19791 69057 7252 677
19801 81462 2672 890
19811 77363 5673 017

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—Air New Zealand's international services have already been described. Other services through New Zealand include: Pan American World Airways—from the United States through Honolulu, to Auckland and beyond to Sydney; British Airways—from the United Kingdom via Melbourne to Auckland; Union de Transport Aeriens—from Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; QANTAS—a full range of trans-Tasman services; Singapore Airlines—direct from Singapore; Polynesian Airlines—from Apia via Tonga to Auckland; Continental Airlines—from the United States via Honolulu to New Zealand and beyond to Sydney; Air Nauru from Nauru to Auckland; and Japan Air Lines from Tokyo to Auckland via Nadi.

A minority financial interest is retained by Air New Zealand in the regional South Pacific operators: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL) and Air Pacific Ltd. Cook Islands Airways is a subsidiary company of Air New Zealand.

International scheduled air services are shown by sector groupings in the following table, which shows figures for the latest available December years.

Sector and Traffic197919801981
InOutInOutInOut

* Auckland, Wellington, or Christchurch to Melbourne or Brisbane (and vice versa), Wellington or Christchurch to Sydney (and vice versa); Christchurch to Hobart (and vice versa); and Auckland to Perth (and vice versa).

† Other Pacific short-haul sectors are Auckland to Noumea, Norfolk Island, Tonga, Suva, Papeete, Pago Pago, Rarotonga, or Apia (and vice versa).

‡ Long-haul sectors are Auckland to Honolulu, Singapore, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Hong Kong (and vice versa).

Trans-Tasman—
  Auckland-Sydney-Auckland—
    Flights1 0711 0641 1101 1341 0191 082
    Passengers208 635209 672224 847229 924200 871207 092
    Freight and mail (tonnes)9 8729 6769 46310 4389 66110 584
    Kilometres flown (000)2 3112 2962 3952 4472 1992 335
    Other trans-Tasman*—
    Flights1 9281 9272 1922 2012 1322 136
    Passengers366 828390 625394 612415 918393 240408 271
    Freight and mail (tonnes)7 78011 6048 12912 2968 64213 587
    Kilometres flown (000)4 5824 5875 2235 2295 0405 051
  Pacific short-haul—
    New Zealand-Nadi-New Zealand—
    Flights549550661660637634
    Passengers62 60564 03864 00763 86659 58861 746
    Freight and mail (tonnes)1 2172 6991 4902 7211 4932 495
    Kilometres flown (000)1 1841 1861 4251 4191 3731 367
    Other sectors†—
    Flights1 3771 4321 3471 3481 1031 105
    Passengers101 031102 361109 746109 34881 68081 149
    Freight and mail (tonnes)1 6968 1622 2767 4301 8154 440
    Kilometres flown (000)3 1753 3392 9852 9852 1512 161
Long-haul‡—
    Flights9649191 0331 0151 0731 009
    Passengers143 268141 355168 626152 125177 313161 451
    Freight and mail (tonnes)3 5666 1004 5248 7776 01910 447
    Kilometres flown (000)7 5506 9788 2687 7478 5237 634

Traffic on international scheduled services is shown by airport in New Zealand in the following table. Passengers and freight in transit are excluded.

Airport and Type of Traffic197919801981
Into New ZealandOut of New ZealandInto New ZealandOut of New ZealandInto New ZealandOut of New Zealand
Auckland International Airport—
  Passengers650 909653 365713 164708 861668 234664 000
  Freight (tonnes)18 67031 40520 42134 77221 77933 396
  Mail (tonnes)1 5538231 6079241 634995
Wellington—
  Passengers83 12583 41087 61584 84684 31785 248
  Freight (tonnes)1 1921 2611 1411 3531 5882 324
  Mail (tonnes)127761538116583
Christchurch International Airport—
  Passengers152 332171 276161 059177 474160 141170 461
  Freight (tonnes)2 5344 6052 4844 4802 3804 699
  Mail (tonnes)574174518356

Distances from Auckland Airport overseas destinations are given below. These are airport-to-airport great circle distances.

DestinationDistance
 km
Apia2 893
Brisbane2 293
Hong Kong9 145
Honolulu7 086
Los Angeles10 480
Melbourne2 635
Nadi2 156
Norfolk Island1 091
Noumea1 859
Pago Pago2 902
Papeete4 093
Rarotonga3 013
San Francisco10 503
Singapore8 410
Suva2 141
Sydney2 158
Tokyo8 837
Tonga2 004

Distances to the Australian cities from the airports at Wellington and Christchurch differ slightly from the Auckland figures given above: Wellington-Sydney is 2235 km; Wellington-Melbourne, 2589 km; and Wellington-Brisbane, 2495 km; Christchurch-Sydney is 2124 km; Christchurch-Melbourne, 2413 km; and Christchurch-Brisbane, 2495 km.

AIR FREIGHT—Air freight involves mostly exports and imports to and from Australia, and imports from United States and United Kingdom. Exports concern mainly made-up textiles, meat, fish, and live animals, notably racehorses. Imports air-freighted are mainly machinery, scientific instruments, pharmaceutical products, and textiles.

The following table is a summary of the value of exports and imports transported by air during the two 12-month periods ended June 1981 and June 1982. Fuller details are available from the Department of Statistics.

CommodityExportsImports*
New Zealand ProduceImported Merchandise
1980–811981–821980–811981–821980–811981–82
* Cost including insurance and freight. n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.
 $(thousand)
Live animals chiefly for food29,96435,13843-10,47811,156
Meat and meat preparations22,32622,410--6812
Dairy products and eggs67083644189188
Fish, crustaceans and molluscs, and preparations21,68625,13917241,2251,354
Vegetables and fruit10,79517,580622,4432,193
Other foodstuffs (including animal)1,4331,62344476671,080
Beverages and tobacco1,314354,17314991,698
Hides, skins, and furskins, raw11,7696,261--88158
Crude animal and vegetable materials n.e.s.14,14810,603572,3103,420
Petroleum, petroleum products, and related materials335118,11511,79890172
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products7,4519,0141,07071642,84650,752
Other chemicals and related products n.e.s.4,8585,2334,44997228,94638,455
Textile, yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and related products23,11931,0362,2881,02538,96956,724
Other manufactured goods classified chiefly by material23,36829,7032,5121,03049,85569,250
Machinery and transport equipment46,64751,36430,08122,133544,794422,573
Scientific instruments, photographic apparatus, optical goods, watches and clocks5,1405,67411,2424,49580,718105,695
Other miscellaneous manufactured articles85,99273,4977,7063,81660,90577,687
Other goods4,3882,0499315018,54022,824
        Total315,103327,24581,85046,221883,630865,210

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion began commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now a major feature of peak activity in spring and autumn. The extent of aerial topdressing in any particular year is largely a reflection of the level of farm incomes. Approximately 40 percent of the total fertiliser and lime applied to farms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e. the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) and aerial liquid topdressing have also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 50 million litres a year, and helicopters are performing an increasing amount of this work.

Miscellaneous aerial work operations comprise very largely flight training in fixed-wing aircraft. The majority of hours flown in other categories of miscellaneous aerial work (e.g., supply dropping, fencing, photo survey) is performed by helicopters.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

Aerial WorkYear Ended 31 December
19771978197919801981
Hours flown155 906153 507140 750144 048128 406
Number of operators9410110710764
Material distributed—
  Fertiliser and lime (tonnes)1 241 6241 213 3871 226 2011 205 3091 034 067
  Seed (tonnes)6 1812 3024 1762 1894 386
  Spray (litres)45 597 78753 026 64552 130 14349 284 63941 292 887
  Animal poison (tonnes)8 2996 5426 4744 5376 025
  Supplies (tonnes)3 3943 5343 3854 9224 983
  Fencing (tonnes)1 4791 4812 0492 7015 180
  Dusts (tonnes)458173385419
  Prills (tonnes)16710620320283
  Miscellaneous (tonnes)7 2157 0396 1039 1337 784
  Flight training (hours flown)133 000122 500137 900132 300114 500

CIVIL AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS—Civil aircraft accidents are investigated by the Office of Air Accidents Investigation, headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents who has statutory powers of his own in respect of his investigative duties and responsibilities.

During the year ended December 1982, 126 aircraft accidents were reported in New Zealand. Seventeen fatal accidents claimed the lives of 14 pilots and 14 passengers. Eighteen persons suffered serious injury, and the remaining 122 pilots and 329 passengers involved received minor or no injuries. Eleven fixed-wing and eleven rotary-wing aircraft were destroyed. Thirty-five helicopter accidents included 12 aircraft engaged in agricultural aviation, 8 in venison recovery, 9 in other aerial work, and 6 in private flights.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information may be found in the following publications:

New Zealand Civil Aviation Statistics—Ministry of Transport, annual.

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Air New Zealand Annual Report—Air New Zealand.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

New Zealand Civil Aircraft Accidents—Office of Aircraft Accident Investigation (Aircraft accident reports, briefs, and summaries are also available on subscription from the Office of Air Accidents Investigation, care of Ministry of Transport).

External Civil Aviation Policy of New Zealand—December 1979 (Parl. paper H. 3).

Domestic Air Services Policy of New Zealand—November 1982 (Parl. paper F. 10).

13 F—POST OFFICE

Following the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). In the same year overland mail routes were begun, and offices were established in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington). In 1858 a Post Office Act was passed which made the Post Office an independent department of State. By this time 73 post offices had been opened to provide communication services for the settlers.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines and opening of morse telegraph offices. The North and South Islands were linked by telegraph cable in 1866 and by telephone cable in 1926.

In 1881 the telegraph and postal services were amalgamated. Under the Post Office Act 1959, the name of the department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

A table in the Statistical Summary towards the back of the Yearbook shows the growth of postal and telecommunication activities over the latest 50 years.

At 31 March 1982 there were 1296 post offices in New Zealand. The following table shows the number of articles posted during the latest 4 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters (Standard and Son-Standard)Other Articles (Including Packets, Newspapers, etc.)ParcelsTotal
  million  
1979565.784.010.8660.5
1980541.2102.710.4654.3
1981545.0104.29.5658.7
1982529.8120.59.9660.2

The average numbers of items posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1982 were: letters, 165.6; other articles (printed papers, commercial papers, newspapers, and magazines), 37.7; and parcels, 3.1.

Chartered air services are used to convey the bulk of surface mail between the North and South Islands.

Private boxes installed as at 30 September 1981-totalled 141 663.

Rural Mail Delivery—The rural mail delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which country residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. At 31 March 1981, the total number of boxholders was 94 282 and at 31 March 1982, it was 95 554. The cost of the rural delivery service is $10.8 million a year.

Inland Airmails—Particulars of letter class articles carried by air within New Zealand during the latest 4 years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchWeight
 kg
19791 006 641
19801 030 404
1981977 883
19821 157 383

Overseas Airmails—The weight of airmail dispatched from New Zealand is about 39.0 percent of the total amount of mail forwarded overseas each year. In 1981–82, 437 482 kg of letters, 207 874 kg of newspapers and packets, and 338 491 kg of parcels were posted by overseas airmail.

Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hobart, Adelaide and Perth).

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service—This service operates daily to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally 17 hours.

At London Airport, airmails for 14 European countries are transferred to the first available flights to destination and the majority normally arrive within 24 hours of departure from New Zealand.

New Zealand - Hong Kong, Japan, and Singapore Air Services—There are direct services from Auckland to Hong Kong, Japan, and Singapore. Airmail to countries in the Far East is dispatched to Hong Kong, Singapore, or Sydney for reforwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to the United States.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand-operated air services to the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, Tonga, and Western Samoa (Apia). Local air services provide connections from Apia or Noumea to American Samoa, Kiribati, Vanuatu, Niue, and the Solomon Islands. There is a weekly air service run by Air Nauru from Auckland.

Overseas Parcel Post—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest 5 years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightNumberWeight
  kg kg
1978561 9612 104 388408 8701 224 374
1979553 7082 038 083354 6511 188 069
1980606 8582 233 237356 0591 192 797
1981625 3342 288 711346 1231 156 051
1982582 8011 953 876374 9491 185 625

New Stamps—The following new stamps were released during 1982.

DateIssueDenominations
3 FebruaryCommemorative20c (x2), 25c, 30c, 35c
1 AprilMap Definitive24c
7 AprilArchitecture in New Zealand20c, 25c, 30c, 35c
2 JuneScenic—Four Seasons35c, 40c, 45c, 70c
4 AugustHealth24c + 2c (x2), 30c + 2c
6 OctoberChristmas18c, 35c, 45c
1 DecemberDefinitives—Rocks and Minerals1c-5c, 9c

Philatelic Services

Year Ended 31 MarchDeposit AccountsPhilatelic RevenueMailing List Subscribers
InlandOverseasTotal
    $ 
198017 99116 86834 8593,233,96877 083
198120 85718 44539 3023,929,78082 574
198222 64519 35642 0015,694,12796 143

Money Orders—Inland postal money orders for amounts exceeding $7 (for $7.00 and lesser amounts postal notes are generally used) and telegraphic money orders for any amount may be purchased to send money within New Zealand, the Cook Islands, and Niue. Postal money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in 64 foreign administrations, and an overseas telegraphic money order service is available to Australia, Fiji, Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Irish Republic, Norfolk Island, and Western Samoa. For remittances exceeding $4 to foreign countries a permit is required.

A special rate or commission applies to money orders payable in foreign countries, except to the Cook Islands, Niue, and Western Samoa to which the inland rate applies. In addition to commission, telegraph fees are also payable for money-order telegrams.

Postal Notes—Postal Notes for 10c, 50c, $1, $2, $3, $4, and $5 are available for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post. During the year ended 31 March 1982, 795 167 postal notes valued at $2,066,302 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—British postal orders are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold are 25p, 50p, 75p, £1, and £2 sterling. (In decimal currency, which has applied in the United Kingdom from 15 February 1971, five new pence equal the previous one shilling). Commission is payable. For all remittances exceeding £2 per day a permit is required. As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, especially the United Kingdom. During the year ended 31 March 1982 the Post Office sold 454 602 British postal orders valued at $2,141,138 and paid 98 424 orders valued at $1,273,286.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEPHONE SERVICES—The first telephone exchange was installed in 1881. The telephone system has since then been expanded to over 800 exchanges serving 1 168 376 subscribers at 31 March 1982.

Telephone exchanges are grouped into 240 toll-free-calling areas within which there is no charge for local calls. The long-term objective is to reduce the number of toll-free-calling areas to about 80. Toll fees are charged for calls between different toll-free-calling areas, at rates varying according to distance.

About one-fifth of the main telephones are business telephones. At 31 March 1982 there were 11 925 applicants awaiting service.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1981), compiled by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks sixth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the USA (83.7), Sweden (79.5), Switzerland (72.4), Canada (67.2), Denmark (63.7), and New Zealand (56.7).

Subscriber Toll Dialling (STD) service is in operation in Auckland, Hamilton, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and in several smaller centres. It is being progressively extended as new telephone exchange equipment is brought into service. At 31 March 1982 STD service was available to 58.1 percent of subscribers.

A broadband toll link, comprising microwave, radio, and co-axial cable systems, connects main centres from Kaikohe to Invercargill.

The following table indicates the growth of telephone installations (the figures are as at 31 March).

Item19781979198019811982

* Amended figures as a consequence of a review of 1979–80 statistical records.

† Included in main telephones.

Main telephones—
  Automatic1 008 0921 023 099*1 050 1731 084 5211 123 257
  Manual56 06546 746*47 54846 92745 119
Extension telephones644 585602 089*627 176663 075702 262
Public telephones5 2905 1655 0195 0054 900
Private line telephones19218083  †  †
Toll offices1 119  †  †  †  †
        Total telephones1 715 3431 677 279*1 729 9991 799 5281 875 538
Telephones (all types per 1000 population)545533*549569592
Applicants awaiting installations25 79322 41017 18912 79511 925
Number of toll calls (inland and outward international)82 975 84186 204 12989 454 72398 233 085105 455 227

TELEGRAPH AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS SERVICES: Telegrams—In line with world experience there is a continuing downtrend in inland telegrams traffic. In the year ended 31 March 1982, 2.3 million messages were lodged compared with 2.4 million in the preceding year. Of these, 66 percent were lodged by telephone, 12 percent by telex, and 22 percent handed in over Post Office counters. At the delivery end, 52 percent were delivered by messenger, 36 percent telephoned to the addressee, and 12 percent telexed.

The public telegraph network comprises 103 teleprinter offices which interwork through Gentex (automatic circuit switching).

Bureaufax Service—A Bureaufax service was introduced between Auckland and Wellington in 1980, and is now available in all chief post offices, Otahuhu Post Office and the Wellington Postal Centre. This electronic document transfer service produces a facsimile of documents, including typewritten or handwritten manuscripts, charts and graphs. Documents are transmitted to both internal and overseas destinations, and use of the service is increasing steadily. The following table shows number and volume of messages sent for the year ended 31 March 1982.

 MessagesPages
Between New Zealand
  bureaufax terminals and private equipment—
  Inland109621
  International1 58215 594
Between bureaufax terminals—
  Inland4 27517 909
  International1 83111 564
        Total7 79745 688

Telex Service—Telex service is a subscriber-to-subscriber teleprinter communication service, operated through a worldwide network of automatic telex exchanges.

A manual international telex service with 16 subscribers commenced in New Zealand in 1960. Automatic inland and international service was introduced in 1964. Demand for telex service has increased steadily and, as at 31 March 1982, there were 4293 subscribers in New Zealand.

Computer-controlled telex exchanges were introduced in Auckland in June 1980 and in Wellington in May 1981. In addition to meeting the demand for new connections, the new exchanges enabled a reduction in the inland call charge because of reduced operating costs and the introduction of several special services.

Data Communication Services: Datel—This service provides for data communication over the switched telephone network at speeds of up to 2400 bits per second. Subscribers' privately-owned terminals are connected to telephone lines through Post Office modems which convert the data signals to a form suitable for transmission over telephone circuits. Datel calls are charged at the same rates as normal telephone calls.

Datex—Datex, a 300 bits per second data and text communication service, was introduced in November 1981.

Leased Data Circuits—A service was introduced in June 1981 providing for the direct connection of subscribers' data terminal equipment by means of leased data circuits operating at speeds of 300, 1200, 2400, 4800, and 9600 bits per second.

Subscribers may also lease full voice-grade circuits for the transmission of data if they wish.

Leased Circuit Service—In addition to circuits leased for data communication purposes, circuits are available for lease for private voice, teleprinter and facsimile communication networks and music distribution and fire alarm systems.

International Telecommunications: Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, and between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva and Fanning Island in 1902. In 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications system was brought under Government control. In accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphic Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the New Zealand assets of Cable and Wireless Ltd. (the private company previously controlling these services), and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962, a submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high-quality circuits for telephone, telegraph and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America and Britain. This cable system, known as the COMPAC cable, links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries. In March 1967 it was supplemented by the bringing into service of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Telephone Cable (SEACOM), which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

An additional high capacity trans-Tasman submarine cable, a joint New Zealand - Australia project was brought into service in early 1976. Known as TASMAN, this cable has a total capacity of 640 telephone circuits.

Planning is now underway to replace the COMPAC cable, which will soon reach the end of its design life.

The new 15 000 km cable, called ANZCAN, will have 20 times the capacity of COMPAC and is planned to begin operation in 1984.

It will link New Zealand, Australia, Norfolk Island, Fiji, Hawaii, and Canada, and will be the largest single international submarine telecommunications cable project ever undertaken.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable, satellite, and radio is now available to almost all countries of the world, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Island, Campbell Island, merchant ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

An International Gateway telephone exchange in Auckland handles all New Zealand's outgoing and incoming international telephone calls. International Subscriber Dialling (ISD) enabling New Zealand subscribers to dial overseas subscribers directly was introduced on 1 December 1979. The facility which is presently available to 58.1 percent of New Zealand subscribers is being progressively extended as is the number of countries to which the service is available.

International Data Service—Datel service (operated via the switched telephone network) is available to a number of countries. Operation at speeds of 2400 bits per second is permitted.

Overseas Access Service for Information Systems (Oasis)—OASIS is a 300 bits per second data communication service enabling subscribers in New Zealand to access computer data bases in overseas countries. Subscribers use a Datel installation (telephone and data modem) and a data terminal and overseas access is provided via dedicated international circuits.

OASIS was introduced in September 1979 to the United States and to Australia in December 1980.

International Telex Service—Since its inception in 1960 the international telex service has continued to grow steadily and at the present time is available with 183 countries. An important development in New Zealand's international telex service was the introduction in July 1968 of automatic subscriber-to-subscriber calling. Telex subscribers in New Zealand can now call most overseas subscribers automatically without the aid of the international assistance operator. In August 1977 automatic telex service became available to ships at sea.

International Bureaufax Service—The international bureaufax service, which opened in September 1980, has continued to grow.

International Telegram Service—Telegrams are an important part of international communications and a worldwide service is available although the traffic volume is diminishing in line with the world trend.

Satellite Communications—To keep abreast of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station was opened in 1971 at Warkworth, near Auckland, for communicating with other countries via satellites in space. A second antennae is planned to be brought into service in 1984. This will allow Warkworth to communicate with the larger capacity satellite due to be positioned over the Pacific Ocean at that time.

In addition to providing additional international telecommunication facilities, the earth station is used for both “live” and recorded television relays. The earth station works through a satellite positioned over the Pacific Ocean.

International Radio Services—Telegraph and telephone services between New Zealand and places in the Pacific area not served by cable or satellite are provided by radio through a high-power transmitting station at Himatangi and a receiving station at Makara.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Niue, Ross Dependency (Scott Base), and Chatham Islands. Communication is effected with islands in the Cook group by Rarotonga Radio through feeder stations. Stations in Tokelau communicate with Apia Radio.

Radio Services to Shipping—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communication with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911. Other stations are located at Auckland, Awarua, and Chatham Islands. These stations provide a service for the exchange of radio telegrams with ships at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia. A free radio-medical service also operates for ships at sea and lighthouses on the New Zealand coast. The number of ships licensed to operate radio equipment is 9431. The drop in the number of licensees is due to the change over to SSB—and the reluctance of licensees to re-equip.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of radio as a means of communication continues to grow. In the Post Office very-high-frequency service 6894 subscribers are provided with radiotelephone service to 54 679 mobile units through 97 base stations throughout the country. A further 17 586 mobile units are provided with service through 4334 Government and private owner-operated base stations. The number of citizen sets licensed now totals 46 910. The amateur service provides facilities for experimental communications between people interested in radio as a hobby, and 5583 stations are operated by qualified amateur operators. There are now 151 666 radio transmitting stations of all types licensed compared with 142 077 in 1981.

REVENUE—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82
* Tolls revenue includes an estimate of $24 million for unbilled revenue.
 $(000)
Postal revenue—
  Postages74,91181,236102,838133,368155,629
  Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees1,7761,8011,9703,7124,682
  Miscellaneous2,0472,5454,6676,24411,463
 78,73485,582109,475143,324171,774
Telecommunications revenue—
  Telex10,76613,05114,13814,60415,914
  Telegraph8,1148,2078,71410,00310,358
  Tolls115,183133,435152,534180,237216,688*
  Telephones184,576223,740253,394286,116304,751
  Overseas telecommunications22,15630,01640,35346,57860,481
  Radio7448211,0681,5221,477
 341,539409,270470,201539,060609,669
Miscellaneous revenue—
  Fees from Government departments, etc.13,22712,80317,26315,56819,493
  Money order and postal note commissions977995881780710
  Rents received6047438851,0351,159
  Other revenue4,9185,0805,58310,91113,672
 19,72619,62124,61228,29435,034
        Total revenue439,999514,473604,288710,678816,477

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure
 $(000)
1977367,475346,295
1978439,999402,344
1979514,473464,851
1980604,288533,433
1981710,678622,116
1982816,477740,402

CAPITAL—Capital expansion necessary to meet demand requires substantial provisions for new telecommunications systems and the replacement of those which have become obsolete. Accommodation to house this equipment, to provide post offices in newly developed areas, and to replace old and inadequate offices is an important part of Post Office capital development.

Capital expenditure on telecommunications development and buildings is financed partly by the Post Office, and partly from the Loans Account, on which interest is paid at the rate of 10 percent. The interest payment amounted to $43.0 million in 1981–82.

In 1981–82, $94.5 million was spent on the development of telecommunications systems and $22.4 million on land and buildings. In addition, $13.1 million was invested in other assets such as motor vehicles, tools and plant, and office equipment. The capital liability of the Post Office is now $563.0 million and liability under capital equipment credit arrangement is $6.0 million.

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following departments: Health, Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (Road User Charges), Public Trust Office, Housing Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Ministry of Transport, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation, National Provident Fund receipts, and motor vehicle registration and licence fees).

Payments—Departments of Social Welfare (social welfare benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Labour (subsidised wage payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other departments), Ministry of Works and Development, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine and Civil Aviation Divisions of Ministry of Transport on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as registrars of births, deaths, and marriages. In each of the 92 electorates a postmaster or senior officer is appointed registrar of electors with responsibilities for the compilation, maintenance, and production of electoral rolls as directed by the Chief Registrar of Electors.

Other activities include the receipt of levies under the Motor Vehicle Accident Scheme as provided for under the Accident Compensation Act 1972, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting television licence fees.

STAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification19781979198019811982
Permanent staff32 12233 23433 17833 61533 128
Temporary and non-classified staff6 7726 1616 2876 0246 151
        Total staff38 89439 39539 46539 63939 279

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1982 consisted of 6450 vehicles; 1290 trucks, 3109 vans, 2044 cars, and 7 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 713 vehicles are used for hire to other departments, 4497 for engineering work, and 1240 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work.

A programme of converting Post Office vehicles to operate on compressed natural gas (cng) continued during the year with 1020 vehicles being converted. At 31 March 1982, a total of 1503 vehicles had been converted to dual fuel operation.

FURTHER INFORMATION—For further information see Parliamentary paper F. 1. Report of the Post Office.

Production

Chapter 14. Section 14; FARMING

14 A—GENERAL SURVEY

Most of New Zealand's dairy farms are in lowland areas of the North Island, where naturally fertile or improved soils make for good grass growth. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry. Carrying capacity may be as high as 2.5 cows per hectare, and annual production as high as 400–450 kg of milkfat per hectare. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas lamb raising is also undertaken.

On the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised.

Sheep finishing farms are generally located on land which is of high fertility, either naturally or as a result of topdressing. Country of this type is usually flat to undulating in topography, and tends to be concentrated on the coastal plains and river valleys of both islands, e.g., the Waikato basin, the Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Canterbury, and Southland plains. In the North Island it is normal to rely on pasture as a sole diet, while in the drier and colder areas of the South Island it is necessary to grow special crops for supplementing the ewe flock feeding over the winter.

Finishing farms vary considerably in area and in the size of flock carried. A flock of 2000 to 2500 ewes is commonly regarded as a 1-man unit. The average range in carrying capacity is from 7 to 15 ewes wintered to the hectare. Lambing percentages are variable but average from 100 to 110 lambs per 100 ewes mated. The aim of the farmer is to sell a high proportion of these lambs, straight off their mothers, at carcass weights around 12–14 kg. In the North Island, cattle are normally purchased in the spring and in the autumn, and are finished, if possible, by the following autumn. On some properties, store wether lambs from the hill-breeding flocks may also be brought in for finishing. The amount of meat produced on finishing farms averages about 160–180 kg per hectare.

Hill country sheep farming covers extensive areas in both islands. The stock carried consists of mixed-age flocks of breeding ewes, ewe hoggets for replacements, and rams. Where part of the property is underdeveloped, wethers may also be carried. Wool yield from these farms averages 4.5 to 5.5 kg/su (kilograms per stock unit) and usually represents about 40 percent of the total farm income. Other products sold are prime wether lambs, store lambs for finishing, and breeding ewes.

A large proportion of the beef cattle are also run on hill-country properties.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. The bulk of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley production comes from these districts. The majority of the cereal-producing farms also finish sheep and lambs.

SOILS—Soil is a product of its environment—its composition depends on the parent ingredient, the climate, the length of time it has weathered, the topography, and, the vegetation under which it has formed. The complex soil pattern of New Zealand is a result of the many different kinds of rock, and the various conditions under which the soils have formed.

New Zealand includes such extremes as the subtropical climate of North Auckland, the cold uplands of the alpine regions, and the semi-arid basins of Central Otago.

The country's topography is also varied—50 percent of the land is classifiable as steep, 20 percent is moderately hilly, and only 30 percent is rolling or flat.

The natural vegetation ranges from kauri forest to subalpine scrub, and from tussock grassland to broadleaf forest. From time to time, occurrences such as river floods on alluvial plains, sand drifts, or a volcanic ash eruption interrupt and alter the pattern of soil development.

Regional differences in New Zealand's soils result mainly from the effects of climate on topography. Soils develop more rapidly under high temperatures and a heavy rainfall. In New Zealand, distinct soil gradations are found, both from north to south and from west to east. These closely follow the isohyets (lines connecting places that receive the same amount of rain) on a climatic map.

Increased knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to soil management. Soils have been mapped and their properties and uses determined. This, has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern changes to farming as an up-to-date science.

Farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime, and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

New Zealand soils may be classified on a regional basis as follows:

RegionSoilsVegetation and Land Use
North Auckland Peninsula and Auckland regionNorthern yellow-brown earths and podzols left by kauri forest. Loams and clays from volcanic rocks. Soft-rock uplands with volcanic outcrops.Heavily forested (high rainfall and humidity). Patches of rich dairy land on formerly swampy organic soils. Some wool and store sheep. Dairying, fat lambs near Auckland. Patchy land use.
Bay of Plenty - Waikato - Thames - Hauraki PlainsVolcanic ash covers much of area. Most soils intrazonal or azonal. Yellow-brown pumice soils in Bay of Plenty. Peaty soils with high ground water on Hauraki Plains.Intensively-farmed dairying region. Land use almost entirely based on grass and clover, with great reliance on topdressing. Some fat lambs. Extensive exotic forests in Bay of Plenty region.
Volcanic PlateauPumice soils, lacking in essential trace elements. Yellow-brown pumice soils from volcanic material.Largely undeveloped scrub and native forest. Extensive exotic forests. Topdressing of former manuka and scrub area for farming.
East CoastSouthern and central yellow-brown earths. Patches of recent alluvial soils along rivers. Yellow-grey earths on rolling land south of Hawke Bay.Semi-extensive sheep farming (wool and store sheep). Intensive fat-lamb production on flat to rolling plains. Market gardens and orchards near Napier and Hastings. Some pip fruit. Pockets of dairying close to main ranges from Norse-wood south.
TaranakiRing plain consists of yellow-brown loams, with granular clay from volcanic ash. Overlay of fertile ash and sediment from Mount Egmont. Soft-rock uplands away from coast.Distinct contrast between rich, closely-farmed dairying ring plain and inland country with its steep ridges mainly covered in second-growth forest or dense gorse, and severely eroded.
Manawatu-Horowhenua Coast PlainSand dunes and swampy hollows common along coast. Steep-land yellow-brown earths inland. Extensive young soils from dune sands along coast.Many hollows contain native flax (Phormium tenax). Pockets of dairying and fat-lamb production.
NelsonPockets of fertile, recent alluvial soils in yellow-grey and yellow-brown earths.Orchards and market gardens. Hops and tobacco also grown on flat, rolling land.
Marlborough-Kaikoura CoastYellow-brown earths with pockets of alluvial soils.Where land is developed, mainly sheep or cash cropping.
West CoastExtensive grey podzols, with recent swamp soils on alluvial flats.Mostly undeveloped scrub and native bush. Some dairying.
Canterbury PlainsVery thick layer of gravel deposited by rivers—thickest and coarsest near mountains from which rivers flow. Soils range from stony gravel to fine silts.Deep layer of fine sediment provides fertile soil for cereals and fodder crops, and makes good sheep pasture. Cash cropping on former swamp near Christchurch.
OtagoHigh-country yellow-brown earths on ranges, yellow-grey earths, often stony, in basins.Sheep farming for wool and fat lambs plus some cattle and some orchards. Irrigation necessary in low-rainfall area.
Southland and FiordlandSouthland Plain has extensive deposits of gravel and silt. Fiordland has mostly subalpine grey soils and grey podzols.Fat-lamb production in Southland. Fiordland agriculturally undeveloped and unproductive. Scenic attractions.

OCCUPIED LAND: Tenure—The tenure of occupied land in recent years is shown in the following table.

YearNumber of FarmsFreehold LandCrown LandLeasehold LandOther LandTotal Land Occupied
hectares (000)
197768 57110 1759 5631 31317521 225
197869 40110 1999 6251 31911021 254
197970 45210 5859 1931 33012321 231
198071 50510 5599 0291 45719221 237
198172 51510 9518 8491 32612421 250

Land Usage—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1981 by statistical area is given in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of FarmsGrassland and LucerneCrops, Fruit, or NurseryPlantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingTotal Area of Farms*
Established Before 30/6/80Established During Year Ended 30/6/81
* Including “Other”.
hectares (000)
Northland6 54367218657241 074
Central Auckland6 98529559306419
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty17 1961 8003441474453 405
East Coast1 529535893635724
Hawke's Bay4 270879212054561 305
Taranaki4 45944564415620
Wellington7 9701 3773440481702 001
North Island48 9526 0031261297043519 548
Marlborough1 327251911194481 143
Nelson2 41919281074571 419
Westland799115311733931
Canterbury8 9981 13485176481 4723 367
Otago4 8981 0085863631 7203 277
Southland5 1226983663273671 564
South Island23 5633 3981993232494 09711 702
New Zealand72 5159 4013244519534 44821 250

Farm Type—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1981 is shown by farm type in the following table.

Farm TypeNumber of FarmsGrassland and LucerneLand In or Prepared for Fruit, Grain, Crops, Vegetables, etc.Plantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingOther Land on FarmTotal Area of Farms

* Seventy-five percent or more is derived from stated activity.

† From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity, and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡ More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

hectares (000)
Dairy farming: factory supply*12 4539219313571 004
Dairy farming: town milk supply*1 3961083 25118
Sheep farming*20 0474 047139392 7865457 556
Beef farming*6 54149758266181957
Pig farming*49771110
Cropping*1 12627461377
Dairy farming with sheep†3505314665
Dairy farming with beef†652791121193
Dairy farming with other†4624331451
Sheep farming with dairy†1352212226
Sheep farming with beef†5 8042 39535309564213 837
Sheep farming with cropping†1 244169541195247
Sheep farming with other†62983614930169
Beef farming with dairy†10513114
Beef farming with sheep†1 25130931287103514
Beef farming with other†3361721122
Cropping with sheep†709604513109
Cropping with other†20588116
Pig farming with other†184618
Horse breeding‡55914116
Mixed livestock§5 31964328722094992
Broiler chicken production8622
Poultry farming‡3723115
Market gardening and flowers‡1 5931419  336
Orchards‡2 60992311539
Tobacco growing‡1554228
Nurseries‡5092316
Plantations‡764141846102 1473 017
Other farming1 380461211935113
Idle land5 043108372 0042 121
Total, all farm types72 5159 7254519534 4485 67221 250

FARM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY—The following table shows persons working on farms by farm type at 30 June 1981. Figures are not comparable with previous years.

Farm TypeWorking Owners. Leaseholders, and SharemilkersUnpaid Members of Family Assisting on FarmPaid Permanent EmployeesCasual Workers at 30 June
Full-timePart-time

* Gross income of 75 percent or more is derived from stated activity.

† From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first-named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

Dairy farming: factory supply*21 9586 4691 835761390
Dairy farming: town milk supply*2 36970343716187
Sheep farming*23 9349 9004 1971 7051 871
Beef farming*7 5812 348373198139
Pig farming*6712031744420
Cropping*1 28342114465104
Dairy farming with sheep†666185801817
Dairy farming with beef†1 2213402009177
Dairy farming with other†8522841685237
Sheep farming with dairy†191784072
Sheep farming with beef†7 1912 6053 878860966
Sheep farming with cropping†1 57669632415493
Sheep farming with other†7824081487953
Beef farming with dairy†162442098
Beef farming with sheep†1 548575529111114
Beef farming with other†421149312029
Cropping with sheep†8733711909385
Cropping with other†272116341777
Pig farming with other†236116702214
Horse breeding‡6331961823820
Mixed livestock§6 4781 9471 071353332
Broiler chicken production‡133421013018
Poultry farming‡65012618829258
Market gardening and flowers‡2 434674569368535
Orchards‡3 7791 1741 3325691 920
Tobacco growing‡2024118937158
Nurseries‡7221921 017182401
Plantations‡4931073 51668307
Other farming2 010761301372638
     Total, all farm types91 32131 27121 2386 7768 570

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS—An annual survey of capital formation in the farming industry is made by the Department of Statistics. For the year ended 30 June 1981 capital expenditure was reported by 60.6 percent (43 587) of the 72 515 farms and plantations surveyed.

The following table shows capital expenditure by type during the latest available 3 years. For each type of expenditure the figure given is net, i.e., receipts from “trade-ins” or sales have been deducted from the gross expenditure.

 Year Ended June
Item197919801981
* Includes construction of permanent yards, airstrips, bridges, roading, and stock or dairy water supply systems.
 $(thousand)
Buildings—
     Owners' houses52,39572,233108,971
     Houses for employees11,02114,93318,107
     Other employee accommodation2,1332,8903,392
     Other buildings44,91460,18475,880
         Total, all buildings110,463150,240206,349
     Construction*24,84930,98337,258
Land development—
     Land clearing32,37941,29654,030
     Fencing33,16443,96156,900
     Drainage7,69712,49818,471
     Irrigation4,4445,6369,301
     Other land development7,04710,75712,954
Total, land development109,581145,131151,656
Transport vehicles—
     Cars34,84752,17864,476
     Other farm vehicles46,65653,83057,981
     Other forest vehicles1,3812,6064,242
     Total, transport vehicles82,885108,614126,698
Machinery—
     Farm tractors57,43563,18175,679
     Logging equipment8286321,128
     Other machinery40,82546,42349,190
     Total, machinery99,088110,236125,997
Working animals1,9252,4803,330
     Total capital expenditure403,941516,701651,289

The following table shows capital expenditure, net of sales, by farm type during the year ended 30 June 1981. It includes holdings given over wholly to plantations of exotic timber.

Farm typeBuildingsConstructionTransport VehiclesFarm MachineryOther Improvements and Developments*Total Capital Expenditure

* Includes working animals.

† Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

‡ From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity, and between 20 and 49 percent from second activity.

§ More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

‖ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

$(thousand) 
Dairy farming: factory supply†32,4805,95023,85127,84914,172104,302
Dairy farming: town milk supply†3,6406392,4863,4672,10112,332
Sheep farming†61,81410,29638,59628,95956,405196,070
Beef farming†12,8131,4706,2033,8416,55630,884
Pig farming†2,3641109825202924,268
Cropping†1,8522341,6084,2542,0489,997
Dairy farming with sheep‡1,1341756458807043,538
Dairy farming with beef‡2,0824591,6341,5031,5177,196
Dairy farming with other‡1,6572581,0601,3258165,115
Sheep farming with dairy‡535503592422381,422
Sheep farming with beef‡20,7305,84415,57611,06831,44784,664
Sheep farming with cropping‡3,4114023,0395,3412,95115,145
Sheep farming with other‡1,9882631,2691,4761,7156,712
Beef farming with dairy‡16358278163181844
Beef farming with sheep‡4,1291,1732,5421,6634,64314,151
Beef farming with other‡6,8652155564714058,511
Cropping with sheep‡1,5751411,8193,6561,4728,663
Cropping with other‡5711123619434282,415
Pig farming with other‡488571832941271,148
Horse breeding§1,699956532804743,202
Mixed livestock‖10,7871,4876,4756,3787,92533,053
Broiler chicken production§5302712422766975
Poultry farming§1,7621367247371173,477
Market gardening with flowers§4,8782213,8115,9681,13916,295
Orchards§12,1948204,4798,1607,17232,959
Nurseries§2,167907877195134,277
Plantations§2,9396,0863,6989044,20817,835
Other farming9,1013892,9014,7064,07221,839
     Total206,34937,258126,698125,997153,906651,289

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The Agriculture Production Account covers the activities of all market-oriented establishments classified to agricultural and livestock production or to agricultural services (major groups 111 and 112 of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification). All types of farms are included, together with agricultural services operated by contractors, such as top-dressing, weed-spraying, harvesting, threshing, shearing, and scrub cutting. Other services included are herd testing and artificial insemination. Farms operated as trading enterprises by the Department of Lands and Survey and the Department of Maori Affairs are included, but not Government research or demonstration farms or farms attached to prisons, psychiatric hospitals, or universities.

The account includes all income derived from the activities of the establishments covered, including their characteristically farming activities, and also their “other” productive activities. However, investment income (such as dividends, interest, and rent) accruing to the proprietors of farming establishments is excluded.

The main change made in the 1976–77 series shown in this sub-section as compared with the earlier 1971–72 series shown in previous Yearbooks is that the actual sale value for output is used rather than the national “farm gate” valuation used for the 1971–72 series. This means that the output valuations are higher and an equivalent amount has been included in input to cover costs incurred by the farmer in marketing and transporting his produce. For instance, livestock are valued at point of sale, which may be as delivered to meat export works or abattoirs, at the sale yards, on the farm, or by private arrangement. Likewise, actual values and volumes of wool sold at auction are as supplied by the New Zealand Wool Board. Wool consigned by growers directly to the United Kingdom has been valued at the average prices received there.

The Agriculture Production Account is published annually as an appendix to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, and this should be consulted for further information on methodology, etc.

AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION ACCOUNT
ItemYear Ended March
19771978197919801981*
* Provisional.
Input$(million
     Intermediate consumption1,2921,3151,7032,0942,285
     Compensation of employees262281321388447
     Operating surplus—
     Interest paid158196224268362
     Proprietors' surplus from farming activity8357141,0091,4421,243
     Consumption of fixed capital203228249287325
     Indirect taxes4755637385
     Less subsidies–26–23–99–32–30
     Gross input2,7712,7653,4704,5204,717
Output
     Characteristic products of industrial activity2,7652,7583,465x4,5144,711
     Other products67566
     Gross output2,7712,7653,4704,5204,717

The following table shows details of the Agriculture Production Account item, Intermediate consumption.

ItemYear Ended March
19771978197919801981*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Animal health, weed and pest control95106149185222
Shearing expenses43485988111
Fertiliser, lime, and seeds129155132206266
Vehicle expenses135143163202229
Electricity2633394955
Feed and grazing105111120138165
Agricultural services5947526874
Repairs and maintenance132138159204225
Packing and containers912141720
Railage and cartage5356647583
Administration and general expenses8291125143188
Insurance1012141617
Rent3028353742
Inter-farm purchase of livestock383336578667586
     Total1,2921,3151,7032,0942,285

GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (GROSS OUTPUT)—The following table of Gross Agricultural Production shows the value of production for March years.

Product GroupYear Ended March
19771978197919801981*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Sheep and lambs402388543565635
Wool584502613851846
Cattle364353563668587
Pigs4246476463
Dairy products482513530688866
Crops and seeds162164172185215
Fruit606599151178
Vegetables6287111142168
Poultry and eggs8285100112127
Agricultural services126145175204226
Other—
    Farm products2633344861
    Non-farm products6x7x5x66
Physical change of livestock at average market price—
    Deer+4+7+17+28+21
    Sheep+23+64–26+138+88
    Cattle–41–31–89+3+46
    Pigs+3+1–3–2
Inter-farm sales of livestock383336578667586
    Gross agricultural production (gross output)2,7712,7653,4704,5204,717

VOLUME OF NET AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Net Agricultural Production is arrived at by deducting intermediate consumption expressed in constant dollar terms from outputs in constant dollar terms and expressing the difference in index form.

The importance of the net volume series lies in the fact that it measures the volume of the contribution of the agriculture industry alone, after elimination of the contribution of all other industries to gross agriculture output. The net index is preferable to the gross index in analysing the contribution of agriculture to the country's real gross domestic product and the changing importance of agriculture in the economy and its productivity.

In the following table the series is shown in index form and in annual percentage movements. The base is 1971–72 (= 1000). The index numbers for earlier years have been revised to embody the change in the 1976–77 series mentioned earlier.

Year Ended MarchIndex NumberChange from Previous Year
  Percent
1974840–6.8
1975980+16.7
19761013+3.4
19771011–0.2
19781020+0.9
1979998–2.2
19801092+9.4
19811204+10.3
* Provisional.

Problems which are specific to farm accounting are related to the production process of the industry itself—its seasonal nature, and its dependence on biological factors and climatic conditions. All these intervene in various ways between real resource use and output. Also, operations are not necessarily restricted to an annual cycle (e.g., the application of fertiliser in one year can affect output for a number of years) but the accounts are always made up for one year. As a result, year-to-year comparisons between resource use and output and, in the final analysis, the net profit (net income, surplus) of the farming industry, can be affected by fortuitous factors.

This is the principal reason why year-to-year changes in real gross production and real net production can differ to a marked degree.

GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION FOR YEARS ENDED JUNE—The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production, which is a year-to-year quantum measure of commodities produced by all New Zealand farms and hence available for export or domestic consumption, is shown in the following table. The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production for each of the latest 6 years is shown for the component product groups, as well as for the production of the whole agricultural industry. The expression base for each product group separately, and for the agriculture industry as a whole, is the year ended June 1972 (=1000).

Product GroupYear Ended 30 June
197219771978197919801981*
* Provisional.
 Volume Index Numbers
Sheep and lambs100093494592910731138
Wool10001005963104911651250
Cattle1000949925889858932
Pigs10001012977875850881
Dairy products10001076982107111141067
Crops and seeds100012481154112811191127
Fruit100011121184130915441288
Vegetables10008841064109111841204
Poultry and eggs100012081117110110811067
Other farm products100013711291138015401621
All agriculture industry production10001025992102310901123

The value of gross agricultural production for June years, corresponding to the volume index numbers in the preceding table, is shown in the following table.

Product GroupYear Ended 30 June
19771978197919801981*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Sheep and lambs415429527587682
Wool595495623846849
Cattle366366599612617
Pigs4546456071
Dairy products483499569703838
Crops and seeds157165168189215
Fruit6169102160178
Vegetables6289112142168
Poultry and eggs8285102113127
Agricultural services110127155178198
Other—
     Farm products2830385058
     Non-farm products67566
Physical change of livestock at average market price—
     Deer+4+7+17+28+21
     Sheep+31+34+14+85+20
     Cattle–33–34–65+8+17
     Pigs+3–1–2–1+2
Gross Agricultural Production (Gross Output)2,4142,4153,0103,7664,066

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The following table shows milk production and utilisation of milkfat during each of the last 5 seasons, year ending 31 May. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

 1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82*

* Provisional.

† Includes milk fed to stock and waste, but excludes separation loss.

 Production
Milk, litres (million)5 8866 3046 6296 4836 578
Milkfat, tonnes (000)278.6301.3318.0308.1309.0
Liquid milk, cream, and ice cream, litres (million)521518504488489
 Utilisation of Milkfat Processed (000 tonnes)
Butter203.0217.1216.1215.1x200.9
Cheese31.033.640.432.3x41.8
Other wholemilk products17.023.534.434.6x39.7
     Total251.0274.2290.9282.0282.4

Production by dairy factories during the latest 5 seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82*

* Provisional.

† Butter equivalent of AMF.

 tonnes (000)
Creamery butter189.9231.1217.2x200.2x221.4
Whey butter2.42.63.31.9x2.6
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF)†38.921.034.445.0x14.6
Frozen cream8.27.76.14.6x5.3
Cheese80.790.3105.784.3x110.9
Condensed and evaporated milk5.74.66.04.84.2
Whole-milk powder49.958.865.888.8104.0
Infant food17.411.210.78.010.5
Skim-milk powder172.0173.9168.5180.9x194.0
Buttermilk powder19.422.924.125.022.9
Acid casein43.945.945.242.3x30.8
Caseinates9.910.08.47.3x2.8
Rennet casein3.07.412.610.0x13.4
Lactose9.310.811.410.911.7

The butter produced in New Zealand is of a salted “sweet cream” type and, because the cows are fed almost entirely on grass, it has a high carotene content which makes it yellower than the butter from countries where cows are fed indoors for much of the year. The predominant cheese variety produced is cheddar. Whole-milk powder is made from the whole milk, while skim-milk powder is made from the separated milk following the removal of the milkfat for buttermaking. Buttermilk powder is made from a by-product of the butter manufacturing process. Lactose is made from whey, a by-product of cheesemaking. At one time skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey were fed to pigs, but in recent years they have almost entirely been processed to produce powders and specialised dairy products.

The following table gives average milkfat and milk production per cow “at factory”.

SeasonDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow
MilkfatMilk
* Provisional.
 (000)kglitres
1977–782 0531312 726
1978–792 0401422 936
1979–802 0461513 105
1980–812 0271473 037
1981–82*2 0611443 038

Herd sizes have increased as suppliers with small herds have ceased production and as dairy farms have been amalgamated. The number of suppliers to dairy factories and milkfat production per supplier is shown in the following table. (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board.)

SeasonDairy Company Suppliers*Average Size of HerdMilkfat per Supplier

* Does no; include town milk suppliers (about 1700).

† Provisional.

   kg
1977–7816 12612015 675
1978–7915 77412317 536
1979–8015 42412618 985
1980–8115 02012918 856
1981–82†14 84513319 090

Tanker collection of milk by the dairy factories began in 1951. By 1960, 55 percent of the milkfat supplied to dairy factories was received as milk (instead of cream as previously); this had increased to 79 percent by 1966 and by 1977–78 was 99 percent.

New Zealand Dairy Board—The New Zealand Dairy Board of 14 directors functions under the Dairy Board Act 1961. Apart from 2 Government representatives, all are producer members—3 are appointed by the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Company, 8 are elected by other dairy companies, with voting proportionate to the quantity of milkfat received by those companies from their suppliers in 6 geographically-defined wards. One director is appointed by the New Zealand Milk Board to represent the interests of town milk producers.

The Dairy Board's work is divided broadly into 2 sections; one concerned with the development of the dairy industry and the other with marketing of dairy produce. (This latter activity is described in Section 21a, Marketing of Farm Products.) It is a further function of the board to promote the bobby calf and pig industries.

The Dairy Board has the broad function of linking manufacturing plans and growth with export market requirements. It is responsible by statute for the purchase and sale of export dairy products and for the development, in all respects, of the dairy industry. Since the board is the sole purchaser of produce for export, this purchasing power helps to link manufacturing plans with commercial reality.

MILK PRODUCTION—The administration and organisation of the town milk supply is the responsibility of the New Zealand Milk Board (see Section 21A).

During the year ended August 1982, town milk suppliers provided 663.0 million litres of milk. Of this, 440.3 million litres went to the milk stations and eventually reached the consumer in the form of 357.9 million litres of pasteurised milk and 9.75 million litres of sweet cream. The balance of the total production went to dairy factories (189.7 million litres), and to the manufacture of ice cream, flavoured milk, yoghurt, and cottage cheese (32.9 million litres).

MEAT PRODUCTION—The following table shows in summary form production of meat. Figures are shown at estimated bone-in weights for years ended September.

ProductYear Ended September
19781979198019811982
 tonnes (000)
Beef533.7490.5478.8480.8496.0
Veal27.821.116.917.320.4
Mutton159.6162.8168.5200.5191.0
Lamb342.0351.1391.2425.7428.0
Pig meat38.235.734.532.534.3
Other incl. offal58.858.161.050.648.4
        Total1 160.31 110.31 150.91 207.41 218.1
Source: Department of Statistics.

Production for Export—Export meat production for years ended September is shown in the following table. Measured on a product weight basis, export meat production declined marginally in the 1981–82 season. Beef and veal production increased by 5 percent but this was offset by a 10 percent fall in mutton production.

Type of MeatYear Ended September
19781979198019811982
 tonnes (000) shipping weight
Lamb—carcasses257.4257.5295.3335.1325.3
       — cuts56.259.863.362.2x73.3
Mutton—carcasses83.886.892.2117.0x99.3
       —cuts6.88,47.29.4x14.2
Beef—manufacturing173.1161.1159.1164.4x175.8
       — other52.849.051.551.2x50.1
Veal10.58.27.88.5x8.4
Pig meat0.90.10.10.1x
Other meats0.40.90.40.30.4
Variety meats44.344.347.350.050.9
Inedible meat and offal18.418.021.822.6x19.8
       Total704.6694.1746.0820.8x817.5
Source: N.Z. Meal Producers Board.

Lamb export slaughterings during the 1981–82 season, at 31.1 million remained virtually unchanged from the previous season's figure. Adult sheep slaughterings fell by 6.8 percent, while beef export slaughterings increased by 7.5 percent.

The following table gives livestock slaughter statistics at meat export works and abattoirs, omitting killing on farms and in rural slaughterhouses, for years ended September.

AnimalsYear Ended September
19781979198019811982
 head of stock (000)
Lambs25 98325 87928 18732 05531 851
Sheep7 6497 3297 3999 0808 980
Cattle2 4082 1111 9932 0472 160
Calves1 1251 0919689941 073
Pigs798723710717713
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

About two-thirds of lambs tailed are killed during the season, and some 90 percent of the lamb meat is exported.

Meal consumed in New Zealand represents approximately 25 percent of total production; quantities per head are shown in Section 24 Consumption of Food.

Producer Control—The principle of producer control of the export meat industry was established in 1922. A system was created in which the processing and exporting companies—public, private, and cooperative—worked under the overall direction of the Meat Producers Board. This system over the years has given the producer a choice of the people to do business with and a choice of methods of selling his stock. That choice for the producer meant that he obtained full benefit from a competitive situation. The system has also given the producer, through his representatives on the Meat Producers Board, the chance to influence through sales promotion the sale of his meat right down to the retail shops half a world distant. The board has controlled shipping to place supplies and has advertised widely, especially in Britain; it controls its own system of grading export meat; and it is general spokesman for the industry.

The Meat Producers Board and the Wool Board are in the position of having to make not only long-term decisions but also to meet day-to-day situations as they occur. This they do with the aid of their own technical staff and through an economic service which is in close and constant contact with the sheep farming industry throughout New Zealand.

WOOL PRODUCTION—New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. Production is mainly of cross-bred wool.

The average price for wool sold at auction during the 1981–82 season was only 3 percent above the 1980–81 average price. When converted to common dollar terms to adjust for inflation then it was the lowest price since 1974–75.

Because of continued weak demand during the 1981–82 season intervention-buying by the board totalled 187 046 bales (11 percent of the offering). Intervention-buying has declined in the 1982–83 season with only 37 724 bales (5 percent of the offering) being bought in the first half of the season.

The following table shows for the last 5 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per kilogram of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per Kilogram (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 tonnes(000)cents$(m
1978310.8190.43591.9
1979320.6218.8701.5
1980356.5265.09945
1981380.7247.48942.2
1982363255.7928.2

Because of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

An article on the New Zealand sheep industry, prepared by the New Zealand Wool Board, was included in the Special Features section of the 1981 Yearbook.

New Zealand Wool Board—The New Zealand Wool Board was originally set up under the Wool Industry Act 1944 and amalgamated with the New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation in 1978. The board has 6 representatives of woolgrowers, elected by an electoral committee of 26 (the members of the committee are in turn elected by sheep farmers. The same committee elects the grower representatives on the Meat Producers Board). Representatives have a 3-year term and are eligible for re-election. The Wool Board also has 2 members appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the Minister of Agriculture. The Director-General of Agriculture is automatically a member, and the tenth member, chosen for his commercial experience, is appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the board.

The general objective of the board is to obtain, in the interests of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Among its functions are: to promote the use of New Zealand wool in existing or new markets; to develop and maintain a marketing system for New Zealand wool suited to the requirements of the world's textile industry; to market wool to the best possible advantage; to bring about the greatest possible efficiencies in the preparation, handling, distribution, shipping, and selling of wool; to encourage the production in New Zealand of types of wool suited to market requirements; to promote research into wool and sheep; and to set minimum prices for wool and operate a minimum price funding scheme.

Main sources of income for the board are: 3-percent levy on gross wool receipts ($34.8 million in the 1982–83 season) which is used exclusively for promotion and research; and interest on investments ($9.4 million for the 1981–82 season).

The board is active in all aspects of the wool industry from production through to advertising wool products overseas. Its production section is engaged in the promotion of breeding practices suited to today's market, proper wool handling and clip preparation, and co-operation with wool and sheep research organisations throughout the country. The field service trains 1000 shearers a year in the Wool Board shearing technique.

Perhaps the board's biggest role is in the New Zealand marketing system and the operation of its market support schemes. It values all wool offered at auction and intervenes in the market according to its commercial judgment. In doing this it may buy wool. During the 1981–82 season, there was support buying right through the season. The board sells from the stockpile of bought-in wool, normally through the established wool trade in New Zealand. The wool is also valued for the purpose of ensuring a minimum return to growers (the minimum floor price). In the 1982–83 season the floor price was set at an average of 250 cents per kilogram, greasy weight. When the sale price for a lot at auction falls below the appropriate minimum price, the board pays the difference to the grower as a supplementary payment. Supplement is also paid on privately sold wool, provided the buyers display it under specified conditions for appraisal by the board.

The board's market support operations are funded by its general capital and reserves which totalled $110 million at 30 June 1982 and which had their origin in profits on the sale of wool accumulated during World War II. Supplementary payments under the minimum prices scheme are funded by a minimum price funding levy introduced on 1 July 1976. Currently the levy is 1 percent of gross proceeds from all shorn wool sold for the first time.

A wool auction sales committee, comprising representatives of the board, the New Zealand Woolbrokers Association, and the New Zealand Woolbuyers Association, set up under provision of the Wool Industry Act 1977, draws up and supervises the roster of wool auction sales.

The board is also empowered to grant or revoke licences to export wool. Under the regulations the board has to keep a list of registered private buyers, registered wool exchange operators, and scourers.

It is involved in the development of market innovations, such as the sale of wool by sample, it is a negotiator of freight rates, and operates a number of wool stores for its own use. Board economists conduct a market intelligence service covering production, disposal, and market prices.

The board provides a technical service to wool processors and textile manufacturers, both in New Zealand and overseas, and is extensively involved in the promotion of wool textiles, on its own account and in co-operation with garment and carpet manufacturers and the retail trade throughout New Zealand. It also supports New Zealand manufactured wool products in export markets.

In the 1981–82 season the board's share of the budget of the International Wool Secretariat was $30.4 million. This was about 27 percent of IWS costs. The IWS is a partnership with Australia, South Africa, Uruguay, and Brazil. It has its headquarters in London and operates in almost all countries with a substantial consumer market.

It offers technical and fashion advice in menswear, womenswear, and furnishing to manufacturers, administers the Woolmark and the Woolblendmark (maintaining quality control in more than 15 000 factories), and promotes wool through campaigns with manufacturers and retailers. Extensive research and development is also undertaken.

The board provides about 50 percent of the revenue of the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand (WRONZ). In 1981–82 this was $1.35 million. Established in 1960 at Lincoln, Christchurch, the organisation has a professional staff of about 35. It conducts fundamental research on the wool fibre and applied research on scouring, processing, and performance of New Zealand wools. It is also developing the measurement of wool characteristics as an aid in marketing. The board is represented on the WRONZ executive.

The board is also represented on the Wool Testing Authority. Wool testing, which has been carried out in New Zealand since the 1940s, is used by buyers and processors as a basis for trading. Certificates are provided for yield, vegetable matter, fibre diameter, and moisture content.

With the Meat Producers Board, the Wool Board maintains the New Zealand Meat and Wool Board's Economic Service, which provides economic data for both boards and outside organisations through a survey of a representative 500 pastoral farms.

The board administers on behalf of the Government the Individual Grower Income Levy Retention Scheme. Under this scheme a proportion of the gross proceeds from the sale of wool is retained when the adjusted weighted average sale price at auction exceeds a “trigger price” set by the Minister of Agriculture (400 cents per kilogram, greasy, in the 1981–82 season). The proceeds so retained are credited to individual growers accounts and are refundable to growers after 5 years, or in special circumstances as described in the regulations. Funds are held by the Reserve Bank. In February 1978 the Government authorised the repayment of all funds held in these accounts (amounting to $26 million in more than 40 000 accounts). Funds in the Reserve Bank at the end of the 1981–82 season were nil.

The board also administers, on behalf of the Government, the supplementary minimum floor price scheme introduced in 1978 for an initial period of 2 years. This provides a Government-backed minimum price to growers at a level higher than the board's minimum price of 250 cents per kilogram (average greasy basis). For the 1982–83 season this has been set by the Government a. 320 cents per kilogram (greasy basis).

During the 1981–82 season, the supplementary minimum price was set at 320 cents per kilogram. The market remained below this level throughout the season and a Government supplement of $184 million was paid.

Supplementary payments are calculated on a percentage basis—using the adjusted weighted average sale price (AWASP) for each auction sale. In cases where the sale AWASP is below the supplementary minimum price level, the percentage difference between the AWASP and the supplementary floor price is added on to the realised price by the broker. In the 1981–82 season the supplement averaged 25 percent. For private sales the buyer completes an application on behalf of each grower, on the basis of which the board pays the supplement direct to the grower.

AGRICULTURAL TRAINING COUNCIL—The Agricultural Training Council was gazetted as an industry training board in 1971 under the Vocational Training Act following recommendations of the 1970 Training in Agriculture Conference. The role of the council is to develop, co-ordinate and promote organised training in those sectors of the primary industry for which it is responsible and at the same time work closely with those agencies and other industry training boards having responsibilities in other sectors of the primary industry.

The council comprises representatives from Federated Farmers of N.Z. Inc., N.Z. Federation of Young Farmers, Farm Workers' Association, the horticultural industry, the equine industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Vocational Training Council, Department of Education, the agricultural colleges, Department of Labour, and the Technical Institutes Association.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was formed in 1972 by grafting the fisheries management and research divisions of the former Marine Department on to the Department of Agriculture. The principal functions of the ministry are to promote and to encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural and fishing industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; and to promote, control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of agriculture and fisheries. Under a director-general of agriculture and fisheries there are divisions of animal health, meat, dairy, advisory services, agricultural research, fisheries research, fisheries management, economics, management services, and administration. Though the service is primarily advisory, the ministry administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—The Animal Health Division's major functions are to eradicate endemic animal diseases, to prevent or control exotic diseases, to promote animal welfare, to help farmers to improve animal health, and to ensure that the animals' and animal products for export meet the importing countries' requirements. Since the 1960s, the main thrust of the disease-eradication efforts has been against bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis. Excellent progress has been made. A scheme against mannosidosis in registered Angus and Murray Grey cattle herds is almost completed. The division supports the National Hydatids Council and hydatids-control authorities in eradicating Echinococcus granulosus infection (hydatids) in dogs and controlling Taenia ovis in sheep.

The division also maintains contingency plans to ensure a quick response in the event of an outbreak of serious exotic disease.

Animal-welfare has become increasingly important in the last few years. The division promotes it by advising the Government, developing codes of practice for the care and husbandry of animals, and by investigating instances of alleged cruelty.

About 100 veterinarians and more than 300 livestock officers carry out the division's functions at regional and district levels. Five animal-health laboratories and a national reference laboratory provide diagnostic support.

Roughly one-half of the veterinarians work within veterinary districts. The rest work within and from laboratories. They research new or poorly defined diseases, and carry out disease surveillance by gathering and collating information on the diseases in their area.

Disease surveillance is the core of all the division's functions. The work of divisional veterinarians provides regular contact with private practitioners, farmers, pharmaceutical companies, and other information sources.

Knowledge gained from surveillance of animal health in New Zealand enables the Ministry to underwrite assurances that the meat and dairy products, as well as any livestock exported from New Zealand, are free of animal disease.

The division is also concerned with the importation of animals and animal products into New Zealand. It maintains quarantine procedures and runs quarantine stations for imported livestock, to reduce the risk of importing exotic disease.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the inspection of animals before and after they are slaughtered at abattoirs, export slaughterhouses, and deer-slaughtering premises. It is also responsible for the standard of hygiene at these establishments, and for the hygiene and inspection of meat-packing houses, game-packing houses, export-fish-packing houses, and export stores. The division ensures that the products and by-products from all these premises meet the legal and overseas-market requirements.

Veterinary health export certificates for meat, game, farmed venison, poultry, rabbits, fish, and some inedible by-products are issued by the veterinary staff of the division. The hygiene of the rural slaughterhouses, custom killing premises, and by-products premises of all kinds is also overseen by the division, whose meat-inspection staff are responsible for grading the meat produced in abattoirs and for supervising the grading of the meat for local consumption at export slaughterhouses.

Dairy Produce—Although the quality control of all aspects of dairy-food production is essentially the job of the industry itself, the Dairy Division is responsible for assuring all buyers of New Zealand dairy produce that mandatory manufacturing procedures and test methods are maintained.

To this end, the division supervises and gives advice on all aspects of the manufacture of dairy produce. This supervision starts on the farm and extends through the food-processing plants to storage facilities and to loading out for shipment.

Farm-dairy instructors regularly inspect all dairy farms and give advice. Milk is graded according to quality standards set by Government and the milk tankers that transport it are inspected regularly. All the processing plants, too, are inspected and classified—the division licenses and registers each plant and must approve its equipment and building design. Specialist advisory officers are available to help solve problems, or to give general support on farms or in dairy-food manufacturing plants.

The division also supervises the town-milk industry in a similar way, but its milk and produce standards are the responsibility of the Department of Health.

Samples from each batch of dairy produce manufactured are examined by officers who assess its flavour, texture, and body, as well as its presentation. Chemical analyses and microbiological assessments are carried out in dairy-company laboratories authorised to certify the quality of the produce. These laboratories are monitored by Dairy Division laboratories at Auckland, Mount Maunganui, New Plymouth, Wallaceville, and Christchurch. This network is supported by the National Dairy Laboratory at Hamilton, which evaluates milking equipment and cleaning materials for their hygienic suitability, studies methods of milking cows to produce the maximum yield and quality, develops analytical methods for milk and dairy products, and operates an interlaboratory comparison programme which monitors the accuracy of the analyses performed by both the dairy company and the Dairy Division laboratories.

Whenever possible, a proportion of dairy-produce exports is examined at its overseas destination.

Advisory Services—The division provides its services to farmers and horticulturalists. Its activities include the plant diagnostic, quarantine, testing, and field inspection services needed to carry out the Ministry's responsibilities under the Plants Act 1970.

Farm advisory officers help the farmer to make the best use of available resources. Advice is given on modern production techniques, soils and fertiliser requirements, management and harvesting of pasture crops, management of stock, and control of pests and diseases.

Graduate officers who service the districts are backed by specialists in the fields of agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, agronomy, and farm economics. Extension work operates through individual farm visits, group techniques, and the mass media.

Outside its extension work, this division is responsible for certification and testing of herbage and cereal seeds, for the Flock House Farm Training Institute at Bulls, and for the education and training aspects of the Telford Farm Training Institute at Balclutha. The Plant Varieties Rights Office processes applications for new plant varieties and species. The division also provides a specialist advisory service for poultry farmers and beekeepers.

The advisory service embraces commercial producers of a wide range of horticultural crops including pip, stone, citrus, and subtropical fruits, vegetables, cut flowers, nursery stock, viticulture, hops, and tobacco. The service provided covers all aspects of crop production—plant and soil management, disease and pest control, crop handling and storage. Advisory officers demonstrate and initiate the adoption or adaption of research results most appropriate to districts for all horticultural crops. Greater advisory emphasis is being given to export horticultural crops and those with export potential. Emphasis is being given to financial management in the horticultural sector to assist producers improve profitability.

Field officers are involved in a wide range of horticultural activities concerning plant health, which includes the prevention of spread of diseases and pests and the inspection of export crops and plant material during the growing season. They are also responsible for advice and instruction to producers on harvesting and handling and the grade requirements of export crops, the operation of quality assurance programmes for certain export crops, and the inspection and certification of a wide range of fruits, vegetables, and plant material including agricultural seeds for export. In addition they inspect and certify honey exports.

Agricultural Research—All research stations of the ministry are under control of the director of agricultural research, with headquarters at Wellington. Regional directors at Hamilton, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Invermay control the 4 research regions into which the country is divided. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B Science and Scientific Services.

Economics—The Economics Division deals with all aspects of agricultural policy including international trade and trade negotiations in relation to agriculture, international quality standards, liaison with international agencies, the analysis of national production and marketing policies, the social implications of agricultural policies, and the periodic evaluation of the general economic position of farmers. Other functions include the economic appraisal of projects associated with agricultural development and resource use, the economics of the fishing industry, and the economic evaluation of research proposals.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service is a uniformed branch of the ministry under the control of a superintendent. Its chief responsibility is to prevent the introduction into New Zealand of

serious animal and plant diseases and pests. Officers of this service are located at ports and international airports, and deal, with all items from overseas of concern to agriculture.

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops—usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in superphosphate manufacturing works during the year ended 30 June 1982 totalled 2 002 000 tonnes. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about 45 percent of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8000 airstrips.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1.5 million tonnes in 1945. Over the next 2 decades usage fell away, but it recovered during the 1970s and over recent years has been from 1.5 million to 1.7 million tonnes annually.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest available years. From 1975 to 1978 this information was collected triennially. From 1981 a new series was commenced and will be collected annually.

Year Ended 30 JuneArea TopdressedQuantity of Fertiliser and Lime Spread
Fertiliser OnlyLime OnlyFertiliser and Lime TogetherTotal Area TopdressedBy Ground SpreadBy Air
 ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)tonnes(000)tonnes(000)
19754 143.4226.6555.24 925.21 819.5747.1
19784 835.3337.9737.55 910.82 049.41 163.1
19805 400.6324.6760.36 485.52 336.41 260.2
Year Ended 30 JuneArea TopdressedQuantity Spread
Phosphatic FertilisersOther FertilisersBy Ground SpreadBy Air
 ha (000)ha (000)tonnes (000)tonnes (000)
19815 730.11 201.82 422.11 085.9

Information on fertiliser and lime applied from the air is obtained from aerial topdressing operators by the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. Figures for the latest available June years are shown below.

Year Ended 30 JuneFertiliser OnlyLime OnlyTotal Fertiliser and Lime
 tonnes (000)
19771 0011481 149
19781 1001411 241
19791 1051461 251
19801 1061631 269
19818531821 035
1982822175997

IRRIGATION—Most New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and require irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

The area and type of land irrigated during the year ended 30 June 1979 is analysed by statistical area in the following table.

Statistical AreaSo. of Farms IrrigatedGrassland and LucerneCommercialOther CropsOther LandTotal
FruitVegetables
 hectares
Northland16664453719637111 425
Central Auckland2501 1572119018862 363
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty3211 67065416275372 598
East Coast45209149131171507
Hawke's Bay4532 0781 7061 268157495 258
Taranaki55952824113998
Wellington2602 945216396276143 847
          North Island1 5509 6553 4813 07866112116 996
Marlborough1632 043149594947313 764
Nelson4091 7305945971 724284 673
Westland
Canterbury1 52363 6764291 86018 98926185 215
Otago80453 5151 0571288654255 607
Southland91191414147
          South Island2 908121 083x2 2433 17922 539362149 406x
          New Zealand4 458130 738x5 7246 25723 200483166 402x

Further information on irrigation is included in Section 10A Physical Environment and Economic Growth.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds.

The following table shows the pattern of major payments in recent years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–821982–83*

* Estimates.

† Includes subsidies of $2,439,000 to county councils and nassella tussock areas, and $9,135,000 to Noxious Plants Control Scheme.

 $(thousand)
Sulphuric acid transport subsidy381610610875
Fertiliser and lime transport subsidy16,11223,42728,77125,30624,10122,100
Fertiliser price subsidy50,83270,17840,55030,83328,21130,000
Fertiliser bounty16,0177,8462,3711,9651,6722,000
Supplementary minimum prices scheme—
     Wool1,34891130,000
     Dairy15,037
     Meat51,920100,000
Sharemilkers' suspensory loan scheme371314400366407497
Emergency expenditure2026,05434168967100
Control and eradication of animal diseases1,9461,9682,7374,5406,9384,660
Agricultural pests control5,6896,2676,8677,4137,0037,000
Noxious weeds eradication†9,24210,71810,7399,0029,25911,777
Assistance to hydatids authorities†3495916878309701,000
Agricultural Engineering Institute4956027288861,1191,222
Herd Improvement Council200223249291378297
Dairy beef scheme4043,869676
Farm cadet training scheme92205381502477870
Agricultural research grants394569100120135
Livestock Incentive Scheme4852,2977,00911,51319,12725,100
Special payment, sheep and cattle58,5717913
Artificial breeding incentive41673555
Grants to Dairy Products Development Centre209235251273351196
Land development loans: interest subsidy 1,0243,4246,59511,600
Grant to New Zealand Wool Board2,0002,0002,000
Cartage grants to dairy companies547213
Special payment to freezing industry1,880
Meat industry hygiene grant4081,4022,3131,7521,500
Rural export suspensory loans54312885791,200
Subsidy for control of potato cyst nematode    5125

Note—Subsidies and grants which have appeared previously but which are consistently less than $100,000, or have appeared only once (for example, the Veterinary Services Council, the Feed Storage Construction Subsidy, and the Lucerne Establishment Grant) have this year been deleted. Similarly, subsidies and grants of more than $100,000 that have not previously appeared in this table (for example, the Sulphuric Acid Transport Subsidy, the assistance to hydatids authorities, and the Farm Cadet Training Scheme) have this year been included.

Fertiliser and Lime Transport Subsidy—Since 1965, a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser has been payable. Since 6 August 1982, the rate has been 6c per tonne-kilometre for up to 40 km, 7c per tonne-kilometre for between 40 and 250 km, and 8c per tonne-kilometre for over 250 km.

Fertiliser and Lime Bounty—This bounty was introduced on 24 January 1975 to encourage the application of fertiliser and lime. The rates for spreading fertiliser have been altered several times since then. From 1 June 1978, the bounty for air-spread fertiliser has been $2 per tonne. The bounties for ground-spread fertiliser and for fertiliser that was spread by the farmer have been abolished.

For lime, the original bounty of $2 per tonne when spread by a contractor and $1 per tonne when spread by a farmer remained unchanged until 1 June 1978, when it was abolished.

Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme—In June 1978, the Government introduced this scheme which was designed to create greater long-term confidence in the profitability of pastoral farming. The scheme established new minimum prices for meat, wool, and milkfat for the 1978–79 season. It has continued in force since then. It also guarantees that the supplementary minimum prices set at the beginning of each season will be at least maintained for the following season. The new “minimum prices” supplement those set under the stabilisation schemes that are operated by various producer boards. When market returns fall short of the set prices, the ‘support payments’ are met by the Government. The producer boards administer the scheme and are still responsible for the cost of any price- or market-support arrangements up to their own minimum prices.

The following table shows details of payments to farmers under the Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme.

 19791980198119821983*

* Agricultural Review Committee estimate.

† Year ended 30 June.

‡ Year ended 30 September.

§ Year ended 31 May.

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

 $(million)
Wool†1.4184.2210
Meat‡—
    Lamb93.9135
    Mutton8.712
    Beef1.953.325
Dairy§17.4

Other Items—Most of the remaining items are the Government's contribution toward the running costs of particular organisations (such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute), or have been introduced to deal with a specific problem (such as the eradication of brucellosis or of bovine tuberculosis) which is of importance to the whole community and would impose a serious burden on the small group directly affected.

Technological Developments in Agriculture—Current research and investigations being undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the DSIR are described in Section 7B, Science and Scientific Services.

Farm Machinery—The following table shows details of machinery employed on New Zealand farms at the time of the 1974, 1977 and 1980 surveys.

Type of Machine197419771980
Agricultural tractors95 28990 15292 349
Milking machines21 40818 91717 110
Shearing stands68 27170 62169 849
Pick-up balers12 99417 77013 488
Hay conditioners22 22328 53928 619
Harvesters—
    Forage5 2254 8614 964
    Header4 8284 4094 315
Electric fence units71 33668 38471 587
Field mowers42 72040 78740 376
Ploughs33 64630 71029 073
Disc harrows30 28852 49348 641
Cultivators21 48320 40221 664
Grain drills14 39113 57312 902
Spray irrigation plants4 9445 1195 639
Weed and crop sprayers31 64030 55629 105
Lime and fertiliser spreaders19 94620 50420 001
Potato planters1 174954943
Potato harvesters1 5071 3831 278
Grain silos or bins16 19319 42418 517
Grain capacity (tonnes)..722 943704 763
Effluent disposal units..7 3446 862
Water pumps..60 42360 695
Chainsaws..49 72157 785
Bikes..32 29938 345
Farm trucks32 96733 79835 266

CENSUS OF AGRICULTURAL CONTRACTING SERVICES 1979–80

The second Census of Agricultural Contracting Services was taken for the year 1979–80, and was the first fully integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in that activity.

The census formed part of the Department of Statistics' 5-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and for this reason any comparisons made with the restricted census carried out previously should be treated with caution.

In 1979–80 the agricultural contracting servicing industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

Farm and land improvement services

Livestock services

Cropping, etc., services

Topdressing and spraying services

Other agricultural contracting services.

The statistical tables which follow show summaries of these classifications. The definitions used in these tables are the same as listed for the Census of Manufacturing (see Section 18), with the following exceptions.

Establishments—Location addresses form the establishments for many of the one-man operations in the land and livestock industries; whilst operation addresses form the establishments of larger businesses in other contracting industries.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed, including working proprietors, in the establishments and ancillary units on 28 February 1980.

General Statistics

The following table gives the general summary of the results of the 1979–80 Census of Agricultural Contracting Services.

ItemUnitTotal
Establishments and ancillary unitsNo.2 570
Persons engaged at 28 February 1980, including working proprietorsNo.12 833
Salaries and wages paid$(000)55,331
Depreciation$(000)15,655
Purchases and other expenses$(000)96,124
Turnover$(000)204,304
Value added$(000)107,439
Capital expenditure less disposals$(000)28,184

In the following 2 tables, statistics are given at industry (sub-group) level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged At End of FebruarySalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
    $(000)
Land clearing2961 2643,143
Fencing and stockyard construction310533730
Drain-maintaining and clearing1864041,487
Other physical improvement of land1763821,659
Total, Physical improvement of land9682 5837,019
Herd testing, dipping, drenching, etc.8515795,171
Sheep shearing4224 39622,883
Other livestock contracting services172201,171
Total, Livestock contracting services52415 19529,225
Cultivation and planting1484271,227
Harvesting crops, hay and silage making4081 2612,064
Grain drying and seed dressing61188970
Other horticultural contracting services251 2971,201
Total, Horticultural contracting services6423 1735,462
Aviation topdressing6957077,580
Groundspread topdressing993001,561
Aviation spraying4512182,665
Groundspread spraying1804851,183
Total, Topdressing and spraying39361 71012,988
Other agricultural contracting services36172637
Total, Agricultural contracting services2 563712 83355,331
IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Land clearing2,5717,24916,8639,0803,569
Fencing and stockyard construction4221,9675,9654,003580
Drain-maintaining and clearing1,7205,11712,1127,0743,189
Other physical improvement of land7733,8577,9932,6465,984
       Total, Physical improvement of land5,48618,19042,93322,80313,323
Herd testing, dipping, drenching, etc.61510,29917,3587,3101,430
Sheep shearing5995,32635,02629,7791,127
Other livestock contracting services2787,01910,1613,330182
       Total, Livestock contracting services1,49122,64362,54640,4192,740
Cultivation and planting1,1053,8988,1594,1021,293
Harvesting crops, hay and silage making2,2686,49014,6598,2893,178
Grain drying and seed dressing4504,0046,6422,6511,073
       Other horticultural contracting services1361,5753,8042,399262
       Total, Horticultural contracting services3,96015,96833,26417,4415,807
Aviation topdressing1,83617,52529,36811,9973,053
Groundspread topdressing9735,53910,1464,8431,032
Aviation spraying9948,58412,7694,220681
Groundspread spraying6676,40110,6414,2751,101
       Total, Topdressing and spraying4,47138,05062,92325,3355,866
Other agricultural contracting services2481,2732,6371,441449
       Total, Agricultural contracting services15,65596,124204,304107,43928,184

Regional summaries of the census as a whole are shown in the 2 statistical area tables which follow.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged At End of FebruarySalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
    $(000
Northland17325622,415
Central Auckland15514461,908
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty48611 8188,509
East Coast854731,833
Hawke's Bay2601 2696,821
Taranaki1133892,235
Wellington37512 49010,322
       Total, North Island1 64757 44734,043
Marlborough452191,204
Nelson651 4021,646
Westland1864179
Canterbury40811 3857,404
Otago17619945,227
Southland2041 3225,628
         Total, South Island9162538621,288
         Total, New Zealand2 563712 83355,331
Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand
Northland8524,87010,2335,4011,220
Central Auckland7659,57714,7875,3651,029
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty3,06317,80336,18018,5884,883
East Coast5752,1326,7103,810883
Hawke's Bay1,1456,87119,08111,2371,542
Taranaki6494,4179,4284,7661,002
Wellington2,74417,62234,51019,6763,888
         Total, North Island9,79363,293130,92968,84414,446
Marlborough2681,1853,5431,926548
Nelson5733,0566,4673,528651
Westland2478321,644840575
Canterbury2,25714,21428,83614,1724,118
Otago1,0906,43315,3367,7433,587
Southland1,4287,11117,54710,3874,259
         Total, South Island5,86232,83173,37438,59513,738
         Total, New Zealand15,65596,124204,304107,43928,184

14 B—CROPS

New Zealand's requirements of temperate-zone fruits and berries are normally supplied from local orchards. In 1980–81, 36 000 tonnes of bananas, and 15 900 tonnes of oranges were imported to supplement the local crop of 6 000 tonnes.

The domestic market for horticultural produce is largely satisfied by local production, so emphasis is now on developing crops for export markets.

For many years, the pip fruits have been our major horticultural crop, but kiwifruit has recently replaced them as the single biggest export-earner. Kiwifruit production continues to increase rapidly as new plantings come into production. Most kiwifruit is grown in the Bay of Plenty, although large areas in Nelson, Gisborne, Northland, Auckland, and Hawke's Bay have also been planted.

Exports of berryfruit have also increased recently, especially blackcurrants, blueberries, and boysenberries.

Large areas of wine grapes have been planted, and the main areas in which they are grown (in order of importance) are Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, Auckland, and Waikato.

The commercial production of subtropical fruits is gaining popularity in the northern areas of the North Island, and kiwifruit, tamarillos, avocados, feijoas, and passionfruit are now being farmed.

Onions are New Zealand's biggest export-earning vegetable and rank third (after kiwifruit and pip fruits) as export earners.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent. The Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplies more than one-half of New Zealand's wheat yield, over one-third of the threshed oats, and over one-half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island and Southland have been growing higher proportions than previously of the wheat and the barley crops.

Maize growing is largely confined to certain parts of the East Coast (notably, Cook County) and to the South Auckland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty areas.

Peas for threshing are grown extensively in Canterbury (which produces three-quarters of the total yield) and, to a lesser extent, in Marlborough and Wellington. More than two-thirds of the area that is closed off for the production of grass seeds is also in the Canterbury district.

New Zealand's potato production is mainly centred on three areas—Pukekohe, near Auckland, which is relatively frost free, produces mainly early potatoes; the Manawatu-Opiki region (North Island) produces main-crop and some early potatoes; and Canterbury produces main-crop potatoes.

The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable share of its vegetable requirements, as well as being the North Island's main onion-growing area.

Wellington City draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts; while Ohakune (in the centre of the North Island), with a climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages, carrots, and broccoli, supplies them to both Auckland and Wellington.

Hastings, in Hawke's Bay, has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island, market gardening is carried on near the cities, on the rich soils near Christchurch, to the south of Oamaru, and on the Taieri Plains, just south of Dunedin. Nelson, too, produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. Citrus fruits are grown in warm areas of the North Island which have suitable soils (principally Kerikeri, Tauranga, and Gisborne). Increasing quantities of kiwifruit for local consumption and export, are being grown, particularly in the Bay of Plenty, but also in other areas of the North Island and in Nelson.

Grape growing is of importance in the Auckland area, in Hawke's Bay and Gisborne, and, more recently in Marlborough. Hop growing is concentrated in the Nelson district.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas of grain and peas threshed and of total yields by statistical areas are shown in the following table. This applies to the year ended 30 June 1981.

Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics issued by the Department of Statistics.

Statistical AreaWheatOats
Area ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal Yield
 hectarestonneshectarestonnes
Northland9212054
Central Auckland315
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1433762311 006
East Coast5101749
Hawke's Bay192838284885
Taranaki4381 5902596
Wellington5 55923 4245581 915
        North Island6 34926 2741 1354 005
Marlborough1 5456 818182470
Nelson4014842152
Westland141264
Canterbury45 485172 9165 49819 083
Otago9 03136 7981 8386 712
Southland18 79282 7653 86514 610
        South Island74 894299 44911 43741 091
        New Zealand81 243325 72312 57245 096

WHEAT—Control of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the New Zealand Wheat Board, which is also responsible for the distribution of flour and associated offal. The operations of this board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, bread bakers, the poultry industry, the grain seed and produce business, the Department of Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, with the Minister of Trade and Industry as chairman, and 1 person with no direct association with any of the above industries as deputy chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of grain merchants acting as brokers for the board. The board is responsible for the distribution of all imported wheat and its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat by flourmillers and the sale of the resultant flour and offal to merchants, bakers, pastry cooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand for flour and cereal foods approximates 320 000 tonnes. Wheat is also required for poultry foods and seed. Research is assisted by a levy on wheat and flour on the recommendation of the Wheat Research Committee.

MAIZES—Maize is principally grown on the east coast of the North Island, Hawke's Bay, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty. During the last decade the area threshed has greatly increased from 7138 hectares in 1969 to 22 287 hectares in 1980 (the 1981 figure showed a slight fall to 17 224 hectares). The introduction of improved hybrid maize varieties has considerably increased the yield of grain threshed. Maize is used as poultry feed and is becoming a more important feature of supplementary feed for pigs and other livestock.

BARLEY—Barley is used mainly in the manufacture of stock feeds, and for malting. The production of barley is increasing steadily, mainly because of the growing demand for stock feeds.

OATS—Most of the oats are grown for threshing and green feed and not for chaff. From the grain milled, rolled oats, oatmeal, and proprietary oaten foods are produced, along with feed for animals and fowls.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Wheat production fluctuates in keeping with price variations and imports are sometimes necessary.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders, other than grass and clover, hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

BarleyPeasMaize
Area ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal Yield
hectarestonneshectarestonneshectarestonnes
581815013 560
171622143042 491
1 1984 49151310 89198 700
2871 14713522 55722 730
1 8567 1473791 4241 08210 179
6412 60018542101 777
10 97943 5411 3414 8031 34810 489
15 19059 7291 7576 35016 893149 926
1 7997 0658942 6751671 031
5631 959642341461 053
412
37 925153 67913 08541 7291870
6 73326 4615421 646
5 16922 5414911 745
52 193211 71715 07648 0293312 154
67 383271 44616 83354 37917 224152 080

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

The following table shows the varieties of wheat, oats, barley, and peas threshed during the year ended 30 June 1981. It should be noted that some farms grow more than 1 variety of a crop and that if, for example, a farm grows 3 varieties of wheat it appears 3 times in the “Number of Farms” column. As a result, the aggregates of farms by individual varieties may exceed the totals of farms under particular crops.

VarietySumter of FarmsArea ThreshedTotal YieldAverage Yield Per HectarePercentage of Surveyed AreaPercentage of Total Yield
  hectarestonnestonnespercentpercent
Wheat— (000)(000)   
     Rongotea1 26520834.04925.0825.33
     Hilgendorf5377253.4229.147.80
     Arawa161283.5632.912.59
     Oroua6397304.0209.079.09
     Kopara88314563.95017.3517.10
     Takahe1 04319834.33823.6525.58
     Karamu6038313.9939.559.51
     Other2093103.6983.263.00
     Total5 340813264.009100.00100.00
Oats—
     Onward (Oware)310153.54011.5611.41
     Mapua (Makaru)1 1157253.63055.2355.89
     Taiko194144.0068.339.30
     Other white474263.48614.7914.37
     Other black244143.20910.109.04
     Total2 33713453.587100.00100.00
Barley—
     Mata5377294.02010.5510.53
     Hassan1 01311464.08116.7817.00
     Manapou2463113.8054.284.04
     Zephyr1 87923903.90134.3233.24
     Other2 17523964.16134.0735.19
     Total5 850672714.028100.00100.00
Peas—
     Field varieties—
     Maple3795152.92430.8027.88
     White172263.44210.1610.82
     Blue Boiling2764123.42521.1022.37
     Other183263.40111.2511.85
     Garden varieties4404153.27926.6927.09
     Total1 45017543.230100.00100.00
Maize—
     Total1 027171528.830100.00100.00

VEGETABLES—The following table shows vegetable production for the fresh market and for processing during the latest 3 seasons.

Vegetable197919801981
Fresh MarketFor ProcessingFresh MarketFor ProcessingFresh MarketFor Processing
* Does not include production in glasshouses.
    tonnes  
Asparagus427809463682655917
Beans: green*69513 57967210 2846648 207
Beans: broad1821 264191690153823
Beetroot1 1513 2001 1773 4209032 895
Brussel sprouts1 2503761 3823161 693370
Cabbage30 88574831 0721 44232 1861 167
Capsicums/peppers*346200315190312232
Carrots26 9136 95527 3137 79025 7162 576
Cauliflower (incl. broccoli)22 91875323 2011 05623 2302 542
Celery3 8291914 5892744 319153
Courgettes/zucchini88281 0341483342
Cucumbers*34544982369
Garlic1 0141 330962
Gherkins18820201569265
Kumara8 3918515 76810 301
Lettuce16 79617 89719 100
Leeks1 1111 3291 274320
Marrow219332350325
Melon: rock (cantaloupe)312378650
Melon: water1 5842 5064 386
Onions66 7452 28076 8172 33666 4162 458
Parsnips5 96513 8896 975
Peas37944 26331936 9631 05026 525
Pumpkin/squash18 2829019 75329 257125
Rhubarb321303543034430
Silverbeet1 1081 2981 242
Sprouting broccoli991917121011 083120
Sweet corn4 60531 9825 39432 3314 49431 932
Turnips: white102206286
Turnips: swede5 2082 8564 560
Tomatoes (outdoor)*8 27119 3019 52829 4549 52320 185
Source: Ministry of agriculture and Fisheries.

The major areas producing vegetables for processing are the alluvial plains around Hastings, Palmerston North, Gisborne, Christchurch, and Timaru. Onions and cabbages are the biggest crops, followed by sweetcorn, tomatoes, pumpkin/squash, and carrots.

The total net area of land devoted to the production of outdoor vegetables (excluding potatoes) during the October 1981 year was some 24 271 hectares. The aggregate area of the fresh-market crops was estimated at 11 673 hectares. An estimated 12 538 hectares were growing vegetable crops for processing.

For the June 1982 year, the principal fresh-vegetable exports were onions (48 031 tonnes), and potatoes (11 673 tonnes).

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet home market requirements. Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 3 million is now supplied from the same area as were 1¾ million people 30 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been the result of research, the introduction of new varieties, and better farming practice.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest available 5 years are as follows:

SeasonArea DugYieldYield per Hectare Dug
For TableFor ProcessingFor SeedFor Pig FoodTotal
 hectares  tonne   
1976–779 867193 45638 21727 97210 852270 49727.41
1977–789 285170 94035 86024 4066 085237 29125.56
1978–797 501146 49331 43619 5675 789203 28527.10
1979–807 626151 78232 80322 5996 373213 55728.00
1980–817 646148 47531 49821 7367 066208 77527.31
Source: Department of Statistics.

ONIONS—Approximately 85 percent of the onion crop is normally grown in the North Island, principally in the Pukekohe district. The following table shows the area and yield of onions for the latest available 5 seasons.

SeasonAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1976–771 75458 83033.54
1977–781 89361 44132.46
1978–792 12269 02532.53
1979–802 28979 15334.58
1980–812 13768 87432.23

GLASSHOUSES—The following table shows the area and yield of glasshouses (heated and cold) given over to the production of vegetables and grapes.

Vegetable or Fruit197919801981
AreaYieldAreaYieldAreaYield
 m2(000)tonnesm2(000)tonnesm2(000)tonne
Tomatoes1 112.021 153215.618 3061 218.318 266
Cucumbers and gherkins102.62 365110.92 027122.81 991
Beans26.88622.97330.584
Capsicums and peppers14.117113.510013.666
Grapes47.518151.121750.3221
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

LINSEED—Most of the linseed is grown under contract for the production of linseed oil. About 3500 hectares are sown each year. The oil is extracted mainly for use in paints, and the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food.

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates a seed certification scheme covering the more important herbage species, cereals, brassicas, and potatoes. Bred varieties of these species are produced by the Grasslands and the Crop Research Divisions of the DSIR. These are then reproduced under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which releases them as Breeder's seed which in turn produces Basic seed. The final stages in the multiplication of certified seed are known as 1st and 2nd Generation seeds. Basic and Certified seed, 1st and 2nd Generation, are sold through the usual commercial channels.

MACHINE-DRESSED SEED—The production of machine-dressed grass, clover, brassica, and other seed for the year ended 31 December 1982, compiled by the Department of Statistics, is set out in the following table together with the corresponding totals for the 3 previous years. The figures are taken from returns from seed dressing plants.

Type of Seed12 Months Ended 31 December
1979198019811982

* Prior to 1982 figure includes Ariki only.

† 1982 figure includes all white clovers.

‡ 1982 figure includes all red clovers.

 Kilograms (000)
Ryegrass—
    Hybrid*424295193942
    Italian ryegrass (including Western Wolths)1 297977408344
    Nui ryegrass2 5345 0675 63211 534
    Perennial ryegrass6 2725 4965 622
    Short rotation (H1) ryegrass1 441740860
    Tetraploid1 149930424369
    Ellett280336411
Other grasses—
    Browntop19317114674
    Chewings fescue2991712
    Cocksfoot582679676751
    Crested dogstail57855122088
    Prairie grass1111324235
    Timothy260266179132
    Yarrow8752
    Yorkshire fog6203723
Clovers—
    Broad red clover353427386...
    Lotus773864
    Mixed clovers4920033133
    Montgomery red clover195286353...
    Pawera red clover224379...
    Suckling clover17813152232
    White clover5 9565 5556 5384 855†
    Huia white clover
    Pitau white clover5343118
    Red clover.........458‡
Other—
    Lucerne87756994
    Kale347296218284
    Maize1 6731 3061 1081 474
Peas—
        Garden17 39218 31714 92311 963
        Field26 47624 85323 61121 872
    Rape163397561814
    Turnip9322057100

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of the Yearbook.

HORTICULTURAL LAND USE—The following data, supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, give an indication of the net areas of land devoted to the main horticultural crops in 1981.

 hectares
Outdoor vegetables (includes process crops, but not potatoes)24 377
Pip fruits6 676
Vineyards5 402
Kiwifruit7 645
Stone fruits2 734
Citrus fruits2 071
Berry fruits4 225
Other subtropical fruits971
Hops202

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Pip and stone fruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand, whereas citrus and subtropical fruits are largely confined to the coastal strip from North Auckland through the Bay of Plenty to Poverty Bay.

The following table compares the areas planted in various fruits in 1981 with the situation at the 1978 survey. The main producing areas for the various fruits are also given.

Fruit1978 Survey1981Main Districts
 hectares
Pip fruit—
    Apples5 5966 204Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
    Pears446472Hawke's Bay, Nelson.
Stone fruit—
    Apricots552588Otago.
    Cherries110128Otago, Marlborough.
    Nectarines364480Otago, Hawke's Bay.
    Peaches1 0311 179Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Otago.
    Plums341359Hawke's Bay, Auckland.
Citrus fruit—
    Grapefruit445395Bay of Plenty.
    Lemons114128Bay of Plenty.
    Mandarins278304Bay of Plenty, Northland.
    Oranges (sweet)519681Northland, Poverty Bay.
    Tangelos489563Bay of Plenty, Northland, Poverty Bay.
Subtropical fruit—
    Kiwifruit2 1957 645Bay of Plenty.
    Passionfruit3154Bay of Plenty.
    Tamarillos225439Northland, Bay of Plenty.
    Avocados126321Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay.
    Feijoas70157Bay of Plenty.

Fruit Crop Disposal—Estimated production and methods of disposal of the various tree-fruit crops in 1981 are shown in the following table, as well as provisional production from the 1982 crop. These 1981 figures replace earlier estimates shown in the previous Yearbook.

Fruit19811982
DisposalTotal ProductionTotal Production (provisional)
Export (fresh)Local Market (fresh)Processing
   tonnes  
Pip fruits—
    Apples94 08384 64663 302242 031225 898
    Pears2 1859 8616 97019 01617 758
Stone fruits—
    Apricots314 0572 4506 5386 583
    Cherries4764359749726
    Nectarines2494 839365 1245 402
    Peaches1518 0249 71317 88819 328
    Plums323 1149014 0474 060
Citrus fruits—
    Grapefruit1733 4804 0787 7316 714
    Lemons2442 0131 9454 2022 541
    Mandarins414 351..4 3924 084
    Oranges207 2077167 9437 564
    Tangelos1486 0691 0167 2337 203
Subtropical fruits—
    Avocados9221..230423
    Feijoas740469480545
    Kiwifruit20 2015 7332 85428 78821 000
    Passionfruit456961175188
    Tamarillos492 088392 1762 270

BERRYFRUITS—Berryfruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand.

The following table sets out the estimated net areas occupied by the various berryfruits during 1980 and 1981. The main producing areas for each of them are also listed.

FruitYearMain Districts
19801981
 hectare 
Black currants1 3681 449Otago-Southland, Canterbury.
Blueberries13025Waikato.
Boysenberries713714Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
Brambles (other than those listed)159163Waikato, Nelson.
Gooseberries3037Horowhenua, Wairarapa.
Raspberries324400Nelson, Canterbury.
Strawberries287298Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury.
Total (all kinds)3 0113 086 

The estimated production and disposal figures for the 1981 berryfruit crop and provisional production for the 1982 crop are set out in the following table.

Fruit19811982
DisposalTotal Production (Provisional)
Market (fresh)ProcessingTotal Production
 tonnes
Black currants751 1581 2332 347
Boysenberries8092 9713 7804 552
Brambles (other than those listed)2835097921 099
Gooseberries2593446
Raspberries5269851 5111 744
Blueberries2943350
Strawberries3 1989614 1594 352
    Total (all kinds)4 9456 59711 54214 190

Fresh-berryfruit exports for the June 1982 year amounted to 903 tonnes, of which strawberries accounted for 759 tonnes.

GRAPE GROWING AND WINE PRODUCTION—The net area of the vineyards throughout New Zealand as at October 1981 was 5344 hectares. The main grape-growing areas are Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Auckland.

In the following table the figures of wine production and sales are based on an annual census of New Zealand winemakers licensed under the Sale of Liquor Act 1962 and producing fruit-wine or grape-wine during the current June year.

During the year ended 30 June 1981, there were 124 grape-wine licence holders and 21 fruit-wine licence holders.

New wine put down during 1981–82 season increased from 44.0 million litres the previous year to 47.0 million litres, a 6.8 percent rise. Disposals decreased by 10.3 percent.

ItemYear ended June
19801981x1982
* Differences between closing stocks one year and opening stocks the next are caused by changes in the numbers of licence holders operating.
 litres(000
Winery stocks at start of season*54 36355 11650 709
Production during season46 64744 05847 002
Disposals during season40 75043 18038 711
Winery stocks at end of season*55 13753 20857 187
Losses during season, samples, spillages, own consumption, etc.5 1252 7871 812

For the 1981–82 season, data on grape wines by type were collected for the first time. These are shown in the following table.

Grape WinesYear ended June 1982
ProductionSales

* Includes cocktails and liqueurs.

Source: Department of Statistics.

 litres (000)
Table wines—
    White still27 38820 538
    Red and rose still3 3962 767
    Sparkling5 6404 745
        Total table wines36 42428 049
Fortified wines*10 57710 662
        Total wines47 00238 711
 At 1 July 1981At 30 June 1982
Winemakers stocks—
    Table wines35 45944 034
    Fortified wines*15 25113 153
        Total50 70957 187

The area of table grapes under glass in 1981 was approximately 50 300 square metres, with an estimated production of 221 tonnes. As in 1980–81, the 1981–82 exports of fresh glasshouse grapes, mainly to Japan, amounted to about 10 tonnes, with an f.o.b. value of over $45,000. There is a small but growing export trade in New Zealand wine. Exports in 1981–82 amounted to approximately 523 000 litres, almost 9 percent less than the 580 000 litres of 1980–81.

APPLES AND PEARS—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board appears in Section 21. Over 700 orchardists consistently sell apples and pears to the board. Over 80 percent of the total crop received comes from Nelson and Hawke's Bay.

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of fresh apples and pears received by districts by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board during the 1981–82 season.

VarietyHawke's BayNelsonOther DistrictsTotal
 cartons (000)
Apples—
    Granny Smith2 101.31 024.6430.23 556.1
    Sturmer Pippin227.5566.4173.4967.3
    Golden Delicious258.6543.9148.0950.5
    Red Delicious1 029.6402.7204.51 636.8
    Cox's Orange Pippin91.8499.197.0687.9
    Other977.5859.4443.42 280.3
        Total apples4 686.33 896.11 496.510 078.9
Pears—
    Packham's Triumph51.178.211.1140.4
    Winter Cole62.242.110.2114.5
    Winter Nelis61.913.030.0104.9
    Other53.836.125.4115.3
        Total pears229.0169.476.7475.1

HOPS—The whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County in Nelson and all the requirements of hops for New Zealand are produced. Production per hectare usually ranges between 1600 kilograms and 2000 kilograms.

The total crop produced in the 1982 season was 422 980 kilograms. About 99 percent of the crop is picked by machines. Hop gardens in production covered 201.66 hectares in 1982, an increase of 16.4 hectares on the previous acreage. The yield for the 1982 season averaged 2097 kilograms per hectare. A total of 194 205 kilograms of hops was exported to West Germany. The balance was used in this country.

A Hop Marketing Committee of 6 members (one Government and 5 producers) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing, either locally or overseas, of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, burley, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 3650 tonnes of raw tobacco leaf was imported during 1975–76, 3500 tonnes during 1976–77, 4320 tonnes during 1977–78, 2657 tonnes during 1978–79, 3483 tonnes during 1979–80, and 3410 tonnes during 1980–81 and 3555 tonnes during 1981–82.

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea Planted*ProductionEstimated Value of Crop

* Contract area amended after planting operations completed.

† Area not measured in 1981–82.

  hectareskg(000)$(000)
1977–783091 895x3 55912,314
1978–79301x1 7183 750x14,340
1979–802691 5133 25013,604
1980–812371 0272 29010,148
1981–821221 5307,350

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 98.4 percent and burley leaf for 1.6 percent of the 1981–82 crop.

Approximately half the tobacco used by New Zealand manufacturers in the production of cigarettes and cut tobacco is New Zealand grown. The actual average percentages used during recent years ended 30 June has been as follows: 1971, 49.3 percent; 1972, 49.1 percent; 1973, 49.2 percent; 1974, 48.3 percent; 1975, 47.1 percent; 1976, 45.9 percent; 1977, 44.2 percent; 1978, 41.6 percent; 1979, 44.7 percent; 1980, 44.8 percent; 1981, 44.7 percent; and 1982, 42.6 percent.

14 C—LIVESTOCK

Agriculture is a major industry upon which much of New Zealand's prosperity depends. It has the capacity to expand provided circumstances are favourable for development. The lines of development are influenced by overseas prices received for farm products in the form of meat, wool, butter, cheese, milk powder, casein, etc. Although there is a time-lag associated with livestock breeding, the livestock numbers are an indication of the response of farmers to financial incentives, although weather factors, such as drought, are also involved.

Livestock numbers over a 50-year period are shown in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

New Zealand has more than 20 times as many sheep as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry 2½ cows to the hectare, and the best sheep farms can support up to 25 sheep to the hectare throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761 700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9 700 000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure but Merino crosses are now restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country, and crossbreeds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels.

In 1851 there were 193 000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1 138 000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb farming respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300 000 dairy cows by 1897, 185 000 of them in the North Island and 115 000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than 12 times as many dairy cows as the South Island. The slowdown in the rate of increase in sheep numbers and the decline in the beef cattle herd reflect the impact of less favourable climatic conditions in recent seasons, uncertainty over market prospects and declining real net incomes. These factors result in lower levels of on-farm investment, and a reduction in the rate of expansion of livestock numbers.

Over the six years to June 1981 sheep numbers increased by about 4 percent per annum. In the year to June 1982 sheep numbers increased by only 0.7 percent to 70.4 million, and are forecast to increase by 1.4 percent to 71.4 million over the year to June 1983.

Beef numbers have continued to decline, a trend first evident in 1976, and at 30 June 1982 total beef cattle were estimated at 5 million compared to 6.3 million in 1975. A further decline to 4.8 million is forecast over the year to June 1983.

In the following table, livestock numbers are shown by farm-type category as at 30 June 1981.

Farm Type*Beef CattleDairy CattleSheepPigs

* 75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

† From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

‖ Broiler chicken production units included in “other farming”.

 (thousand
Dairy farming: factory supply*1122 19923120
Dairy farming: town milk supply*16241271
Sheep farming*1 3462140 44410
Beef fanning*739164313
Pig farming*4328233
Cropping*512621
Dairy farming with sheep†1656275
Dairy farming with beef†65114583
Dairy farming with other†10815515
Sheep farming with dairy†711178
Sheep farming with beef†1 800918 2624
Sheep farming with cropping†2412 3142
Sheep farming with other†3149096
Beef farming with dairy†24154
Beef farming with sheep†36541 6221
Beef farming with other†334252
Cropping with sheep†77782
Cropping with other†82363
Pig farming with other†462858
Horse breeding§7126
Mixed livestock‡4421223 32047
Poultry farming§‖33273
Market gardening and flowers§1321201
Orchards§51691
Tobacco growing§226
Other farming‖2553285
    Total, all farm types5 1132 92269 883420

Figures as at 30 June 1981 gave a total of 5 113 419 for beef cattle (of which, breeding cows and heifers totalled 1 782 193 compared with 1 879 193 the previous year), and a total of 2 922 049 for dairy cattle, of which 1 976 057 (compared with 1,999 227 the previous year) were dairy cows in milk.

The 1981 figures showed a 0.9 percent decrease in beef cattle, and a 1.6 percent decrease in dairy cattle. The beef cattle herd has been increasingly supplemented in recent years by dairy-bred cattle reared for beef production, as indicated by the declining calf kill.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island which, in 1981, had 83 percent of the total cattle and 92 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 65 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

If the number of beef breeding cows 2 years old and over are taken as a guide to beef production, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with 34 percent of the New Zealand total between them. Northland is next, followed by Hawke's Bay and East Coast in that order. These 5 districts together pasture 69 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 42 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 22 percent. The number of pigs kept in the Nelson and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 22 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. In recent decades tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline but major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Otago, Southland, and Hawke's Bay in that order. These 6 districts accounted for 84 percent of the total sheep population in 1981.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 30 June 1981.

Statistical AreaDairy CattleBeef CattleSheepPigs
 (000)
Northland3276472 31212
Central Auckland2212561 10048
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1 3651 14210 039118
East Coast44052 9533
Hawke's Bay485887 8669
Taranaki4841881 72137
Wellington24877511 00057
    North Island2 6984 00036 942282
Marlborough201101 64018
Nelson57851 00913
Westland33652591
Canterbury6234412 16178
Otago293028 99616
Southland242078 82613
    South Island2251 11332 892138
    New Zealand2 9225 11369 884420

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics, published by the Department of Statistics.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesOther SheepHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe

* Includes dry ewes.

† Included with wether hoggets.

 (thousand)
19778771 405*42 7823141 98911 73859 105
19789542 166*44 5153452 36311 82162 163
197993746 1083423 25812 88063 523
19809581 14448 2451 0994602 90513 96068 772
19819931 58250 0594212 84413 98569 884

Data on sheep breeds collected in 1979 indicate that, of the 63.5 million sheep in New Zealand at the end of June 1979, 28.4 million (44.6 percent) were Romneys, 11.4 million (17.9 percent) were Perendale, 11.3 million (17.8 percent) were Coopworth, 5 million (7.9 percent) were Corriedale, 3.7 million (5.8 percent) were Merino and half-bred, and 3.8 million (6 percent) were other breeds. Sheep breed data are collected every 5 years.

In the 1978 Budget the Government announced a livestock subsidy scheme of 50c per head for sheep and this could be reflected in the returns for that year.

The following table shows numbers of flocks by size of flock.

Size of Flock19771978197919801981*
* Up to 1979, official sheep statistics were derived from Sheep Returns (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries). Thereafter, official statistics were taken from the annual June Census of Farm statistics (Department of Statistics).
1–994 6665 4844 7588 8088 926
100–1991 9052 2112 1542 6042 517
200–4993 5703 8063 7764 0873 996
500–9994 2804 2433 9763 7743 702
1 000–1 4994 3094 1143 9623 5243 400
1 500–1 9994 4364 2924 0933 8113 638
2 000–2 4993 4643 6943 6333 5183 474
2 500–4 9995 9246 3596 5257 2197 329
5 000–9 9991 4591 5971 7332 1082 137
10 000 and over283318356456522
    Total flocks34 29636 11834 96639 90939 641
Average flock size1 7231 7211 8161 7231 763

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle at 30 June of the 3 latest available years are given by categories in the following table.

Category197919801981

* Heifers not vet in milk, and cows not in milk during season but intended to be used again for dairying.

† Includes bobby calves.

‡ Includes cows culled from dairy herds (17 518 in 1979, 20 520 in 1980 and 19 870 in 1981).

Dairy stock—
    Cows and heifers, 2 years old and over—
    Cows in milk or calf2 001 8551 999 2271 976 057
    Others*36 62849 43957 179
    Heifers—
    One and under 2 years old432 330453 618435 092
    Under 1 year old372 642400 902394 809
    Bulls and bull calves intended for dairy breeding53 36457 31956 996
    Total dairy stock2 900 0892 968 9532 922 049
Beef stock—
Breeding cows and heifers, 2 years old and over1 655 6631 688 3581 623 677
Cows, 2 years old and over, not used for breeding183 733172 183163 603
Heifers—
One and under 2 years old589 989583 356552 504
Under 1 year old620 555625 363644 611
Steers, bulls of all ages, and other beef cattle2 054 8582 072 4812 109 154
    Total beef stock5 122 3165 162 2615 113 419
    Total cattle8 022 4058 131 2148 035 468

PIGS—Pig numbers fell in the late sixties as farmers began increasingly to supply whole milk to dairy factories instead of separating off the skim milk, which was frequently used to feed pigs. There was increased emphasis on grain-feeding, and a significant increase in pig numbers in the grain-producing areas of the South Island. After falling throughout the first half of the present decade, pig numbers showed a small increase in 1976 and a very substantial increase in 1977, which was followed by further falls during the latest 4 years.

At 30 JuneBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
197760 809424 152484 961
197855 686415 613471 299
197951 761391 691443 452
198052 147381 937434 084
198149 495370 764420 259

DEER—A type of livestock farming which is of growing importance is deer-farming. Venison finds a ready overseas market and almost all the meat produced is exported. (In 1981–82 venison exports totalled 1248 tonnes valued at $6.6 million. The principal markets were the German Federal Republic, which took over three-quarters of the export total, followed by Switzerland, and the United States.) Because wild deer are a noxious animal, deer farming is controlled by the New Zealand Forest Service, and all farms have to be approved and registered. Deer farming is generally permitted in most regions, but some species may be farmed only in specified areas.

The first deer-farm licence was issued in March 1970. By December 1982 some 2000 properties holding 180 000 deer were involved. Red deer are the predominant farm species.

GOATS—In the 1970s there was a marked increase in the number of goats being farmed commercially in New Zealand for their milk, mohair, and meat production, as well as for weed control. It is estimated that at present there are about 360 000 feral does and about 30 000 farmed does being used for weed control and meat production. In addition, there are probably about 7000 does being milked commercially for the production of goat-milk powder, and another 2500 Angora goats being farmed for their mohair.

OPOSSUMS—Export of feral opossum pelts earned $13.5 million in 1981–82. As with deer farming, there is a large indigenous population from which to establish a commercial opossum-farming industry. A systematic organisation of the industry will result in consistency of supply, improved fur quality, and superior matching characteristics of furs. Heritability of fur characteristics, breeding performance, management, housing, nutrition, and other matters of concern to a potential opossum-fur industry are being studied in an experimental opossum farm which has been set up at Ruakura Animal Research Station.

At 31 January 1983, a total of 53 permits had been issued for opossum farming.

POULTRY—Data on commercial poultry production derived from the annual Census of Agriculture carried out by the Department of Statistics are shown in the following table. Flocks of less than 25 birds are excluded.

At 30 JuneHens and Pullets For Egg ProductionHens and Cockerels For Breeding*Chickens For MealDucks, Turkeys, and Other PoultryTotal Poultry
* Until 1979, cockerels for breeding only.
19793 921 53245 7082 448 959225 4576 641 656
19803 681 006227 4892 515 804204 3766 628 675
19813 889 707196 1303 147 079419 4217 652 337

As at 30 June 1982 there were. 445 poultry farmers licensed to run more than 100 birds. Farms comprising 100 birds or less are exempt from having to have a licence.

The following table shows registered poultry flocks in 1981–82 by flock size and the number of birds.

Flock Size (Birds)Number of RunsNumber of Birds
101–1 0007256 459
1 001–5 000134484 645
Over 5 0002393 020 467
    Total4453 561 571

Until December 1980 occupiers of poultry farms had to register their farms under the Poultry Board Act 1976 but, with the introduction of the Poultry Board Act 1980 which came into effect on 1 January 1981, registration no longer applied.

Eggs—The commercial groups sell most of their eggs through licensed egg marketing agents and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Tauranga, Christchurch, and Oamaru. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp and dried powder surplus to local requirements are exported.

The following table shows eggs handled by licensed distributors for years ended 30 June.

YearEggs
 doz(m)
1976–7756.1
1977–7851.8
1978–7950.7
1979–8048.9
1980–8151.3
1981–825***5

Table Poultry—The Poultry Board has continued to maintain a close liaison with the New Zealand Poultry Processors' Association (Inc.), an active organisation comprising the majority of processors of all types of poultry for table meat consumption. The main basis of concern to the board in this area has been that of ensuring and maintaining an economic outlet for the egg producing industry's by-product— the roasting fowl—some 3 million hens that have completed their 13–15-month laying cycle.

The continuing expansion throughout New Zealand of various “takeaway” retail establishments has been a notable feature of the table poultry industry in very recent years, and has had a vast influence on the changing eating habits of the country's population. It is estimated that over 60 percent of all meat chicken marketed are sold through these increasingly popular outlets, and it is difficult to foresee any slowdown in these activities while red meats are inclined to become a less competitive source of foodstuff.

Production of meat chicken during the year ended September 1982 totalled 11 745 tonnes of fresh meat and 24 548 tonnes of frozen meat.

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some of its bush areas are favourable for apiculture and produce high-grade honey. Although clover is still the principal type, a number of other New Zealand native honey sources do have wide national and international consumer appeal. Honeydew honey, for example, which is produced from the beech forests of the northern half of the South Island, offers considerable export possibilities.

New Zealand's average honey production is approximately 7000 tonnes, but significant variations in the amount take place from year to year. About 2000 tonnes are exported annually. Traditionally this has been in bulk form, but equal quantities of cut comb and of extracted retail-pack honey are now being exported as well.

Approximately 120 tonnes of cappings wax are produced annually, and the industry's other products include pollen and queen bees (many thousands of which are now exported).

There is also a rapidly increasing demand for bees for pollination. More than 14 000 colonies were transported in 1982 specifically for the purpose of orchard pollination (mainly for kiwifruit and blackcurrants).

The following table gives a summary of registrations under the Apiaries Act 1969 at 31 May 1982.

GroupHives
1–56–5051–250251–500501–10001000+Total
Beekeepers4 1211 4472538582546 042
Apiaries4 5453 2102 2732 0413 3935 37520 837
Hives established9 01021 23928 20230 90359 605102 118251 077

Fewer than 200 beekeepers are completely dependent on honey production and bee-keeping for their livelihood.

FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE FARMING INDUSTRY—There are numerous publications dealing with aspects of the farming industry and only a selection can be given here.

Report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Parl. paper C. 5).

N.Z. Horticulture Statistics—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Annual).

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Sheep Returns (Parl. paper C. 5a).

Agricultural Statistics—Department of Statistics (Annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Economic Review of New Zealand Agriculture—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (1978).

N.Z. Fertiliser Statistics—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Annual).

Productivity Statistics of New Zealand Agriculture, 1960–1975—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Annual Reports of Producer Boards, (N.Z. Wool Board, N.Z. Dairy Board, N.Z. Meat Producers

Board, N.Z. Milk Board, N.Z. Potato Board, Wheat Board, Tobacco Board, N.Z. Honey Marketing

Authority, N.Z. Poultry Board, N.Z. Apple and Pear Marketing Board, etc.).

The Future for New Zealand Agriculture—N.Z. Planning Council (published by Fourth Estate Books).

The N.Z. Meat Producer—N.Z. Meat Producers Board (monthly).

Dairy Industry: Information at a Glance—N.Z. Dairy Board (Annual).

N.Z. Pork Industry Council (Annual Report).

Chapter 15. Section 15; FORESTRY

Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the country, the remaining third being the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky high country above 1100–1400 metres. Because of the abundance, use of timber during the early days of European settlement was wasteful, and in clearing land for farms large areas of forest were felled and burnt, often going well beyond the limits now considered desirable by extending into steep terrain unsuited to development. Not until towards the end of the nineteenth century was the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds recognised.

Today, in addition to forest set aside in national parks, about 4 million hectares of land valuable either for timber production, recreation, or forest growth vital to soil and water conservation have been constituted State forest, and there is also a large private forest estate. Resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in 25–30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land.

Type of LandAreaPercentage of Total Area
 hectares (million) 
Total forested land7.226.8
Pasture and arable land14.453.6
Other non-forested land4.918.1
Minor islands0.10.4
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.31.1
    Total area of New Zealand26.9100.0

FORESTS TODAY—About three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation. The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 6.2 million hectares of indigenous forests only about a million hectares are merchantable by today's standards. Greatly increased use of exotic timber has enabled the rate of cutting in State indigenous forests to be reduced, allowing emphasis to be placed on the management of indigenous forests for sustained wood yield or as reserved natural stands. A lower cutting level is also evident in privately-owned indigenous forests.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, about half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are about 939 000 hectares of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap undeveloped land at that time. The output of timber from the exotic forests greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests.

The exotic conifers, particularly radiata pine, have high growth rates, ease of establishment and ease of re-establishment on cut-over areas, and they produce wood that has many uses. Plantings of such trees are being extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of forest land is shown in the table below.

Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
 hectares (thousand
State forest2 9935053 498
National parks and reserves1 5501 550
Unoccupied Crown land361361
Other tenures1 3424341 776
    Total6 2469397 185

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp/broad-leaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many subgroups and transition zones.

Podocarp/broad-leaved forests are found at all latitudes in the 3 main islands, more particularly those of the north and of the warm wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Ureweras, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. However, large portions of the forests in these regions were recently set apart as ecological reserves and in a national park. The residual production areas will be managed for low levels of cutting only. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, some of which may be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii). Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and scattered widely over the South Island although concentrated largely on the West Coast, where they have been largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broad-leaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) in the North Island and western Nelson.

Kauri forests are found in the north of the North Island. In them, kauri (Agathis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp/broad-leaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire, and only limited stands now remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from some localities where their presence might be expected, e.g., Mt. Egmont, the region 160 km south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, these forests are protection forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management or replacement by fast-growing exotics.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement, limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides) between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests—Introduced conifers form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme multi-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching saw-log size in 25–30 years), produces a large volume of usable wood, and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa). In recent years, planting of the last two species has declined because they have proved less versatile and slower growing than radiata pine.

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island, but medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about three-quarters of the area of State plantations and about 95 percent of private plantations.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the New Zealand Forest Service are directed towards protecting, conserving, and perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country, and creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Spreading awareness among the general public of the human and physical environment has brought the management of the remaining indigenous forests under critical examination. In 1976 a new policy covering State indigenous forests was approved by Government. It provides principles to guide the future use and management of these forests, giving due regard to sound forestry practices, the wishes of the public, and social and economic welfare on a regional and national basis. To manage forest land on the basis of balanced use, dominant forest values (whether they are of protection, amenity, production, or otherwise) must be identified and defined. Recognising forest zones is a sound basis for reconciling numerous objectives. The values identified first in forest zoning are soil and water conservation and biological significance. Scenic appeal, potential for recreation, and wood production values are considered subsequently. This policy was given specific effect in 1978 with the release by the Government of more detailed policies covering the two most important remaining indigenous forest regions—the West Coast, and the Central North Island—and these have been followed by detailed management plans for both regions. In both instances, reductions in allowable cut have been made to provide for ecological reserves and management of the productive forests on a sustained or long-term periodic-yield basis.

Exotic special purpose species have been evaluated and these are planted on suitable sites. Uses for these timbers are furniture, cabinet work, turnery, joinery, veneer, and boat-building.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber.

The ecology of the natural forest associations and the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate. Selective logging of terrace rimu forests in south Westland provides a favourable forest environment for the regeneration and growth of rimu. A sustained-yield policy, based on experience of both large-scale operations and selective logging trials, has been developed for central North Island forests. The policy allows mature trees, which are likely to die and decay within a few decades, to be identified and carefully harvested. The forest's natural regeneration is enriched by planting native seedlings.

In many districts, forests of mixed podocarps and tawa have been logged for rimu, leaving tawa behind. Recently, however, tawa has been found useful as a hardwood pulp and, in the Bay of Plenty, wood unsuitable for saw logs is being used for this purpose. Studies on the long term management potential for sawlog production are being made in tawa forests.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. Management of them has the objective of perpetuating kauri as a species in the interests of science and public enjoyment, in natural stands and as managed forests. Large representative areas of mature and immature kauri have been set aside as sanctuaries, programmes of research and artificial establishment intensified, and the annual cut reduced to the lowest level consistent with economic, social, and legal constraints.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce saw logs in 100–130 years. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of young forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer and other feral animals, the browsing of which may check or even prevent effective regeneration, and difficulties associated with the utilisation of the non-sawlog component of the forest crop.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 19 000 hectares had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 150 000 hectares being planted by the State and 120 000 hectares by commercial companies. After the boom period, planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of new planting by the State has increased considerably since 1961, and since 1974 has averaged some 20 452 hectares per annum, over 5 times the rate achieved in 1961. Private sector afforestation continues at a high rate, with 21 000 hectares planted in 1982.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply markets both in New Zealand and overseas. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply nearly 93 percent of the total wood production.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective—the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land and the establishment of exotic production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass and lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Eight schemes are in operation—at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Tainui-Kawhia, Waitarere, Santoft, and Pouto—embracing around 60 000 hectares. A further 1487 hectares were planted in 1981, bringing the total stocked area of protection forest to almost 32 000 hectares.

A most successful co-operative venture is under way in two Northland localities, where the Crown has leased large areas of Maori-owned coastal sand dunes (adjacent to Aupouri and Woodhill forests) for stabilisation and afforestation.

Stabilisation of Eroding Farmlands—A consequence of past forest clearing for farm land on some unsuitably steep areas has been accelerated water run-off and erosion. Widespread landslipping, aggradation of riverbeds, and subsequent flooding have been sufficiently severe to require remedial works in which reafforestation plays a major part. Afforestation commenced in the East Coast-Poverty Bay area in 1962 following detailed land use studies. To date, 21 000 hectares have been established in critical headwater areas. Carefully managed, these can fulfil a productive role for timber supply and also maintain a protective cover.

Afforestation of Maori Land—In addition to the two areas of Maori-owned coastal sand country mentioned above, the Crown has also leased 14 other areas of Maori land for co-operative forestry ventures. These total 77 000 hectares, of which 25 000 hectares have been planted to date.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and alpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand. Many rivers that bring water to low-lying farmlands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy rain and are mostly formed of rock that erodes easily when exposed to rain, wind, and frost. The blanket of montane vegetation protects the thin soil layer and stabilises rocky slopes. This prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river-training works and a good cover of vegetation on catchments to ensure the most stable stream flow possible.

Browsing animals that were introduced into the forest and mountain lands many years ago (and, in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate, multiplied excessively) are the major threat to the continued protective function of the vegetation of these areas. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of the numbers of these animals to a level that will allow an adequate vegetative cover to grow and persist.

Techniques to assess the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control are undertaken by the Forest Service and other agencies in support of management of protective forest lands.

Recreation in State Forests—Over 1.6 million hectares of State forest is set aside in 19 forest parks which, although mainly protection forests, provide scope for recreation. In addition, a further 111 892 hectares of State forest land has been set apart in 19 recreation areas and another 1.4 million hectares have been gazetted open indigenous forest to enable public entry without permit except when carrying a firearm.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for recreation in surroundings of great natural beauty—for study of plant and animal life; for challenging tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation and recreational use can be allowed in almost all such forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting, for instance, can be of benefit in destroying wild animal pests. Six recreational hunting areas have been gazetted and several more areas are in the process of being established. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts. Entry on foot is unrestricted except that, in the interests of public safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

The older exotic forests, two of which are forest parks, also offer attractions and have the advantage of accessibility. In many there are walks and picnic spots for the public, and selected areas are reserved from felling for their scenic value.

Conservation and Protection of Scientific Values—There are 14 sanctuaries (16 300 ha) created to preserve indigenous flora and fauna in their natural state for their scientific values. The basic aim in administering forest sanctuaries is that natural processes dominate management, no plants may be taken or destroyed, no leases or privileges over the land or over the forest produce can be assigned, and public use is restricted whenever entry is likely to affect the value for which the sanctuary was created.

There are 59 dedicated areas, totalling 99 297 hectares, set apart for the purposes of protection and maintenance of the land for specific purposes. Dedicated areas are State forest land which have some special natural value or management objective which needs to be protected. Many are ecological areas set apart as being representative of regional forest ecosystems.

Safeguarding Forests and Timber: Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire resistant but can become fire-risks in drought conditions. Without doubt, however, the major risk occurs in the plantations of exotic conifers.

The fire-protection organisation of the New Zealand Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, national parks, and all other State areas. The Forest Service also gives support to other rural fire authorities, particularly those with high country fire hazards. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the department has fire-fighting responsibilities, and well-equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required, and aerial fire-fighting in the form of helicopters fitted with special monsoon buckets, has been adopted to deal with fire outbreaks. When weather or other conditions may lead to the start of forest or rural fires and endanger life and property, the Forest Service may issue a warning of fire hazard conditions, impose a total ban on lighting fires in the open, and take charge of an area so endangered by declaring a regional fire emergency. Fire danger ratings are assessed by the use of the Fire Weather Index, a system adapted from Canada and put into effect in New Zealand for the 1980–81 fire season The Forest Service also has infrared equipment which can detect hidden hot spots when used from either a helicopter or ground vehicle. Once hot spots are found, following fires or controlled burns, they are dealt with by ground crews, thus preventing the sudden reactivation of fires.

The Forest and Rural Fires Act and Regulations, which became law on 1 April 1979, provides for a nationwide fire control system (involving all fire authorities), affords private forest owners the opportunity for protection identical with State areas, and sets up a mediator to deal immediately with any controversy.

Wild Animals— Under the Wild Animal Control Act 1977 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, thar, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On some pastoral land, control of opossums and wallabies comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the growth of trees and ground cover in production as well as in protection forests. The forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by deer and goats, while the upper storey is adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Control of Insects and Disease—In conjunction with private enterprise, the New Zealand Forest Service has organised joint spraying operations to control the pine needle blight Dothistroma pini. Aerial spraying of a copper fungicide is an effective means of dealing with the disease. Increasing research is being directed towards the debilitating effect of Swiss needle cast (Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) on the growth of Douglas fir.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute maintain a constant watch on forests, woodlots, and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken. Much information is accumulated to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden manufactured items, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—More money is spent on establishing and tending State forests than is obtained in revenue from these forests. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry is met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests, which is financed from national development loans.

The sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82
* Expenditure and receipts now recorded in Consolidated Account.
 $(thousand)
Consolidated Account expenditure10,602133,301152,835193,877236,084
    Less receipts14259,90877,754101,501111,262
    Required from Consolidated Account10,46073,39375,08192,376124,822
Works and Trading Account expenditure109,090-*-*-*-*
Less receipts57,327-*-*-*-*
Loan moneys required51,763-*-*-*-*
Net finance required from Government funds62,22373,39375,08192,376124,822

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Private Forest Estate—Exotic forest holdings other than State forests amount to 434 000 hectares.

Forestry Incentives—In 1981, 7225 hectares of new planting was carried out under the Government's forestry encouragement loans scheme (for local authorities) or forestry encouragement grants scheme (for individuals, trusts and partnerships, and small companies). Also, 9041 hectares of established planting was pruned and thinned under both schemes. The total area planted since the schemes' inception now totals 80 207 hectares.

As an added incentive, standing trees do not incur land tax, death duties, or local body rates. However income tax concessions to forest companies are no longer available.

Extension Services—In addition to the financial assistance provided under the encouragement schemes, the Forest Service also provides guidance in all plantation matters. Because of the high interest in private forestry, increasing emphasis is being given to providing information and training services. Handbooks are available, a correspondence course is offered through the Technical Correspondence Institute, and short residential courses are held periodically.

Farm forestry associations also assist in promoting the schemes and advising on the management of woodlots.

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood—By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 1 700 000 cubic metres per annum of roundwood cut for industrial use, some 280 000 cubic metres came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total annual removals of roundwood had increased to 2 300 000 cubic metres, with 820 000 cubic metres from the exotic forests. The exotic forests are now by far the more important source of wood. In 1982 they supplied 9 026 000 cubic metres, or 95 percent of the total supply from exotic and indigenous forests.

The following table shows the total stocked areas of exotic timber plantations by species and plantation size group at 31 March 1980. The term “stocked area” refers to the total area of the plantation minus the areas of roads, fire breaks, landing strips, natural clearings, felled areas, and the like.

Plantation Size Group (Hectares)Radiata PineDouglas FirOther ConifersEucalyptusOther BroadleavesTotal Exotic Stocked Areas
 hectares
Under 10055 5091 5861 6671 28751360 562
100–49950 1881 2751 13034621053 149
500–99927 8291 2952 5063788832 096
1000–199950 7083 5424 07334329758 963
2000–999120 47413 39112 1871 348453147 853
5000 and over444 96431 79743 2416 377440526 819
    Total749 67252 88664 80410 0792 001879 442
Source: Department of Statistics

At 30 June 1981 the North Island contained 4738 exotic timber plantations with a total stocked area of 704 172 hectares. Of this total, 474 380 hectares were in the South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical area, principally in the counties of Rotorua, Taupo, Matamata, Whakatane, and Tauranga.

At the same date there were 3333 exotic timber plantations with a total stocked area of 248 634 hectares in the South Island. Waimea County in Nelson statistical area contained 70 132 hectares of exotic timber plantations, over a quarter of the South Island total.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 387 sawmills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, 4 particle board mills, 7 pulp and paper mills, and 2 fibreboard mills. This roundwood production does not include firewood.

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
 cubic metres (thousand)
1978692.08 574.09 266.0
1979583.08 391.08 974.0
1980559.09 372.09 931.0
1981557.09 688.010 245.0
1982511.09 032.09 543.0

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine and other pines account for about 90 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Only 9 percent of the country's timber requirement comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion is being reduced to the point where a small sustained yield in indigenous timber can be maintained for special purposes.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber in recent years.

Total sawn-timber production by years over a 50-year period is included in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
 cubic metres (thousand)
19782231 7041 927322341 961
19791731 6541 827353381 865
19801571 8111 968384422 010
1981140x2 004x2 144x353382 182
19821302 1032 233343372 270

The following graph shows the production of exotic and indigenous rough-sawn timber over a series of years.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past 5 years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19781979198019811982
 cubic metres (thousand)
Rimu and miro185152137122112
Matai93332
Totara3.2222
Kahikatea2114101112
Tawa1215151412
Beech1919231918
Other indigenous63546
    Total, indigenous255208195175164
Exotic pines1 5221 4791 6091 7981 886
Douglas fir141131163168173
Eucalypts23222
Other exotic4144413945
    Total, exotic1 7061 6571 8152 0072 106
    Total (all species)1 9611 8652 0102 1822 270

Export Wood-chip Industry—The industry originated in 1969 in the Nelson region where two mills now produce both indigenous and exotic wood chips for export. They use trees unsuitable for sawn-timber production, enabling replanting with more productive species, and also provide outlets for forest and sawmill residues which would normally be wasted. Nelson remains the principal chip export port, handling about 50 percent of the country's total chip exports. Japan is the principal export destination.

Wood chips have been exported through the port of Mount Maunganui since 1972, through Lyttelton since 1975, and through Port Chalmers since 1977. Chip exports during the year ended June 1982 totalled 234 000 bone dry units. A new operation is commencing through the port of Bluff.

Pulp and Paper Industry—Over the last 10 years total production of pulp has risen at an average annual rate of 11 percent, and production of paper at 5 percent. Production of pulp has risen from 455 000 tonnes in 1968–69 to 1 134 000 tonnes in 1981–82. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are 7 pulp and paper plants in New Zealand, 6 of which are in the North Island. Of these 6, 4 are integrated with sawmills to utilise fully the total input of wood. The 7 companies are:

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.—This company, which was formed in 1952 to utilise wood from Kaingaroa State Forest, is now part of the Fletcher Challenge Corporation, the largest New Zealand company in terms of shareholders' funds. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 200 000 cubic metres of sawn timber on the basis of two shifts a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 335 000 tonnes of newsprint and wallpaper base, 245 000 tonnes of chemical pulp, and 295 000 tonnes of mechanical pulp. The company is now planning to instal a fourth newsprint machine.

N.Z. Forest Products Ltd.—This public company utilises about 2 200 000 cubic metres of timber a year from its own radiata pine forests and also small quantities of hardwood (tawa) from State forests. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, sawmill, plywood mill, and reprocessing plant is situated at Kinleith, near Tokoroa. Annual production capacities are about 400 000 cubic metres of sawn timber (including NZFP subsidiaries), 45 000 cubic metres of plywood, and 260 000 tonnes of kraft pulp. Wallboard products and multiwall bag plants are located at Penrose, Auckland, with annual production capacities of 11 million square metres of wallboard products and 100 million multiwall paper bags. The company has a 40 percent shareholding in UEB Industries Ltd. and is a joint owner with UEB of Fibre Products New Zealand Ltd., a firm which makes a range of moulded pulp products, including 40 million fruit trays a year. In April 1982 production of a new moulded pulp egg carton commenced, of which 30 million will have been manufactured by the end of 1982. A corrugating medium machine at Penrose, which became operational in late 1982, will produce some 20 000 to 25 000 tonnes of corrugating medium paper from waste paper collected in the Auckland area. The establishment of a pulp and paper mill in Northland is being investigated.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., a subsidiary of NZ Forest Products Ltd., manufactures paperboard from ground wood and from semi-chemical and waste paper pulp produced on site. Total annual capacity is 110 000 tonnes. Wood supplies are drawn from its radiata pine forest at Matahina and hauled 42 km to the mill by road. A sawmill operates adjacent to the board mill.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, also a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has been in operation for more than 100 years. It has 2 machines producing a range of papers from kraft wrapping grades to specialty printing copy, and writing papers. The company uses New Zealand-made sulphate pulp and supplements this with wastepaper and small quantities of imported specialty pulp. Annual production capacity is 21 000 tonnes of paper.

Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd.—In 1969 the Government invited tenders for the processing of 9 million cubic metres of wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. After examining the proposals received, the Government awarded the sale of roughly two-thirds of the volume to Carter Consolidated Ltd. This led to the formation of the company, which has built an integrated sawmill and refiner groundwood mill at Whirinaki in the Napier district. This project, which is geared to the Japanese market, began producing wood pulp in March 1973. Present productive capacity is about 217 000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp and 100 000 cubic metres of sawn timber annually. The company has now converted the plant to thermo-mechanical pulp processing.

Winstone Samsung Industries Ltd.—The company's thermo-mechanical pulpmill at Tangiwai produced its first pulp in the latter part of 1978. The plant, which uses exotic wood from Karioi State Forest, as well as sawmill residues, has a rated capacity of about 85 000 tonnes annually.

The basic products of the pulp and paper industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft, and other paper and paperboard.

The following table gives the production of wood pulp in New Zealand in recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical

* Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

† Mechanical pulp includes groundwood pulp and thermo-mechanical pulp.

 tonnes
1977581 453521 203
1978606 759490 083
1979578 615464 195
1980556 488565 968
1981640 583565 478
1982602 976530 813

Production figures for paper in New Zealand in recent years are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and Paperboard
 tonne
1978276 62731 491333 047641 165
1979260 31133 075337 635631 021
1980319 04433 165321 644673 853
1981322 56540 671360 299723 535
1982322 07036 834364 110723 014

The rise of production of paper and pulp products is clearly shown in the following graph.

Wood-based Panel Products Industries: Plywood—Five factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1982 was 59 000 cubic metres. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1981–82 was 90 000 cubic metres.

New Zealand Forest Products plywood plant at Kinleith began production of industrial and structural grades of plywood for both domestic and export markets in 1976. The annual plant capacity is 45 000 cubic metres.

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply because of the demand for industrial plywood, and now constitutes about 96 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forests to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Fibreboard—Although fibreboard is manufactured from wood pulp, it is by end use a panel product. Production started in 1943 and has increased steadily. A new mill in Canterbury began producing medium-density fibreboard by a dry process in 1976. This product has now established itself on domestic and export markets.

Particle Board—Particle board is manufactured from roundwood and sawmill residues. There has over recent years been a rapid expansion in the domestic market for this product for interior panelling and flooring as well as furniture manufacture.

Production of veneer, plywood, fibreboard, and particle board is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVeneerPlywoodParticle BoardFibreboard
 cubic metrestonnes
197847 70033 200107 30051 400
197960 30042 000120 60061 800
198076 30053 700147 00074 000
198187 30060 400156 20078 400
198290 30059 500157 30085 400

Production of Round and Split Produce— Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements, but as with forest products in general, most post and pole requirements are now met from exotic resources. A dramatic increase in the volume of posts and poles treated (from 19 000 cubic metres in 1955 to 413 000 cubic metres in 1981–82) indicates the switch from indigenous to exotic roundwood, together with the effective introduction and maintenance of timber preservation.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1982, 44 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated: by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which otherwise non-durable exotic softwoods such as radiata pine can be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: the very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different service conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay, multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g., creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM), the Lowry process, and the alternating-pressure method (APM) have been introduced. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak, and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather, lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable. Two basic formulations of alkyl ammonium compounds and three light organic solvent preservative have recently been approved for certain uses.

The following table shows the quantities of sawn timber treated.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
* Mainly boron.
  cubic metre
1977–7830350 297551 433901 760
1978–791 400308 045532 169841 614
1979–8020277 244536 534813 798
1980–8113312 113585 518897 644
1981–8210369 660628 751998 421

In addition, 412 800 cubic metres of other timber, such as sleepers, poles, and fence posts, were treated by one of the preservation methods in 1981–82.

OVERSEAS TRADED—Forest products are important earners of overseas funds. For the year ended June 1982 exports of forest products were valued at about $549 million; Australia was the largest customer, taking 50 percent (by value) of exports, mainly in the form of pulp and paper, and Japan was the next largest, taking 22 percent, mainly pulp and logs. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $145 million.

Timber Exports—There is an established market in Australia for sawn radiata pine and Douglas fir. Japan takes large volumes of logs, and a significant quantity of sawn timber. Logs have also been sold to the Republic of Korea and the People's Republic of China. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber Imports—Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as large poles, crossarms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods for the furniture trade and specialty purposes.

Pulp and Paper Exports—These are now established exports of great value to New Zealand. Australia takes significant volumes of pulp and paper, and Japan takes large volumes of pulp. Both chemical and mechanical pulp are exported. Newsprint accounts for 65 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and Paper Imports—Short-fibred pulp and special papers are imported and constitute over 66 percent of the value of our total forest products imports.

The value of external trade in forest products during the latest 5 years is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
Imports $(000) c.i.f.
197816,7953,30236,54156,638
197917,4762,72552,00872,209
198024,6082,63665,45492,698
198125,886x6,30764,292*96,485
198237,0296,655100,819144,503
Exports $(000) f.o.b.
197879,542x69,71984,485x233,746
1979111,439x86,291101,553x299,283
1980184,671x120,227140,824x445,722
1981205,662x151,303175,849x532,814x
1982185,084154,704209,570549,358

The following table shows New Zealand's imports of timber by categories for the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneSawn Timber
HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OtherTotalLogs and Poles
* Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
 cubic metres (thousand)
19781562239
19791361205
1980179263
1981169255
198218103314

Timber exports are shown by categories in the following table.

Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
 cubic metres (thousand)
1978428037123293331 070
1979735846184224291 049
1980944581185445531 247
19816497x75x17590x596x803
198264705314537543474
Note—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood PulpFibreboard*Paper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and PaperboardTotal

* In cubic metres.

† Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard; excludes minor items for which no quantities are given.

Imports (tonnes)
19788 521220227 57727 779
19796 41387 15635 60042 756
19804 7417035643 95444 310
19818 916x801 94632 37534 321
198210 825402 63843 77746 415
Exports (tonnes)
1978429 8904 140190 35071 708262 058
1979443 23113 948206 51199 958306 469
1980478 73911 285223 28894 266317 554
1981515 262x30 943x230 974x97 328x328 302x
1982422 37226 766207 018110 217317 235

RESEARCH—The Forest Service undertakes and co-ordinates its forestry and forest-product research through the Forest Research Institute, which has two divisions at Rotorua and a third at Christchurch, employing 157 scientists, 198 technicians, and a servicing staff. An advisory committee for each division of the institute ensures that the research programmes are relevant to the needs of the forestry and forest-based industries.

The institute maintains a continuous exchange of scientific information with other research organisations in New Zealand and overseas, and provides opportunities for research fellowships under the National Research Advisory Council's fellowship scheme, as well as some finance for universities to undertake contract research.

The institute produces its own annual report. The work of the three divisions is described below.

Production Forestry—This division is responsible for research into all aspects of growing forests for productive purposes. Its research programme includes forest establishment, genetics and tree improvement, silviculture and the economics of silviculture, soils and site productivity, mensuration, entomology, pathology, tree physiology, forest health survey, the ecology, silviculture, management of indigenous forests, and the social implications of forestry.

A large research nursery and tree improvement trial area has been established within the Institute's grounds at Rotorua, as well as a comprehensive network of research trials in State and private forests throughout the country.

Forest Products—This division undertakes research aimed at making the best use of wood. Its research includes: wood structure and quality; sawmilling; drying, and presentation; timber engineering; adhesives and composite wood products: pulp and paper; wood chemistry; and the production of ethanol by wood hydrolysis and fermentation. In carrying out its work, this division maintains close contacts with the timber and building industries and is therefore represented on numerous agencies associated with building standards and timber use and preservation.

Protection Forestry—Located in the grounds of the University of Canterbury at Christchurch, this division undertakes research into methods of protecting and restoring the soil, water, and other values of forests. It studies the ecology of mountain-land forests, the biology and control of introduced animals such as deer and possum, the influence of forest operations on slope stability and erosion, and the revegetation of eroded areas.

Industry, the universities, and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research also carry out research into many aspects of forestry and forest products.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers up to 20 years of age as forestry trainees. They work and train for 12 months in the field while continuing their education, often by correspondence, to gain prerequisites for further study. Management-orientated trainees wishing to obtain the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry undertake 3 years of block study courses at the Forestry Training Centre as well as practical training in forests to gain a balanced education in forest management. Research and technical trainees are also catered for with course alternatives for the certificate, and an increasing number of Forest Research Institute technician recruits are studying for the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry rather than the New Zealand Certificate in Science.

Planning- or technically-orientated trainees wishing to do university study attend a 4-year degree course in forestry at the University of Canterbury, doing practical work during vacations. Private students may also study for a bachelor of forestry science degree and take post-graduate courses leading to a master of forestry science degree and Ph.D. in forestry.

To build up a permanent skilled labour force, the Forest Service recruits each year about 70 youths, 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a 2-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, Berwick, Ashley, or Aupouri, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Each year the Forestry Training Centre in Rotorua holds about 40 in-service management courses for forest industry personnel. The Timber Industry Training Centre, also in Rotorua, provides courses in sawmill practice, sawdoctoring, and timber machining. Accommodation, catering, and recreational facilities of a high standard are available at the Forest Training Centre Hostel for those attending courses.

EMPLOYMENT—Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment in the forestry and wood products industries near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island, where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the regional labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact, the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua - Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. led to the establishment of the completely new town—Kawerau—and the rapid growth of another—Tokoroa. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries, especially transport, vehicle repair, and building and construction. Similarly, the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries in recent years.

At 15 AprilForestry*LoggingSawmillingTimber MerchantingPulp, Paper, and PaperboardOther§Total

* Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

† Includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

‡ Includes planing mills.

§ Includes other wood industries, plywood and veneer factories, manufacture of furniture and fittings, wooden and cane containers, and wood and cork products.

‖ At 15 May.

¶ Figures as at February.

19795 9713 1086 8193 38011 54313 55644 377
1980‖5 3113 1336 6933 30912 58614 52345 555
1981¶5 1793 0086 9993 30512 52014 76745 778
1982¶5 2002 9277 0973 57712 38816 06847 257

THE OUTLOOK—The State owns 75 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 0.9 million hectares of exotic forest. It makes sales, of either standing timber or logs, from both types of forest. The contribution of the indigenous forests to timber supply has diminished considerably but it is hoped that these forests will in the future supply small volumes of special purpose timbers. The exotic forests are readily renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached, but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies, which are utilising them and managing them, in several cases, to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The other privately-owned indigents forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Increased production up to the end of the century will be based for the most part on existing forest resources and will be sustained thereafter by additional new planting. It is expected that the current new planting rate of about 45 000 hectares a year will diminish only slowly.

New Zealand's forest industries are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies from exotic forests, which will increase substantially from 1990 onwards. By 1990 roundwood removals will probably have increased to double the present levels, and by the year 2015 they could be 4 times those at present. Effective processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indications ***demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence these countries must import timber.

CENSUS OF FORESTRY AND LOGGING 1979–80

The first 5-yearly Census of Forestry and Logging was taken by the Department of Statistics for the year 1979–80 as an integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units engaged in those two activities, with the exception of forests of less than 100 hectares which were excluded from the census. The census formed part of the Department of Statistics 5-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and classified the industries under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

The statistical tables which follow give summaries of these activities. The definitions used in the tables are the same as listed in the Census of Manufacturing Statistics (see section 18), with the following exceptions.

Establishments—For forestry activities, forests of 100 hectares or more were classified as well as the depots or offices from which forestry activities were organised. For logging activities, the office or home address of the logger was the establishment.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed, including working proprietors, in the establishments and ancillary units on 28 February 1980.

Operating Surplus—In the forestry industry, the opening and closing value of “standing forests” are included.

General Statistics

The following table gives a general summary of the results of the 1979–80 Census of Forestry and Logging.

ItemUnitTotal
Establishments and ancillary unitsNo.908
Persons engaged at 28 February, including working proprietorsNo.8,479
Salaries and wages paid$(000)74,365
Depreciation$(000)6,361
Purchases and other expenses$(000)166,496
Turnover$(000)227,924
Value added$(000)184,030
Capital expenditure less disposals$(000)26,402
Values of standing forests—
    Opening values$(000)1,925,543
    Closing values$(000)2,052,363

In the following 2 tables, statistics are given at industry (subgroup) level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at End of FebruarySalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
    $(000)
Forestry370314 98944,825
Services to forestry834822,858
    Total, forestry453315 47147,683
Felling and cutting of trees and bush hauling of logs3542 71524,718
Other logging702931,964
    Total, logging4243 00826,682
    Total, forestry and logging877318 47974,365
IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
   $(thousand)  
Forestry1,21155,38554,694124,96615,298
Services to forestry3064,3898,8464,533613
    Total, forestry1,51759,77463,540129,49915,910
Felling and cutting of trees and bush hauling of logs4,288103,296157,01850,5529,365
Other logging5563,4257,3663,9791,127
    Total, logging4,844106,721164,38454,53110,492
    Total, forestry and logging6,361166,496227,924184,03026,402

Regional summaries of the Census as a whole are shown in the 2 statistical area tables which follow.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at End of FebruarySalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
    $(000)
Northland635484,590
Central Auckland4042491,779
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty31864 02238,673
East Coast163102,658
Hawke's Bay4453142,240
Taranaki1464440
Wellington8755203,903
Total, North Island582206 02754,283
Marlborough263044
Nelson9247235,893
Westland2842932,480
Canterbury6325314,626
Otago4014693,705
Southland464063,334
    Total, South Island295112 45220,082
    Total, New Zealand877318 47974,365
Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
   $(thousand)  
Northland2164,7227,63611,6161,314
Central Auckland2782,6433,6714,8731,042
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty4,199127,453177,61996,11014,260
East Coast721,7928575,521442
Hawke's Bay1202,8712,3247,405787
Taranaki696861,0841,065253
Wellington2004,9415,9868,7561,235
    Total, North Island5,155145,108199,177135,34519,333
Marlborough64282352,425387
Nelson4668,93312,56315,9673,472
Westland452,6742,6334,817900
Canterbury3053,8325,75710,642835
Otago2393,3704,9027,8931,027
Southland1452,1512,6576,941448
    Total, South Island1,20621,38828,74748,6847,069
    Total, New Zealand6,361166,496227,924184,03026,402

FURTHER INFORMATION—Additional information will be found in the following publications:

Report of the Director-General of Forests (Parl. paper C. 3).

Statistics of the Forests and Forest Industries of New Zealand (N.Z. Forest Service, updated periodically).

New Zealand Census of Forestry and Logging 1979–80 (Department of Statistics).

Chapter 16. Section 16; FISHERIES

Food from the sea figured prominently in the diet of the Polynesian inhabitants of New Zealand for over a thousand years. Fish was also important to white settlers, but it is only within the last two decades that fishing has attained status as a significant industry.

Whalers and sealers were the first Europeans to tap the potential of New Zealand waters. In 1844 whale oil and other products were fetching more than $50,000 on London markets.

Fishing had existed as a way of life among the European inhabitants of New Zealand for more than a century before, in 1945, the Government of the day introduced a system of licensing of fishing vessels which provided for the vessels to land catches only at their port of registration. This was designed to maintain a sensible distribution of vessels, fishing effort, and catches around New Zealand's long coastline. The fishing vessels were mainly small and local, and any surplus fish were exported. There was, however, no steady export trade. In 1962 a Parliamentary Select Committee was appointed to examine the prevailing restrictive licensing system and review practices. It recommended the abolition of the system which, with the advent of larger vessels and the discovery of new resources, restricted the expansion and diversification of the industry.

At this time there was a mounting world-wide demand for protein foods. Russian and Japanese fishing boats were penetrating into the hitherto unexploited south-west Pacific, including New Zealand waters, where of the 42 food fishes known to be caught locally, only 7 were being marketed regularly.

Restrictive licensing was abolished in 1964 and the Fishing Industry Board was established to help promote the industry.

From 1964 onwards, the industry has not only expanded, but also diversified into rock oyster and mussel cultivation and begun to employ different catching methods to land tuna and other pelagic species, which previously represented a largely untapped resource in New Zealand waters.

The establishment of new processing plant principally to export quality wet fish, larger and more regular supplies, the development of attractive packaging, and the introduction of Government-controlled quality standards are now resulting in expanding export markets.

In 1977 the Minister of Fisheries was empowered to declare any fishery controlled. The basic objective of the controlled fisheries legislation is to enable fisheries management measures to be introduced to match fishing effort in a particular fishery to the ability of the resource to provide a sustained yield. A number of fisheries have been declared controlled, and in 1982 a moratorium was placed on the issue of additional permits for inshore fisheries.

The advent of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1978 provided the incentive for a considerable increase in investment in larger fishing vessels to fish the deeper water outside the 200-metre isobath and in fish processing facilities. It also, through Government policy, led to the replacement of some licensed foreign fishing effort by co-operative fishing ventures between foreign and New Zealand companies.

The primary aims of current government fisheries policy are to:

  1. ensure a continuing harvest of high quality fish for an economically sound industry contributing to export earnings and supplying the local market;

  2. encourage the development of aquaculture (fish farming);

  3. protect and where possible improve the fisheries environment;

  4. enhance the natural stocks where this is practicable and economically feasible;

  5. conserve and enhance the opportunities for recreational fishing and the study of marine life.

RESOURCES: The 200 Mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)—New Zealand's 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone was implemented on 1 April 1978 and with an approximate area of 1.2 million square nautical miles is one of the world's largest.

The Act establishing the EEZ does not extend territorial limits. It gives control over conservation and management of resources, but no claim, in real terms, to ownership. Control over all activities in the zone must be in accord with international law.

The zone is divided into 8 fisheries management areas. In spite of the relatively large size of the zone some two-thirds of its area is too deep for bottom fishing methods such as trawling and longlining.

The fish resources of the zone, although substantial, are not rich by world standards. The inshore fisheries of New Zealand's territorial waters are, for the most part, fully exploited and future development depends largely on fishing the deeper waters of the zone.

The sustainable biological yields in the New Zealand territorial sea and EEZ waters are currently estimated at about 400 000 tonnes of wetfish, 91 000 tonnes of squid, and over 20 000 tonnes of tuna. The domestic industry is estimated to have the capacity to harvest over 130 000 tonnes of this, with the remainder (mainly squid and deep-water species) being apportioned amongst co-operative fishing ventures and any balance to foreign nations.

Estimates of fish stocks are based mainly on catch data from commercial fishing vessels and research vessels, and are being constantly refined as new information becomes available.

There is scope for increasing the natural stocks of some species through aquaculture (fish farming). To date the only species which are farmed are rock and Pacific oysters and mussels but development projects are underway for other species.

Controlled Fisheries—In 1977, legislation was introduced to give the Minister of Fisheries the power, when necessary, to declare a controlled fishery, and so to regulate, among other things, the species, quantity, and size of fish that could be taken from the fishery, the type of fishing method used, the areas that could be fished, and the persons who could be engaged in the fishery.

A controlled fishery allows a tight regulation of total effort and the fishing activity of each person with a licence to fish in the fishery. The basic objective is to match fishing effort with what the fishery can reasonably be expected to yield on a sustained basis.

The issue of licences to fishermen in a controlled fishery is the prerogative of the Fisheries Licensing Authority. This is independent of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries but receives advice and administrative services from it.

In 1978, three fisheries were declared fully controlled—the major Tasman Bay scallop fishery, the Coromandel scallop fishery, and the Lake Ellesmere eel fishery.

The rock lobster fishery, which has been under a moratorium for more than 2 years, has now been brought under control. The coastline has been divided into 10 areas and the implementation of control in all areas was completed by mid-1981. The Hauraki Gulf wet-fish fishery was also brought under control early in 1983.

Catch—The landings of fish (including shellfish and Crustacea) by domestic fishermen in 1981 was an estimated 107 955 tonnes.

Composition of the catches is extremely varied and most species are landed whole. About 50 species of wetfish are landed, but many only in small quantities. In 1981, two dominant species contributed 27.5 percent of the total landings. These were barracouta (13.9 percent) and snapper (13.6 percent).

Catches during the latest available 4 years are shown by class of fish or shellfish, landed weight, and value in the following table.

Class of Fish or Shellfish1978197919801981
TonnesValueTonnesValueTonnesValueTonnesValue

* Includes bass.

† 1000 tonnes landed outside New Zealand.

‡ Includes joint venture catches, otherwise statistics refer to domestic coastal fishing fleet.

§ Estimated.

‖ Dredge oysters only.

 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Snapper17.710,02716.413,23411.911,25711.914,912
Hoki0.7852.45752.79965.31,295
Trevally6.51,7185.72,4734.32,2494.62,783
Tarakihi4.21,9304.02,2904.73,3384.83,965
Gurnard3.89543.51,4003.41,5443.92,061
Barracouta5.25007.07488.899912.21,578
Hapuka1.41,0141.81,5382.22,5412.32,584*
Elephant fish0.62870.73451.06410.7662
Flounder1.61,5871.81,5761.81,6732.12,418
Mackerel2.01803.73824.54505.3532
Sole2.21,7512.11,6661.39971.81,799
Shark3.51,2403.51,2835.02,6025.74,159
Red cod3.85514.99072.66172.3708
Albacore1.68580.97090.86771.61,340
Skipjack8.9‡2,663‡7.9‡3,785‡9.1‡4,809‡3.52,521†
Other13.94,53016.96,08717.97,61919.28,494
Total, wet fish77.629,87583.238,99882.043,00987.251,811
Rock lobster3.814,9524.521,7484.524,0834.524,815
Oysters (dredge and rock)10.15,4799.85,83410.76,6759.45,822‖
Mussels (wild)0.7721.11131.58031.3662
Mussels (farmed)  2.3§1,150§3.8§1,900§  
Paua0.63950.54970.74901.31,335
Scallops3.21,2501.65411.41,4371.4935
Squid1.84980.41380.31431.0506
Other0.73180.53000.7183  
Total, all fish98.552,839103.969,319105.678,723106.185,886

The value of fisheries products is shown in the following graph.

EXPORTS—The total value of New Zealand's fisheries exports during the year ended June 1982 increased by $61.9 million, an increase of 26.1 percent over the figure for the previous June year, to a record total of $230.1 million.

Exports of rock lobsters have been a valuable source of overseas earnings since the 1950s and 1960s, but in recent years there have been significant increases in exports of wet fish and shellfish. Squid, almost all of it the product of co-operative fishing ventures, has made up the bulk of the shellfish exports, although farmed mussels and oysters are of increasing importance.

The following table shows the main categories of fisheries exports for the two latest December years.

Commodity ExportedYear Ended
19811982
QuantityValueQuantityValue
* Excludes quantities of oysters (dozens).
  $(000) $(000)
 kg(000)f.o.b.kg(000)f.o.b.
Finfish or wetfish86 590101,55280 164112,574
Rock lobster2 52731,8792 37541,386
Shellfish (squid, mussels, oysters, etc.)*30 85834,68342 98064,161
    Total119 974168,113125 519218,121

Rock Lobsters—The development of a market for rock lobsters in the United States in 1948 provided a major stimulus for the export industry. In 1962 rock lobster landings totalled 4572 tonnes, and by 1968 they had risen to 10 909 tonnes valued at $7,433,006. This was the peak year of the fishery at the Chatham Islands, where prolific rock lobster grounds had been discovered.

From 1968 landings showed a general downward trend until the mid-1970s, when they began to climb again. Exports in 1981 were 2286 tonnes worth $35.7 million and appear to have stabilised.

Finfish—Between 1964 and 1980 the production of finfish increased 175 percent, from just under 30 000 tonnes to 82 000 tonnes, and since 1978 the value of finfish exports has exceeded that of rock lobsters. During the year ended June 1982 finfish exports increased nearly 11 percent (by value) but dropped 7 percent in volume over the previous year's total, making up 52 percent of the total value of fisheries exports compared with 60 percent the previous June year.

FISHING INDUSTRY: Fishing Methods—Trawling is the principal method of taking demersal or bottom dwelling fish. All types of trawling accounted for 62 percent of the total wetfish catch of the domestic fleet in 1981. Various line methods accounted for 9.2 percent of the catch and set nets for 10.7 percent. Pelagic or surface dwelling fish are being increasingly caught by purse seining and 14.4 percent of the total domestic catch was taken by this method in 1981. This excludes the catch of chartered foreign super seiners, which have greatly increased the landings of skipjack in recent years.

Fishing Grounds—The continental shelf, to which coastal vessels have confined their activity, extends out to a depth of about 200 metres, but is fairly narrow. Although in some areas, such as the Taranaki Bight, it extends for a considerable distance off shore and in others, such as the south-west of the South Island, it is almost contiguous with the coast line, its average width is 20 kilometres. There are 36 trawl-fishing ports, including 16 of major importance. These are located fairly evenly around the coastline, with trawlers having access to the whole continental shelf.

Coastal fishing vessels work throughout the year, with no marked fluctuations except for seasonal changes to fish particular species. A full-time coastal trawler averages between 100 and 160 days at sea a year, but there are regional variations due to weather limitations. Trawling is more intensive along eastern coasts of both islands. The deeper waters of the Exclusive Economic Zone beyond the continental shelf are currently fished by larger fishing vessels (over 35 metres) which are operated by licensed foreign companies or co-operative fishing ventures between New Zealand and foreign companies.

Main Fishing Ports—Nelson is New Zealand's largest wetfishing region in terms of tonnage landed. During 1981 almost 14 600 tonnes were landed with an estimated value of $3,826,000. Barracouta made up 26 percent of the total catch and hoki, 25 percent.

In terms of value, Auckland was the leading region, with wetfish landings totalling 7535 tonnes worth an estimated $8,250,000. Fifty-four percent of this tonnage came from snapper, which also accounted for 62 percent of the value.

Other prominent regions for wetfish landings were Manukau (8205 tonnes), Tauranga (7037 tonnes), Gisborne (6800 tonnes), Timaru (6377 tonnes), and Greymouth (5316 tonnes).

Fishing Vessels—There were 5186 registered fishing vessels at the end of 1981 compared with 5347 at the end of the previous year. Seventy-two percent of all fishing vessels were under 9 metres in length overall. Some 695 vessels, ranging from 12 metres to over 33 metres in length, comprise the bulk of the catching capacity of the New Zealand fishing industry.

The number of small vessels of less than 6 metres in length is decreasing, while the proportion of larger vessels is increasing. An expansion in the number of vessels in the 27–35 metres overall length range has occurred over the past few years, mainly through a duty-free import concession scheme aimed at boosting the range and capacity of the coastal fleet working out to the edge of the continental shelf. The increase in the number of vessels over 35 metres has, however, been mainly through the New Zealand registration of foreign fishing vessels that are operating under charter to the New Zealand companies involved in co-operative fishing ventures. Ninety percent of all vessels fall within the latter category.

Fisheries Development—Responsibility for the optimum development of fishery resources rests with three divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Fisheries Research Division, the Fisheries Management Division, and the Economics Division. Promotion of industrial development is a responsibility of the New Zealand Fishing Industry Board.

Most of the marine research programme is controlled from the Fisheries Research Laboratory in Wellington. Freshwater research is carried out mainly at Christchurch and also at Rotorua. Two research vessels are operated by the Fisheries Research Division; the 42-metre James Cook is used all round New Zealand from her base in Nelson, and the 28-metre vessel Kaharoa is based in Wellington but works on all coastal fishing grounds.

Many of the commercially important species of demersal and pelagic fish in New Zealand waters are being studied by the Fisheries Research Division. Work has already resulted in the establishment of safe biological yields for some coastal and deepwater fisheries. Considerable effort is being applied to redefining estimates of total allowable catches in the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone.

Commercially important species of shellfish are also being studied, both in the wild and as subjects for aquaculture. Because of pressure on some shellfish resources, the number of shellfisheries is being controlled. Research work has provided valuable information for controlling these fisheries, particularly that for rock lobsters, which is New Zealand's most valuable inshore fishery.

The 27-metre technological vessel, W. J. Scott, based at Nelson, undertakes various gear tests and exploratory fishing. An aimed trawling survey on preselected transects, covering the entire continental-shelf area of the east coast of the South Island, ran from 1978 to 1981. It tested the viability of midwater trawling for the less-preferred species as a means of safeguarding the prime demersal inshore species. The vessel is at present (1983) engaged on an aimed-trawling survey on the west coast of New Zealand between Kawhia Harbour and Cape Foulwind.

Development until recent years has in the main been influenced by a traditionally small and highly selective domestic market, which has not encouraged diversification in processing methods for fish which did not meet the normal domestic demand for a white-fleshed, bland, non-oily, relatively bone-free type of fish.

There are changes in the world-wide demand for fish as the more popular species reach the point of over exploitation. Thus, fish species which in the past had little or no value on either the domestic or the export market are now acquiring a new value internationally. The time is appropriate for the expansion and development of certain types of fisheries, but a great deal will depend upon the economics of these operations.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908 (which is currently under review), the Marine Farming Act 1971, and the Marine Reserves Act 1971. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977, which redefined the territorial sea and established a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone, is the legislation under which foreign vessels are licensed.

NEW ZEALAND FISHING INDUSTRY BOARD—The New Zealand Fishing Industry Board was formed in 1964 to promote the interests of all sectors of the fishing industry. It is a statutory organisation deriving income from an industry levy and Government sources. Outside its major responsibilities of aiding in orderly and profitable development of the industry, the board deals with specialised problems at the request of individual fishermen, processors, retailers, and fish farmers, as well as on behalf of the entire industry where, for example, liaison with the Government is required.

Practical involvement with the industry is maintained by the presence on the board of two fishermen representatives, two fish processors, and a fish retailer. These are elected by their respective organisations. An independent chairman, the Director-General of Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries or his nominee, and one other member appointed by the Minister of Fisheries complete board membership.

Continual communication with fishing and governmental organisations in many other countries is fostered. The resultant exchange of information enables the board to bring to the industry a great diversity of developments in technology and fisheries policy areas.

A staff of 36, stationed in Wellington, are involved in fishing methods, aquaculture, processing, marketing, and the economics of the industry. Board staff liaise closely with the Fishing Industry Training Council, whose current chairman is also general manager of the board, in the area of industry training at all levels.

ASSISTANCE TO THE FISHING INDUSTRY—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation is the main lender to the fishing industry and provides term finance for a wide range of purposes. These include loans for vessel purchase or improvements to vessels, or for mussel and oyster farm development. Loans are also made for cold storage and processing facilities, and suspensory loans are available for export development and fishing vessel construction. A summary of loan authorisations during the last 3 years is shown in the following table.

 1979–801980–811981–82
NumberValueNumberValueNumberValue
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Loans for catching685.781093.9516010.45
Loans for processing facilities252.28203.56142.60
Rural export suspensory loans90.6030.1540.33
    Total1028.661327.6617813.38

With the commencement of the licensing of the rock lobster fishery in 1980, Rural Bank lending policies were extended to include loans for rock lobster fishermen.

Foreign Licensed Fishing—Since the Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act came into effect on 1 April 1978, foreign trawling activity has been strictly controlled and catch limits enforced. Quotas have been issued and licensed access agreements have been negotiated between New Zealand and the Republic of Korea, the Soviet Union, and Japan. Applications by foreign countries to fish must include plans showing areas to be fished, numbers and sizes of vessels, target species, and other details. Apportionments are made to countries for special quantities by area. By-catch levels can be set for selected species. In the case of tuna caught by longline and purse seine and for squid caught by jigging, no catch allocation has been made, but the total number of vessels is limited.

All countries licensed to fish in the EEZ are charged fees based on the landed market value of the species caught.

The following allocations for trawl and bottom line were made in 1982, the wetfish allocations to apply until 31 March 1983 and the squid allocation to 30 September 1983.

CountryWetfishSquid
 tonnes(000)
Korea, Republic of8.42.8
USSR23.210.0
Japan66.09.9

In addition, the Republic of Korea was authorised to operate 6 squid jigging vessels and Japan, 90 such vessels, with no tonnage restriction. Authorisations were also given for the Japanese to operate 96 tuna longliners without tonnage restriction in the southern bluefin tuna fishery, and for an unlimited number of vessels from Taiwan and Korea to operate in the albacore fishery in the northern regions of the EEZ (Taiwan was subject to the arrangement of acceptable insurances and bonds).

CO-OPERATIVE FISHING VENTURES—To enable local fishing interests to gain more knowledge and experience of fishing technology and to enlarge the scale of on-shore processing, the Government has encouraged the formation of co-operative fishing ventures with foreign companies over recent years.

This development has been directed into areas in which there was previously little local exploitation, for example, squid jigging and trawling, skipjack tuna purse seining, and trawling and lining for other finfish off the continental shelf, mainly to the south and south east of New Zealand.

The first co-operative ventures were approved by the Government in mid-1978. Currently, 25 co-operative ventures, involving over 100 vessels have been approved for finfish, squid, and tuna, with foreign companies from Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, the Soviet Union, Taiwan, and the United States. Foreign investment in all ventures is restricted to 49 percent of the shareholders' equity.

SPECIES OF FISH AND SHELLFISH: Demersal Fisheries—Of the inshore species of demersal fish the most important is the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in trawl catches off the north-east and west coasts of the North Island and the north-west corner of the South Island. Other important species are barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and red cod (Pseudophycis bachus), taken by trawlers mainly round the South Island; tarakihi (Nemadactylus macropterus) caught round the South Island and the east coast of the North Island; trevally (Caranx georgianus), which is taken by trawlers and purse seiners round the North Island; and jack mackerel (Trachurus spp.) trawled for on the north-eastern and western North Island shelf. Flounders and soles are taken in shallower waters, mainly by trawl and set net.

The principal species taken by longline are groper (Polyprion oxygeneios) and ling (Genypterus blacodes) in most areas, though blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the main line-caught species around Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands.

Further offshore, deeper water species such as hoki (Macruronus novaezealandiae) and silver warehou (Seriolella punctata) are caught on the Chatham Rise and off the east coast of the South Island. Off the west coast of the South Island hoki and hake (Merluccius australis) are the principal deepwater species and on the Campbell Plateau to the south of New Zealand, catches are dominated by southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis). In deeper water still, at around 1000 metres and particularly on the Chatham Rise, catches consist largely of oreo dories (Allocyttus and Neocyttus) and orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus).

Pelagic Fisheries—A number of species including trevally, kahawai (Arripis trutta), blue mackerel (Scomber japonicus) and jack mackerel (Trachurus spp.) are taken by purse seining. There are also a number of smaller species such as pilchards (Sardinops neopilchardus), sprats (Sprattus antipodum) and anchovy (Engraulis australis) which are being evaluated as bases for commercial fisheries.

Three species of tuna are fished commercially in New Zealand waters. Skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) are caught by purse seiners round the north of the North Island in summer, and albacore (Thunnus alalunga) mainly by trolling off the east coast of the North Island and the west coasts of both islands. The southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) is caught mainly by Japanese longline vessels off the east coasts of both islands, but is also caught by New Zealand vessels off the west coast of the South Island. Fisheries for all three species are being carefully monitored.

The squid fishery is another substantial fishery in New Zealand waters, with some 50 000 tonnes being caught annually, mainly by squid jigging vessels around the main islands and by trawlers round the Auckland Islands.

Shellfisheries—The fishery for rock lobsters (mainly Jasus edwardsii) is New Zealand's most important and valuable inshore fishery, particularly round the south west of the South Island. Other valuable shellfisheries are for oysters (Tiostrea lutaria) in Foveaux Strait, scallops in Tasman Bay and off the north-east coast of the North Island, and paua, the New Zealand abalone (Haliotis iris). In addition, the green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) and rock oysters and Pacific oysters (Saccostrea glomerata and S. gigas) are the basis of thriving aquaculture enterprises.

Rock Oyster Farming—In addition to the Government experimental rock-oyster farm, many private farms are in production in Northland and the Hauraki Gulf. Both tray and stick cultivation are employed.

Total production on rock-oyster farms in 1981 was valued at just over $1.674 million. A high proportion was exported to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the Pacific Islands.

Mussel Farming—Green-lipped mussels are farmed, chiefly in the Marlborough Sounds area. Production is growing rapidly, and markets in New Zealand and overseas are proving profitable. In 1980 production was estimated at about 3800 tonnes, valued at nearly $2 million.

Rock Lobsters—Rock lobsters (Jasus edwardsii and J. verreanxi) occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Some of the catch of rock lobsters is sold in local markets for domestic consumption but most is exported as frozen rock lobster tails and whole rock lobsters.

With the development of the export of frozen tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of rock lobsters increased until 1968. The boom period, however, has now passed and the aim of all concerned is to ensure that this valuable fishery continues to provide a stable production. It now operates under the controlled-fishery regulations, and all fishermen are licensed.

YearProduction (whole)Exports
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
19773 53313,8961 97923,667
19783 75214,9522 17425,397
19794 54722,2202 13326,937
19804 54523,9302 47929,481
19814 55224,8152 28635,703

Dredge Oysters (Tiostrea Lutaria)—The principal oyster beds around the coasts of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South Island and Stewart Island. A catch quota of 115 000 sacks (each containing 79 kilograms) has been imposed on these beds since 1975; but, from 1976 to 1979, the total catch was increased by 22 107 sacks, landed from the experimental fishing of one bed. During 1982, 113 700 sacks, valued at $8,410,000 were dredged from these beds, and Tasman Bay yielded a further 18 600 sacks (each containing 23 kilograms).

Dredge oyster catches during the latest 6 seasons for which figures are available are shown in the table below.

SeasonFoveaux StraitTasman BayTotal
SacksValueSacksValueTonnesValue
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000) $(000)
1977119.03,3599.02569 6083,614
1978124.54,0809.038010 0434,460
1979120.94,53312.91549 8484,687
1980114.25,5057.4899 1925,594
1981115.05,54316.02169 4535,759
1982113.78,41018.63549 3908,764

Paua—The New Zealand abalone, commercially exploited since the 1970s, is Haliotis iris, the black-foot abalone. It is harvested mainly from the more southern coasts of New Zealand and from the Chatham Islands. The meat is bleached, processed, and canned for export (primarily to South-east Asia, where a steady market has been developed). About 10 percent of the catch is sold on the domestic market.

Scallops—From the initial development in the early 1960s, the scallop (Pecten novaezelandiae) fishery in Nelson and Marlborough reached peak landings of about 5930 tonnes in 1976. Since then, the fishery has shown a radical decline, to a level which necessitated the closing of the seasons in 1981 and 1982. Total landings in New Zealand have been partly maintained by the development of more stable fisheries in the Coromandel - Bay of Plenty area and on the east coast of Northland.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Salmon Farming—Commercial farming of quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) is being undertaken in New Zealand with encouragement from the Government. Government policy emphasises the development of ocean ranching rather than pond rearing of salmon.

The main areas for farming are on the east coast of the South Island, where natural stocks of salmon exist in the braided shingle rivers such as the Waitaki.

Whitebait—This fishery is based on five Galaxias species. Whitebait fishing is carried out in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally, the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishermen. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aircraft have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. In the 1978 season about 123 tonnes (worth $859,418) were recorded for the West Coast of the South Island, while 10 tonnes (worth $67,270) was the catch for the Waikato River. The large number of itinerant buyers makes it increasingly hard to collect catch data, and the figures should therefore be regarded as conservative.

Acclimatised Species—Acclimatised species include quinnat or chinook salmon, brown trout (Salmo trutta), rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii), and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs for the Rotorua and Taupo fishing districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice based on research, to acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish. The estimated revenue from angling licences in a season is approximately $1 million.

Indigenous Species—Eels (longfin, Anguilla dieffenbachii and shortfin, Anguilla australis) are the only indigenous species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters. Most eels are exported. In 1981 these totalled 1170 tonnes valued at $2.8 million f.o.b. compared with 1772 tonnes valued at $3.9 million in 1980.

Research—The research programme concentrates on introduced fish but native species are also studied. Two species of Chinese carp—grass carp (Ctenopharyngoden idella) and silver carp (Hypothalmichthys molotrix)—are being evaluated as agents for weed and algal control in lakes and waterways. Studies on quinnat salmon are aimed at enhancing natural runs and evaluating the commercial potential of these salmon.

The effects of such river developments as hydro-electric and irrigation schemes on freshwater fisheries are also being studied. Manipulated-flow regimes and their effects are being investigated through projects undertaken in conjunction with the Ministry of Works and Development, and in experimental channels in the Waitaki River.

Native species under investigation include eels, which support considerable commercial fisheries. The aquaculture potential of eels is also being evaluated.

Studies are also carried out on diseases of fish, including parasites, and a diagnostic service is provided.

BIG GAME FISHING—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally blue marlin and broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the north-east coast of the North Island. They attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), Whakatane, and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March.

To conserve this very important fishery, the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of swordfish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than 4 fish per boat per day has been imposed.

CENSUS OF FISHING 1980–81

The first economic Census of Fishing formed part of the series of integrated economic censuses of business activities in New Zealand being carried out by the Department of Statistics over a five-year cycle. The census covered all operations carried out by establishments and ancillary units in the fishing industry during the year ended 31 March 1981 (those with different balance dates submitted data for the year ended within the period 1 April 1980 to 31 March 1981).

The Census of Fishing included joint fishing ventures and covered the activities of all firms whose predominant activity was the landing of wetfish, whether from the ocean, coastal waters, or inland waters. Fish farming (including oyster and mussel farming) and the gathering of molluscs and seaweed by hand were also within the scope of the census. The actual activities covered ranged from the purchase of materials and supplies to the sale of the caught fish.

Definitions

Establishment—A separate operating unit (for example, a fishing vessel or fleet of vessels) in New Zealand in one or predominantly one kind of economic activity from a single location (e.g. from a single port).

Ancillary Unit—An administrative or general servicing unit such as a head office, storage unit, laboratory, etc., the prime function of which is to provide services for other locations of the enterprise.

New Zealand-based Paid Employees, Working Proprietors, and Partners—The total number of people engaged, full-time and part-time, in the establishments and ancillary units at or on the nearest pay day to 28 February 1981. Foreign crews on joint venture fishing boats are excluded.

Statistics by Industry

The following table shows census data at individual industry level.

IndustryEstablishments and Ancillary UnitsWorking Proprietors and FarmersPaid EmployeesTotal ExpenditureNet Profit
NumberSalariesNumberSalaries

* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

† Comprises 52 mussel farms and 1 salmon farm.

 No. $(000) $(000)$(000)$(000)
Ocean and Coastal Fishing
    Bottom trawling, single2112059064438,26165,6441,989
    Bottom trawling, pair43504161161,0403,954297
    Mid-water trawling, single.136*1364,55116,920–6,594
    Dredging4946671281,7556,5241,995
    Danish seining1920*24197650290
    Purse seining96*617529,70645
    Other mobile gear76*1091330–18
    Gill netting2242434351186823,703811
    Potting4224551,2543852,96014,9873,237
    Lining, snapper123136197496272,125474
    Lining, other9097209856463,334351
    Squid jigging133294020,550801
    Hand gathering353741724200102
Inland Water Fishing and Fish Farming
    Inland water fishing5760301746459327
    Oyster farming344279474881,944–205
    Other farming†536835483071,808–478
    Total1 4021 4773,7971 70623,366152,8393,424

The following table shows aggregate census values in accounting terms.

 $(000) 
Expenditure—
    Fuel and power19,631 
    Employer contributions to pension and welfare schemes, superannuation, and accident compensation levies369 
Salaries and wages—
    paid to foreign crews6,000 
    Other17,366 
    Depreciation8,736 
    Indirect taxes873 
    Insurance2,633 
Interest, bad debts, donations, royalties, and patent fees5,123 
Other costs, excluding salaries and drawings by working proprietors and partners, and expenses of a capital nature92,106 
    Total expenditure 152,839
Stocks—
    Closing stocks6,969 
    less opening stocks1,752 
  5,217
Income—
    Sales and transfers151,636 
    Subsidies89 
    Interest, etc.593 
    Other2,526 
    Total income 154,842
    Total income adjusted for change in stocks 160,060
Net Profit—
    Total income, adjusted for stocks160,060 
    less total expenditure 152,839
  7,221
    less salaries of working proprietors or partners 3,797
    Net profit 3,424

The figures in the above table are taken from the annual accounts of the establishments and ancillary units covered by the census.

On the income side, transfer values have been substituted for sales values where landed catches have been transferred to a fish processing factory operated by the same fishing company.

On the expenditure side, the figures for salaries and wages exclude drawings by, or salaries paid to, working proprietors or partners, but these amounts have been deducted to arrive at the net profit figure.

Fuller definitions of some other terms used in this table are given below.

Income Definitions

Sales and Transfers—The combined sales and transfers of processed and unprocessed fish, shellfish, Crustacea, etc.

Subsidies—Government cash grants and subsidies received, other than those of a capital or tax incentive nature. The same definition is used in the N.Z. System of National Accounts (NZSNA).

Interest, etc.—Interest, dividends, royalties, patent fees, and insurance claims received.

Other—Income from other activities of the establishments, e.g. rents, sales of packaging materials, towing charges, etc.

Expenditure Definitions

Fuel and Power—Purchases of all kinds of fuels and oils and electricity charges.

Employer Contributions—Payments to superannuation, pension and welfare schemes, and accident compensation levies.

Salaries and Wages—Gross earnings during the accounting year of all paid employees in the establishments or ancillary units included in the census. Included are such items as overtime, sick pay, holiday pay, bonuses, payments under piece-rate schemes, all benefit allowances, severance pay, value of free supplies, and sales commission paid to own employees.

Depreciation—As charged in the books of account on fixed tangible assets owned by the establishments and ancillary units.

Indirect Taxes—Covers Fishing Industry Board levies, boat registration, licence fees, and rates. This is the same definition used in NZSNA.

Insurances—Business insurance premiums paid.

Interest, etc.—Interest, bad debts, donations, royalties, and patent fees paid.

Other Costs—All other purchases including any transfers-in and operating expenses, e.g. packaging materials, boat-hire, etc.

A final table shows census values in economic terms in accordance with the N.Z. System of National Accounts (NZSNA).

  $(000) 
   Of Which Joint Ventures Comprised
Operating Surplus—
    Total income, adjusted for stocks160,060  
    less interest, etc., received593  
  159,46782,212x
    Total expenditure152,839  
    less joint venture charter fees (capitalised)13,115  
    less interest, etc., paid5,123  
  134,60169,291
    Operating surplus 24,86612,921x
Value Added—
    Operating surplus24,866 12,921x
    Salaries and wages to foreign crews6,000 6,000
    Salaries and wages—other17,366 1,937
    Employer contributions369 23
    Depreciation8,736 912
    Indirect taxes873 96
  58,21121,888x
        Less subsidies received 89
        Value added 58,12221,888x

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on fishing and fisheries will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Parl. paper C.5).

Report of the New Zealand Fishing Industry Board (Parl. paper C.6).

Report of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B.25).

Catch—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (monthly).

New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research—D.S.I.R. (quarterly).

New Zealand Census of Fishing 1980–81 (Department of Statistics).

Chapter 17. Section 17; MINERALS

The mineral industry in New Zealand began with the discoveries of gold in the 1850s and 1860s. Gold production reached a peak in 1873 when it earned 75 percent of all export earnings. Coal mining also began about 1850, and early this century the value of coal produced exceeded that of gold for the first time. In 1961 coal was replaced by building aggregate, sand, and gravel as the most valuable mineral product, but has been exceeded in importance by natural gas. From 1969–72 the world-wide mining boom resulted in a great upsurge in mineral exploration in New Zealand. At its peak in 1971 estimated annual expenditure reached $1.7 million. No major metalliferous mineral deposits were discovered, but the impetus given to the mining industry has continued.

The existence of extensive ironsand deposits on the west coast of the North Island has been known for more than a century. Numerous attempts had been made to smelt the ironsand but, as none had been successful, the State-owned New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. was set up to investigate the feasibility of steelmaking from the ironsands. In 1963 the company reported that an industry was economically and technically feasible, using ironsand from near Waikato Heads and Waikato coal. Construction of the steel mill at Glenbrook was completed in 1970 and the mill now provides a significant proportion of the country's steel requirements. Now that technical difficulties have been overcome, mill expansion is expected to more than double production by 1985.

In addition, ironsand is mined for export at 2 localities (Waverley and Taharoa) on the west coast of the North Island. The value of ironsand concentrates exported in 1981 exceeded $32 million.

Coal production over the last 40 years has varied between 2 and 3 million tonnes per annum. During the last 10 years reserves of recoverable coal have increased by over 5 times and now total over 4500 million tonnes, with South Island lignite making up 80 percent. Recent steep rises in the cost of imported fuels, and the prospect of shortages, has led to renewed interest in the country's coal resources, mainly for electricity generation and industrial uses. To meet the increase in demand, a programme of rapid State coal mine development has been initiated. Exports of coal from the West Coast of the South Island amounted to about 250 000 tonnes during 1981–82. Currently studies on utilisation and efficient transportation methods for coal are being carried out.

Serious exploration for oil and gas resumed about 20 years ago, resulting in the discovery of 2 natural gas fields. The Kapuni field was discovered in 1959 and started production in 1970 with gas being supplied to 9 North Island centres and to a number of industrial consumers. The much larger Maui offshore gas field was discovered in 1969 and the first stage of development is completed. The gas produced is being used initially for electricity generation, and as a premium fuel. Discovery of an oil-bearing structure at McKee, while not in itself a major source of oil, is very encouraging, since New Zealand has hitherto been primarily considered as a source of natural gas only. In 1980, offshore blocks in the Taranaki and Westland regions were advertised for licensing. As a result of the very encouraging response, 16 offshore blocks were allocated and seismic survey work has commenced in several of these. Expenditure on mineral exploration licensed by the Mines Division reached $7.39 million in 1981.

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially more important than metallic ores. A decade ago, almost the total value of mineral production was represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction purposes. The position has changed over the last few years with the increased production of ironsand for export and the increasing output of gas and condensate from Kapuni taking precedence. This change in values will be further enhanced as Maui gas flow increases over the next few years. Nevertheless, the quarrying industry, which produced about 21 million tonnes of aggregate and sand and about 3.7 million tonnes of limestone in 1981, is of prime importance.

The following table shows the production of minerals and metals from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry and refer to years ended December.

Mineral19801981
QuantityValueQuantityValue

* Tonnes (000) unless otherwise stated.

† An additional total of 2.95 kg of gold/silver bullion was produced in 1981.

‡ An additional 248 880 tonnes was stockpiled in 1980; 227 035 tonnes in 1981.

    Fuelstonnes (000)*$(000)tonnes (000)*$(000
Coal (private, ex mine)856.2..851.2 
Coal (state, ex mine)1 272.532,085.61 345.740,321.9
Petroleum condensate418 941m3 521 900m3..
Natural gas1 069.05 × 106m3 1 378.79 × 106m3..
L.P. gas27 301m3 39 400m3..
Natural gasoline7 093m3 7 000m3..
                Metals
Gold199.666 kg3,794.5188.83 kg†3,000.9
Silver23.234 kg14.6
Iron ore0.071.20.199.8
Ironsand (exported)3 193.7‡30,420.82 816.7‡32,427.5
Ironsand (local use)195.81,617.0209.22,223.6
Tungsten ore (scheelite concentrate)0.00867.50.009105.3
            Non-metallics
Bentonite3.048.31.945.9
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.130.7439.6132.22,774.7
Clay for pottery46.11,715.549.31,771.7
Dimension stone16.4470.330.8756.9
Dolomite25.7698.925.1783.8
Greenstone3 095 kg7.25 985 kg36.1
Limestone, agricultural1 581.49,395.91 829.412,011.6
Limestone for roads228.7572.4311.61,289.7
Limestone, industrial172.51,627.3187.92,230.5
Limestone for marl and cement1 388.63,856.91 457.64,647.5
Limestone for potters, fillers, etc.4.92.9
Magnesite0.321.5
Perlite1.04.61.04.6
Pumice13.5117.133.8170.2
Rock (harbour work, reclamation, and filling)2 246.24,298.12 890.74,581.8
Salt5.5312.155.57,500.0
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate4 286.319,416.84 084.222,337.6
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast13 559.449,379.2x13 548.051,383.3
Sand for industry115.7494.2x363.41,385.5
Serpentine80.9999.265.7893.5
Silica sand135.9866.5129.1987.4
Sulphur0.093.7

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Coal Mines Act 1979, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1971, the Quarries and Tunnels Act 1982, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Ministry of Energy.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Metallurgical): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Steaming): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago, Southland (Ohai).

Lignite (Low Grade Steaming): Otago and Eastern Southland.

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association. Finance for the association's activities is raised by a levy of 20.0 cents a tonne made by coal producers, including State coal mines, and a Government grant.

Fuel Technology Service—The Ministry of Energy and the Coal Research Association have established a fuel technology service in Auckland, Palmerston North, Christchurch, Hamilton and Dunedin to advise industrial and domestic consumers on the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—The Mines Division of the Ministry of Energy is carrying out a New Zealand-wide coal resources survey of all the main coal regions. The objective of the survey is to stimulate the development of the coal-mining industry as an indigenous energy source and export earner. An evaluation will be made of mineable coal, its possible uses and environmental constraints, and information will be made available for policy-making and energy planning.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable coal reserves of New Zealand. Recoverable coal is coal in the ground which it is estimated could be recovered by mining techniques that are established in New Zealand. Most of the lignite reserves of Eastern Southland and Central Otago if mined would, however, require large-scale mining techniques not used in New Zealand. The estimates for lignite in those areas given here are applicable for such techniques. Recoverable coal reserves in Waikato areas, which are not within current mines, have been arbitrarily quoted as 50 percent of coal-in-ground. This is a high recovery rate which may not be achieved in practice. The reserves are expressed according to the following criteria:

  1. “Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. “Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

There are areas where the presence of coal in mineable quantities is undoubtedly possible but there is insufficient geological knowledge to include these in the table. As exploration proceeds more will be learned of this coal as well as about the coal in the categories, measured, indicated, and inferred.

Detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields is given in the Geological Survey Bulletins and for an overall picture a suitable reference is Williams G. J., Economic Geology of New Zealand, 2nd edition, Monograph Series No. 4, published by the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

The major coal exploration effort has been in the Waikato, Taranaki, Eastern Southland, Central Otago, and Greymouth regions. In the Waikato, major deposits of coal mineable by underground methods have been located, as well as some important discoveries of opencastable coal, which is in very limited supply. The coal is suitable for electricity generation and general industrial use.

Two major exploration programmes are under way in the Taranaki coal region, in coalfields named Mokau and Kawhia.

The East Southland and Central Otago programmes located 9 major deposits of lignite which can be mined by opencast methods. Recoverable reserves from these 9 deposits make up about 76 percent of the country's total recoverable coal reserves. The most likely major uses for these deposits are conversion to liquid fuels and electricity generation. In the Greymouth coalfield the exploration programme located a large block of steaming coal. The Greymouth Coal Company (a Government and private sector joint-venture) has been formed to investigate the mining and possible export of this resource.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable reserves as at June 1982, which total 4586 million tonnes.

LocalityCategory
MeasuredIndicatedInferredTotal

* Assumed 50 percent extraction and 400 metres maximum mining depth for underground coal.

† Technically recoverable lignite as identified in preliminary mining feasibility assessments.

        Bituminoustonnes(million)
Buller Coalfield30.49.412.151.9
Murchison Coalfield0.31.41.7
Garvey Creek Coalfield4.20.62.77.5
Reefton Coalfield0.70.35.46.4
Greymouth Coalfield1.220.256.077.4
Pyke River Coalfield15.015.0
Collingwood Coalfield0.10.10.10.3
    Total36.630.992.7160.2
        Sub-bituminous
Maramarua Coalfield*21.355.877.1
Huntly Coalfield171.167.44.6243.1
Waikare Coalfield*23.147.434.3104.8
Rotowaro Coalfield10.34.715.0
Glen Massey Coalfield*0.12.52.6
Whatawhata Coalfield0.51.52.0
Mangapehi Coalfield*2.23.39.515.0
West Kawhia Coalfield*1.229.030.2
East Kawhia Coalfield*55.055.0
Te Kuiti Coalfield*4.54.5
Mokau Coalfield*0.219.061.080.2
Waitewhena Coalfield*0.826.227.0
Ohura, Tangarakau, Retaruke, Aria0.68.69.2
Heaphy River Coalfield1.01.0
Charleston Coalfield11.711.7
Punakaiki Coalfield0.10.12.02.2
Inangahua Coalfield0.11.05.66.7
Shag Point Coalfield0.80.8
Kaitangata Coalfield0.70.83.34.8
Ohai Coalfield2.63.745.752.0
    Total233.0205.1306.8744.9
        Lignite
Canterbury Coalfields22.422.4
Green Island Coalfield, Otago0.53.82.36.6
Kaitangata Coalfield, Otago23.967.032.0122.9
Pomahaka Coalfield, Otago8.816.225.0
North Otago Coalfields19.319.3
Central Otago Coalfields†810.04.3814.3
Eastern Southland Coalfields†9.02 661.02 670.0
    Total52.73 550.677.23 680.5
    Grand Total322.33 786.6476.74 585.6
Note—This table incorporates State Coal Mines estimates as at 30 September 1981 and reserves of private coal mines

One of the biggest potential uses for coal is for electricity generation.

In future there is likely to be a smaller number of large mechanised underground mines. Coal mining will become much less labour-intensive.

There are 4 coal areas of major future significance—Waikato, Buller, Southland, and Central Otago.

Waikato—The Waikato area has measured and indicated recoverable resources of low/moderate-ash, low-sulphur, sub-bituminous coal of 400 million tonnes. Inferred resources are an additional 41 million tonnes. Reserves are adequate to supply the 1000 MW power station at Huntly, plus the steel industry's projected requirements. Further work to increase measured and indicated reserves is currently being undertaken for proposed additional thermal power station capacity. The Waikato coalfield is well placed to serve Auckland's industrial development, and coal is railed to the Bay of Plenty for the pulp and paper industry. New Zealand Steel Ltd's development programme anticipates an increased demand of over 900 000 tonnes a year by the late 1980s.

Main markets for Waikato coal are electric power generation, dairy factories, paper mills, freezing works, carbonisation, space heating, brick and tile manufacturing, cement and lime works, general industries, and domestic heating.

Buller—The Buller area has measured and indicated recoverable resources of low/moderate-ash, low/high-sulphur, bituminous coal amounting to 40 million tonnes, but much of this is restricted in value by its high sulphur content. Inferred reserves amount to 12 million tonnes. The significant fact is the high proportion (about 30 million tonnes) that is opencastable, and therefore low-cost (approximately $30 per tonne) coal.

Southland—The Southland coal area essentially comprises the Ohai and Eastern Southland lignite fields. Ohai contains 53 million tonnes of Waikato-type coal, mostly inferred, but has little significance because the principally domestic market is likely to decrease. Eastern Southland is important because of its ready access to the Bluff industrial area, and because the reserves of moderate-ash, low-sulphur lignite are large, potentially cheap, and opencastable. It is estimated that 2670 million tonnes of opencastable recoverable lignite exist in 6 major deposits.

Central Otago—Although Central Otago is insignificant in terms of present production, the lignite reserves of Central Otago, like those of Southland, are of national significance. In 3 major deposits 810 million tonnes of recoverable opencastable lignite exist.

Coal Consumption—Coal has always been important in New Zealand's mineral industry, and had a higher production value than any other mineral between the First and Second World Wars. Usage slumped in the late 1960s but, with the increased price of oil and prospects of oil shortages, coal consumption prospects are now rising again, especially as industries are in some cases reconverting their heating and steam plants to coal firing.

The approximate distribution of State coal during recent years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports.

UseYear Ended September
197919801981
 tonnes(000
Gasworks586145
Electric power159127167
Dairy factories8610195
Freezing works757169
Cement and lime works188179225
Bricks, tiles and pottery665
Paper mills514746
Steel production151132121
Hospitals126112110
Carbonising172318
Central heating565652
Domestic166161150
Other uses7794211
    Total1 2161 1701 314
Note: This table omits figures for the distribution of privately-mined coal. Total production of private coal mines during recent calendar years was as follows:
1979840 000 tonnes
1980856 000 tonnes
1981851 000 tonnes

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations during recent years.

YearOutputPersons Ordinarily Employed
Underground MinesOpencast MinesTotal
UndergroundOpencastTotalSurfaceUnderground
 tonnes (000)Number
19776351 7342 3694526885101 650
19785811 6022 1824016955071 603
19796011 3471 9485855674991 651
19806751 4882 1634966594981 653
19817201 4762 1974566594651 580

The total output of underground and opencast mines up to and including 1981 is estimated at 2.2 million tonnes.

In 1981 the State operated 9 of the 31 underground mines, and these produced 638 000 tonnes of coal; 6 of the 43 opencast mines were operated by the State and they produced 752 000 tonnes of coal. The loss on operations of State coal mines for the year ended 30 September 1981 was $16.6 million after payment of interest on loan capital.

Derived Products—Low temperature carbonisation works at Rotowaro (100 km south of Auckland) use the Lurgi process to produce a range of products derived from coal which forms part of the output of local State mines. During the year ended 31 March 1981 the works produced 8717 tonnes of carbonettes, 668 138 litres of tar and oil, 2423 tonnes of char, 426 tonnes of pitch, and 476 823 Hires of creosote. This company is at present engaged on investigations into the building of a replacement plant of modern design and similar capacity.

Meremere Power Station—This station, of 210 MW capacity, which has burnt up to 700 000 tonnes of coal each year over the last 2 decades, is nearing the end of its useful economic life. From 1980 State coal is no longer supplied to it from the Kopuku field, which has usually supplied two-thirds of its requirement, and by 1994 Meremere is expected to close down.

Huntly Power Station—Initially this station (1000 MW capacity) will be fired with Maui gas. The first of its four 250 MW units was commissioned in 1981. However, when the Maui gas flow is diverted to petrochemical manufactures, commencing about 1983, the Huntly plant will gradually become a coal-fired electricity generation station consuming more than 2 million tonnes of local coal each year.

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tonnes of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tonnes of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tonnes in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the titanomagnetite sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks has been constructed at Glenbrook, 58 km south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Ltd., and the plant began production late in 1969 using ironsand deposits from the north head of the Waikato River, 19 km away. Production of steel billets from ironsand commenced in November 1969.

New Zealand Steel Ltd.. now proposes to expand its Glenbrook plant. Coal use should increase to 400 000 tonnes per annum and local ironsand concentrate use to 350 000 tonnes by 1985.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Near Waverley, 32 km north of Wanganui, an ironsands mining unit produces titanomagnetite concentrates for direct export to Japan through off-shore bulk-loading facilities and in 1981 some 1 309 985 tonnes were exported. New Zealand Steel Ltd. has developed a similar undertaking at Taharoa near Kawhia, and 1 506 753 tonnes were exported in 1981.

GOLD—The gold mining industry in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand. Gold has been mined in the past from the Hauraki, West Coast, Marlborough and Otago goldfields. The major producer of gold in 1981 was the Kanieri Dredge on the Teramakau River, which produced 105.28 kg. Operations ceased early in 1982, and will recommence on the Grey River where a new dredge is being constructed. There are also numerous small alluvial gold mining operations throughout the South Island.

Many companies are currently involved in gold exploration throughout the country. At Waihi extensive drilling has been undertaken to evaluate the old Martha Mine.

SILVER—The Hauraki goldfield has produced most of the silver mined in New Zealand. In 1981, 2.95 kg of gold/silver bullion was produced from this region. A little silver has been recovered from the South Island gold dredges.

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, and the scheelite is erratically distributed in the veins. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved, scheelite mining continues to be on a small scale, being confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flat fields in Otago, and Top Valley in Marlborough.

COPPER—Production of copper has ceased since the Tui mine, near Te Aroha, closed in 1973. Small mines have been worked in Northland in the past, at Parakao and Pupuke. Prospecting has been carried out at a number of localities, but no significant deposits have been discovered. Exploration for economic deposits of copper in a number of geological environments continues.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Prior to 1960 there was some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand. No mining is at present being carried out. Past production has been limited, the main bulk came from the cinter deposits in Northland, at Puhipuhi and Ngawha Springs. Recently there has been interest in the disseminated mercury in Northland.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc was mined near Te Aroha, producing lead-copper sulphide and zinc sulphide concentrates for export to Japan, but the mine closed in 1973. Prospecting still continues, however, on the Coromandel Peninsula, in the East Cape region of the North Island, and in the Nelson area.

MOLYBDENUM—Some promising geological environments exist for economic molybdenum mineralisation in north-west Nelson but, to date, exploration has failed to locate an economic deposit. Exploration is also being carried out on the Coromandel Peninsula.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits on the Tin Range near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island. These, and lodes in greisen on the range itself, were worked on a small scale early this century.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

SILICA—At Parengarenga, in northern Northland, there are large deposits of pure quartz (silica) sand. Over 80 000 tonnes from here, 20 000 tonnes from Tarakohe in Golden Bay, 2000 tonnes from Westport and Charleston, and 12 000 tonnes from Mt. Somers in Canterbury are used each year, mainly for glass manufacture. There are lump silica deposits in Southland of a high quality suitable for the production of ferro-silicon and probably silicon metal.

DIATOMITE—Diatomite is a light powdery material used as a source of silica and as a filtering agent. It is worked in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic zone and at Middlemarch, Otago.

BENTONITE—Production of bentonite continued at Coalgate in Canterbury and at Porangahau in Hawke's Bay for applications such as foundries pelletising stock food, and mud used in drilling. A new drilling grade meeting A.P.I. specifications is being used on oil rigs in the Taranaki area and for diamond drilling throughout New Zealand. Export shipments were sent for iron ore pelletising in Australia as well as to Japan and Taiwan.

HALLOYSITE—Halloysite is a clay used as a filler in the paper industry, and for ceramics. It has been mined in Northland since the Second World War and is currently used for local consumption as well as export.

SULPHUR—Prospecting proved a 6 million tonne deposit of sulphur at Rotokawa in the Taupo area in 1968. The deposit is mixed with pumice and work on the development of a separation process is continuing. The Frasch Process cannot be applied here owing to the porosity of the overlying beds. Production has fluctuated between 90 and 900 tonnes of ore in various grades since 1974. Feasibility studies on appropriate mining methods are currently being carried out.

PERLITE—Perlite is a volcanic glass expanded by heating; it is used as an insulator and in light-weight concrete. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos, mainly associated with serpentines in ultramafic occurrences, occurs at a number of localities in the South Island. The most significant deposits are those of the North West Otago (Pyke River) area. Tests of the fibre indicate that it is of favourable economic quality.

PHOSPHATE—The only deposit of phosphate ever to have been worked in New Zealand is that at Clarendon in Otago. Mining ceased in this area in 1944. The most promising source of phosphate is thought to be the nodules occurring on the sea floor on the eastern half of the Chatham Rise (west of Chatham Island). Evaluation is still continuing. Exploration for phosphate in other geological environments has not revealed any economic deposits as yet.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine is a magnesium-rich rock used as a fertiliser additive. Deposits are being mined at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone", occurs as rounded aggregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply. The best-known occurrences of bowenite, the serpentine variety of greenstone, are in Fiordland, but these are not systematically or commercially exploited.

PEAT WAX—There are an estimated 4000 hectares of moorland peat, with an average thickness of 4 metres, on the Chatham Islands. This peat contains peat wax derived from a particular plant which grew in the area. The peat wax is being investigated for commercial application in carbon paper, polishes, varnishes, cosmetics, and explosives. Similar investigations are taking place with deposits in Central Otago.

The existence of high-melting-point waxes in peat deposits on the Chatham Islands has been known for more than 30 years. Comparable waxes have also been discovered in the lignites of Otago and Southland. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is carrying out research in processing methods that might produce saleable products from these minerals. Laboratory-scale work has investigated a range of solvent systems, and different extraction techniques. Larger-scale work is also being done on the production of bulk samples of wax for further analysis and evaluation. Thus, successful commercial development will involve co-operation between industry and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

ILMENITE—Ilmenite, which is a source of titanium oxide for the paint and other industries, occurs extensively in the beaches of the west coast of the South Island in association with monazite, gold, and zircon. A reconnaissance survey by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research indicated reserves of over 50 million tonnes of ilmenite-bearing sands, and subsequent work by New Zealand and Australian companies has indicated considerable reserves in the Westport and Barrytown areas. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has carried out extensive laboratory work aimed at producing a synthetic rutile from these rather low-grade (46 percent TiO2) ilmenites. The companies concerned have also carried out both concentration and beneficiation studies with encouraging results. The main obstacle to the development of this mineral is now in marketing rather than in treatment.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tonnes$(000)
197641 000516
197753 000631
197865 000687
197955 000779
19805 500312
198155 000750

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—An understanding of the country's geology is imperative for long-term assessments of New Zealand's mineral resources. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Works and Development, and other Government departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems. Only that part of the work of the Geological Survey which concerns the discovery and development of mineral resources is discussed here. Other aspects of applied geology include engineering geology, the study of earthquakes and volcanoes, and effects of engineering works and other developments on the physical environment.

The survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects, such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

Geological Survey has issued geological maps of the whole of New Zealand at scales of 1:2 000 000, 1:1 000 000, and 1: 250 000. Regional geological maps at a scale of 1 inch to the mile (1:63 360) or 2 cm to the kilometre (1:50 000) are available for about one third of the country, and new maps are produced each year. Most of these will in future be published at 1:50 000, with some maps at other metric scales – 1:25 000, 1: 100 000, etc. Bulletins, maps, and reports will continue to be issued for areas of special economic or scientific importance.

Special purpose maps include: the Industrial Series (to date covering most of Auckland and Hamilton); the Urban Series (of which the first sheet, Nelson, was published in 1979); Land Inventory (Rock Type) series, NZMS 288 & 290 (maps of the King Country, Northern Hawke's Bay, and Northland have been published); and Late Quaternary Tectonic Series (of which the most recent shows active faults and Quaternary deposits around Wellington). The most recent map in the Miscellaneous Series shows the Te Aute Limestone from northern Wairarapa to Poverty Bay.

A 2-volume work, The Geology of New Zealand, was published in 1980.

Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency, Antarctica.

Prospectors and mining companies may seek advice and assistance from any of the district offices of the Geological Survey as well as from the head office in Lower Hutt, which houses the administrative and specialist research sections.

Mineral Resources Surveys—The Economic Geology Section of Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. A new inventory of New Zealand's minerals is now available, and a publication Industrial Minerals and Rocks, containing articles of interest to engineers, mining companies, and local bodies, is produced from time to time. In earlier years, when gold was of major importance, the survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the steel industry. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by the Ministry of Energy, prospectors, and others.

Coal—During the last two decades, coal as a mineral resource has been largely over-shadowed by natural gas. Nevertheless, coal remains among New Zealand's most important mineral resources, and mapping the coal fields in detail has been one of the survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with the Ministry of Energy and with the Coal Research Association. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, Ohai, and Waikato coalfields have been published. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision. A major revision of coal estimates is currently being made. Geological work is being undertaken for the Ministry of Energy in connection with the present extensive drilling in the Huntly area.

Oil and Gas—Oil companies draw on survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial co-operation has usually developed between survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has recently expanded its Petroleum Section, partly in response to increased Government participation in exploration.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki which was rewarded by the discovery and development of large reservoirs of natural gas at Kapuni, and off-shore in the Maui field. The collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate. Geological Survey micro-paleontologists are assisting oil companies in interpreting the stratigraphic progress of off-shore oil wells and provide a complete service for many recent drill-holes, both on-shore and off-shore.

For further information on prospecting and mining for petroleum and natural gas, refer to Section 20a of this Yearbook.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as it is possible with the staff available, the survey advises the Ministry of Works and Development and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in the utilisation of which the survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the survey, includes detailed projects on north-west Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed in detail; and North Auckland sands and halloysite clays have been the subject of New Zealand Geological Survey publications.

CENSUS OF MINING AND QUARRYING 1978–79

The fourth 5-yearly Census of Mining and Quarrying was taken for the year 1978–79, and was the first fully integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in that activity.

All activities from exploration or production to the point at which the goods are sold are within the scope of the census, which was for the year ended 31 March 1979 or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The census formed part of the department's 5-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and for this reason any comparisons with the Censuses of Mining, Quarrying, and Prospecting prior to 1978–79 should be treated with caution.

In 1978–79 the mining and quarrying industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. Coal mining.

  2. Crude petroleum and natural gas production, etc.

  3. Ferrous and non-ferrous ore, etc., mining.

  4. Other mining and quarrying.

The statistical tables which follow give summaries of these 4 divisions. The definitions used in these tables are the same as listed for the Census of Manufacturing statistics (see section 18, Manufacturing), with the following exceptions.

Establishments—Productive units, engaged predominantly in mining and quarrying operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing these establishments.

The following table gives a general summary of the results of the 1978–79 Census of Mining and Quarrying.

Item1978–79
Establishments463
Ancillary units16
Total persons engaged at 15 April 19794409
 $(000)
Salaries and wages paid (excluding working proprietors remuneration)40,134
Depreciation14,847
Purchases and other expenses201,944
Turnover358,652
Value added170,138
Capital expenditure less disposals79,793

In the following 2 tables statistics are given at industry (subgroup) level.

Industry ClassificationEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsTotal Persons Engaged at Mid-April 1979Salaries and Wages Paid Daring Year
  Number $(000
Coal mining6571 36912,763
Exploration, drilling and extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas1336107,211
Ironsand mining32554,675
Non-ferrous ore mining31133
Marble and building stone extraction847341
Limestone quarrying8013843,028
Quarrying and other extraction of road metals, gravel, sand, shingle, etc.24351 51911,422
Extraction of stone, clay, gravel, sand, etc. n.e.c.1474580
Mining and quarrying, n.e.c.618115
    Total, mining and quarrying463164 40940,134
n.e.c.—not elsewhere classified.
Industry ClassificationDepreciationPurchases and other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Coalmining1,39019,01041,20326,3503,207
Exploration, drilling and extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas6,196112,823203,53497,85667,967
Ironsand mining2,59626,57739,20214,0861,925
Non-ferrous ore mining
Marble and building stone extraction1162,2773,249262147
Limestone quarrying8919,03014,7715,9781,630
Quarrying and other extraction of road metals, gravel, sand, shingle, etc.3,47230,29653,44424,2004,630
Extraction of stone, clay, gravel, sand, etc., n.e.c.1381,6942,588983232
Mining and quarrying, n.e.c.4723666142356
    Total, mining and quarrying14,847201,944358,652170,13879,793
n.e.c.—not elsewhere classified.

Regional summaries of the census as a whole are shown in the 2 statistical area tables which follow:

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-April 1979Salaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillaries
 Number $(000)
Northland481941,143
Central Auckland4724393,931
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty8741 07710,521
East Coast5433288
Hawke's Bay151103883
Taranaki2716407,151
Wellington5934734,233
    North Island total288122 95928,150
Marlborough1150277
Nelson4013653,154
Westland2414083,368
Canterbury38119948
Otago3611441,053
Southland2613643,183
    South Island total17541 45011,983
    New Zealand total463164 40940,134

The following table shows additional financial statistics at statistical area level.

Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland2972,6824,9992,469397
Central Auckland89612,18320,2638,347474
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty4,11740,93872,75333,1434,614
East Coast1866861,253592638
Hawke's Bay2883,2385,0391,906377
Taranaki3,08247,23583,30225,7627,751
Wellington4,03975,965136,40680,26562,342
    North Island total12,906182,927324,016152,48576,593
Marlborough1064901,086620131
Nelson4215,2168,9594,499712
Westland1783,0075,5302,895325
Canterbury2802,8534,4121,637423
Otago5022,7515,2142,500993
Southland4534,7009,4355,503617
    South Island total1,94119,01734,63617,6533,200
    New Zealand total14,847201,944358,652170,13879,793

In the following table the turnover for the mining and quarrying industry has been analysed by the principal components.

ItemTurnover
Sales of products—$(thousand)
    Coal41,195
    Clay460
    Limestone10,016
    Rock, sand, gravel, etc.48,475
    Other mining, etc., products233,343
        Total sales333,489
    Other income25,043
        Total sales and other income358,532
    Capital work done by own employees120
        Total358,652

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on minerals and mineral production will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Census of Mining and Quarrying 1978–79—Department of Statistics.

Annual Returns of Production from Quarries and Mineral Production Statistics—Mines Division, Ministry of Energy.

Report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parl. paper G. 21).

The Geology of New Zealand—N.Z. Geological Survey.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics (Production figures for coal and gas are published monthly).

Industrial Minerals and Rocks—DSIR (occasional).

Details of N.Z. Geological Survey map coverage and publications are available from N.Z. Geological Survey, P.O. Box 30 368, Lower Hutt.

Chapter 18. Section 18; MANUFACTURING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as more opportunities developed for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, and cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by a wider imposition of tariffs in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, the manufacture of machinery, and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen-eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and dairy industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 dairy factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand at an early stage, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the eighteen-sixties, there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the eighteen-nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Wellington and Canterbury.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs, and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-working, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metalworking, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominant in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen-thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing “non-farm” materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Apart from metalworking and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports which the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New-Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—In the period immediately after the war, development in the manufacturing sector continued steadily. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by the production of new products, and by the continued restriction on the importation of a wide range of goods. In the years following, the volume of production in the food, footwear, wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and rubber industries. However the major contribution to the growth in manufacturing in this period came from the engineering sector. The expansion in this field was stimulated by increasing mechanisation on farms, high levels of investment, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased importation of motor vehicle components for assembly in New Zealand.

A notable feature of the period 1945–80 was the continual widening of the range of products being made within the manufacturing sector. While the sector produces goods mainly for domestic consumption, the level of exports has risen consistently since the early 1970s when the level of exports was very small. This signifies a significant change in outlook by the sector.

New Zealand production now covers a diverse range of goods including chemicals and plastics, machinery, textiles and apparel, building materials, electrical equipment, metals, transport equipment, tanning, and packaging.

In the chemical and allied industries, New Zealand factories process PVC compounds and dry blends, besides producing such PVC products as sheeting, flooring, roofing, and rainwater goods; a range of formaldehyde resins used in the manufacture of adhesives and related products; acrylic emulsions and compounds; many industrial and domestic materials including synthetic detergents; various weed killers and insecticides; and a range of drugs and cosmetics.

The metals and electrical industries produce steel, aluminium, copper tube, wire rope, telephone and underground cable, switchgear, electric hoists, electric motor starters and fractional horsepower electric motors, as well as telecommunications equipment, colour television sets, and electronic controls for a variety of equipment.

The manufacture of transport equipment and machinery covers items such as agricultural aircraft, bicycles, pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, self-propelled hydraulically operated excavators, post-hole diggers, hydraulic equipment and attachments, and cargo containers. The engineering trade produces control valves, thermostats, oil-fired kilns, press brakes, disc brake pads, high-speed twist drills, and numerous other items and pieces of equipment.

The packaging industry makes moulded pulp products as well as several types of plastic film, including projects involving cast polypropylene and the manufacture of irradiated polyethylene (shrink film).

In addition to carpet and apparel, texture synthetic yarns, and warp-knitted, transfer-printed, and foambacked fabrics are now made by the textile industry.

MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE POST-WAR ERA—During the last 30 years there has been a continued diversification in New Zealand's industrial development, which has incorporated a number of major developments.

Forestry Industrial Developments—New Zealand Forest Products Ltd., which was established in 1935, has expanded its range of processing activities considerably since the establishment of its first wallboard plant in 1941. The company commenced sawmilling in 1950, and in 1953 brought into production the original kraft pulp and paper machine at Kinleith. Since then, the company has increased its annual production to 435 000 tonnes of pulp and 276 000 tonnes of paper.

A major reconstruction project is currently under way at Kinleith. The “rebuild” of the number 5 pulp machine will allow New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. to produce sackkraft paper of a quality which will ensure retention of existing markets and increase export capability.

A new paper mill at Te Papapa, South Auckland is under construction. The plant will have an annual output of 20 000 tonnes per annum of corrugated paper for boxmaking and will be fully operational by 1983. Raw materials for the plant will be exclusively waste paper collected from the greater Auckland area.

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., was established in 1952 to utilise the long-term log supply from the Government-owned Kaingaroa Forest. The Kawerau plant has a production capacity of 330 000 tonnes of newsprint and 185 000 tonnes of kraft pulp. The company intends to install a fourth newsprint machine which will increase production of newspaper by 180 000 tonnes per annum.

The pulp mills constructed by Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd., at Whirinaki near Napier commenced production in 1973. Work is expected to be completed in 1983 on the conversion of the present refiner groundwood process to a thermo-mechanical process. The company is also examining the feasibility of further expansion including the introduction of a newsprint plant.

Other forestry-based projects currently in the planning stage are the construction of a pulp and paper mill by New Zealand Forest Products Limited at Marsden Point; a thermo-mechanical pulp and paper mill to be built by Northern Pulp Limited at Hokianga; and an advanced waste-paper processing plant to be constructed by Caxtons at their Kawerau plant.

Cement—New Zealand Cement Holdings plan to construct a new cement plant at Weston near Oamaru. The plant will have an annual production capacity of 500 000 tonnes per annum, and will utilise lignite, limestone, and marl deposits located near Oamaru, with silica sand being brought in from Winton.

Steel Industry—In 1959 the Government set up the New Zealand Steel Investigating Company to determine the viability of establishing an iron and steel industry using indigenous raw materials—titanomagnetite ironsands, sub-bituminous coal, and limestone. New Zealand Steel Ltd., the company formed in 1966 as the successor to the New Zealand Steel Investigating Company, commissioned a direct reduction kiln and electric ore steel-making facilities at Glenbrook, 60 km from Auckland, in 1970. A period of growth and consolidation followed in the 1970s. Items currently manufactured are galvanised products, pipe, rectangular hollow sections, and billets. In 1980 the company decided to proceed with the installation of a production line for the prepainting and laminating of flat steel products. This plant was commissioned in early 1982. New Zealand Steel Ltd. plans to undertake a major expansion programme at its Glenbrook works during the 1980s.

Pacific Steel Ltd. was established in 1960 by New Zealand and British interests. Production of wire rod, reinforcing and flat bar and angles and channels commencing in 1962. The company utilises scrap metal collected through Pacific Scrap Ltd., and in addition purchases steel billets from New Zealand Steel Ltd.

Aluminium—New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Ltd., owned by Comalco Industries Pty. Ltd., of Australia, and Showa Aluminium KK and Sumitomo Aluminium Smelting Company Ltd., of Japan, established a primary aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, near Bluff, early in 1971. The first furnace was commissioned in April 1971. Production is now 150 000 tonnes a year rated annual capacity, with two full potlines in operation. Approximately four-fifths of the primary aluminium produced at the smelter is exported. All the partners take their percentage of the smelter's output in proportion to their ownership. The addition of a third potline, which will be in operation by 1983, will increase the total rated smelter capacity to 244 000 tonnes a year.

Oil Refinery—The Marsden Point oil refinery commenced production in 1964. The refinery company was established by the 5 major oil companies, with government and private sector equity participation. Due to the demand for refined products, which exceeded production capacity, the refinery is now being expanded. A hydrocracker is being installed to allow more middle-distillate oils (diesel and kerosine, aviation fuels and lubrication oils and solvents) to be extracted, thus reducing imports of both oil and refined products. Construction is now under way and over 1000 men are employed on the site.

Maui Gas Developments: Ammonia-Urea Plant—The ammonia-urea plant which is owned by Petrochem N.Z. Ltd., a subsidiary of the Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand, was formally commissioned by the Government in December 1982. The plant is expected to produce annually 155 000 tonnes of urea, and 7000 tonnes of ammonia.

Engineering—The engineering industry sector in New Zealand has a history stretching back to the early days of the colony. From simple beginnings it now plays a vital role in the growth of our industry. The industry has developed a capacity in both the heavy and light engineering sectors.

New Zealand's heavy engineering industry has been concerned with fabrication, installation, maintenance, and resource development in areas such as the development of primary processing facilities, and fertiliser plants. It has also been involved with major civil engineering projects such as hydro-electric dams (radial gates, draft tubes, scroll cases), oil refining (heat exchangers, pressure vessels), and forestry developments.

The light engineering industry has developed on the basis of import substitution policies and the postwar road and house-building programmes. Its role has been providing materials for light industry, e.g., supplying the house-building and motor-vehicle componentry trades. It has also supplied the agricultural, horticultural and animal husbandry sectors with implements and products.

In the immediate post-war era, isolation led to the development of ingenious solutions to repair and maintenance problems. The industry grew through the 1950s and 1960s, as import substitution policies resulting from balance of payment constraints were developed in depth. In the 1955–65 period the engineering industry's capacity to utilise equipment to produce short production runs emerged. Since 1965 the drive for exports has resulted in increasing specialisation of equipment, though the heavy engineering industry did not show the expected growth in the early 1970s. From 1975 to the present day the shadow of the oil shock and inflation has speeded the introduction of numerically-controlled machines.

Although most of the fabrication and installation and maintenance industry uses imported raw materials, local casting and machining, and the rod and wire-making industries use local raw materials. The major projects will provide work for the whole of the engineering sector in the next decade.

Aircraft Manufacture and Maintenance—Aircraft manufacture is carried out by Pacific Aerospace Corporation Ltd. (a member of the Agricultural Corporation Group which took over the assets of New Zealand Aerospace Ltd.) at Hamilton. The company is concentrating on production of the Fletcher FU24 Agricultural Aircraft and ‘Cresco’, a stretched turbo-engined version of the FU24 with a substantially increased payload. Production of the CT4 military airtrainer formally produced by New Zealand Aerospace Industries Ltd., has ceased. Manufacture of componentry for the Australian Government Aircraft Factories' ‘Nomad’ aircraft carried out by a number of New Zealand companies, particularly Safe Air Ltd. in Blenheim, is also winding down.

Safe Air Ltd. services aircraft propellors for the RAAF and a number of New Zealand and overseas airlines. Helicopter overhaul is carried out by Alexander Helicopters Ltd., Hamilton and Airwork New Zealand Ltd., Christchurch. Major airframe and engine overhauls of Air New Zealand and other Pacific airlines are carried out by Air New Zealand in Auckland and Christchurch.

Electronics Manufacture—The New Zealand electronics industry has three sectors: consumer electronics; industrial electronics including telecommunications; and electrical components.

The largest sector is consumer electronics, which accounts for about two-thirds of output and employment. It primarily produces television sets along with some audio and radio products, games and kitsets.

The industrial electronics sector is, however, becoming increasingly important. It is undergoing a rapid expansion and now produces nearly 80 percent of the industry's exports. Its products are used in agriculture, industry, medicine, and science.

The main electronic components produced in New Zealand are printed circuit boards, loudspeakers, antennas, transformers, and coils.

Textile Industry—The textile industry, one of New Zealand's oldest manufacturing activities, developed rapidly from the late 1950s and throughout the following decade, largely on the basis of import substitution. To the traditional processes of weaving cloth and cutting and sewing clothes were added the production of knitted fabrics and garments, the weaving and tufting of carpets, the extrusion and texturing of synthetic yarns, and the manufacture of a greatly diversified range of other textile products.

In contrast to the woollen mills, which had been established close to wool-growing centres, the knitting factories, using predominantly synthetic yarns, tended to be set up close to major urban markets. Market proximity also influenced the location of the carpet plants, but manufacturers of less bulky textile products often built factories near sources of available labour, being encouraged by various regional development incentives.

Most of the new textile factories, particularly knitwear and clothing units, were very small, typically employing only 10 to 20 people. Although some were independently operated, a great many in outer suburbs and provincial towns functioned as satellites for large plants based in the main urban centres. Such units, became established rapidly in the late 1960s and early 1970s with buoyant markets and labour scarcity in the major cities, but closed with similar speed in the middle and late 1970s when demand fell and transport and overhead costs rose sharply.

Economic strains during the middle and late 1970s brought about a considerable degree of rationalisation in the textile industry. Most severely affected were some of the traditional activities, particularly woollen milling, suffering since the late 1950s from market changes which saw demand move steadily away from the heavier woven wool fabrics towards light-weight easy-care materials, often knitted synthetics. From 16 companies operating 18 mills in 1960 the sector has declined and as a result of rationalisation within the woollen milling sector there were only 5 companies controlling 8 mills by 1982.

Some other processes begun during the 1960s to substitute for imports and to provide employment became increasingly uncompetitive. Synthetic yarn extrusion is a notable example, where technological advances necessitated even longer production runs which the relatively small New Zealand market could not sustain, and which could not be maintained by exporting from a high-cost domestic base. When frontier protection was reduced in 1980 to allow the knitting and apparel sectors access to more competitive yarns, the domestic extrusion plants closed.

That change was part of the Textile Industry Plan, implemented on 1 July 1980 following government acceptance of recommendations based on the review of the textile industry by the Industries Development Commission. The plan featured a liberalisation of access to materials, and increased imports of finished goods under the protection of a revised tariff structure, with the object of improving competitiveness and developing textile industry exports. Rationalisation of the woollen milling industry has now been completed and with the assistance of a bounty payment on woollen woven fabrics this sector has been able to improve production.

The apparel import licence tendering scheme has provided access to a greater range of imported garments. This has created a more competitive environment for domestic manufacturers, greater consumer choice and a mechanism for testing the level of Customs tariffs set in accordance with the Textile Industry Development Plan.

The Industries Development Commission is currently reviewing the Textile Industry Development Plan and will report on its findings during 1983.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN 1982—A number of major decisions have been made in 1982 relating to industrial development.

Aluminium—The third potline at New Zealand Aluminium Smelter's Tiwai Point aluminium smelter was completed in mid-1982 and the pots are currently being brought into production. By August 1983 the potline will be fully operational and will increase the total smelter capacity to 244 000 tonnes. In October the Government and Pechiney Fletcher Challenge Ltd., and CSR agreed to postpone indefinitely the proposed second aluminium smelter at Aramoana. The decision was made because of the severely depressed market for aluminium and uncertainty about the timing of a recovery. However the parties have agreed to undertake a review of the situation by 1 November 1983 to determine whether negotiations can be resumed.

Steel—The first stage of the New Zealand Steel Ltd., expansion at Glenbrook, which was approved in October 1981, is proceeding as planned. Stage one involves an increase in iron and steel-making capacity from 150 000 to 775 000 tonnes per annum and is scheduled for completion in late 1984. Stage two, which consists of hot and cold rolling mills, was approved in December 1982. Construction will begin early in 1983.

Natural Gas-based Developments—The programme for utilising New Zealand's substantial natural gas resource is now well developed. An ammonia-urea plant was commissioned in December 1982, while a synthetic gasoline plant and an export-oriented methanol plant are under construction. CNG conversions to motor vehicles have continued, and Liquigas Limited are expected to establish a national LPG distribution network using a sea tanker in 1983–84. Current plans are for one half of the Maui field to be depleted by the year 2000. In addition a company was established in 1982 to investigate the processing of natural gas liquids into fuels, plastics and other petrochemicals.

LPG Distribution—An engineering and economic review of the proposed LPG distribution system was undertaken in May 1982 by Liquigas, the consortium undertaking the project. The likely outcome is the establishment of bulk depots in the four main centres. These will be either rail-fed (directly from Kapuni) or sea-fed (from Port Taranaki via Oaonui).

Synthetic Petroleum—Contracts between the Government and the Mobil Oil Corporation for the production of synthetic petrol from Maui gas, were signed in February 1982. Work began on the Motunui site in Taranaki in early March. The plant will produce synthetic petrol from Maui gas, by way of a methanol converter, using Mobil's patented catalyst process. Production is expected to commence in 1985 and the plant when fully operational is expected to supply one-third of New Zealand's annual petrol needs.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: Indigenous Resources—Those trends in industrial development of which the above examples are illustrative appear certain to continue through the decade of the eighties, with priority being given to the development of new industries based on natural resources such as forests, fish stocks, and energy. The rapid development of the forest industries was a major turning point and these are now significant export earners, principally through export of pulp, paperboard, and newsprint but also through exports of logs, sawn timber, chips, and building boards. Intensive forest planting programmes since the early 1960s will result in a surplus for export about 3 to 4 times greater than current levels by the year 2000, and this will present opportunities for substantial future processing developments.

The establishment of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1977 has stimulated the rapid development of the fishing industry. The levels of both catching and processing have risen significantly with the introduction of large deep-water vessels, a substantial increase in on-shore processing facilities, and the establishment of co-operative ventures between New Zealand and foreign fishing companies.

In November 1982 the Government approved a strategy for the development of New Zealand's deep-water trawl fishing. The main feature of the strategy is the allocation of rights to catch prime species to individual companies committed to catching deep-water species. During the year 2 large deep-water trawl vessels were imported to add to the domestic fleet.

Research is continuing into the potential of New Zealand coals as fuel and industrial feedstocks, in particular, the Buller coking coals and Southland lignites. In June 1982 the Government announced a Japanese/New Zealand consortium as the private sector partner of State Coal Mines in a feasibility study on the mining and exporting of 2 million tonnes of Greymouth steaming coal per annum. The study will include an investigation of the necessary transport and port requirements. Exports of steaming and coking coal are continuing at a similar level to last year. Contracts have been concluded for the export of 250 000 tonnes of coal for the year ended 31 March 1983.

Overseas Investment—In June 1979 the Government publicly stressed its welcoming attitude to overseas investment, in particular where such investment is allied to the introduction of new technology and increased net foreign exchange earnings. The full development of New Zealand's resources will require both technology and capital from overseas during the eighties. Procedures for evaluating projects involving overseas capital have been reconsidered and cases will continue to be assessed on their individual merits by the Overseas Investment Commission.

Resource Conservation—The Department of Trade and Industry provides support for existing reclamation industries, and encouragement to the establishment of new resource management ventures.

The car-crusher owned by Pacific Metal Industries Limited completed cleaning up municipal car hulk stockpiles in the South Island late in 1982, by which time some 20 000 tonnes of ferrous metal had been reclaimed from this source and railed to the shredder in Otahuhu. The crusher then moved to Wellington and Manawatu and will be working through the North Island during 1983.

A detinning unit, also owned by Pacific Metal Industries Limited, recovers tin ingot and scrap steel from tin-plated cans and factory offcuts. Trial can collection depots are set up in Auckland for the public to leave clean used cans, and these recover about half a tonne of cans each weekly. New Zealand food and beverage cans are made from tin-plated steel and not from aluminium, apart from the rip-top on some beverage cans, and contamination from foreign aluminium cans is a problem in the detinning process.

An increasing number of municipalities and some counties are setting up at-source separation systems for recoverable materials in domestic waste, especially glass, reusable glass bottles, textiles, paper, and metals. The series of twice-yearly meetings of the Local Bodies Liaison Group, convened by the Department of Trade and Industry to bring together local authorities and recycling industries for discussions on resource recovery potential, has helped to encourage these new systems. The meetings are moved between centres to facilitate regional participation.

The largest of the municipal recycling schemes is that started in Christchurch in September 1981, which provides an almost city-wide house-to-house weekly collection of recyclables using specially-designed vehicles, and also a recycling depot at the landfill. The smallest of these schemes is operated by Greytown Borough Council, and is a successful system of weekly rotating collections of recyclable materials from households collected by the council and marketed through local agents and merchants.

Waste paper collection continues and in 1982 N.Z. Forest Products Limited opened a new mill for waste paper processing at Otahuhu. A second mill at Penrose is due for commissioning during 1983. In co-operation with N.Z. Forest Products Limited, a pilot paper-save programme was run in 3 Wellington government buildings to test whether clean office papers could be obtained successfully from commercial buildings. This scheme is to be extended during 1983 and it is hoped that other commercial buildings will follow suit.

Some 20 000 tonnes a year of white wood-free printed office waste will be required for a waste paper processing plant owned by Caxton Paper Mills at Kawerau which is due to start up early in 1984. The proposed output of this plant would be 40 000 tonnes a year and it features a new de-inking technology.

The used oil subsidy which operated for three years expired at the end of March 1982. It resulted in increased collections of waste lubricating oil for re-refining, from 3 million litres to some 8 million litres during the period of the subsidy. The industry plans expansion which will almost double this intake, and give New Zealand the capacity to be 20 percent self-sufficient in lubricating oil. Present annual imports total around 70 million litres of lubricating oil.

A survey programme is being carried out in centres where quantities of waste wood are a problem. Waste wood and joinery wastes are being used as a boiler fuel in some primary product processing. A survey has been undertaken of waste wood supplies as a potential industrial raw material.

Since 1979, a Resource Recovery Grants Scheme has operated to assist new or expanding recycling ventures. For the most part, grants have gone to local authorities or community groups, but small recycling collection firms have also received help. Usually the grants reimburse some of the expenses incurred for publicity needed to support a recycling scheme, or for some other setting-up costs. By the end of 1982–83 fifty grants had been made since the Grants Scheme's inception.

During 1982, the Department of Trade and Industry published the results of commissioned research under the titles: Local Authority Contracts for Resource Recovery and Recycling, Biogas from Refuse and other Waste—Christchurch, Energy from Waste-Wood Burning, and A Surrey of Plastic Scrap in New Zealand.

To date 10 research studies have been published in the Resource Conservation series. Research to be published during 1983 includes a study on plastic waste which has been commissioned jointly with the Plastics Institute of New Zealand, and a feasibility study of the possible production of methane from closed and existing landfill sites. A handbook on recycling will also be published.

The Industrial Waste Materials Bulletin, which indexes usable industrial and commercial wastes throughout the country, is also published by the Department of Trade and Industry and provides an active exchange service to a growing number of firms and organisations.

The receipts from manufactured exports continue to show the growth achieved in the 1960s and 1970s, and now comprise a significant proportion of total exports (26 percent in the 1981–82 June year).

During the year ended June 1982 export sales for manufactured goods totalled $1,705.9 million compared with $1,455.7 million the previous year. This is an increase of 17 percent over the 1981 figure which compares with a 12 percent growth for the previous year. These figures are not comparable to those in previous Yearbooks because of a change in the collation of manufactured export statistics. The figures for exports by manufacturing sectors are shown in the following table.

CommodityYear ended June
1978–791979–801980–811981–82
 f.o.b. NZ$(000)
Wood products40,45666,41383,25190,104
Paper products112,123151,192185,995226,328
Food, beverages, and tobacco92,556112,378143,613197,081
Textiles77,349107,163112,282129,991
Clothing and footwear26,02429,78132,86849,409
Furs, leather, and tanning53,65188,84269,46176,427
Industrial chemicals24,15025,25545,99454,051
Petroleum products69,75872,45658,50472,378
Plastics and rubber44,19474,96265,45056,314
Paint, pharmaceuticals, and other chemical products25,09934,59038,23452,428
Non-metallic mineral products15,91223,43531,86039,385
Iron and steel45,70554,31547,33352,350
Non-ferrous metals160,386177,291233,465219,179
Fabricated metals48,79564,94780,49998,535
Non-electrical machinery70,46798,62091,347118,238
Electrical machinery and appliances64,14168,25787,002102,893
Transport equipment24,96831,58527,95545,380
Other13,19019,46620,65025,515
    Total1,008,9241,300,9481,455,7631,705,986

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—The Government's regional development programme is designed to encourage regions to maximise the realisation of their potential, and to further contribute to national development by increasing the efficient use of their resources.

Effort is concentrated on promoting industrial growth in 11 designated priority regions: Northland, King Country, East Coast, Taranaki, Wanganui, Wairarapa, Marlborough, West Coast, Southern Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. The incentives available focus on the retention of industry, the attraction of new manufacturing concerns, and the development of resource-based activities in regional areas.

In each region, local initiatives and the activities of independent business concerns provide the major employment opportunities for local people. The Central Government provides the administrative framework through appointed regional development councils, the Department of Trade and Industry, and the Development Finance Corporation. It also provides the necessary incentives to encourage local initiatives, generally in the form of suspensory loans for new manufacturing projects, but preliminary investigations and the establishment of pioneer activities are also assisted to “seed” new developments in the fishing, forestry, tourism, mining, agriculture, and horticulture sectors.

AIDS TO DEVELOPMENT—Described very briefly below are some of the programmes which provide assistance of various types to manufacturing industry.

Development Finance Corporation—A description of the Development Finance Corporation, which was established as an independent body in 1964, is included in the Banking and Currency section of this Yearbook. The Development Finance Corporation also operates the Government's Applied Technology Programme, which provides incentives for industrial research and development, and the Small Business Agency, which was established by Act of Parliament in November 1977 with the aim of encouraging and promoting the efficient operation of small businesses.

Industries Development Commission—The Industries Development Commission has the role of advising the Government on measures to assist industrial development (see section 22a, External Trade).

The Investment Unit—In 1979 an Investment Unit was established within the Department of Trade and Industry. The functions of the unit are to:

  1. Assist investors, whether local or overseas, in researching their projects;

  2. Ensure that applications for any necessary consents are processed with minimal delay by the central and local government agencies concerned;

  3. Develop proposals for streamlining consent procedures;

  4. Increase the number of investment proposals being made, particularly in those areas of the economy where there is immediate scope for increased investment; and

  5. Prepare and distribute information and publicity material on investment opportunities in New Zealand.

Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme—The Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PUDS), introduced on 30 November 1976, provides financial assistance and incentives for New Zealand companies developing approved manufacturing operations in Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Nauru, and Vanuatu with the objective of fostering economic development opportunities in those countries and furthering the growth of employment.

Standards Association of New Zealand—The Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ) was established by the Standards Act 1965, to take over and expand the activities of the New Zealand Standards Institute. The Standards Association is responsible for the formulation of national standards for processes, goods, and services.

The Standards Association represents New Zealand in the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC), and on the Asian Standards Advisory Committee (ASAC) of the United Nations.

Manufacturing Development Council—The council was established in 1969 as a sector council of the National Development Council. Since that time the council has acted as a link between the industrial private sector and the Government, and latterly as a planning body. In these roles it has been involved in a number of studies of the business sector, the most recent being a report it commissioned from the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research on business investment in New Zealand. The council is serviced by the Department of Trade and Industry.

In 1980, following a suggestion by the Government, the council redefined its role and agreed to a future work programme which would enable it to formulate a comprehensive and cohesive development strategy, compatible with overall economic and social development objectives, for the manufacturing sector in the 1980s. The council has now embarked on this work programme which includes the consideration of such issues as protection, assistance and incentives, and industry studies.

New Zealand Export/Import Corporation—Established early in 1974, the corporation has a responsibility for co-ordinating and expanding overseas trading opportunities. By providing assistance to small and medium-sized companies to go into the export field, the corporation aims at increasing and diversifying New Zealand's range of exports.

Other Bodies—A number of liaison committees have been established to promote development in particular fields of industry. These include the Advisory Committee on the Heavy Engineering Industry, the New Zealand Metal Casting Industry Association (previously the Foundry Industry Advisory Committee), and the National Electronics Development Association (NEDA). Several bodies exist principally to promote exports: ENEX (previously the Engineering Export Association of New Zealand Inc.) continues to be prominent in this field, while the Export Guarantee Office facilitates the export of manufactured goods by removing some of the financial uncertainties involved in export trade. The Industrial Design Council (IDC) exists to promote and encourage good design. There are also several bodies providing technical and advisory services for industry. Further details of these organisations are to be found under Section 7, Education and Science.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT—Engagement in research and development by manufacturing enterprises is shown in the following table.

Details published in all but the last column exclude single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 persons and ancillary units servicing more than one industry.

Manufacturing Census (Year)Persons Engaged on Research and DevelopmentPercentage of Total Number Engaged in ManufacturingExpenditure on Research and DevelopmentPercentage to Total Value Added in Manufacturing
 No.%$(000)%
1974–751 4490.5013,9490.65
1975–761 4080.4715,4450.66
1976–771 3440.4315,4030.54
1978–791 3410.4522,4360.64

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—The first integrated economic Census of Manufacturing applied to the 1974–75 year. The census covers establishments (factories, workshops, etc.) in New Zealand, the predominant activity of which is manufacturing, processing, assembly, or repair, plus the activities of ancillary units (head offices, etc.) which service or predominantly service those establishments. Single establishment firms having an average of less than 2 persons engaged full time are, however, not included in the census.

All activities of the manufacturing operations, from the purchase of material and supplies to the point at which the products are sold, are within the scope of the census, which is for the year ended 31 March, or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The integrated economic census classifies all the manufacturing industries according to the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC), which is based on the 1968 United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities.

Because of the major changes introduced, there was an unavoidable break in the continuity of manufacturing statistics. To provide some link with the previous census series, a limited number of main aggregates were collected for the 1973–74 year on the same basis as those collected for 1974–75. This link information has been published in a series of industry bulletins.

In the statistical tables which follow, the results of the 1976–77 and 1978–79 manufacturing censuses are published. The 1976–77 manufacturing census was the last of the annual series. Commencing with the 1978–79 year, the Department of Statistics introduced a series of 5-yearly integrated economic censuses covering the 9 major divisions of NZSIC.

A series of quarterly sample surveys linked to each 5-yearly census has commenced. A description and some results of these surveys are given at the end of this section.

GENERAL SUMMARY—Changes introduced by the integrated Census of Manufacturing may be summarised as follows:

  • industries were reclassified to conform to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification;

  • ancillary units, such as servicing units, laboratories, etc., were included in the census;

  • the basis of valuation was changed from cost of materials used and factory door value of production to purchase and sale prices;

  • the census year was changed from a year centred on 31 March to a year ended 31 March or the nearest prior balance date;

  • a number of new or changed definitions were introduced. A table of definitions follows:

Definitions

Establishments—Productive units, usually factories, engaged predominantly in manufacturing operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing establishments.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed in the establishments and ancillary units at, or on the nearest pay day to, 15 April.

Salaries and Wages—Gross earnings during the accounting year, before taxation and other deductions, of all employees in the establishments or ancillary units included in the census. Included are such items as sick and holiday pay, bonuses, benefit allowances, payments under piece rate schemes, and capitalised salaries and wages. Excluded are contributions to superannuation funds by employer, reimbursement allowances, payments from superannuation funds, and drawings by working proprietors.

Depreciation—As charged in the books of account on fixed tangible assets owned by the establishments or ancillary units included in the census.

Purchases and Other Expenses—The sum of all operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations, and including value of capital work done by own employees but excluding salaries and wages and depreciation.

Turnover—The total of all sales and other income except interest, dividends, royalties, patent fees, and insurance claims received, plus the value of capital work done by own employees.

Value Added—The industry and sector contribution to Gross Domestic Product comprising the sum of salaries and wages paid, employer contributions to superannuation schemes, operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals—The sum of the amount spent by establishments and ancillary units in the census on the purchase, less the proceeds received from the sale, of the following types of fixed assets: land; buildings and other construction; road vehicles, ships and aircraft; plant, machinery and equipment; other, such as artifacts.

General Statistics

A general statistical summary of the results of the 1976–77 and 1978–79 Integrated Economic Censuses of Manufacturing is given in the following table.

Turnover of manufacturing establishments, including ancillary units, covered in the 1978–79 Census of Manufacturing totalled $10,926 million, a 21.6 percent increase on the total of $8,987 million recorded in 1976–77.

ItemUnitCensus of ManufacturingPercentage Change
1976–771978–79
EstablishmentsNo.9 0199 498+5.3
Ancillary unitsNo.7191 022+42.1
Persons engaged at mid-April:    
    MalesNo.219 046215 078–1.8
    FemalesNo.87 13183 253–4.5
        TotalNo.306 177298 331–2.6
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(million)479475–0.8
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males$(million)1,4451,844+27.6
    Females$(million)357450+26.0
        Total$(million)1,8022,294+27.3
Purchases and other expenses$(million)6,3817,595+19.0
Turnover$(million)8,98710,926+21.6
Value added$(million)2,8653,478+21.6

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1978–79—The following tables, which refer only to the 1978–79 Census of Manufacturing, show statistical data by industry major group and sub-group.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1978–79
Industry Major Group and SubgroupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential data.

† Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

‡ Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§ Data included in Food products n.e.c, Textiles, n.e.c, Manufacturing industries, n.e.c. and Transport equipment, n.e.c.

    Food ManufacturingNo.No.No.$(000)
    Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)44529 5101 817265,10711,992
    Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses2921 2113411,976192
    Meat packers and canners201278662,140374
    Ham, bacon, and smallgoods51111 37051610,8913,231
    Poultry slaughterhouses2324115322,7132,865
    Game packers6210729969174
    Meat pies and puddings2413272402,9242,007
    Casings of animal origin4157119
    Co-operative dairy factories97196 11687565,0136,193
    Milk processing plants4139311599,5591,034
    Ice cream factories1763233102,1591,299
    Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)643981663,845847
    Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables4142 6551 79317,1337,709
    Land-based fish, etc., factories62209626656,3813,369
    Vegetable and animal oils and fats214547785,608479
    Grain milling194321255,1121,145
    Prepared grain breakfast foods4237133
    Bread bakeries87311 95065816,3552,931
    Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories43112784211,7311,381
    Cake and pastry kitchens283269001 1864,3464,229
    Biscuit factories94434563,9282,557
    Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles3716§§
    Sugar factories and refineries1229241§§
    Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery3761 0201 3247,4447,447
    Food products, n.e.c.72121 6331 11316,4006,062
    Prepared animal feeds6076651425,684725
    Total food manufacturing1 10318053 06013 014467,41868,242
Beverages
    Distilling, rectifying and blending spirits5175495,4332,076
    Wine6216663552
    Breweries1131 53414816,6731,010
    Malting158110
    Soft drinks and cordials4089294887,0063,241
    Total, beverages119333 2821 24729,1126,327
    Tobacco Manufactures696795896,0653,669
Textiles
    Wool scouring33921458,374244
    Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving2872 4111 48919,7979,299
    Linen flax mills15§§
    Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving1313772343,3751,146
    Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles16239811,925396
    Canvas goods and similar articles of other fabrics875695013,3032,394
    Other made-up textile goods (except clothing)8194221 0993,2405,064
    Knitting mills10151 6863 07813,54617,272
    Carpets and rugs2271 42669711,8114,305
    Cordage, rope and twine4531973§§
    Textiles, n.e.c.194232684,003874
    Total, textiles405388 6077 36569,37440,994
Wearing Apparel
    Leather gloves and clothing2611024056822,027
    Fur clothing173586168302
    Clothing other than leather or fur678723 27117 24924,67086,839
    Total, wearing apparel721733 40817 74025,52089,168
Fur and Leather
    Tanneries and leather finishing2191 0894538,6152,246
    Fellmongery10210231,024
    Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.141134144836703
    Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)9925091 0223,0674,657
    Total, fur and leather144141 8341 62213,5297,619
Footwear (except rubber, plastic, or wooden)10872 1213 07715,26215,239
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
    Sawmills23295 6713314–4,5101,830
    Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber631 75516213,899827
    Builders' carpentry and joinery34863 20333522,3531,311
    Prefabricated and precut buildings602687594,919313
    Plywood, veneer, and board311 55526513,4081,660
    Wooden containers294412392,923197
    Basket and cane wear464193,9791,005
    Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.943654253
    Other ancillary units‡10145551,668330
    Total, wood and cork products8613414 1461 518107,6597,473
Furniture
    Wooden furniture and upholstery469134 7811 14631,0054,922
    Mattress making1713732912,7151,652
    Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)2351931601,241790
    Total furniture509195 3471 59734,9617,364
Paper and Paper Products
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard114 87134662,7352,849
    Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons5032 04972219,5745,495
    Paper bags and sacks3197141
    Wallpaper factories5237652,288373
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.3191 07564210,1454,757
    Other ancillary units‡12415
Total, pulp and paper products100138 4531 93194,74213,474
Printing and Publishing
    Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books88475 6383 02255,85618,562
    Job and general printing431315 4572 72642,78614,694
    Service industries for the printing trade927803096,1211,497
    Total, printing and publishing†6117811 8756 057104,76334,753
Industrial Chemicals
    Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2735021265,754903
    Chemical fertilisers2551 4658813,032488
    Pesticides95339773,160500
    Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)65142 56060724,3923,740
    Total, industrial chemicals126274 86689846,3385,631
Other Chemical Products
    Paints, varnishes, and lacquers38421 24335110,7252,205
    Drugs and medicines28118728208,0484,777
    Soap and detergents1076013976,1172,504
    Toilet and cosmetic goods38115047344,6524,567
    Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.112311662,217951
    Ink134349883,296506
    Chemical products, n.e.c.57106733235,6371,683
    Total, other chemical products†195854 4732 87940,69217,193
Petroleum Refineries134422424,409324
Petroleum and Coal Products
    Bituminous mixtures and products184254252,618153
    Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.1401
    Total, petroleum and coal products194294262,618153
Rubber Products
    Tyres and tubes11401 76617823,6491,411
    Tyre retreading and vulcanizing3848528
    Rubber products, n.e.c.4231 46068513,2083,762
    Total, rubber products†91433 71189136,8575,173
Plastic Products, n.e.c.246164 1162 33833,14011,878
Pottery, China, and Earthenware26136665495,0693,176
Glass and Glass Products6912 01334820,8482,008
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
    Structural clay products273643564,738342
    Cement works489222610,383196
    Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)3321
    Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.41443
    Precast concrete14631 48910811,055474
    Concrete masonry587829796,479393
    Ready-mixed concrete1006921597,845314
    Plaster and fibrous plaster products28360272,459126
    Monumental masonry and stone masonry422190301,10361
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.2338121327,526796
    Other ancillary units‡1115
    Total, non-metallic mineral products435346 25352651,5882,702
Iron and Steel
    Iron and steel basic products441 83315335,4141,660
    Iron and steel forgings and castings4411,159109
    Total, iron and steel4852 99226235,4141,660
Non-ferrous Metal
    Non-ferrous basic metal products2232 24425424,8341,635
    Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.527251405,624689
    Total, non-ferrous metal7432 96939430,4582,324
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
    Cutlery and handtools254401383,4581,012
    Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware5219444296,8562,217
    Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)6551 0172997,2021,471
    Architectural metal structures and fixtures23742 60344319,1182,055
    Sheet metal roofing and related products14721 99122715,4951,133
    Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boilershop products268154 30632739,6991,600
    Wireworking7711 32723010,4671,052
    Nails and fasteners9273711,985373
    Household and kitchen utensils2012501101,605571
    Servicing industries to the metal trades1261 1172357,3351,035
    Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.327185 6901 62844,8498,924
    Other ancillary units‡2329
    Total, metal products1 3534919 9904 146158,06921,443
Machinery (except Electrical)
    Manufacture and reconditioning of engines and turbines1039511166,620400
    Agricultural machinery and equipment22132 78740218,6041,663
    Tool, die, and jig making7026741284,254530
    Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.34593884,846409
    Specialised industrial machinery and equipment13292 55323220,7461,097
    Office, computing, and accounting machinery302179341,483182
    Machinery and equipment (except electrical), n.e.c.379215 71473045,1473,751
    Total, machinery9693713 4511 730101,7008,032
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
    Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus11572 07185017,8434,743
    Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus94132 1032 30715,00612,127
    Household electrical durables and ranges2772 72598521,3446,709
    Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.2337085875,1133,099
    Electrical cables and wires6118102947,3081,989
    Other electrical apparatus and supplies, n.e.c.63121 67283313,5414,776
Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies3285310 0895 85680,15533,443
Transport Equipment
    Ship building and repairing18822 12416816,495713
    Railroad equipment95 08638§§
    Motor vehicle assembly plants2425 2911 35539,8298,640
    Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers1111 94224115,9891,241
    Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.7831 87161512,7153,835
    Motor cycles and bicycles17025§§
    Aircraft (incl. repairs)3012 80914633,1491,002
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.211324642,591746
    Total, transport equipment462819 3252 634160,76816,177
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
    Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.141772101,5681,164
    Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1542491571,955809
    Photographic and optical goods2131972111,4901,097
        Total, measuring and controlling equipment5076235785,0133,070
Other Manufacturing Industries
    Jewellery and related articles9415502593,3371,111
    Musical instruments516716§§
    Sporting and athletic goods4723361492,463780
    Brushes and brooms1252741542,181890
    Toys and games3623303812,4142,002
    Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.11387488975,2484,378
    Total, other manufacturing industries307192 3051 85615,6439,161
    Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups‡9 498906211 37081 7101,797,184437,870
    Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing481 96850824,6354,120
    Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing681 7401 03522,2117,736
    Grand total9 4981 022215 07883 2531,844,030449,726

The following table shows additional statistics.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1978–79
Industry Major Group and SubgroupDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals

* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

† Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

‡ Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§ Data included in Food products, n.e.c, Textiles, n.e.c, Transport equipment, n.e.c, and manufacturing industries, n.e.c.

 $(thousand)
Food Manufacturing
    Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)19,656478,251791,907341,32561,507
    Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses57518,45331,63012,4084,699
    Meat packers and canners20919.59122,9393,805714
    Ham, bacon, and smallgoods1,32968,81787,79320,1911,311
    Poultry slaughterhouses71342,44453,04810,7201,090
    Game packers35211,39714,4692,064538
    Meat pies and puddings49521,84827,5797,293558
    Casings of animal origin
    Co-operative dairy factories21,940609,941713,555106,39840,613
    Milk processing plants1,85567,37385,354–3604,039
    Ice cream factories40326,04933,5026,3091,407
    Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)74728,03635,0529,6301,256
    Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables3,79281,349117,42345,5898,545
    Land-based fish, etc., factories2,48750,50565,60216,0505,950
    Vegetable and animal oils and fats1,29640,14850,63113,1812,679
    Grain milling1,22562,88575,09013,5872,005
    Prepared grain breakfast foods
    Bread bakeries2,45574,682102,28228,3644,047
    Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories1906,51210,7654,381438
    Cake and pastry kitchens65421,29135,45314,5471,502
    Biscuit factories57523,50532,3887,708613
    Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles§§§§§
    Sugar factories and refineries§§§§§
    Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery1,27160,96984,71324,5691,309
    Food products, n.e.c.3,772212,931261,08047,1005,222
    Prepared animal foods1,64081,38191,83412,3041,365
    Total, food manufacturing67,6312,108,3582,824,089747,163151,407
Beverages
    Distilling, rectifying, and blending spirits1,78639,60753,35917,3714,938
    Wine
    Breweries5,80085,119142,05348,5884,298
    Malting
    Soft drinks and cordials1,36735,21150,13915,2941,492
    Total, beverages8,953159,937245,55181,25310,728
Tobacco Manufactures1,37455,72676,50222,518867
Textiles
    Wool scouring1,06933,82545,63113,6992,392
    Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving3,228106,516140,46936,4906,946
    Linen flax mills§§§§§
    Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving54012,53620,7607,847475
    Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles3665,4489,1673,375658
    Canvas goods, and similar articles of other fabrics32714,54923,0927,877463
    Other made-up textile goods (except clothing)82928,84542,13113,3541,311
    Knitting mills2,70484,809124,22243,6555,464
    Carpets and rugs2,08867,27192,28321,4648,518
    Cordage, rope, and twine§§§§§
    Textiles, n.e.c.51717,73127,8018,372803
    Total, textiles11,668371,530525,556156,13327,030
Wearing Apparel
    Leather gloves and clothing1296,3439,1123,184177
    Fur clothing161,3411,92162313
    Clothing other than leather or fur3,625208,151342,681135,6273,781
    Total, wearing apparel3,770215,835353,714139,4343,971
Fur and Leather
    Tanneries and leather finishing1,36360,01071,99116,5624,328
    Fellmongery17914,50915,5832,199359
    Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.604,4586,2142,597161
    Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)39019,80930,40010,951862
    Total, fur and leather1,99298,786124,18832,3095,710
Footwear (except rubber, plastic or wooden)1,35760,99398,55139,5941,570
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
    Sawmills5,780125,703193,19568,89811,597
    Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber.1,44250,64875,15421,8611,946
    Builders' carpentry and joinery1,49767,370100,52234,6401,971
    Prefabricated and precut buildings35331,58038,0517,139395
    Plywood, veneer, and board3,40849,24469,76921,3202,308
    Wooden containers23413,14716,9333,998215
    Basket and cane ware42914,68323,78810,0331,019
    Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.
    Other ancillary units‡1974,8804,7022,657278
    Total, wood and cork products13,340357,255522,114170,54619,729
Furniture
    Wooden furniture and upholstery2,11986,846134,94650,8182,617
    Mattress making18614,92219,8907,076207
    Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)1136,1108,8732,715139
    Total, furniture2,418107,878163,70960,6092,963
Paper and Paper Products
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard23,183309,634436,20698,36047,987
    Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons2,814120,047168,58241,6894,180
    Paper bags and sacks
    Wallpaper factories6798,24413,0653,4771,222
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.1,71879,038102,37127,8501,866
    Other ancillary units‡
    Total, pulp and paper products†28,394516,963720,224171,37655,255
Printing and Publishing
    Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books4,80896,708195,810102,2116,582
    Job and general printing5,601120,813202,45289,3389,129
    Service industries for the printing trade91510,53320,93110,6321,529
    Total, printing and publishing†11,324228,054419,193202,18117,240
Industrial Chemicals
    Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2,58218,13933,85115,4033,000
    Chemical fertilisers4,84588,484128,03027,9512,565
    Pesticides1,55424,46833,7089,7401,453
    Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)4,436118,077165,34646,4184,910
    Total, industrial chemicals13,417249,168360,93599,51211,928
    Other Chemical Products
    Paints, varnishes, and lacquers1,05870,59992,88622,8911,444
    Drugs and medicines1,58960,15479,87419,7845,481
    Soap and detergents1,45239,48454,18314,0072,094
    Toilet and cosmetic goods81934,01449,09217,1561,096
    Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.30311,85616,2824,460562
    Ink33814,50920,2426,145327
    Chemical products, n. e. c.1,07238,48752,78115,6681,781
    Total, other chemical products6,631269,103365,340100,11112,785
Petroleum Refineries2,49943,18755,6649,388–612
Petroleum and Coal Products
    Bituminous mixtures and products39113,59018,3414,943922
    Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.
    Total, petroleum and coal products39113,59018,3414,943922
Rubber Products
    Tyres and tubes2,95063,424108,47640,64621,932
    Tyre retreading and vulcanising
    Rubber products, n.e.c.1,08235,73557,77824,3252,359
    Total, rubber products4,03299,159166,25464,97124,291
Plastic Products, n.e.c.6,178124,261194,37272,98210,699
Pottery, China, and Earthenware4108,81119,08110,432650
Glass and Glass Products2,11744,82982,65639,9073,994
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
    Structural clay products7799,98920,0369,878962
    Cement works3,91531,22656,24323,8933,336
    Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)
    Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.
    Precast concrete2,45528,40750,59722,1161,745
    Concrete masonry1,28245,86060,87011,137739
    Ready-mixed concrete1,78850,26265,14814,9461,824
    Plaster and fibrous plaster products31715,74220,9805,815409
    Monumental masonry and stone masonry1062,5114,4882,199114
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.1,41623,80538,66617,4182,273
    Other ancillary units‡
    Total, non-metallic mineral products12,058207,802317,028107,40211,402
Iron and Steel
    Iron and steel basic products6,004176,126252,02689,49516,094
    Iron and steel forgings and castings
Total, iron and steel6,004176,126252,02689,49516,094
Non-ferrous Metal
    Non-ferrous basic metal products5,935124,633169,13651,8694,221
    Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.1,14925,58937,33112,6321,323
    Total, non-ferrous metal7,084150,222206,46764,5015,544
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
    Cutlery and handtools47415,14021,3017,007732
    Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware88921,28434,69314,5801,282
    Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)52423,07734,78711,970843
    Architectural metal structures and fixtures1,45572,651102,09829,9892,543
    Sheet metal roofing and related products1,59077,993100,41927,2082,147
    Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boilershop products3,143100,545155,72059,0224,187
    Wireworking1,07770,05592.15424,4301,438
    Nails and fasteners27516,92621,0754,729584
    Household and kitchen utensils1944,7008,4544,665179
    Servicing industries to the metal trades91116,16228,91513,2061,292
    Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.4,860146,259230,09188,4028,447
    Other ancillary units‡
    Total, metal products15,392564,792829,707285,20823,674
Machinery (except Electrical)
    Manufacture and conditioning of engines and turbines65816,96027,64511,2011,080
    Agricultural machinery and equipment1,56073,732106,38733,1132,900
    Tool, die, and jig making5887,16315,1058,295752
    Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.34710,37117,5407,251478
    Specialised industrial machinery and equipment1,24467,550100,59634,2342,360
    Office, computing, and accounting machinery1562,7395,2892,33178
    Machinery and equipment, n.e.c.3,392133,858199,53470,3804,591
    Total, machinery7,945312,373472,096166,80512,239
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
    Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus1,22249,89279,65240,8613,097
    Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus2,21089,944131,94832,2131,662
    Household electrical durables and ranges2,18398,866141,70540,3003,237
    Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.52819,39130,72910,791498
    Electrical cables and wires1,41739,49755,87621,9901,035
    Other electrical apparatus and supplies, n.e.c.1,50346,09175,05330,0971,919
    Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies9,063343,681514,963176,25211,448
Transport Equipment
    Ship building and repairing1,05735,50556,97522,9742,090
    Railroad equipment§§§§§
    Motor vehicle assembly plants4,430298,210384,70667,6993,799
    Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers89460,75982,29523,8643,846
    Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.1,69037,01655,84023,9622,273
    Motor cycles and bicycles§§§§§
    Aircraft (incl. repairs)1,74239,46180,96243,7203,687
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.82637,56482,49846,5752,333
    Total, transport equipment10,639508,515743,276228,79418,028
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
    Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.2127,74111,7344,407781
    Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1705,4928,9784,185570
    Photographic and optical goods2106,74010,6004,294363
Total, measuring and controlling equipment59219,97331,31212,8861,714
Other Manufacturing Industries
    Jewellery and related articles35013,30020,3437,839427
    Musical instruments§§§§§
    Sporting and athletic goods3238,31313,7935,225313
    Brushes and brooms3227,24111,7284,387630
    Toys and games47712,47418,9696,260371
    Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.66522,91237,89314,6511,703
    Total, other manufacturing industries2,13764,240102,72638,3623,444
    Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups258,8107,481,14710,805,6353,395,067464,714
    Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing2,10945,83375,68445,4205,334
    Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing3,21868,47744,36637,5154,854
    Grand total264,1377,595,45710,925,6853,478,002474,902

ESTABLISHMENTS BY NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES—Small factories continue to be typical of manufacturing in New Zealand despite the impressive rise in New Zealand's exports of manufactured goods in recent years. The Census of Manufacturing 1978–79 showed that just over 50 percent of manufacturing establishments employ less than 10 people and that only 0.5 percent (54 in all) employ 600 or more. Of these 54, 28 were in the food manufacturing group, producing meat and dairy products for export. This group also included a large number of small establishments, especially cake and pastry kitchens. Large scale employers (by New Zealand standards) outside the food manufacturing group included works producing pulp and paper, steel, aluminium, electrical appliances, and transport equipment (including car-assembly plants).

Ancillary units were mainly small. Of the 1022 ancillary units listed in the Census of Manufacturing, 541 employed less than 5 persons.

The following table shows establishments at the Census of Manufacturing 1978–79 by size of workforce and industry major group.

Industry Major GroupEstablishments Employing
Under 55–910–1920–4950–99100–599600–9991000 and OverTotal
Number of Establishments
Food177327222183877915131103
Beverages332619171113119
Tobacco112116
Textiles65110697246421405
Clothing (except footwear)9314416621080271721
Leather processing2938273758144
Footwear (except rubber, plastic, or wooden)101121311916108
Wood and cork products2222761861213620 861
Furniture169163808098509
Paper and paper products5171327112511100
Printing and publishing1151991498726314611
Industrial chemicals162724241817126
Other chemical products314542342419195
Petroleum products264113
Petroleum and coal products6542219
Rubber products1523162538191
Plastic products n.e.c.486860411712246
Pottery, china, and earthenware143331226
Glass and glass products21241184169
Other non-metallic mineral products1511178959127435
Iron and steel basic106149431148
Non-ferrous metals1822161124174
Metal products32642929321256371 353
Machinery (except electrical)2603241901394115969
Electrical machinery56846650304011328
Transport equipment1151418960232446462
Measuring, photographic, and optical equipment14613113350
Miscellaneous manufacturers99104543794307
    Total2 1202 7451 9371 59557747031239 498
Percentage of total establishments22.328.920.416.86.14.90.30.2100.0

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY—The following tables show the distribution of the manufacturing industry by statistical area in 1978–79. The tables illustrate the high degree of concentration of industry in the four main centres and very noticeably in the Central Auckland and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty Statistical Areas.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.No.$(000)
Northland210244 53196843,641
Central Auckland3 34330470 86833 450808,764
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1 21910926 3597 557284,989
East Coast7072 01569217,573
Hawke's Bay348459 9423 594102,680
Taranaki251236 5391 91967,558
Wellington1 60823336 58015 792388,971
    Total, North Island7 049745156 83463 9721,714,176
Marlborough9661 24347811,737
Nelson20893 5911 26134,491
Westland7141 0353029,617
Canterbury1 40815430 85011 413314,587
Otago4327811 8554 415117,997
Southland234269 6701 41291,147
    Total, South Island2 44927758 24419 281579,576
    Total, New Zealand9 4981 022215 07883 2532,293,756

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing by statistical area during 1978–79 are shown in the following table.

Statistical AreaPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland155,465214,70473,3219,177
Central Auckland2,833,7004,039,7711,279,068142,733
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,085,4051,500,827403,69062,339
East Coast42,61261,40925,3425,836
Hawke's Bay334,809507,350179,24131,033
Taranaki277,088359,852102,40622,200
Wellington1,233,3071,780,836573,58497,384
        Total, North Island5,962,3868,464,7492,636,652370,702
Marlborough40,87456,42617,5995,484
Nelson120,403170,09548,0337,068
Westland27,31842,65016,4192,711
Canterbury821,6081,282,976462,78451,179
Otago365,659521,858169,50321,755
Southland257,203386,930127,01116,008
        Total, South Island1,633,0652,460,935841,349104,205
        Total, New Zealand7,595,45710,925,6853,478,002474,902

A similar summary of manufacturing during 1978–79 is given by employment districts in the following tables.

Employment DistrictOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.No.$(000)$(000
Whangarei210244 53196838,8934,748
Auckland3 34330470 86833 450623,530185,234
Hamilton6967312 5224 315106,83622,633
Tauranga223122 9851 09421,3575,458
Rotorua3012410 8652 148115,78912,960
Gisborne7072 01569214,4153,158
Napier159203 4091 26729,5426,818
Hastings163236 1992 08652,20710,450
New Plymouth244225 8271 87551,8349,325
Wanganui16794 5821 41036,6056,684
Palmerston North406347 9913 48561,92618,504
Masterton11762 4231 37717,9266,665
Lower Hutt4347513 3275 131116,25230,132
Wellington5161129 2904 67478,80025,495
    Total, North Island7 049745156 83463 9721,365,912348,264
Blenheim9661 2434789,3632,374
Nelson18083 1291 10223,7426,174
Greymouth9951 49746111,9082,282
Christchurch1 18214626 26010 186217,91751,920
Ashburton64596437410,0122,259
Timaru16133 62085228,2154,205
Oamaru3911 57237412,0552,042
Dunedin3947710 2894 04281,33022,630
Invercargill234269 6701 41283,5767,571
    Total, South Island2 44927758 24419 281478,118101,458
    Total, New Zealand9 4981 022215 07883 2531,844,030449,726

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing during 1978–79 are shown by employment districts in the following table.

Employment DistrictDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Whangarei7,873155,465214,70473,3219,177
Auckland81,2332,833,7004,039,7711,279,068142,733
Hamilton16,686510,526702,872188,17231,695
Tauranga3,950109,203155,74844,1537,898
Rotorua26,944465,699642,307171,44122,747
Gisborne2,07142,61261,40925,3425,836
Napier6,627151,004217,60773,44411,864
Hastings5,815161,698261,885100,68817,469
New Plymouth12,264273,727351,27596,21521,521
Wanganui4,264126,662178,96055,34136,488
Palmerston North9,656282,667395,791120,34620,818
Masterton3,04858,82989,65937,3586,486
Lower Hutt14,301502,626722,226210,23821,703
Wellington10,209287,968430,533161,52614,268
    Total, North Island204,9435,962,3868,464,7492,636,652370,702
Blenheim1,45340,87456,42617,5995,484
Nelson3,604108,870148,03438,9466,731
Greymouth4,03938,85164,71125,5063,048
Christchurch22,905720,6341,118,966398,08236,421
Ashburton94717,43833,82215,8281,288
Timaru3,47683,055129,62748,79013,438
Oamaru1,21745,50262,72420,2673,407
Dunedin9,459320,638459,695149,32018,379
Invercargill12,091257,203386,930127,01116,008
    Total, South Island59,1911,633,0652,460,935841,349104,205
Total, New Zealand264,1377,595,45710,925,6853,478,002474,902
Note—For further information on the 1978–79 Census of Manufacturing, refer to the 1982 Yearbook and the 1978–79 Census of Manufacturing volume.

PRODUCTION OF SELECTED GOODS—The following table shows the volume of production of selected goods. It should be noted that the figures refer to December years (except where otherwise stated) and not to production years as in most tables in this section. Quarterly or (in some cases) monthly production figures for these commodities will be found in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, published by the Department of Statistics.

CommodityUnit198019811982

* Includes knitted dresses.

† Excludes gumboots and thongs.

‡ See also Section 14A Farming (General) and Section 24 Consumption of Food.

§ Year ended May.

‖ From June 1980 includes infant and dietary foods.

¶ Year ended June.

** From April 1980 figures represent beer for sale.

†† Figures related only to operations of superphosphate manufacturing works.

Deep freeze, display cabinets, etc.No.75 39881 73169 015
Electric ranges and rangettesNo.41 53254 78955 966
Lawn mowersNo.94 65391 57598 682
Television setsNo.126 013126 311129 786
RecordsNo. (000)5 5545 9016 297
Cassette tapes (prerecorded)No. (000)2 4502 9063 158
Cassette tapes (blank)No. (000)1 3111 4111 330
Textiles and Clothing
    Woollen and worsted yarntonnes18 69619 59520 207
    Piece goodssq metres (000)2 8372 7333 192
    Carpetssq metres (000)9 1369 06910 091
    Women's and girls'—
        Underpants and briefs(000)5 6175 5756 048
        Nightwear(000)1 7861 8532 231
        Pantyhoseprs (000)10 46412 98412 660
        Other hosieryprs (000)2 271x2 4432 339
        Cardigans, pullovers, and jerseys(000)1 941.8x2 778.52 427.0
        Overcoats(000)266.4x274.6
        Skirts(000)1 127.0x1 671.41 512.2
        Slacks and jeans(000)550.3x2 132.92 483.1
        Dresses*(000)1 844.3x2 089.51 976.4
        Blouses and shirts(000)1 974.5x2 033.52 057.9
    Men's and boys'—
        Underpants and briefs(000)2 7453 2013 737
        Nightwear(000)644690686
        Hosieryprs (000)5 3535 1305 825
        Cardigans, jerseys, and pullovers(000)1 137.11 582.21 569.7
        Suits(000)123.5101.3-
        Trousers and jeans(000)2 157.43 376.83 461.3
        Shorts(000)1 560.02 215.42 552.3
        Shirts(000)4 8256 0376 889
Footwear (total)†prs (000)7 310x7 152x7 552
Foodstuffs
    White milk sales subject to subsidy§litres (million)377.0367.0361.0
    Butter§tonnes (000)259.6264.9x247.1
    Cheese§tonnes (000)105.784.3x110.9
    Skim- milk powder§tonnes (000)172.5181.0x194.0
    Powdered whole milk§‖tonnes (000)87.3100.2x114.5
    Casein§tonnes (000)67.059.6x47.0
    Flourtonnes (000)222.9223.6221.0
    Wheatmeal and wholemealtonnes (000)5.55.76.4
    Refined sugartonnes (000)133.4125.0121.0
    Prepared dry cereal foodstonnes (000)20.220.120.2
    Biscuitstonnes (000)25.125.727.5
    Jam¶tonnes (000)5.46.55.5
    Fruit (canned, bottled, or dehydrated)¶tonnes (000)20.724.121.5
    Ice creamlitres (million)56.853.5x51.3
    Beer**litres (million)378.3382.6399.7
    Carbonated drinkslitres (million)92.3102.8106.8
    Vegetables (canned, bottled, or dehydrated)¶tonnes (000)23.625.227.4
    Chocolate confectionerytonnes (000)10.010.912.0
    Sugar confectionerytonnes (000)11.510.39.9
Transport
    Passenger cars (up to 2000c.c.)No.65 37190 02482 853
    Passenger cars (over 2000c.c.)No.7 9825 4344 177
    Trucks, vans, and busesNo.17 36620 13324 217
    TyresNo. (000)1 662.51 583.41 737.5
    TubesNo. (000)1 020.3x981.2x965.2
Miscellaneous
    Papertonnes (000)683.8711.2702.0
    Wood pulptonnes (000)1 136.3x1 150.4x1 048.3
    Chemical fertilisers††tonnes (000)2 402x2 024x1 885x
    Cigarettesmillion6 2766 1916 334

QUARTERLY ECONOMIC SURVEY OF MANUFACTURING—In 1974–75 the department introduced an enterprise-based economic Census of Manufacturing. Following completion of the first two annual censuses on the new basis a quarterly survey of the main indicators for the manufacturing sector was developed and this commenced with the June 1977 quarter.

The survey replaced the previous short-term survey of manufacturers' stocks (now discontinued) and was designed to provide rapidly more comprehensive economic indicators for the use of the Government, trade organisations, and business people, as well as providing data for use in the quarterly national accounts. With the co-operation of manufacturers, and because the survey is a sample one only, it is possible to publish results in a much more timely manner than is possible in the case of a full census.

It is also hoped that this survey will obviate the need for an annual manufacturing census. The move towards a less frequent Census of Manufacturing is being tested out by having a gap in 1978, and then a 2-year gap between 1979 and 1982. A firm decision will then be taken on the planned conversion to 5-yearly censuses.

The survey, which is a sample one, is based on approximately 1500 firms selected from the 1979 Census of Manufacturing. It was revised in June 1982. All manufacturing divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification are represented. Allowance is made in the survey for the opening of new factories and the closure of established ones.

A long-term series covering earlier years has been derived using the values of the previous survey of manufacturer's stocks which were not conceptually the same as this survey.

The basic definitions of the headings are as follows:

Sales—This is the actual value of sales (whether in New Zealand or overseas) during the quarter. It includes sales of goods without processing or assembly, and also includes processing of other firms' materials.

Stocks—Stocks are as at the end of each quarter. They are grouped under two headings—

  1. Stocks of materials include components, stores, fuels, containers, and other packaging materials.

  2. Stocks of finished goods include work in progress. This section also includes goods purchased for resale without further processing.

Additions to Fixed Assets—This includes the purchase of new and secondhand fixed assets and the cost of work done by a firm's own employees, in producing, constructing and installing fixed assets for its own use.

Salaries and Wages—This is the gross salaries and wages of all employees (full time, part time, and casual) during the quarter. It does not include drawings of working partners.

Purchases—This figure includes the value of purchases of all materials, components, supplies, containers and other packaging materials, fuels, electricity, and water. It also includes payments for commission and contract services, and purchases for resale without processing or assembly.

Other Operating Expenses—These include all other expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations.

Hours Worked—Hours worked during the quarter relate to paid employees only and include overtime hours.

All-industry totals for a series of quarters are shown in the following table. Annual figures (where given) are for the year ended 31 March. Stocks are as at the end of each period.

PeriodSalesStocksAdditions to Fixed Assets
MaterialsFinished Goods*
* Includes work in progress.
 $(million)
1980x13,184.41,379.01,217.5605.4
1981x15,188.81,501.91,391.2746.5
198218,936.91,716.61,595.31,391.1
Quarter
    1982—Mar4,880.01,716.61,595.3484.7
                Jun5,315.11,793.81,692.5507.5
                Sep5,093.81,866.81,790.9660.6
                Dec5,289.91,881.01,747.4740.5
PeriodSalaries and WagesPurchases and Other Operating ExpensesHours Worked
† Includes other operating expenses except interest, bad debts and donations.
 $(m)$(m)(000)
1980x2,785.79,830.5546 929
1981x3,229.811,133.6529 322
19823,931.713,886.5540 639
Quarter
    1982—Mar1,001.03,609.6130 779
                Jun1,122.63,918.3142 460
                Sep1,025.33,863.0134 720
                Dec1,089.43,812.8132 325

The following table shows the main indicators by industry divisions for the year ended 31 March 1982. The industry divisions are in accordance with the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Primary Food covers the processing of meat and dairy products.

Industry DivisionsSalesStocksAdditions to Fixed Assets
MaterialsFinished Goods
 $(000)
Primary food3,745,23883,407336,984234,346
Other food2,162,918235,320192,55994,522
Textiles, clothing1,771,824226,920185,59154,550
Wood and furniture1,359,70083,177133,01953,395
Paper and printing2,025,176161,952103,870118,800
Chemicals2,284,720244,921242,295223,353
Non-metallic mineral635,48745,00549,02434,624
Basic metal731,01993,62763,836139,023
Fabricated metal4,834,233560,367432,303154,330
Other manufacturing industries172,83920,27518,6435,515
    Total, all industries19,723,1541,754,9711,758,1241,112,458
Industry DivisionsSalaries and WagesPurchasesOperating ExpensesOther Hours Worked
  $(000) (000)
Primary food750,7842,409,821420,57882 126
Other food314,0591,273,274376,13246 813
Textiles, clothing462,496948,264293,62480 705
Wood and furniture294,798730,680210,28044 998
Paper and printing444,4161,016,531323,33256 123
Chemicals394,6991,275,509440,35252 523
Non-metallic mineral125,531282,581123,23217 639
Basic metal118,849451,370105,32212 683
Fabricated metal1,039,3482,736,686689,765144 265
Other manufacturing industries39,98276,44233,6447 038
    Total, all industries3,984,96211,201,4583,016,261544 913

SOURCES OF INFORMATION—The results of recent censuses of manufacturing have been published in a series of bulletins covering individual statistical areas and individual industries. These are available from the Department of Statistics. Other information on manufacturing industries will be found in the following publications:

Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Census of Manufacturing 1976–77 (Volume)Department of Statistics.

Census of Manufacturing 1978–79 (Volume)Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Pocket Digest of Statistics.

The Department of Trade and Industry is responsible for a number of periodicals including Regional Development News and Export News.

Chapter 19. Section 19; BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

The downward trend in the demand for new houses and flats in recent years appeared to reverse during 1981–82, when permits issued for new dwellings totalled 19 006 which, while slightly below the 1978–79 figure of 19 050, compared favourably with 14 442 in 1980–81 and 15 197 in 1979–80. A total of 16 300 new houses and flats were completed during 1981–82 compared with 14 300 during the previous year. The increase was entirely in private and local body completions. The number of state rental dwellings built for the Housing Corporation continued to fall sharply. Only 267 were completed during 1981–82 compared with 825 during the previous year and 1173 during 1979–80.

Although the housing position as measured by the traditional indicators appeared to be improving in 1981–82 the Housing Corporation pointed out in a review of the situation in its Annual Report that there were signs that an increasing number of households were facing problems over housing. The number of people applying for state rental units was increasing while the turnover of tenancies was declining. In addition, local authorities and social service groups were reporting growing numbers of calls from people looking for affordable housing or seeking financial and material assistance to enable them to meet existing housing commitments.

A number of factors were contributing to current housing problems. Among the main ones were:

  1. Changes in the geographical distribution of the population—Results from the 1981 Population Census indicated a continued movement of population towards the northern part of the North Island and particularly towards the Auckland area.

    Between the censuses of 1976 and 1981, when the total population of New Zealand rose by 46 354 (incidentally by far the smallest intercensal increase recorded during this century), nearly 70 percent of the increase (32 113 out of the 46 354) was in the population of Auckland Statistical Division. The population of the second and third largest statistical divisions—Wellington and Christchurch—fell by 5 646 and 3 990 respectively. Urbanisation, the drift of population from rural areas to cities and towns or their vicinity, continues and, although the rate appears to be stabilising, bring;; its own housing problems. From this, it appears likely that a disparity exists between the geographical distribution of the population and the distribution of the existing housing stock.

  2. Cost of housing accommodation—House prices in recent years have tended to more or less keep pace with average weekly earnings, but the very uncertain employment position and the worsening economic situation, with high inflation and continued rises in mortgage interest rates, have made it increasingly difficult for potential houseowners to accumulate the necessary capital or undertake the loan servicing charges associated with home-ownership. At the same time traditional attitudes to the level of rents which a tenant could be expected to bear and other factors have made private sector rental housing an unattractive investment. During the period 1976–1981 the proportion of rental houses in the total housing stock dropped from 28 to 25 percent, and the rental stock increased by only 4600 units.

  3. Demographic and social changes in the population—During the intercensal period 1976–1981, when the total population increased by 46 000, the numbers in the principal household-forming age groups, the 18–34 year-olds, increased by nearly 63 000. In addition, the numbers of single-person and incomplete-family households continued to increase. In many instances, a broken family means that members of the family occupy two dwellings where one was necessary before the break.

Obviously there is a disparity between the current housing situation as described by traditional indicators and that being experienced by an increasing number of New Zealand households. Better utilisation of the total existing stock of private and public housing remains a priority and, at a time of heavy demand on a limited pool of new investment capital, that which is available for housing must be targeted efficiently and effectively to areas of greatest need.

The value of building permits and authorisations in the “other buildings and construction” sector of the building and construction industry in 1981–82 rose substantially as compared with recent years, “or new buildings the total value was $580.0 million compared with $430.9 million in 1980–81, $400.8 million in 1979–80, and $358.0 million in 1978–79. Permits and authorisation for total work on “other buildings and construction", which included alterations and additions, showed a 39 percent increase in value, from $635.3 million in 1980–81 to $881.9 million in 1981–82.

During the year the Major Projects Advisory Group, previously linked to the Building Industry Advisory Council, was restructured by the Government to place greater emphasis on maximising New Zealand participation in projects and the administrative servicing of the groups was transferred from the Ministry of Works and Development to the Department of Trade and Industry. The Ministry of Works and Development participates as a member of the group, advising on the capacity of local industry and capabilities of firms to undertake specialist engineering work on projects.

Within the residential field, the sixties and seventies witnessed a trend in housing construction away from houses to flats. This reached a peak in 1973–74, when just over 40 percent of permits for new dwellings applied to flats, but fell away in the late seventies and the position now appears to be stabilising, with flats making up about a quarter of new dwellings.

Town houses, a type of compact construction which combines some of the advantages of both houses and flats, have proved popular in recent years. In these statistics, single-unit town houses are included with houses, and multi-unit town houses with flats. Flats also include apartments, semi-detached units, row houses, pensioners flats, maisonettes, and duplex units.

In recent years, statistics of permits for flats have included numbers of blocks as well as numbers of dwelling units (for example, in 1981–82 permits were issued for 5010 flats comprising 2408 blocks; in 1980–81 permits covered 3334 flats in 1543 blocks). “Blocks” included some single flats but generally two or more flats were included. However, the annual average number of flats per block during the past 6 years has varied from 2–6 to 2–1, indicating that multi-unit or tower blocks of flats and apartments form a relatively small proportion of the total.

BUILDING INDUSTRY ADVISORY COUNCIL—The functions of the Building Industry Advisory Council are: (a) to give advice to Government through the Minister of Works and Development on matters affecting the building and construction industries; (b) to maintain an overall and continuing review of the industries and (c) to give advice to the industries on the likely effects of building trends. The membership of the council consists of nine representatives from sectors of the industries, namely building and civil engineering contractors, architects, professional engineers, workers, and suppliers, plus one representative each from Treasury and Ministry of Works and Development. Members have been appointed by the Minister of Works and Development on the recommendation of organisations within the building industry.

BUILDING PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE CORPORATION—The Building Performance Guarantee Corporation was established early in 1978 to offer an insurance scheme designed to protect the buyers of new homes against the consequences of poor workmanship, the use of inferior building materials, the bankruptcy of the builder, or other failures to complete a house in accordance with the contract.

NATIONAL HOUSING COMMISSION—The National Housing Commission, established in 1974, is a body whose principal functions are to advise the Minister of Housing on all matters relating to housing in New Zealand and to inquire into and keep under review the housing needs of the population. In addition, it is charged with assisting in the co-ordination of all persons, bodies, and agencies, both public and private, concerned with housing in New Zealand and promoting co-operation between them.

Currently there are 6 appointed members, comprising the chairman (a barrister and solicitor with local body housing background), the general manager of a lending institution, an architect, a building consultant, a business consultant, and a retired professor of economics, and 2 official members, one from the Housing Corporation and one from the Treasury.

The second of the commission's five-yearly reports on the present and future position of housing in New Zealand was published in mid-1983.

Up to the end of 1982 the commission had issued 57 publications based on its continuing programme of research into a variety of aspects of housing.

TRENDS IN AVERAGE COSTS—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period. (Source: Housing Corporation.)

Type of BuildingCost at End of March Year
1950196019701979198019811982
* Area 102 sq metres. Cost comparability is affected by design changes from year to year.
 $$$$$$$
State rental house (976 sq ft)4,3445,5287,45023,755*27,715*33,310*45,170*

CENSUS OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION 1978–79—The fourth 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction was taken for the year 1978–79, and was the first fully integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in that activity. It excluded the activities of owner-builders and labour-only contractors to the building and construction industries, as well as the building activities of New Zealand electric power boards.

All activities from production to the point at which the goods or services are sold were within the scope of the census, which was for the year ended 31 March 1979 or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The census formed part of the department's 5-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and for this reason any comparisons with the censuses of building and construction prior to 1978–79 should be treated with caution.

In 1978–79, the building and construction industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

Buildings, residential and non-residential.

Construction, other than buildings.

Services to building and construction.

The statistical tables which follow give summaries of these 3 divisions. The definitions used in these tables are the same as listed in the Census of Manufacturing statistics (see section 18), with the following exceptions:

Establishments—Productive units, engaged predominantly in building and construction operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc, engaged in predominantly servicing those establishments.

General Statistics

The following table gives a general summary of the results of the 1978–79 Census of Building and Construction.

ItemUnitTotal
EstablishmentsNo.10,754
Ancillary unitsNo.52
Total persons engaged at 15 April 1979No.73,217
Salaries and wages paid (excluding working proprietors remuneration)$(000)545,993
Depreciation$(000)41,031
Purchases and other expenses$(000)1,895,241
Turnover$(000)2,667,143
Value added$(000)794,833
Capital expenditure less disposals$(000)106,266

In the following 2 tables statistics are given at industry (subgroup) level.

Industry ClassificationOperating UnitsTotal Persons Engaged at 15 April 1979Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
 No.No.No.$(000)
Buildings, residential2 94179 74049,660
Buildings, non-residential7741617,912176,666
Construction, other than building1,2732423,248192,667
Bricklaying2847502,783
Concrete blocklaying1173241,526
Other stone work1786401
Concrete work1274162,041
Solid plastering1584341,790
Fibrous plastering683762,717
Job carpentry3908282,796
Glazing58175921
Roofing, tile562391,475
Roofing, metal643812,517
Roofing, fabric10102852
Electrical1 03524 16924,007
Plumbing and drainlaying1 37815 39528,298
Heating and air-conditioning1081 26710,007
Painting and paperhanging1 1344 05921,786
Flooring1986112,641
Insulating392191,504
Demolition work25104712
Scaffold erection222912,293
Structural steel erection181481,516
Reinforced steel bending and placing1768578
Other services to building and construction44321 87513,840
    Total, building and construction industries10,7545273 217545,993
Industry ClassificationDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Buildings, residential4,011343,565445,461101,8294,652
Buildings, non-residential4,569697,805900,445212,09631,369
Construction, other than building22,768516,138766,647259,31255,278
Bricklaying2558,02114,2756,336353
Concrete blocklaying984,3347,2523,012130
Other stone work321,3722,08181930
Concrete work3716,0289,9923,970604
Solid plastering1182,6836,4263,768187
Fibrous plastering764,1347,8773,779110
Job carpentry31513,12020,4097,068577
Glazing952,7024,4301,812187
Roofing, tile1169,85912,3012,653134
Roofing, metal15110,64714,5843,990134
Roofing, fabric392,1073,1821,10843
Electrical1,47261,489102,33541,3392,021
Plumbing and drainlaying2,65281,702132,75351,7783,992
Heating and air-conditioning34829,18942,13513,499409
Painting and paperhanging1,20426,52063,98138,0012,199
Flooring2956,37912,2065,996473
Insulating903,4005,6752,366128
Demolition work2251,4002,8701,528340
Scaffold erection1561,8534,9533,141207
Structural steel erection962,8535,2622,425105
Reinforced steel bending and placing375201,23172812
Other services to building and construction1,44157,42078,38022,4772,594
    Total, building and construction industries41,0311,895,2412,667,143794,833106,266

Regional summaries of the census as a whole are shown in the 2 statistical area tables which follow. The first shows operating units, persons engaged, and salaries and wages paid.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged At Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillaries
 No.No.No.$(000)
Northland3132 44715,142
Central Auckland2 6601016 709128,544
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty1 627511 30284,154
East Coast14021 0426,706
Hawke's Bay49213 22921,581
Taranaki41832 74622,841
Wellington2 1232015 587121,100
    North Island total7 7734153 062400,068
Marlborough1466984,097
Nelson2801 72611,821
Westland897034,623
Canterbury1 22759 17671,780
Otago81545 76540,374
Southland42422 08713,230
    South Island total2 9811120 155145,925
    New Zealand total10 7545273 217545,993

The second regional summary shows other financial statistics.

Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland1,29354,78773,23921,1702,990
Central Auckland9,591446,643635,702189,02420,159
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty6,480252,454.–66,989122,73518,092
East Coast41021,00429,41110,1641,273
Hawke's Bay1,55082,486115,84931,7373,928
Taranaki3,02268,052102,49434,0502,468
Wellington7,762483,636643,179173,50922,319
    North Island total30,1081,409,0621,966,863582,38871,230
Marlborough44710,48816,8586,515907
Nelson95834,28551,08717,2742,186
Westland58615,25221,5136,5762,343
Canterbury4,196245,757349,60598,60416,928
Otago3,302129,200187,30860,2639,115
Southland1,43351,19673,90823,2113,557
    South Island total10,923486,178700,280212,44535,036
    New Zealand total41,0311,895,2412,667,143794,833106,266

In the following table the turnover for the industry has been analysed by the principal components.

ItemTurnover
 $(thousand)
Building and construction sales—
    Repairs and maintenance359,225
    Construction of new buildings1,263,389
    Construction, other than buildings945,532
Hire of plant46,238
    Total sales2,614,384
Other income47,961
    Total sales and other income2,662,345
Capital work done by own employees4,797
    Total turnover2,667,143

HOUSING—More than half of New Zealand's estimated 1 108 700 dwellings have been built during the past 25 years. The average house is about 102 square metres in area, is single-storeyed, and normally built of timber; fittings are of a reasonably high standard, especially in the kitchen.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes. There is relatively little housing built for private rental. Rapidly rising property costs have made it difficult for persons on modest income to finance their way into home ownership.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. By March 1982, 88 213 of these houses and flats had been built and since 1950, 30 820 of them had been sold to the occupiers. Rental dwellings are let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances.

Under the Community and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP), a measure which came into effect on 1 September 1979, local authorities, builders, and private home owners are provided with a wide range of financial assistance for residential urban renewal projects. Activity in this field is becoming of increasing importance as the housing stock ages and the rate of new housing construction declines.

The Unit Titles Act 1972 made provision for a new type of ownership of units in a multi-unit development. Individual owners are entitled to a legal estate in their respective units and can sell or transfer a unit without requiring the consent of other owners as is the case where a block of shares in a flat-owning company provides the right to a flat.

GOVERNMENT CAPITAL ASSISTANCE FOR NEW HOUSING—The following table shows the bulk of the Government's capital expenditure on new housing during the latest available 3 years. It does not include expenditure on residential properties by the Departments of Maori Affairs or Lands and Survey, expenditure by the Housing Corporation for other departments, or advances under the scheme for the capitalisation of family benefits.

Expenditure1979–801980–811981–82
  $(000) 
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.55,54145,76736,686
Advances for new urban houses122,700111,62066,210
Advances for new rural houses6,9979,5409,323
Loans to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.8,1008,4046,896
Subsidies paid to local authorities, and religious or welfare organisations for housing of elderly5,4744,1602,790

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completions are given in the following table; they include flats created by conversion of existing dwellings. The statistics are dependent on the supply of information by local authorities and indications are that they have been understated.

Year Ended 31 MarchGovernmentPrivate and Local Authority*Total New Houses and FlatsFlats Created by ConversionTotal Housing Units
State RentalTenancies*

* Includes Education and Hospital Boards.

† City, borough and county councils, etc., comprising pensioner units, staff housing, etc.

‡ Additional dwelling units created by conversion of existing buildings, e.g., one house converted into two flats.

19781 42749122 20024 10020024 300
19791 18050417 50019 20011019 300
19801 17328714 50016 00013016 100
19818255813 40014 30013014 400
19822678715 90016 30013016 400

DEMOLITIONS—According to notifications received, the totals of dwellings demolished in recent years have been: 1977–78, 1808; 1978–79, 1625; 1979–80, 1576; 1980–81, 1357; and 1981–82, 1170.

BUILDING STATISTICS—The principal official building statistics are the Department of Statistics monthly analyses of building permits and its quarterly analyses of the value of work put in place. Other building information is available from the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction, the 5-yearly Census of Population and Dwellings, and inter-industry statistics.

The prime source of the following statistics is building permits issued by local authorities. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government departments, hospitals, education and harbour boards are included, even though permits may not actually be taken out.

The permit value shown represents in the majority of instances the contract price or estimated cost of the building prior to the commencement of construction. The finished cost may be higher because of wage increases, the rising cost of materials, etc. This applies particularly to large buildings which usually take a considerable time to complete.

The values of building permits for the latest 5 years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings. Government and other buildings not requiring building permits are included.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
19781979198019811982

* Includes alterations and additions.

† Includes ancillary buildings.

Dwellings$(million)
Houses378.5390.3378.8424.9669.9
Flats125.2108.683.596.1180.4
Alterations and additions116.7138.7153.5199.8269.6
        Other Buildings*
Hostels, boardinghouses21.612.813.016.325.8
Hotels, motels, etc.19.515.315.024.749.3
Hospitals and nursing homes†50.331.826.618.628.9
Education buildings†69.054.459.593.766.1
Shops, restaurants, taverns31.634.242.750.259.5
Office and administrative103.3127.1127.2123.5189.1
Warehouses49.346.845.460.168.6
Factories, powerhouses, etc.124.5104.1126.6127.4269.9
Social, cultural, and recreational buildings31.645.438.957.051.1
Farm buildings32.334.547.961.269.9
Miscellaneous buildings4.05.42.32.43.7
        All buildings1,157.41,149.41,160.91,356.12,001.8

The following tables show the value, and a percentage analysis of the value, of building permits and authorisations during 1981–82 by type of building and sector of ownership. The high percentage of the total value of building permits represented by houses and flats built by the private sector ("Households") highlights the importance of private investment in residential buildings as a key to stability in the building industry.

Type of BuildingProducer EnterprisesFinancial IntermediariesGeneral GovernmentPrivate Non-profit OrganisationsHouseholdsTotal

* Includes alterations and additions.

† Includes ancillary buildings.

 Value $(000)*
Houses and flats22,21824411,1707541,085,5101,119,896
Hostels and boardinghouses4,2734519,9191,53425,772
Hotels, motels, etc.49,187234149,251
Hospitals and nursing homes2,4553420,9215,44128,852
Education buildings†1260,1985,91266,122
Social, cultural, and recreational6,6078,40136,11051,118
Shops, restaurants, taverns58,38353629831959,536
Office and administrative107,05033,34747,954703189,054
Warehouses64,1142,2932,1802768,614
Factories, powerhouses, etc.251,10662417,594624269,948
Farm buildings68,57431,3143369,923
Miscellaneous1,35522,2411083,706
    All buildings635,33337,128192,21551,6061,085,5102,001,792
 Percentage of Total Value
Houses and flats1.10.654.255.9
Hostels and boardinghouses0.21.00.11.3
Hotels, motels, etc.2.52.5
Hospitals and nursing homes0.11.00.31.4
Education buildings†3.00.33.3
Social, cultural and recreational0.30.41.82.6
Shops, restaurants, taverns2.93.0
Office and administrative5.31.72.49.4
Warehouses3.20.10.13.4
Factories, powerhouses, etc.12.50.913.5
Farm buildings3.40.13.5
Miscellaneous0.10.10.2
    All buildings31.71.99.62.654.2100.0

The values of permits for alterations and additions are included for all types of buildings.

The total for houses and flats during 1981–82 includes 19 006 permits or authorisations to a total value of $850.3 million for new dwellings. This included authorisations by the Central Government for 416 new houses (value $18.3 million) and 180 new flats (value $6.7 million).

Compared with the previous year, in 1981–82 the value of permits and authorisations for houses and flats made up a slightly higher percentage of the aggregate total (55.9 percent as compared with 53.2 percent).

Some categories of buildings used in this and other building-permit tables require additional explanation. Hostels and boardinghouses, for example, include barracks, orphanages, nurses' homes, and boarding school accommodations; hotels and motels include private and licensed hotels, but exclude taverns; education buildings include primary and secondary schools, teachers colleges, technical institutes, university buildings, kindergartens, and play centres; and the broad category—social, cultural, recreational buildings—includes churches, halls, theatres, cinemas, clubrooms, community centres, and grandstands.

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 5 years are shown along with permit values. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Year Ended 31 MarchNew HousesNew FlatsTotal Dwelling Permits*Total Permits All Buildings*
Dwelling UnitsValueAreaDwelling UnitsValueArea
* Includes the value of permits for alterations and additions.
  $(m)sq metres $(m)sq metres$(m)$(m)
   (000)  (000)  
197814 358378.51 819.56 847125.2589.3620.41,157.4
197913 670390.31 732.95 380108.6466.0637.6x1,149.4
198011 687378.81 551.43 51083.5326.0615.81,160.9
198111 108424.91 518.73 33496.1334.4720.81,356.1
198213 996669.91 980.05 010180.4508.11,119.92,001.8

The average permit value for new houses and flats in 1981–82 was $44,739, compared with $36,072 in 1980–81, $30,415 in 1979–80, $26,190 in 1978–79 and $23,754 in 1977–78.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS—The following table shows building permit values and dwelling completions for the March year 1981–82 for main urban areas and statistical divisions. Where applicable the main urban areas are included in the relevant statistical division.

AreaNew Houses and FlatsTotal (All Permits) ValueDwelling Completions*
NumberValue

* Figures for completions of dwellings are rounded to indicate that exact numbers are not always available and are dependent on notifications from local authorities.

† Includes rural and other housing not listed in the foregoing locations.

  $(m)$(m) 
Whangarei U.A.35114.827.5240
Northern Auck. U.A.1 60272.3115.81 150
Western Auck. U.A.81729.655.5740
Central Auck. U.A.87443.4185.0720
Southern Auck. U.A.1 77684.4147.91 720
Auckland Stat. Div.5 629253.4548.64 600
Hamilton U.A.61026.054.2630
Hamilton Stat. Div.98444.193.4950
Tauranga U.A.91538.454.2860
Rotorua U.A.35314.435.0380
Gisborne U.A.944.215.3110
Napier U.A.34013.122.3290
Hastings U.A.26312.033.7210
Napier-Hastings Stat. Div.63026.661.1530
New Plymouth U.A.42720.144.7320
Palmerston Nth. U.A.42319.947.6370
Palmerston Nth. Stat. Div.57827.262.8500
Lower Hutt U.A.26312.736.0200
Upper Hutt U.A.713.710.980
Porirua Basin U.A.22211.017.4180
Wellington U.A.44020.8118.3360
Wellington Stat. Div.1 16356.2195.9920
Wanganui U.A.1655.614.4200
Masterton U.A.452.16.240
Nelson U.A.27411.724.6240
Christchurch U.A.1 54771.3152.31 350
Christchurch Stat. Div.1 74980.3170.41 550
Timaru U.A.984.19.280
Dunedin U.A.26312.132.6240
Dunedin Stat. Div.30213.835.6250
Invercargill U.A.30212.428.4270
    Total, New Zealand19 006850.32,001.816 300

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics makes a quarterly survey of building work put in place. In contrast to the statistics based on building permits, these figures show the gross value of actual work done. It should be noted that there are varying time lags between the issue of the building permit and the commencement of building. The actual work for which a permit is issued can be extended over a number of time periods. Also, the total value of this work may differ considerably from the value estimated on the building permit, especially in times of relatively rapid inflation.

Year Ended 31 MarchDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
 $(million)
197858.3523.6581.9128.8710.7
197953.1450.4503.5139.2642.7
198045.5438.1483.6162.6646.2
198133.8490.3524.1204.4728.5
198220.8697.7718.5258.4976.9
Year Ended 31 MarchOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, BoardinghousesHospitalsFactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchoolsMiscellaneousTotal

* Includes alterations and additions.

† And ancillary buildings.

‡ Includes churches and sports entertainment buildings.

 $(million)
197825.455.0123.4204.171.275.8554.91,265.6
197933.862.7126.7210.456.474.3564.21,207.0
198038.161.5141.4255.351.288.8636.31,282.5
198141.847.1155.6274.572.4114.0705.41,433.9
198259.445.8218.8360.377.3142.7904.21,881.2

BUILDING MATERIALS—Production of some principal building materials during the four latest December years is shown in the following table.

ItemUnitDecember Year
1979198019811982
Ready-mixed concretecu metres (000)9229941 1371 204
Paint and varnish—
    Paints (not water) and enamels lacquers, varnishes, and reaction clearslitres (000)15 60218 21819 10018 921
    Water paints, including aqueous emulsionslitres (000)9 0169 61711 44711 639
Fibre boardtonnes (000)73.181.983.5x83.5
Sawn timbercu metres (000)1 9542 180x2 269x2 153
Particle boardcu metres144 189141 413161 040142 630
Plywoodcu metres58 06153 50860 46558 973
Cementtonnes (000)752720759781

HOUSING FINANCE—The Housing Corporation, a wholly Government-owned institution described in detail in Section 30C, generally provides finance to first home seekers receiving a modest income. Some second and subsequent home seekers who demonstrate a special need may also be assisted. For the year ended 31 March 1982 the Housing Corporation authorised 3253 loans valued at $81.00 million for new urban dwellings. Of the total of 11 302 housing loans authorised, 8049 were authorised for the purchase of existing houses. Other important sources of housing finance are building societies, life insurance offices, trustee savings banks, and solicitors trust funds.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social welfare family benefit. The capitalised benefit can be used either to build a family home, or for essential alterations, or to repay mortgages. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $4,000. Family benefit advances totalling $4.30 million were authorised during 1981–82 by the Housing Corporation to applicants holding eligibility certificates issued by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Housing Corporation operates a Housing Mortgage Guarantee Scheme in respect of housing loans on first or subsequent mortgage granted by approved lenders, including trustee lenders, where the amount advanced does not exceed 90 percent of value. Under the present scheme, amended in April 1977, the corporation guarantees the full amount of the loan advanced. The loans must be for the purpose of building, buying, altering, or refinancing a house or flat. There is no charge for this service.

Home lay-by accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee and private savings banks qualify for subsidy, and Home Ownership accounts qualify for subsidy and preferential loan finance (see Section 29).

Expenditure on the Housing Corporation for the 4 latest years is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross ExpenditureIncrease or Decrease Over Previous YearIncrease in Total Government Expenditure
 $(000)percentpercent
1979285 852..18
1980284 631–113
1981264 965–722
1982175 577–3421

COST OF HOUSES AND SECTIONS—Freehold section and house costs in building proposals financed by the corporation in the four areas of greatest housing demand in March 1981 and March 1982 are set out below. Section prices are likely to be conservative as some sections would have been purchased well in advance of offering as securities.

CentreMarchSectionsHouses
NumberAverage CostNumberAverage Contract Price
   $ $
Auckland198110611,32410534,561
 19827911,7067244,232
Hamilton198148,950435,497
 1982810,400741,739
Wellington1981311,166340,708
 19821010,7981052,993
Christchurch198199,760934,965
 19822012,2431644,971
New Zealand198116210,83515535,708
 198225411,25821244,971

Statistics compiled by the Valuation Department illustrate the trend in residential prices in 39 urban areas throughout New Zealand. The following figures of average sale prices for sections, houses, and owner-occupier flats exclude family sales, sales of leasehold property, and other sales not subject to normal market forces.

ItemDecember Years
197719781979198019811982
Average sale price of—$$$$$$
    Sections10,84211,49511,98512,62614,39615,745
    Houses29,23930,18931,82034,37440,66750,923
    Owner-occupier flats26,99528,04629,57831,74236,86748,589

URBAN RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY AND SECTION PRICE INDEX—This index is designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for residential properties and urban sections sold during each half-year. Variations in the average age of properties transferred, as an indicator of the average quality of such properties, are eliminated in the index methodology in order to arrive at a valid index of price level changes.

The following table shows index numbers for individual centres (Base: Each centre separately 1973 = 1000).

CentreResidential PropertiesSections
January-June 1982July-December 1982January-June 1982July-December 1982
* A substantial increase occurred in the volume of section sales in Porirua.
Whangarei3859429044404588
Auckland3338345729943297
Hamilton3454359831203184
Tauranga3207334231693458
Rotorua3371368231893308
Gisborne3627388940054368
Napier-Hastings3172334629002885
New Plymouth3174345427372786
Wanganui3394376233853589
Palmerston North3329356026113305
Masterton2563275324902500
Wellington-Hutt274428822229*2374
Nelson3755401834283832
Christchurch3008310124592779
Timaru3168347236733819
Dunedin2849293534413320
Invercargill3198337334963195
    All 17 centres combined3192333929313181

The following table provides index numbers for 17 principal market centres combined (Base: Weighted average 17 centres combined). The long-term series is obtained by linking the revised urban house property price index to the index which it supersedes.

Six Months EndedResidential PropertiesSections
1975—Jun14521800
            Dec15031939
1976—Jun15651981
            Dec16082069
1977—Jun16812110
            Dec16892245
1978—Jun17012306
            Dec17402212
1979—Jun17952241
            Dec18342164
1980—Jun19342217
            Dec20622292
1981—Jun23332412
            Dec2717x2650x
1982—Jun31922931
            Dec33393181

HOUSE MORTGAGES—Most of the housing advances made by institutions are in the form of table mortgages, being made initially for terms of usually up to 30 years with the Housing Corporation, about 15 years with building societies, and about 10 years with the private savings banks. The general experience of these institutions is that most house mortgages are redeemed in 7 to 12 years. Interest rates and the methods of calculating them vary from one institution to another. Some institutions prefer to lend on new houses, others cater for the purchase of older dwellings. Information on mortgages is given in Section 30A, Mortgages and Section 30C, State Finance for Housing.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the Housing Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community housing, including urban renewal.

Housing of the Elderly—Since 1951 Government policies have encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of elderly persons. A low-interest $17,250 loan is available for up to 30 years on each pensioner unit built. All other costs can be met by Government subsidies. This combination of low-interest loans and generous subsidies is directed at keeping rents reasonable—at present, one-sixth of the income from National Superannuation.

The policy is administered by the Housing Corporation, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality, provides technical services, and administers the loan and subsidy.

The amount of subsidy approved in 1981–82 was $2.79 million to provide housing for 435 persons. Since the inception of the policy in 1950, subsidy assistance has totalled $71,995,219 for the accommodation of 12 826 persons.

A policy to assist the rehousing of elderly home owners in owner-occupier flats is proving popular with local authorities and religious and welfare organisations. A particular feature of this policy is the bridging finance which is made available, so that elderly home owners can sell their existing home, before contributing towards the cost of the new flat.

Relocatable Granny Flats—In August 1980 the Government approved of the Housing Corporation making flats available to both local authorities and religious and welfare organisations to provide relocatable granny flats for housing elderly persons on a home owner's property, with the same eligibility applying as for pensioner flats.

Total finance available to build the flats is $25,000 per unit—$10,750 subsidy plus $14,250 loan at 3$ percent, reviewable annually.

The corporation is also able to make available an additional loan of $2,000 per unit at an interest rate of 8 1/2; percent reviewable annually and with a maximum term of 10 years.

This additional loan is for the specific purpose of meeting the costs of installation of the unit on the site, connection of services, and removal back to the base depot.

The loan can be made by the sponsoring organisation to the property owner at 9 percent interest.

Rural Housing—The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farmlands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The Housing Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Persons receiving loans (740 in 1981–82) are principally owners of economic farms.

Community Housing—The Housing Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. Proposals must involve a definite scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas (e.g., in Wellington a significant part of the city council's building programme has been financed from this source). The emphasis is on moderate-cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed by the Housing Corporation through the Community and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP). Government assistance is available for a wide range of activities in Neighbourhood Improvement Areas (NIAs) selected by local authorities as areas in need of special renewal attention.

Since 1975 just over $49 million has been authorised for community housing and urban renewal schemes.

Provision has been made by the Government for an annual amount of $7.5 million for urban renewal and allied works (including community housing undertaken by local authorities). This recognises the need to curb urban sprawl and to bring more people into inner city areas, close to employment, health services, and other amenities.

Local authorities are authorised under the Local Government Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loan Board for authorities to purchase land for subdivision for housing. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

Maori Housing—For information on financial assistance towards the building of houses, the purchase of building sites and repairs and additions to existing dwellings available to Maoris and other Polynesians, refer to Section 3B of this Yearbook.

WELFARE ORGANISATIONS: Hostels for Young People—Since 1951, religious and welfare organisations have been assisted to establish hostels for young people by subsidies of establishment costs. Since November 1973, the subsidy has been 80 percent, with a limit of $5,000 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are working or studying away from their homes, and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Subsidies of 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels and 75 percent for fire protection work required by the local authority.

From the introduction of the scheme up until 31 March 1982, subsidies totalling $3,219,754 have been approved to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1732 young people, and for upgrading purposes.

The Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by the University Grants Committee.

CORPORATION RENTAL HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—Housing Corporation rental houses and flats (formerly known as State rental houses and flats) have been built since March 1937. These are allocated to tenants on the basis of need. The Housing Corporation acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. The “design-and-build” scheme, whereby the Housing Corporation arranges contracts with private builders or organisations for the construction of houses on land owned by the builders or organisations, was introduced during 1974–75. The scheme provides for the construction of the houses and the purchase of the land within the one contract, and has proved a successful means of achieving integration of rental accommodation in privately-owned and developed subdivisions.

The totals of rental units completed and handed over for occupation during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1982 there were 88 290 units completed.

Year Ended 31 MarchRental Units
19772 238
19781 611
19791 346
19801 394
1981933
1982420

Current Policy—The corporation is directing an increasing proportion of its rental programme away from peripheral development into renewal and redevelopment, particularly in the main centres, in order to encourage better utilisation of the existing housing stock and provide greater diversity in the type of accommodation offered. The emphasis on this and other developments remains with smaller schemes where the social and economic impact on the existing urban pattern is less marked. Also, in recognising the need for social diversification in corporation-developed areas, it has been the corporation's policy since the mid-70s to make 50 percent of the sections in new sub-divisions available for sale to the public for private housing.

State Services Housing—State Services houses are houses for Government departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Housing Corporation to 31 March 1982 was 16 275. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs, such as electric power schemes.

Corporation Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the 4 main centres at the ends of a series of years for similar types of 3-bedroom corporation rental houses. In each year the statistics relate to a typical single-unit house of weatherboard and tile roof construction on a flat site, and prices include ancillary improvements such as fences, paths, etc., but exclude land cost. There is no strict comparability year to year in the sample, as new designs have modified floor areas and fittings. Bracketed figures show the cost per square metre including ancillary improvements.

Year 31 March Auckland Wellington Christchurch Dunedin
 $ $ $ $ 
197722,099(216.23)24,385(238.60)19,193(187.80)24,056(235.40
197824,209(236.88)26,356(257.89)20,801(203.54)26,565(259.94)
197927,446(268.55)28,624(280.80)24,290(237.67)31,885(311.99)
198034,669(339.89)33,005(322.58)29,093(285.23)33,287(326.34)
198139,246(384.76)38,861(380.99)34,951(342.66)40,079(392.93)
198245,254(443.66)47,072(461.49)42,299(413.91)

With the reduced demand for housing, building costs have risen markedly. Builders overhead costs appear to have been spread over a smaller number of units.

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 was designed to encourage the stability of marriage and family life. It provided for a form of ownership in which a husband and wife enjoy equal rights of use, possession, and enjoyment of the family home. While a settlement subsists, neither party may deal separately with his or her interest in the property, but on the death of one of them the home becomes wholly the property of the survivor. There are considerable benefits arising from settlement under the Act. Settlements are exempt from gift and stamp duty, and on the death of one spouse an exemption from estate duty may be claimed. In the event of claims by creditors, or the Official Assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected to the extent of $21,500. Own-your-own flats may be settled under the Act, and an amendment passed in 1974 enables the benefits of settlement to be transferred from one family home to another purchased for the same purpose.

In the latest years the numbers of joint family homes registered have declined sharply. It has been suggested that this is an effect of the Matrimonial Property Act 1976 and its social and legal ramifications.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
197729 345
197818 143
197915 061
198012 515
198110 071
19828 769

CENSUS INFORMATION: Type of Dwelling—The following table shows the type of dwellings in existence at the Censuses of 1976 and 1981, together with total and average occupancy for each category.

Type of DwellingNumber of Dwellings1981x Number of Occupants
19761981AggregateAverage

* This was included as a separate category at the 1981 Census and will include “Flat (in house)” at the 1976 Census. Also includes house/flat with shared cooking.

† Flats attached to shops, etc., were not classified separately for 1981 and will therefore be included in the figure shown for houses with shops.

Occupied dwellings—
    Permanent private dwellings—
    Detached house742 768792 2852 578 7403.25
    Row, cluster, terrace, or town houses linked together34 945*23 94652 1312.18
    House with other private dwelling14 37074 724*175 6502.35
    House and shop/business premises4 6737 833†23 2292.97
        Total houses796 756898 7882 829 7503.15
    Flat (in single or multi-storey block)98 7361100 536175 0711.74
    Flat (in house)19 234
    Flat and shop/business premises3 605......
        Total flats121 575100 536175 0711.74
    Bach, crib, hut4 9263 7897 2511.91
        Total permanent private dwellings923 2571 003 1103 012 0723.00
    Temporary private dwellings—
    Mobile residence (caravan, etc.)2 8691 8784 0952.18
    Other (tent, shed, etc.)3585011 2872.57
        Total temporary private dwellings3 2272 3765 3822.27
    Non-private dwellings—
    Hotel, motel, guesthouse2 4162 30741 43017.96
    Boarding/rooming house7784685 09410.88
    Private or public hospital45445627 96061.32
    Education institution35038723 43360.55
    Other2 7782 77560 36321.75
        Total non-private dwellings6 7766 393158 28024.76
        Total occupied dwellings933 2601 011 8823 175 7373.14
Unoccupied dwellings—
    Occupants temporarily away23 94530 224....
    Empty habitable dwellings (to let, for sale, etc.)27 51828 695....
Holiday residence33 14338 192....
            Total unoccupied dwellings84 60697 111....
Dwellings in course of erection14 284......

Note: The figures in this table have been rounded using simple random rounding to base three. Individual figures may not necessarily sum to give the stated totals.

Between the 1976 and 1981 Censuses of Population and Dwellings the total number of dwellings occupied on the night of the census increased from 933 260 in 1976 to 1 011 882 in 1981, a rise of 78 622, or 8.4 percent. This rate of increase was considerably in excess of that for population. In addition, unoccupied dwellings increased from 84 606 to 97 111.

In 1981 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.00, compared with 3.22, 5 years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the occupied permanent private dwellings according to tenure. Figures in these tables have been rounded using simple random rounding to base three. Individual figures therefore will not necessarily sum to give the stated totals.

Tenure19761981x
Permanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedPermanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
Owned without mortgage253 56727.6287 34328.8
Owned with mortgage387 07842.1423 45942.4
Rented or leased248 35627.0253 38625.4
Free with job22 6782.521 2132.1
Free not with job8 6490.912 3211.2
Not specified2 9295 388
    Total923 257100.01 003 110100.0

Amenities of Dwellings—The following tables present the various amenities, as at the 1976 and 1981 Censuses, used by the occupants of permanent private dwellings.

Amenities19761981x
HouseholdsPercentage of HouseholdsHouseholdsPercentage of Households
Caravan48 7725.380 6468.0
Deep freeze647 68770.2729 41772.7
Electric clothes dryer351 04238.0454 19445.3
Fully automatic clothes washing machine354 71538.4514 89351.3
Garage or carport668 94372.5....
Telephone829 78689.9918 60991.6
Television set—
    Black and white only625 50067.7231 27623.1
    Colour only159 69817.3564 74156.3
    Both40 2254.4109 83010.9
Means of Cooking19761981x
HouseholdsPercentHouseholdsPercent
Electricity829 94089.9925 40492.3
Gas, including rock gas61 7376.756 7605.7
Wood, coke, coal23 5622.616 7731.7
Other1 2400.1285..
No means162..186..
Not specified6 6160.73 7020.4
    Total923 257100.01 003 110100.0
Means of Hearing19761981x
HouseholdsPercentHouseholdsPercent
Electricity only288 476x31.2319 45531.8
Electricity and coal, coke, or wood334 946x36.3314 76931.4
Electricity and gas17 9901.919 8692.0
Electricity and oil and/or kerosene46 7665.131 0563.1
Electricity and other combinations61 4286.738 7513.9
Gas only including rock gas14 5201.627 7262.8
Oil or kerosene only24 8872.719 6292.0
Wood, coke, coal only100 166x10.8174 23717.4
Other21 4732.326 3852.6
Not specified and no means12 605x1.431 2363.1
    Total923 257100.01 003 113100.0
Hot Water Service*19761981x
HouseholdsPercentHouseholdsPercent
* Principal means.
Electric848 94492.0919 39891.7
Gas25 8622.834 0233.4
Wood, coke, or coal range24 9622.731 9053.2
Wetback8 1870.9  
Other7 4010.811 7751.2
No hot water service1 7200.21 3290.1
Not specified6 1810.74 6860.5
    Total923 257100.01 003 113100.0
Note: Figures in these tables have been rounded using simple random rounding to base three. Individual figures will not necessarily sum to give stated totals.

New questions asked at the 1981 Census revealed that 79.9 percent of households (801 030) had one or more private cars, and 13.3 percent (133 488) had the use of a business car.

Households with one or more motor vehicles available for use by household members (that is, vehicles owned privately or by a company or business firm) numbered 832 857, or 83.0 percent of households compared with 79.1 percent of households at the 1971 Census when the question was last asked.

Boats were present in 12.5 percent of households in 1981.

Materials of Outer Walls and Roofs—The following table analyses the composition of outer walls of permanent private dwellings in 1981 by their roofing material. Each unit of a block of flats constitutes a separate dwelling for census purposes. The roofing category “Not Applicable” comprises those dwellings (mainly flats) which had a second dwelling overhead.

Note: Changes to the census question on building materials for 1981 have meant that the categories given below are not directly comparable with classifications published for previous censuses.

Main Material of Outer WallsRoof MaterialTotal
Galvanised Iron or TinPressed Metal TilesTiles of Clay or ConcreteAsbestos Cement, etc.Other or Not Specified*Not Applicable
* Includes 13 695 dwellings with aluminium roofs, 6879 with two or more types of roofing materials, and 3489 dwellings with types of roofing materials other than those specified here.
Wood, timber350 81732 29877 2509 56413 9024 530488 358
Brick, clay71 22328 21265 8292 1394 0921 860173 355
Roughcast, stucco30 0632 2057 7491 2301 94729443 488
Poured concrete14 8741 3296 1381 0531 3653 11127 870
Exterior wallboard74 05517 19923 7933 5253 7381 026123 336
Artificial stone or concrete blocks57 33328 26326 9581 8603 8196 699124 929
Galvanised iron3 78618312639135424 311
Aluminium2 5291 91742075243155 202
Other2 2591 2361 10163225454 926
Not specified2 391411816963 3662527 332
        Total609 327113 247210 18019 64132 84417 8771 003 113
Note: Figures in these tables have been rounded using simple random rounding to base three. Individual figures will not necessarily sum to give stated totals.

Easily the most popular type of house construction in New Zealand is wooden walls and a roof covered with galvanised iron. This description applied to 350 817 permanent private dwellings in 1981, or 35.4 percent of those specifying both wall and roof type, but it should be noted that this was a decrease on the equivalent figure of 374 797 at the 1976 Census.

Insulation of Walls and Ceilings—The 1981 Census included a question on the presence of heat-insulation materials in outer walls and ceilings of permanent private dwellings. An analysis of the data obtained follows. The inquiry was restricted to those materials specifically installed as insulation—in most cases, fibreglass pads or loose-fill, or aluminium foil.

Outer Wall InsulationCeiling InsulationTotal
PresentNot PresentNot KnownNot Specified or Not Applicable
 Houses
Present151 7767 7371 1371 770162 426
Not present226 986257 0496 0993 591493 734
Not known62 42414 33472 9394 041153 741
Not specified49 69811 8713 17715 00379 743
    Total490 884290 99183 35224 405889 644
Other Dwelling Types
Present8 4574112344089 513
Not present8 62532 1392 0345 49048 288
Not known6 1983 00629 7216 89745 822
Not specified3 0481 5961 1554 0479 849
    Total26 32837 15233 14416 842113 472

A total of 517 203 dwellings at census date had insulated ceilings and of these 160 230 (31.0 percent) also specified insulated walls. In all, wall insulation was present in 171 939 dwellings.

TENANCY—Under the Rent Appeal Act 1973, formerly administered by the Department of Labour, but now administered by the Housing Corporation, rent appeal boards have been appointed to determine on application by either a landlord or tenant the equitable rent for dwellinghouses. The amounts to be paid for rent in advance and as a bond are limited by the Act. The Tenancy Act 1955 governs rents and conditions of possession of certain private tenancies in existence before 18 November 1961. All private tenancies since that date and all business premises without exception are no longer governed by the Act. Where the Act applies, a landlord or tenant may apply to a rents officer or the District Court to fix a fair rent, effect certain repairs, prevent oppressive conduct, or have the tenancy freed from controls under the Act. It is estimated that 8800 tenancies are protected by this Act.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Publications dealing with building construction and housing include the following.

Report of the Housing Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 13).

Report of the National Housing Commission (Parl. paper G. 30).

Report of the Building Performance Guarantee Corporation (Parl. paper B. 13a).

Department of Statistics publications

Building Activity Bulletin BC/MP/00*—(Annual).

Building Activity Bulletin BC/QP/00*—(Quarterly and annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—(Monthly).

Building Statistics—(Annual).

Census of Population 1976—Vol. 8 Maori Population and Dwellings.

Census of Population 1976—Vol. 9 Dwellings.

Census of Population 1981 Volumes.

Census of Population 1981 Bulletins—Series of 10 on Regional Statistics.

Census of Building and Construction 1978–79—(5-yearly). Results of the 1978–79 Census of Building and Construction were also published in Bulletin form.

National Housing Commission Publications

Housing in New Zealand (Report of Commission of Inquiry 1971).

Housing in New Zealand (1983).

The Demand for Housing in New Zealand Vol. 1 and 2. (1979).

Housing Preferences in New Zealand (1979).

New Zealand's Housing Requirements, 1976–86 (1976).

Housing Finance—Seminar Proceedings (1979).

Ministry of Works and Development Statement (Parl. paper D. 1).

Housing Corporation of New Zealand Annual Accounts and Statistics.

Report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26).

Urban Real Estate Market in New Zealand—Valuation Department.

* Available from Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

National Housing Commission publications, which include a considerable number of other research papers and reports, are available from the National Housing Commission, P.O. Box 1789, Wellington.

Note: For information on changes made to Housing Corporation policy in 1983, refer to Latest Statistical Information, in this Yearbook.

Chapter 20. Section 20; ENERGY

20 A—ENERGY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DEMAND AND SUPPLY TODAY—From the end of World War II until recent years the demand for energy in New Zealand grew on average by 4 percent annually. This was a result of the expansion and diversification of the economy, rising living standards, increasing population, and the falling price of energy in real terms. Energy policies were aimed principally at providing reliable and cheap supplies to keep up with the demand. From late 1973 the emerging energy crisis brought about a new emphasis on conservation.

The table below illustrates the trends in the consumption of primary energy since 1924. The term “primary energy” refers to energy as it is first obtained from natural resources. Broadly, this means that coal is accounted for as it is mined, oil products as they are imported in various degrees of refinement, and natural gas as it is taken from the wells at Kapuni and Maui. About 14 percent of our primary oil requirements were derived from Kapuni condensate in 1978, and in 1979, 10 percent came from Kapuni and the newly-commissioned Maui field. This increased in 1980 to 12 percent from Kapuni and Maui crude oil.

Primary electricity is electricity generated from hydro and geothermal sources. For these, generation efficiencies are ignored, and the measure of the primary energy is the electricity generated. This is justifiable in the case of hydro-electricity, where the generation efficiency is high, but a large quantity of energy is wasted in producing electricity from geothermal heat. However, the wasted energy is low grade, and for the sake of simplicity is not shown in the table.

In a number of tables in this section, energy is measured in petajoules. The joule is the metric unit of energy and makes comparisons among the different forms of energy possible. For convenience, the petajoule (PJ) or 1015 joules is often used.

Calendar YearCoalOilNatural GasPrimary ElectricityTotal*Imported Oil as Percentage of Total
ImportedIndigenous

* Because of rounding, totals may differ slightly from sums of individual figures.

† Do not include figures for international transport.

‡ Provisional.

 Petajoule
192475100.58611
1934561937824
19447230710928
195466591413942
1964661033420351
1974621938145533258
19775616831645737645
19784916626596036046
19794717518477035749
19805418416377336451
1981†58x139x21x4674337x42
1982†‡5912534816936834

The following table illustrates the trends in consumer energy consumption over the same period as in the previous table. Consumer energy is accounted for in the form and quantity in which it is distributed to the consumer. “Electricity” includes the electricity which is generated in thermal stations burning coal, oil, or natural gas, and “gas” includes the small quantity of gas manufactured from coal, naphtha, and natural gasoline.

Calendar YearCoalOilGasElectricityTotal
* Provisional.
 Petajoule
19245952166
193449192373
1944623028102
19545559216132
19644890230170
197441151758257
1978361521268268
1979401491167267
1980381581570281
1981x511432369286
1982*511423274299

The supply and demand of energy in 1982 is shown in detail in the following table. Figures are provisional.

Supply and Demand of EnergySource of EnergyTotal
Solid FuelOilGasElectricity

* Decreases in stock levels appear as negative stock changes. Such decreases in stocks have to be added to indigenous production (+ imports-exports) in order to obtain figures of energy consumed. Increases in stocks have to be deducted from production in order to obtain figures of energy consumed.

† Includes fuel used in gas manufacture, and production of solid fuels such as cones from carbonisation plants, etc.

 Petajoules
Indigenous production63.6032.5480.6269.21245.97
Plus Imports0.51140.83141.34
Less Exports4.894.89
Less International Transport18.3518.35
Stock changes*0.96–4.79–3.83
    Primary energy consumed58.26159.8180.6269.21367.90
Less used in electricity generation5.461.4345.8152.70
Less used in liquid fuel production107.58107.58
Plus secondary production0.57100.401.3117.13119.41
    Total energy available53.37151.2036.1286.34327.03
    Lass
Consumption by energy sector and losses†1.322.303.0512.1418.81
    Non-energy use7.247.24
    Total consumer energy (calculated)52.05141.6633.0774.20300.98
    Total consumer energy (observed)52.25142.8833.0774.20302.40
Energy demand—
    Industry39.0130.8525.6229.11124.59
    Transport102.520.710.12103.35
    Domestic7.690.503.5330.8242.54
    Commercial and other uses5.559.013.2114.1531.92

Market shares of the various energy resources in different sectors of the economy during 1982 are shown on a percentage basis in the following table.

SourceIndustry and CommerceTransport (Incl. International Transport)HouseholdsThermal Electricity Generation
 Percent
Oil25.4599.321.142.70
Coal28.4818.0810.37
Gas (natural and manufactured)18.430.588.3086.93
Electricity27.640.1072.48
Total100.00100.00100.00100.00

Oil Usage—Until the oil crisis in 1973 and the 4-fold increase in the price of oil, there had been a rapid growth in the use of oil in New Zealand. This had been a result of its declining cost in real terms, its versatility, its convenience, and the increasing affluence of the population.

In the year ended 31 December 1982, New Zealand used a total of 3 723 000 tonnes of petroleum products. This figure for the internal consumption of petroleum products in 1982 is broken down in the following table. Figures for the two previous years are included for purposes of comparison.

Petroleum Product1980 1981 1982 
 Tonnes (000)PercentTonnes (000)PercentTonnes (000)Percent
Light flash distillate naphtha40.140.130.08
Premium gasoline1 59740.81 60842.51 63743.8
Regular gasoline531.3401.1471.3
Aviation gasoline220.6210.6180.5
Aviation turbine kerosene1503.82737.22787.4
Kerosene501.3150.4150.4
Light diesel oil1 03726.698125.91 02427.4
Marine diesel240.6270.7220.6
Fuel oils (All types)74319.057915.346612.5
Bitumen812.1972.6882.4
Lubricants651.6531.4451.2
White spirits160.4150.450.4
Paraffin waxes30.140.150.1
Petroleum coke681.7701.7701.8
        Total3 913100.03 787100.03 723100.0

In 1982, 59 percent of New Zealand's imports of oil came in as crude and partly refined feedstocks for refining at the Marsden Point refinery while the remainder was imported as refined products because of a lack of refining capacity. Most of the latter came from Australia, Singapore, and Bahrain. The main sources of supply for crude petroleum are Saudi Arabia and Indonesia. (See Section 22c Imports.)

In 1982, 46 percent of the Marsden Point refinery's annual output was petrol, 24.6 percent was diesel, 20 percent light and heavy fuel oils, and 3.3 percent was bitumen.

Oil Stockholding—Pursuant to its membership of the International Energy Agency, New Zealand is required to hold 100 days' gross stock cover for oil imports. This is held by the oil industry (at main ports, the refinery, and up-country depots) and the Government (at Electricity Division oil-fired power stations and as a National Strategic Petroleum Reserve of 25 days' diesel cover at the uncommissioned Marsden B power station).

Oil stocks at the main ports are maintained within a Target Planning Zone (TPZ) of efficiency under normal operations, which range from 22–31 days' cover for motor gasoline to 95–162 days for aviation gasoline.

Development of the Maui Field—The Maui field is being developed in two stages: Stage One consists of the installation of Maui Platform A, drilling of production wells, the installation of separate submarine pipelines for gas and condensate, and the on-shore processing facilities for the Maui production station at Oaonui. Treated gas is distributed by transmission pipelines to the New Plymouth and Huntly power stations. Maui gas will also be available for direct use by domestic and industrial consumers.

Commissioning of Stage One commenced in May 1979.

Stage Two of the development provides for a second platform, Maui Platform B, additional and independent submarine pipelines, and an expansion of the on-shore processing facilities.

Stage One Development—The first drilling and production platform, Maui Platform A, is installed some 37 km from the Taranaki coast, close to the Maui 3 exploration well, in a water depth of some 110 metres. Fourteen production wells have been drilled from the platform. The tower base of the platform was fabricated in Japan and was upended on location in early January 1976. Difficulties arose during the 1975–76 construction season as a consequence of severe weather and installation work was suspended in June 1976. Installation work recommenced with a larger construction vessel in December 1976.

The piling of the tower to the sea bed and the installation of the modules, living quarters, and helideck were completed late in 1977 and drilling operations commenced early in 1978. A 254 mm condensate pipeline and a 610 mm gas pipeline carry the condensate and the gas to the on-shore processing facilities at the Maui Production Station at Oaonui. The laying of these submarine pipelines also commenced in January 1976 but was suspended in June 1976, again as a consequence of the very severe weather. Work recommenced in December 1976 and was completed in 1977.

At Oaonui, 2 gas refrigerator trains, each with a capacity of approximately 7 million cubic metres a day, process the gas stream to meet the gas delivery specifications, and 2 stabiliser trains, each with a capacity of 1500 tonnes per day, stabilise the condensate to enable subsequent sea shipment to the Whangarei refinery.

The Maui A platform, submarine pipelines, and onshore gas processing station were commissioned in May 1979.

The decision to proceed with the construction of a second platform has been deferred until the demand for supplies of natural gas increases.

GAS DEPLETION POLICY—Gas has been allocated to reticulation (including CNG), electricity generation, methanol manufacture, and ammonia/urea manufacture. Discussions are continuing on the supply of a substantial portion of the field to synthetic gasoline production.

The projects listed below, if they all proceed, will fully utilise the field up to Government's present depletion policy, that is, to have 50 percent of the reserves in the ground by the year 2000. A change to this depletion policy will be needed, or the present programme cut back, if any further gas projects are to be contemplated.

Organisations for Developing Gas/Condensate Resources—On 31 March 1978, the State-owned Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrocorp) was formed to take responsibility for the Government's interests in petroleum and natural gas. Present subsidiaries are: Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (NGC), responsible for purchase, transport, and wholesale marketing of natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); Offshore Mining Co. Ltd. (OMC), responsible for the Government's participation in the Maui field through its 50 percent shareholding in Maui Development Ltd. (MDL), which manages the Maui project for extraction and onshore delivery of gas and condensate; Petrochemical Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrochem), which owns the ammonia/urea plant, jointly with Alberta Gas Chemicals Ltd., Petrolgas Chemicals New Zealand Ltd., which owns the chemical methanol plant; and Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand (Exploration) Ltd. (Petrocorp Exploration), which holds the Government's interests in offshore petroleum exploration and also conducts its own onshore exploration programme. Petrocorp holds a 60 percent interest in the Gas Liquids Investigating Company Limited. The company was formed with Shell BP and Todd in September 1982 to establish the economic viability of producing petrochemicals from gas liquids (ethane, propane and butane) extracted from the Maui and Kapuni gas streams. Liquigas has been formed to distribute LPG nationally to bulk installations. It consists of 6 participants: Rockgas, NZIG, Offshore Mining Company, Shell, BP, and Todd Petroleum.

ENERGY PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE—Until late 1973 there seemed to be little difficulty in meeting the expanding demand for energy from a combination of indigenous resources and imported petroleum, although New Zealand had been steadily moving into a position of increased dependence on imported fuel. The oil supply embargo announced in October 1973 by the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries sounded a clear warning of the danger this entailed. As well as dramatically illustrating the fact that oil was no longer a reliable form of energy in terms of supply, the four-fold price increases that followed the lifting of the embargo meant that oil was no longer a cheap commodity.

New Zealand's oil import bill rose from $114 million in 1973 to an estimated $1,513 million in 1982, and is now 5 percent of the gross national product.

The rising cost of imported petroleum, coupled with uncertainty about the reliability of future supplies, has made it imperative for New Zealand to adopt policies aimed at reducing petroleum consumption and decreasing its dependence on imported energy. This is being achieved on several broad fronts; by oil and gas exploration, and accelerating the development of all indigenous energy resources, especially those that can substitute for petroleum, by developing and promoting energy conservation programmes, and by expansion of refining facilities to diversify sources of imported oil. Supporting these strategies is a research and development effort, which is spearheaded by the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (NZERDC) established in 1974 and the Liquid Fuels Trust Board, established in 1978. In the international sphere, New Zealand, as a member of the International Energy Agency (IEA), is committed to a policy consistent with sound economic and social planning to reduce dependence on imported oil.

Ministry of Energy—Even before the outbreak of the oil crisis, concern had been felt about the lack of co-ordination in New Zealand's energy policy making. This concern led to the formation of the Ministry of Energy Resources in 1972.

A further development in the co-ordination of energy policy took place in May 1977 when the Government announced that the Ministry of Energy Resources, the New Zealand Electricity Department, and the Mines Department were to be merged into a single department responsible for all energy policy, planning, and operations. The new Ministry of Energy came into being on 1 April 1978.

The Ministry's principal function is the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. It achieves this through an organisation consisting of a central planning/policy group and 2 operating divisions for electricity (Electricity Division) and coal production and supply (Mines Division).

Public Participation in Planning—In May 1978 Goals and Guidelines: An Energy Strategy for New Zealand—Public Discussion Draft was published by Hon. G. F. Gair, Minister of Energy Resources, setting out for public comment the goals and guidelines for an energy policy for New Zealand. This document was the starting point for public discussion and submissions were summarised in Digest of Public Debate. Subsequently, seminars were held on Transport Fuels, Energy Distribution, Environmental Perspectives, and Energy Forecasting. Together with the fourth New Zealand Energy Conference, this public discussion has contributed toward the development of a comprehensive Government energy policy statement published as Energy Strategy ′79, and an annual energy plan.

Annual Energy Plan—Since 1980 the Ministry of Energy has prepared an overall energy plan. The plan presents forecasts and developments for liquid fuels, electricity, gas, coal and conservation sectors. Development of the Energy Plan is co-ordinated by the various divisions of the Ministry, with consultation with appropriate private sector, local body, and Government agency interests. Public input into the energy plan is made through the Energy Advisory Committee.

Energy Advisory Committee—To provide a basis for continued public involvement in energy planning, the Energy Advisory Committee was established in 1980. The prime role of the committee is to review each annual Energy Plan and make recommendations for future planning. It provides public input into the energy planning process.

The committee has the following terms of reference:

  1. To examine the current process of forecasting and planning energy supply and demand.

  2. To assess the social, environmental, economic, and technical implications of current energy planning.

  3. To collect relevant opinion from the wider public through submission and representation.

  4. To advise the Secretary of Energy on these matters and to subsequently make these findings public.

  5. To carry out other such investigations as the Secretary of Energy may from time to time agree.

It consists of twelve members who are selected as representatives of consumers, environmental and social interests, and professional and academic interests.

Indigenous Energy Resource Development Policies—There are two main goals to planning of future energy supplies:

  1. The promotion of the development of indigenous energy resources, both to contribute to national energy supply and to produce export-led economic growth;

  2. The reduction of New Zealand's dependence on imported oil by the steady introduction of substitutes selected to minimise increases in the cost of energy supply and use.

One of the main sectors where this policy is being implemented is the development of natural gas. The use of CNG as a vehicle fuel and the conversion of Maui gas to gasoline will displace imported oil and, along with coal, and reticulated gas will provide an increasing proportion of industrial heat. These developments, together with increased condensate supplies resulting from the higher gas offtakes, should make New Zealand 45 percent self-sufficient in liquid fuels by 1987.

The policy is also being pursued in the coal sector, with plans to more than double New Zealand's coal production by 1996. Most of the new production will go to exports in the South Island and electricity generation in the North Island.

ENERGY RESOURCES—The following table sets out New Zealand's estimated recoverable fossil fuel resources. The oil and gas reserves are estimated as at 1 April 1982 and include the Maui, Kapuni, and McKee fields. As can be seen, the major resources deficiency is in liquid petroleum fuels, and the country will continue to be a net petroleum importer. It will, however, become relatively less dependent on imports for a decade or so as natural gas is brought into greater use.

FuelProductionReserves
198019811982

* Excludes wood.

† Year ended 31 March.

 Petajoules (PJ)
Coal5160x64Measured 4 881 PJ (220 million tonnes
    Indicated 17 210 PJ (2 170 million tonnes
    Inferred 19 767 PJ (1 308 million tonnes
    41 858PJ†(3 698 million tonnes
Oil12x16x21Proven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 1009PJ (21.7 million tonnes)
Gas43x39x49Proven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 5864PJ (163 000 million m3)

The geothermal resource as it is known at present is restricted geographically to the thermal belt which extends from Mt. Ruapehu to White Island, Tauranga, and Northland.

Geothermal energy is used for electricity generation; process heat in industry; for industrial, commercial, and domestic space heating; and hot water heating.

Petroleum Demand Restraint Regulations—Up to the present time the Government had used the authority of the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 to institute petroleum demand restraint measures. However, regulations made under this Act must directly relate to the economic stability of New Zealand and are therefore always prone to action in the Court. Other Acts which could have been used are the Public Safety Conservation Act 1932 (in emergency situations) and the International Energy Agreement Act 1976 (for long-term shortages; and only with the agreement of the International Energy Agency).

Parliament agreed on the need for a separate Act to cover all petroleum demand restraint regulations. As a result the Petroleum Demand Restraint Act 1981 was passed. The Act makes provision for the imposition of measures restraining the demand for petroleum products or ensuring equitable distribution of petroleum products that are, or are likely to be, in short supply in New Zealand.

The Minister of Energy must consult representatives of oil suppliers and users of petroleum products before giving directions. The Ministry would therefore under normal circumstances discuss the proposed regulations with members of the three Demand Restraint Advisory Committees.

Prospecting and Mining—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937. This gives the Minister of Energy the authority to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences over land and marine areas including the New Zealand continental shelf.

Licensing activity accelerated considerably in 1981 mainly as a result of the Western Offshore Licence Block offer. As at 31 December 1982 there were 39 petroleum prospecting licences covering 277 576 km2 of New Zealand land, territorial sea, and continental shelf. Four petroleum mining licences covered 984.48 km2, which is made up of the Kapuni onshore field, Maui offshore field, Hawke's Bay onshore, and the New Plymouth harbour.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained. Four on-shore wells were drilled in 1982—Two additional McKee development wells, Manganui 1, and Kamiro 1. Drilling commenced on a fifth onshore well (Stratford) in November 1982. All these wells are sited in the Taranaki area.

To date a total of 5 wells have been drilled on the McKee oilfield, and 4 of these are to be used in production. Initial production is expected to be at the rate of 3000 barrels a day, although this could decline in later years. No offshore wells were drilled during 1982, but extensive seismic work has been undertaken in preparation for drilling, which is to commence this year. Two offshore drilling rigs are expected in New Zealand in 1983.

The length of high pressure natural gas transmission pipelines in New Zealand now totals 1500 km, with an extra 400 km under construction in the Hawke's Bay and North Auckland areas. Construction has also commenced on the LPG pipeline between Oaonui and New Plymouth.

Gas from the Kapuni field is used mainly as a premium fuel and is supplied to the Natural Gas Corporation for distribution to Auckland and Wellington and other centres en route. Condensate separated from this gas before it is supplied to the corporation is delivered as feedstock to the petroleum refinery at Whangarei.

Geothermal Development—The Geothermal Energy Amendment Act 1977 implemented 2 new policies relating to geothermal energy. In general, the Crown will develop and operate geothermal fields. A new pricing policy stated that the price is to reflect the worth of the resource to the user, taking account of the costs of alternative energy sources, and the costs of adapting geothermal energy to the user's requirements. When geothermal energy is supplied other than by the Crown, a rental is payable to the Crown based on the same principle.

By far the largest user of geothermal energy is the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy, which owns and operates the Wairakei geothermal power station, a baseload station supplying 1200 ± GWh of electricity per year. A second geothermal power station is planned for Ohaki with an initial capacity of 102 MW (80 MW from intermediate and pressure turbines and 22 MW from high-pressure turbines) probably rising to 150 MW.

Investigations of the Ngawha geothermal field in Northland are now being carried out to assess the potential of the field for electricity generation. However, this does not exclude the possibility of other interests, such as the forestry industry, making use of geothermal resources at Ngawha.

Energy Pricing—Government and private sector pricing procedures generally allow for recovery of the financial costs of supply, plus a surplus as a return on investment and contribution towards future plant development. Other considerations which Government may take account of in the setting of controlled energy prices include; efficiency, fairness, price relativities, macro-economic issues (e.g., balance of payments), income distribution, and social, environmental and self-sufficiency concerns.

A substantial change in price relativities between the various energy forms has occurred over the decade up to 1982.

The following table shows average changes of energy prices in real terms (excluding inflation).

FuelPrice Change Percent
Petrol+75
Diesel+275
Fuel oil+305
Electricity+8
Natural gas– 40
Coal+50

ENERGY CONSERVATION—Energy conservation is defined as the more effective use of energy through reduction of waste and implementation of more efficient means of energy production and use.

Energy conservation in New Zealand came into prominence after the 1973 oil disruptions.

Energy conservation policies have been aimed to:

  1. Improve the efficiency of energy supply systems

  2. Improve the efficiency of final demand systems without amenity loss

  3. Decrease the energy intensiveness of a given standard of living with acceptable and voluntary lifestyle changes

  4. Encourage the more appropriate matching of energy supply to energy use.

The following strategies are being employed:

  1. Pricing policy and energy taxes

  2. Incentives

  3. Regulations and legislative measures

  4. Information programmes

  5. Technology development.

Major policy measures either under development or in place for the major sectors include the following—

ROAD TRANSPORT: Differential Sales Tax on New Cars—This system was introduced in 1974 to encourage a trend towards smaller vehicles and hence better fuel consumption. Coupled with rising petrol prices the Differential Sales Tax has resulted in the average size of a new car dropping from 2200 cc in 1974 to 1628 cc in 1981.

The sales tax is as follows:

0–1350 cc= 30 percent
1351–2000 cc= 37.5 percent
2001–2700 cc= 50 percent
2701 and over= 60 percent

Energy Labelling of New Cars—As from 1 March 1983 all new New Zealand-assembled cars with sales of over 250 in any one year, will display at point of sale a fuel consumption label giving both urban and steady 80 km/hour fuel consumption figures. This information while not predicting actual onroad fuel consumption, will enable all intending new car buyers to compare the relative fuel consumptions of different makes and models of cars in the same cc range.

Testing of Petrol Saving Devices—A programme was established in 1980 to test devices which are claimed to produce fuel economy benefits when fitted to motor vehicles. The programme is in two sections. Firstly, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research conducts an engineering appraisal to ensure that the device is based on sound engineering principles and has the potential to reduce petrol consumption of motor vehicles. It the above criteria are met, the device then goes to the Auckland Automobile Association (AAA) for testing in a vehicle. So far 16 devices have been submitted for testing, 9 of which have been tested, or are being tested, by the AAA with one showing fuel consumption savings of 4 percent.

Community Based Petrol Economy Programmes—A prototype programme was commenced during 1982 to encourage motorists in Tauranga to practise known fuel-economy driving techniques. Depending on results the method will be extended to other centres.

Diesel Conservation in Heavy Transport—A comprehensive fuel conservation driver-training package is currently being developed to fit in with the Road Transport Industry Training Boards' Driver Assessor Training Programme.

Petrol Conservation in Fleets—A joint programme with the Auckland Automobile Association (based on an American Gasoline Conservation Awareness Programme—GASCAP) has been designed to effect petrol savings and other money saving spin-offs in light vehicle fleets.

Carpooling—The Ministry of Energy has provided money to subsidise the Auckland Regional Authority's carpooling scheme since it began in 1978. Responsibility for total funding has now been transferred to the ARA itself via the Urban Transport Council.

A trial community-based carpooling scheme was run in the Kapiti area near Wellington by the Ministry of Energy during 1981 and may be repeated at a later date if funding permits.

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE: Loans Scheme for Energy Conservation—This scheme replaced the former tax incentive scheme for energy conservation and use on 1 April 1982. Designed to encourage businesses, other organisations and individuals to undertake capital expenditure on energy conservation and the use of indigenous energy resources, the loans scheme is administered for the Ministry of Energy by the Development Finance Corporation. It makes available loans of between $5,000-$500,000 at 14 percent interest on projects, with payback limits of between one and five years based on simple payback in energy terms.

Qualifying expenditures include:

  1. New plant, machinery or equipment used in the production of an energy form from waste materials.

  2. New plant, machinery or equipment for the recovery and use of waste heat.

  3. New heat exchange equipment, other than heat pumps for comfort cooling.

  4. New plant or machinery which, primarily and principally burns or otherwise consumes, and is powered by, energy resources, indigenous to New Zealand, other than electricity or mineral oil.

  5. New equipment and instrumentation necessary for measuring energy or carrying out an energy audit.

  6. New process control equipment.

  7. New power factor correction equipment.

  8. The conservation of plant or machinery from burning and being powered by electricity or mineral oil, to primarily burning or being powered by qualifying indigenous energy resources.

  9. The insulation against energy loss or leakage of plant, machinery, equipment or buildings.

  10. The sealing of sources of energy leakage.

  11. New plant or machinery which is subsidiary to plant, machinery or equipment, the cost of which qualifies as a deduction under any items (a) to (j) above; and is used in association with that ‘qualifying’ machinery; and prevents or combats pollution of the environment.

  12. New plant, machinery or equipment which for the purpose of co-generating electricity with process heat, is installed.

  13. The conversion of road vehicles from burning and being powered by motor spirits (not diesel oil) to burning and being powered by liquefied petroleum gas indigenous to New Zealand.

  14. The conversion of road vehicles from burning and being powered by motor spirits (not diesel oil) to burning and being powered by compressed natural gas indigenous to New Zealand.

  15. Refurbishing of existing lighting installations and their associated control equipment.

  16. New liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) storage spheres and tanks, each having a capacity exceeding 100 000 litres.

Energy Advisory Service (EAS)—This service was set up within the Ministry of Works and Development in 1976, and provides expert engineering advice on all aspects of energy conservation. It was originally a totally free service but its operations basis was changed in 1982. The EAS now provides an initial on-site service, free of charge, culminating in a brief written report. Part of this report can outline further or more detailed work which may be necessary to identify specific costs and benefits of any suggested energy conservation measures. The detailed work can also be carried out by the EAS at an appropriate charge-out rate.

Energy Efficiency in Non-residential Buildings—A standard is being prepared. All new Government buildings must be insulated to Ministry of Works and Development architectural instruction standards.

Publicity—Seminars have been held on energy efficiency in industry, hospitals, and in fishing. Speakers are provided for in-house and business groups. A range of pamphlets is available including a tabloid Energy Conservation News and Conservation Planning—A Background Report to the 1981 Energy Plan.

Energy Managers Groups—The Auckland Energy Group was formed in 1978. Based on its success, the Ministry of Energy intends to set up groups in other centres.

Education: Energy Education Programme—This joint programme, which was set up between the Ministry of Energy and Department of Education, was initiated in 1979 with a long-term goal of providing objective and up-to-date materials on energy relevant to the primary and secondary schools' curricula. Material covering all relevant curriculum subjects will be completed by the end of 1984.

Households: Interest-Free Loans for Home Insulation—This scheme commenced in May 1975 and applies to all housing. On 1 April 1978 insulations in new homes became mandatory. The scheme was withdrawn on 31 December 1982.

Interest-Free Loans for Domestic Solar Water Heaters—Introduced in 1978, the scheme provides loans up to $500 repayable over four years.

Energy Labelling of Household Appliances—Standards have been established for labelling. Energy-related standards are being developed for solid fuel-burning appliances, and for horizontal water heaters.

Insulation of Government-owned Housing—A programme to insulate ceilings was introduced in 1978 and is substantially completed.

Standards—Under the special programme for the development of energy-related standards announced in the 1978 Budget standards have been published covering the use of LPG and CNG fuels in internal combustion engines, the storage and location of equipment at CNG refuelling stations, and methods of testing the petrol consumption of passengers cars. The latter, and a standard for a label showing the results of the tests now nearing completion, are the prelude to the introduction of energy-consumption labelling of vehicles in New Zealand. This will enable the potential car purchaser to take petrol usage into account when considering buying a vehicle, thus helping to promote energy conservation.

Essentially the standard (NZS 54–22) for the use of LPG and CNG in internal combustion engines has been incorporated by the Government into the new regulations, i.e., Traffic Regulations 1976, Amendment No. 7, 1981/311. The CNG refuelling station standard is widely accepted as the basis for setting up these stations.

Standards are at an advanced state of preparation for compressors for CNG refuelling stations, metering of CNG, thermal insulating materials for buildings, and equipment for determining the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons concentrations in vehicle exhausts. It is well established that high concentrations of these gases in exhausts indicate poor combustion and therefore inefficient fuel use. In addition, they pollute the air. The problem can generally be reduced to a reasonable level by tuning the engine. Work is proceeding on standards for the energy consumption labelling of household appliances, and for solid fuel space heaters covering such aspects as efficiency, safety, pollution, and robustness.

Following the availability of the results of the tests on electric hot water cylinders with different kinds and thicknesses of insulation, a review of the standard for the cylinders, and particularly the standing losses, will get under way shortly.

Energy Research and Development—New Zealand is able to obtain the results of much overseas energy research work through its international scientific contacts and its membership of the International Energy Agency (IEA). Many of this country's energy problems are, however, unique and can only be solved by our own efforts.

New Zealand has a varied energy research programme with work on a wide range of topics being conducted in Government departments, and by universities, private companies, and individuals. About $17.4 million was spent on energy research, development and demonstration projects in 1981–82. Of this, $13.3 million was provided by the Government. Particular emphasis is being placed on coal research, both resource assessment and utilisation aspects. Other programmes involve alternative liquid fuels, opportunities for conservation and demonstrations of efficient use of energy, wind energy, geothermal energy and the interaction of the energy system with other aspects of New Zealand society.

New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee—The New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (NZERDC) was formed in 1974. It funds energy research in universities, research associations, and the private sector. The Chairman is Prof. R. F. Meyer.

The Government provides a grant to the committee ($1.37 million in 1982–83) and the committee selects contractors to carry out specific projects. Expenditure by the committee from its inception to 31 March 1982 was $6.67 million. The committee has published about 150 reports and has some 70 current contracts.

Recent research covers lignite investigations, energy conservation in agriculture, passive solar design, coal recovery, diesel use and an energy planning data base.

Liquid Fuels Trust Board—The utilisation of natural gas is in the implementation phase now and the board's involvement in this area has largely wound down as a consequence. However, it is still prepared to undertake ad hoc studies on matters that crop up from time to time.

In May 1982 the board submitted to the Government a report which found that the upgrading of natural gas liquids to fuel and chemical products would be in the national interest.

The first phase of a major investigation into the extent of the South Island lignite resource and its potential uses has been completed and a report summarising the results prepared for the Minister of Energy.

In the biomass area, the board has embarked on a study of the possibility of converting part of New Zealand's exotic forest resource to either methanol or hydrocarbon fuels.

The board has investigated the production of ethanol from beet, but is now bringing this work to a close as it seems ethanol from agricultural biomass is unlikely to be an economic option in the foreseeable future, unless the feedstock used is extremely cheap.

One option in the biomass area that the board sees as promising is the possibility of producing a diesel substitute from inedible tallow. The tallow would first need to be converted to an organic salt or ester to improve its qualities as a fuel, and would probably then be blended with conventional diesel fuel if it came into everyday use.

As well as the development of alternative fuels the board is interested in ways in which they might be more effectively utilised (e.g., by engine modifications) and in identifying possible impediments to their distribution and commercial use.

In the year ended 31 March 1982 the board's programme expenditure totalled $2,758,839.

POLICIES FOR ENERGY USE—Consumer energy provided by oil (50 percent), electricity (25 percent), coal (13 percent), and gas (12 percent).

The largest end-use sector is industry (35%), followed by transport (32%), commerce/agriculture (20%) and domestic (13%). Energy policies aim to promote energy conservation, encourage the use of renewable resources, achieve an adequate level of security of energy supply, and promote the use of indigenous rather than imported energy sources.

These goals are pursued in the demand sector by pricing and incentive schemes. Expansion of the Marsden Point oil refinery is now under way and scheduled to be operational by mid-1986. This will increase the refinery's throughput, and in particular increase production of diesel and aviation turbine fuel. With the recent decision to shelve plans for a new aluminium smelter the demand for new power stations has eased, and potential supply problems in the mid-1980s are no longer expected.

COMPARATIVE ENERGY-USE STATISTICS—Comparative statistics of per-head consumption of commercial energy in selected countries and geographical areas in 1980 are given in the following table. The figures, taken from the 1980 UN Yearbook of World Energy Statistics, are expressed in gigajoules per head. That publication should be consulted for fuller information including detailed notes and definitions. In addition to stages of economic and social development, climatic conditions in the various countries should also be borne in mind.

 Gigajoules per HeadAverage Percentage Growth per Year*

* Average growth between 1976 and 1980.

† Except Middle East.

‡ Customs Union of South Africa.

§ Includes that part of Russia in Asia.

Africa
    Congo2.5–1.4
    Egypt13.95.7
    Ethiopia0.811.2
    Nigeria4.210.4
    South Africa‡76.10.8
America, North
    Canada300.11.0
    United States305.1–1.5
    Mexico51.99.2
America, South
    Argentina53.31.4
    Brazil22.31.7
Middle East
    Iran36.5–2.9
    Iraq17.8–4.2
    Israel69.42.1
    Turkey21.60.4
    Kuwait196.93.6
    Saudi Arabia49.15.5
Asia†—
    Bangladesh1.37.1
    India5.63.1
    Indonesia6.44.7
    Japan108.10.5
    Pakistan6.45.8
    Philippines9.61.7
    Singapore123.66.0
    China18.14.5
Europe
    France127.50.9
    Italy97.21.3
    Germany, West167.80.3
    Spain74.12.3
    United Kingdom141.7
    USSR§164.01.7
Oceania
    Australia176.11.2
    New Zealand101.30.3
World57.30.3

FURTHER INFORMATION—Sources of further information on the electricity and gas industries will be found listed at the end of the appropriate sub-sections. Further information on energy demand and supply in general will be found in the following publications:

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Implications of New Energy Developments (New Zealand Planning Council, 1979).

Report of the Liquid Fuels Trust Board of New Zealand (Parl. paper D. 8).

Report to the New Zealand Government of the Fact Finding Group on Nuclear Power (Parl. paper D. 9 1977).

Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand (Parl. paper H. 4 1978).

Goals and Guidelines: An Energy Strategy for New Zealand Public Discussion Draft (May 1978).

A Digest of Public Debate on Goals and Guidelines (May 1979).

Goals and Guidelines: Proceedings of Seminar on Energy Distribution (May 1979).

Goals and Guidelines: Proceedings of Seminar on Transport Fuels (1978).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

World Energy Supplies 1973–78—United Nations.

1982 Energy Plan—Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6A)

Report of the New Zealand Gas Council (Parl. paper D. 7)

White Paper on Petrolgas Supply Contract (Parl. paper D. 13)

White Paper on Liquigas Assurances (Parl. paper D. 12)

White Paper on Export Coal-Sales Contract (Parl. paper D. 11)

White Paper on New Zealand Synthetic Fuels Corporation Limited Venture Contracts (Parl. paper D. 11)

Background Reports to the 1982 Energy Plan—(Ministry of Energy 1982)

EP 82/1 Guidelines and Priorities for Energy Research, Development and Demonstration

EP 82/2 Energy Demand Forecasting

EP 82/3 Electricity Forecasting and Planning

EP 82/4 Gas Forecasting and Planning

EP 82/5 Construction Workforce Demands and Implications

Other sections in this Yearbook which may be found useful are:

20 B—Electric Power.

20 C—Gas.

17—Minerals.

7B—Science and Scientific Services.

20 B—ELECTRIC POWER

New Zealand's natural resources of lakes and fast-flowing rivers have been systematically harnessed for hydro-electric development, providing a relatively cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. During the year ended 31 March 1982 hydro energy provided 85 percent of the national electricity supply, with 5 percent coming from geothermal energy and the balance from fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Meremere, the steam station south of Auckland, uses coal as fuel, while at Marsden, near Whangarei, heavy oils are used. A large dual-fuel steam station at New Plymouth uses predominantly natural gas (with some oil). A second dual-fuel steam station is currently under construction at Huntly, to use natural gas and coal as fuels. Gas turbines operate at Otahuhu (oil and natural gas), Stratford (natural gas), and Whirinaki (oil).

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water-powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam-generating stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydro plant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in 4 stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Korahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was opened in 1924; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1929. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the State generating system grew by 135 590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58 449 to 284 235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the. Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired 2 small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland, a situation still existing today.

Despite the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations were extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikaremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built in 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war, plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952 Maraetai, the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, followed by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia Station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948 and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single-machine power station which was commissioned in 1951. Since the commissioning of the first station of the Upper Waitaki project (Tekapo “B") this station has been known as Tekapo “A". The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station, which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations, began operating in 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

The Manapouri scheme, using the waters of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, took advantage of the 177 m head between Lake Manapouri and the sea. Intakes at the west arm of Lake Manapouri lead the water into vertical penstocks to the turbines 213 m underground from where it is discharged into Deep Cove at Doubtful Sound through a tunnel almost 10 kilometres in length.

A large proportion of Manapouri's output supplies the Bluff aluminium smelter and the remainder is fed into the national grid. Four generators began operating in 1969 and the remaining 3 in 1971 to give a total installed capacity of 700 MW (name-plate rating).

The Manapouri scheme was the subject of an agreement between the Government and Comalco in 1960 but subsequent agreements were negotiated in 1963, 1966, 1969, and 1977. As the land concerned lies within Fiordland National Park the agreement required statutory authority which was conferred in the Te Anau - Manapouri Development Act 1963. Under the 1969 agreement the Government built the power station and the lake control works at Te Anau and Manapouri.

The actual formula devised for Comalco to pay for the electricity varied between agreements. The latest of these was a major renegotiation in late 1977 to reflect the changed circumstances in energy supply. In 1981 an additional agreement was negotiated for the sale of electricity for a third potline at Comalco's Tiwai Point smelter.

The 1966 agreement provided that Lake Manapouri be raised from its natural level of 178 m above sea level to an operating level of 185–190 m while the minimum lake level was set at 175.4 m. Consequent on a campaign by conservationists opposed to the raising of the lake level the Government appointed a commission in 1970 to inquire into the proposal. The dam at Mararoa to control Lake Manapouri has been built on a narrow base to control the lake within a normal range of levels. Lake Te Anau, which feeds Lake Manapouri through the Upper Waiau River, is controlled at natural levels between 199 m and 202 m by a dam near its outlet.

The purpose, planning, and the development of the Manapouri project were fully described in Parliamentary paper D.7, 1967, as well as the Report of the Commission to Inquire into the Proposal to Raise the Level of Lake Manapouri for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (Parliamentary paper D.8, 1970) and a report by the Institute of Economic Research on the Manapouri-Bluff Project commissioned by Comalco and published in October 1971.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato River was doubled by the building of a second powerhouse for 5 additional machines which were commissioned in 1970–71. The yearly output from Maraetai has not been increased but useful peak-time capacity was added.

A catchment area of nearly 260 000 hectares in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro-electric power development. Known as the Tongariro Scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and their tributaries and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another.

The Western Diversions collect water from the headwaters of the Wanganui River and several of its tributaries and divert it into Lake Rotoaira. As part of this project, control equipment has been installed to close gates at the Whakapapa tunnel intake in the event of the passage of a lahar (volcanic mud flow) down the Whakapapa River. Water from Lake Rotoaira passes through a 6100-metre tunnel to the power station at Tokaanu, then into Lake Taupo. Tokaanu power station, which has four 50 MW generators, the first of the stations built as part of the Tongariro Scheme, was commissioned in 1974.

The Eastern Diversions collect water from the Moawhango River and the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu. The waters then feed through the Moawhango tunnel to join water from the Tongariro River before passing through Rangipo station (still under construction) into Lake Rotoaira.

Much restorative planting and landscaping work is being carried out through the whole development as well as special measures to protect and preserve fishing and fish spawning grounds in the area.

The most recently completed hydro power station, Ohau A, the second station completed as part of the Upper Waitaki Development, was commissioned in 1980.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station built by the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy (then the New Zealand Electricity Department) came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato River, 64 km south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few kilometres north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores, which are 102, 152, and 203 mm in diameter, have been drilled to depths varying between 174 m and 1220 m.

Marsden power station was commissioned in 1967 using heavy oil from the nearby refinery, and 4 oil/natural gas-burning gas turbines went into service in 1968 at Otahuhu. Two further units were commissioned at Otahuhu in 1979. In 1976 a gas turbine station using natural gas was completed at Stratford.

The 600 MW thermal station at New Plymouth produced its first electricity in 1974 and the last machine was commissioned early in 1977. Until the Maui natural gas wells off the coast of Taranaki began production, the energy source was Kapuni natural gas, supplemented by some oil-firing. A chimney 198 m high has been built to disperse the hot exhaust gases.

A 216 MW oil-burning gas turbine station at Whirinaki, near Napier, was completed in mid-1977, but commercial operation of this station was not possible until late 1978 when an oil pipeline and oil storage facilities were completed.

Construction Projects: Hydro—A 120 MW underground station is currently being constructed at Rangipo as part of the Tongariro Scheme, and is scheduled for commissioning in 1983.

In July 1968 the Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo and Pukaki and to a limited extent Lake Ohau, and directing the stored waters through canals to 4 power stations named Tekapo B, Ohau A, Ohau B, and Ohau C; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki River at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 megawatts; also, the extra storage provided by the scheme will allow the output from existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work began with the construction of a township at Twizel, and on the Tekapo B project, which was completed in 1977, followed by Ohau A which was fully commissioned during 1980. Construction continues on Ohau B and C, which are scheduled for first generation in 1983 and 1984 respectively.

Upper Clutha Hydro-electric Development—The following stations are planned on the Upper Clutha within the Electricity Division's planning period:

Clyde (under construction)432 MWPlanned commissioning commencing 1988
Luggate90 MWPlanned commissioning commencing 1992
Queensberry180 MWPlanned commissioning commencing 1994
Kawarau Gorge136 MWPlanned commissioning commencing 1993

It is planned to construct three 90 MW stations on the Lower Waitaki River with commissioning at 2 yearly intervals from 1992. A 240 MW station is also planned on the Lower Clutha River with commissioning commencing in 1995.

Thermal—The first 250 MW of the Huntly 1000 MW station is expected to be commissioned in 1983. It was initially fired on Maui gas but the Mines Division of the Ministry of Energy is opening up a large new coal mine nearby which will eventually supply most of the fuel for the station.

Construction of an oil-fired intermediate load station, Marsden B (250 MW), was approved in 1974 and was completed early in 1980 but not commissioned. The intention is to commission it in 1991, fired by coal, by converting the boiler and installing the necessary ancillary equipment.

The contract for the development of the Maui gas field required a large guaranteed gas demand so that associated valuable condensate could be extracted. When the contract was made, virtually all the gas (which was to increase in demand to a maximum in the mid-1980s) was to be used in gas-fired power stations. In the interim this emphasis has changed, and now a high proportion of the gas will be used for petro-chemical industries, including the manufacture of fertiliser and synthetic petrol. The amount now allocated for electricity generation is not expected to be much above that required to supply existing stations and those under construction.

The Ohaaki power station, which will be built on the Broadlands geothermal field, will have an initial output of some 80–100 MW, which may be increased to 165 MW at a later stage when more is known about the performance of the field. All the environmental clearances have been obtained, but Government approval cannot be requested until the negotiations to lease or purchase the Maori-owned land have been completed. The first plant is scheduled for commissioning in 1988.

INTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission line and undersea cables. This new system enabled electricity to be transmitted from the South Island to the North Island where there was a greater demand for power.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 40 km in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 570 km, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait, and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards sub-station. Complex converting equipment had also to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable worldwide interest has been shown in this scheme, which was the largest of its type outside the USSR at the time it was commissioned. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

Following modification to the HVDC link it has been possible to transmit power in both directions between the North and South Islands since April 1976.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRICAL ENERGY—Forecasting and forward planning of electricity, along with other fuels, is incorporated into an overall energy strategy. To produce the 15-year forecast needed for planning, the Electrical Supply Authorities Association first prepares estimates for 5 years ahead based largely on local knowledge of industrial and housing development plans. These estimates, together with a wider judgment of long-term considerations, are used by the Electricity Sector Forecasting Committee to produce a 15-year forecast. Projections of economic and demographic quantities are provided by the Planning Division of the Ministry of Energy. Peak power forecasts are also derived from the basic energy forecasts. The results from the electricity sector committees are submitted to the Secretary of Energy and co-ordinated with those of the other energy sectors to provide input to the Energy Plan. This co-ordination eliminates the possibility of several energy forms planning on supplying the same market, and allows the effect of factors such as price changes and conservation measures to be carefully assessed. The Energy Plan (Parl. paper D.6A) is tabled in the House of Representatives by the Minster of Energy.

Forecasting electricity demand is one of the longest-term planning processes in New Zealand. It is of critical importance to the electrical industry and the economy of the country. The long sequences of events in providing generating plants, spanning several years, is today lengthening because of a more critical appraisal of their environmental impact. If demand estimates are low, or plant is not ready on time, a difficult supply situation could result. On the other hand, if estimates are high, a premature commitment of resources and capital can materially affect what is available for other national development and social programmes.

The forecasts of the Electricity Sector Forecasting Committee are used by the Electricity Sector Planning Committee in the production of a power development plan for the next 15 years. This contains recommendations on what projects should be proceeded with in order to meet estimated needs. Although plans are made for 15 years, only those for the 7-year construction period need be considered as fixed, the remainder being capable of adjustment as changing circumstances require.

The Electricity Sector Forecasting Committee, in its 1982 report, provided 2 alternative sets of forecasts, each with a schedule with 3 sets of estimates (reflecting different assumptions of population and economic growth), for the period 1982–83 to 1996–97 inclusive and for 2001–02 as follows (all figures in GWh i.e. million kWh):

Low—23 400; 24 800; 26 200; 26 900; 27 200; 27 600; 28 000; 28 300; 28 500; 28 800; 29 000; 29 800; 30 000; 30 200; 30 400; 32 300.

Middle—23 800; 25 300; 26 900; 28 300; 29 000; 29 700; 30 400; 30 900; 31 300; “1 700; 32 200; 33 100; 33 800; 34 200; 34 600; 38 400.

High—24 100; 25 700; 27 600; 29 200; 30 200; 31 200; 32 100; 32 800; 34 200; 35 000; 35 900; 36 600; 38 200; 39 600; 40 400; 47 000.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Expenditure on generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity has risen from $1,458 million in 1972 to $4,342 million in 1982. These figures are before provision has been made for depreciation. In 1972 the Government's share of this expenditure was $1,096 million and in 1982 it had increased to $3,288 million. Thus the electrical supply authorities have an investment of $1,054 million in generation and distribution systems. Continuing capital expenditure will be required for the strengthening and expansion of both the Electricity Division's generating system and distribution network and the electrical supply authorities' distribution systems. Current bulk supply tariffs and consequential retail tariffs provide for up to 50 percent of capital requirements from revenue. This decreases the electrical supply industry's dependence on loan markets.

LEGISLATION—Under the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Ministry of Energy is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. The Ministry also has certain responsibilities for promoting the conservation and efficient utilisation of electricity. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works and Development to the requirements of the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy. The Electricity Division is also responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the network which supplies electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, boards control constituted electric power districts. Of the 36 electric power boards actually functioning at 31 March 1982, 13 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 122 573 kW. There were also 22 territorial electric supply authorities, 6 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 86 112 kW. The Electricity Division acts as the distributing authority for Southland as Southland Electric Power Supply. Rotorua is controlled by an area electric authority, and Hutt Valley by an Energy Board. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country.

The Rural Electrical Reticulation Council, established under the Electricity Act 1968, is charged with the responsibility of providing financial assistance by annual subsidies towards the cost of supplying electricity to sparsely settled or isolated areas which could not be reticulated on a self-supporting basis.

The council is empowered to raise funds for this activity by an annual levy (set at 0.05 percent for the 1981–82 year) on all sales of electricity by the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy to supply authorities and other consumers and on retail sales of electricity by supply authorities.

In addition to subsidising extensions to transmission lines the council may provide assistance towards the installation of private generating facilities where the latter represents a more viable and economic alternative.

To date the significance in financial terms of private generating subsidies is small.

During the year ended 31 March 1982 there was a significant increase in the number of people seeking connection to the distribution system, probably as a result of the increase in the relative cost of private diesel generation and of policy changes adopted by the council following revision in 1980 of its empowering legislation. For that year, a further 232 kilometres of line were completed under the council's subsidy programme, connecting an additional 123 consumers, and making a consolidated total of 16 474 route kilometres of subsidised line. Subsidy payments made during the year totalled $580,490 (including $18,998 towards private generation).

As increased coverage is achieved over time the activities of the council are increasingly focused on the economic and practical difficulties of meeting the supply needs of consumers on the main off-shore islands and in remote areas not yet reticulated.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following table covers all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1982, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual electrical energy generation. Stations are State-owned unless otherwise indicated.

StationInstalled Capacity at 31 March 1982Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1982Annual Load Factor Year Ended 31 March 1982
Number of UnitsMW*

* In-situ maximum” rating (previously shown as “name plate” rating).

† Net import of electricity into station during year to maintain station viability and system voltage stability.

‡ Includes 16.4 GWh generated at Huntly power station during commissioning tests.

   metresmillionpercent
  Hydro kW 
Arapuni815653945.270.43
Aratiatia38434386.351.76
Atiamuri48125341.548.12
Karapiro39030524.361.89
Mangahao52027390.850.08
Maraetai1036061967.836.58
Matahina27261327.550.72
Ohakuri411235456.745.37
Tokaanu4200208841.247.45
Waikaremoana—
    Kaitawa232135145.551.42
    Piripaua240113182.0
    Tuai352206283.0
Waipapa35116280.557.49
Whakamaru4100.038573.863.41
Arnold23.11323.681.78
Aviemore4240.037979.347.17
Benmore6540.0922 451.348.54
Cobb632.0594150.450.64
Coleridge934.5149241.271.71
Highbank125.210193.042.62
Manapouri7590.01774 373.783.35
Monowai36.04736.665.34
Ohau ‘A’4264.0541 088.147.17
Roxburgh8320.0461 626.956.59
Tekapo ‘A’125.230134.153.51
Tekapo ‘B’2160.0146751.254.20
Waitaki7105.021533.735.14
North Island Supply Authorities40101.0..423.7..
South Island Supply Authorities3297.9..286.2..
    Subtotal..3 993.919 538.8
Thermal
Marsden2230.0 (10.7)†..
Meremere6170.0 262.027.17
New Plymouth5600.0 1 746.340.93
Otahuhu6259.0 11.41.07
Stratford4208.0 304.014.77
Wairakei13140.0 1 078.986.61
Whirinaki4216.0 1.50.15
North Island Supply Authorities37.9 0.1..
South Island Supply Authorities41.9 ..
North Island private plant.... 10.0..
South Island private plant.... 3.8..
    Subtotal..1 832.8 3 423.9‡..
        Total..5 826.6 22 962.7..

GENERAL STATISTICS—A summary of all supply authorities and the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy in 1981–82 is shown in the following table.

ItemUnit1981–82

* “In-situ maximum” rating (previously shown as “name-plate” rating).

† Electricity Division only.

‡ Includes starting oil.

§ Excluding stocks and materials.

Generating stationsNo.82
Capacity of generators*kW(000)5 827
Fuel used†—
    Coaltonnes195 950
    Light oil‡tonnes17 589
    Heavy oiltonnes6 414
    Natural gasterajoules23 365
Staff employedNo.15 511
Capital expenditure (less provision for depreciation)§—
    During year (net outlay)$(m)459.2
    To date$(m)3,744.1
Generation and sales—
    Generation per head of mean populationkWh7 263
    Retail sales per head of mean populationkWh6 358
    Domestic consumption per domestic consumerkWh7 237
    Income from total retail sales of electricity per kWh sold to consumerscents4.306

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE—Financial operations during 1981–82 are summarised in the following table.

Item1981–82
* These figures represent transfers within the electrical supply industry and therefore do not represent additional income or expenditure to the industry.
Income—$(thousand)
    Gross income (including bulk sales and standby charges, excluding rates)1,478,003
    Income from bulk sales to supply authorities*542,236
    Net income (excluding rates, bulk sales, and standby charges)935,767
Expenditure—
    Operating (including cost of energy purchased in bulk)773,764
    Cost of energy purchased in bulk*542,236
    Operating (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)231,528
    Trading, administration and general142,714
    Loan interest and depreciation329,162
    Net annual expenditure (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)703,404
Surplus232,363

GENERATION—Means of generation of electrical energy for public supply is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated by Means ofTotal
HydroSteamOil/Gas
 million kWh
197814 591.95 873.4803.221 268.5
197916 209.54 928.3555.021 692.8
198018 692.32 808.9106.021 607.2
198118 927.93 050.0132.722 110.6
198219 538.83 106.8317.022 962.7

The following table sets out generation and disposal by type of authority. The excess generation of certain local organisations, which is bought for public supply, is given in the column “other sources".

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public Supply bySold RetailNon-productive
Electricity DivisionSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
 million kW
197820 7954542021 26818 9092 360
197921 2154562221 69318 9632 730
193021 0505391821 60719 0402 567
198121 5395561522 11119 5402 570
198222 2397101422 96320 1042 858

SALES—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticIndustrialCommercialFarmingPublic LightingRail and Bus TractionTotalNumber Consumers
 million kW
19788 3147 1052 9074361153218 9091 309 958
19798 1817 2632 9634051193218 9631 327 547
19807 9097 4663 1044081223019 0401 345 330
19818 0357 7033 1934571233019 5401 363 165
19828 2657 7813 4274761262920 1041 377 682

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

The distribution of the expenditure per kWh sold retail during 1981–82 was as follows: operating expenses 1.152 cents; trading, administration and general 0.710 cents; and loan interest and depreciation 1.637 cents giving a total expenditure of 3.499 cents per kWh sold retail.

The income per kWh sold in 1981–82 was, by categories; domestic 4.137 cents; commercial 6.872 cents; industrial 3.200 cents; farming 6.661 cents; public lighting 4.745 cents; railway traction 6.106 cents; urban traction 4.668 cents.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Additional information on electric power will be found in the following publications:

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Energy Plan (Parl. paper D. 6a).

Report of the Electricity Sector Forecasting Committee.

Report of the Electricity Sector Planning Committee.

Annual Statistics in Relation to Electric Power Development and Operation in New Zealand—Electricity Division, Ministry of Energy.

20 C—GAS

Gas was produced from coal as an early source of light and heating in New Zealand and by 1916 there were 56 undertakings engaged in the marketing of gas to the public. From that date the numbers of manufactured gas undertakings steadily declined because of the growth in the use of electricity as a cheaper source of energy. A Gas Council was established in 1958 to arrest the decline. Since 1970 the gas industry has been rejuvenated by the reticulation of natural gas in the North Island. There remains, however, a major difference between that part of the industry distributing natural gas and the remainder which is still manufacturing gas from coal and oil. The manufactured gas industry has, for many years, not been able to operate without financial assistance, and its problems intensified during 1974–75, largely because of the massive increases in the price of imported naphtha from which the lowest-cost gas had previously been produced. There are now only 5 manufactured gas plants operating. These are in Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, Dunedin and Invercargill.

The oil consortium, Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Ltd., discovered natural gas in Kapuni in 1959. In 1967, when further investigations had confirmed that the field was sufficiently large to justify exploitation, the Natural Gas Corporation was set up by the Government to develop this new energy resource. It is now operating the gas processing plant at Kapuni, and the pipeline to supply and sell gas along the pipeline routes to undertakings previously producing coal gas, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. Natural gas supply to these centres took place in 1970 and 1971. The corporation also supplies gas to a limited number of consumers adjacent to the pipeline route. A pipeline to supply untreated natural gas to the Stratford and New Plymouth electricity generating stations was completed in 1975. The corporation also produces natural gasoline at the Kapuni treatment plant and this is used by the Gisborne, Napier, and Hastings undertakings as a base feedstock for gas manufacturing. An additional by-product extracted at Kapuni is commercial propane, which is purchased and distributed by the oil consortium.

Subsidies on coal used for gas manufacture were reduced from $18 per tonne to $10 per tonne from 1 April 1982, and further reduced to $8 per tonne from 1 April 1983. Payment of coal subsidies ceases on 31 March 1984. Subsidies on gas sales are paid to Gisborne, Napier and Hastings gas companies. Payments to Napier and Hastings are due to cease in late 1983 when natural gas becomes available in these towns.

A second and larger natural gas field was discovered by Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Limited in 1969. Named the Maui field, situated off the Taranaki coast, it was brought into production in 1979, with the first gas coming onshore in May of that year. The increased reserves of natural gas, coupled with a further large increase in oil prices, resulted in the construction of new natural gas pipelines to serve areas outside the Kapuni system. The Natural Gas Corporation has constructed pipelines to Te Awamutu, Otorohanga, Kinleith, Te Kuiti, Tokoroa, Huntly, Tirau, Morrinsville, Kawerau, Cambridge, Putaruru, Tauranga, Te Puke, Opunake, and Edgecumbe. Pipelines to Hawke's Bay and Northland are due for completion in 1983. The corporation is, or will be, supplying gas in all of these areas except Hawke's Bay, where a new company is being formed to distribute gas. A pipeline has also been constructed to the Huntly electricity generating station, and this line has been extended to Auckland to increase gas availability in that city.

The Natural Gas Corporation's income from sales of gas during the year ended 31 March 1982 was $49.9 million, from which must be deducted gas purchases, treatment and distribution costs, etc., leaving a gross profit from trading of $20.6 million and, after deduction of expenses, a net operating profit of $5.8 million.

Those gasworks not receiving natural gas continue to receive financial incentives provided by the Government; in 1981–82 subsidies on coal prices and gas sales totalled $2,369,000 compared with $2,535,000 in the previous year.

GAS INDUSTRY—In 1975–76 the gas industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. The manufacture and distribution of gas by gasworks.

  2. The distribution of natural gas by gas undertakings.

This reclassification also introduced an integrated economic census of the industry, based on the year ended 31 March or the last accounting year prior to that date.

The 1982 Census of Gas covered the activities of:

  1. 8 gasworks: 3 in the North Island manufacturing gas from natural gasoline and distributing to users in Gisborne, Napier and Hastings; and 5 in the South Island manufacturing gas from coal or oil and distributing to users in Nelson, Blenheim, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill.

  2. 9 gas-undertakings and 1 partnership: all in the North Island purchasing natural gas from the Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand and distributing to users in Wellington, Hutt Valley, Levin, Palmerston North, Wanganui, and adjacent areas, Hawera, New Plymouth, Hamilton and Auckland.

Definitions

Enterprise Group—An independent business unit operating in New Zealand either as a single business entity, or a group of business entities under common ownership or control.

Enterprise—A single business entity operating in New Zealand either as a legally constituted body such as a company, partnership, trust, local or central government trading organisation, incorporated society, or self-employed individual.

Establishment—A separate operating unit engaged in New Zealand in one or predominantly one kind of economic activity from a single location.

Ancillary Unit—An administrative or general servicing unit such as a Head Office, storage unit, laboratory, etc., the prime function of which is to provide services for other locations of the enterprise.

Paid Employees—The total number of people engaged, full-time and part-time in the establishments and ancillary units at or on the nearest payday to 28 February 1982.

Purchasés—Purchases of materials, supplies, goods for resale, and fuels and electricity.

Employer Contributions—Payments to superannuation, pension and welfare schemes, and accident compensation levies.

Salaries and Wages—Gross earnings during the accounting year of all paid employees in the establishments or ancillary units included in the census. Included are such items as overtime, sick and holiday pay, bonuses, payments under piece rate schemes, all benefit allowances, severance pay, value of free supplies and sales commission paid to own employees.

Rent and Leasing—Total expenditure on the rent and leasing of land and buildings and of plant, equipment and vehicles.

Insurances—Business insurance premiums paid.

Indirect Taxes—Covers land tax, road user charges, licence fees and rates.

Depreciation—As charged in the books of account on fixed tangible assets owned by the establishments and ancillary units.

Interest, etc.—Interest, bad debts, donations, royalties and patent fees paid.

Other Expenditure—All other operating expenses excluding salaries and drawings by working proprietors/partners and expenses of a capital nature.

Sales—Sales of manufactured and natural gas including compressed natural gas (C.N.G.) and liquified petroleum gas (L.P.G.); sales of the by-products of manufactured gas; and other sales including all kinds of gas appliances.

Rent and Leasing—Total income from the renting and leasing of land and buildings.

Subsidies—Direct Government cash grants and subsidies, other than for capital purposes.

Interest, etc.—Interest, dividends, donations, grants, royalties, patent fees and insurance claims received.

Other Income—Income from rental of plant and equipment, service connection charges, etc.

Operating Surplus—Interest, etc. paid/received are deducted from the respective accounting value totals to arrive at the ‘operating surplus’ measurement used in the value added calculation.

Value Added—The amount added to goods and services by the contributions of capital and labour (i.e. the costs of bought-in materials and services has been deducted from the total value of output).

The following table gives statistics of the 2 industries covering the last 2 years.

INDUSTRY STATISTICS
ItemGasworksNatural Gas Distributors
1980–811981–821980–811981–82
Census coverageNumber
    Enterprise groups871010
    Enterprises981010
    Establishments and ancillary units18161818
    Paid employees (full and part-time)329241806853
    Registered gas fitters23128784
Census values in accounting terms
    Purchases—$(000)
    Natural gas....23,53932,022
    Feedstocks6,122x6,131....
    Fuel and power659x563437x501
    Goods for resale3,661x1,3487,4198,037
    Other purchases
Operating expenses—
    Employer contributions135x133330411
    Salaries and wages4,250x4,7388,86612,339
    Rent and leasing30x90458503
    Insurances58x77182236
    Indirect taxes170226195286
    Depreciation522x5401,5342,217
    Interest, etc.152x1041,7322,228
    Other expenditure1,304x9744,357x5,089
    Total purchases and operating expenses17,062x14,92349,04963,871
Stocks—Opening1,9962,5544,4084,529
    — Closing2,554x1,8264,529x5,091
    Sales—
    Gas10,266x11,04445,01758,364
    By-products1,8901,778....
    L.P.G.2296693812,334
    C.N.G.....
    Gas appliances3164425,8426,556
    Other sales2,1917791,0331,054
    Other income—
    Rent and leasing29387399
    Subsidies1,480x1,172500714
    Interest, etc.191240193191
    Other income1221411,1541,201
    Total sales and other income, adjusted for stocks17,274x15,57554,315x71,075
    Net profit—.
    Total sales and other income, adjusted for stocks17,274x15,57554,315x71,075
    Less Total purchases and operating expenses17,062x14,92349,04963,871
    Net profit212x6525,265x7,204
Census values in economic terms
    Operating surplus—
    Total income, adjusted for stocks less interest, etc. received17,084x15,33554,121x70,883
    Less Total expenditure less interest, etc. paid16,910x14,81947,31861,643
    Operating surplus174x5166,804x9,241
Value added—
    Operating surplus174x5166,804x9,241
    Employer contributions135x133330411
    Salaries and wages4,250x4,7388,86612,339
    Indirect taxes170226195286
    Depreciation522x5401,5342,217
    Plus Capitalised salaries and wages771,6451,246
    Less Subsidies1,480x1,172500714
    Value added3,777x4,98718,874x25,026
    Fixed assets—
    Purchases during the year23230810,3849,981
    Sales during the year65281,334229
    Value at end of the year8,8168,26742,80652,717
PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL STATISTICS GAS MANUFACTURED AND DISTRIBUTED BY GASWORKS
Item1979–301980–811981–82
* Includes production from “natural gasoline” reformed by three gasworks operating in the North Island.
 megajoules (million)
Production—
    Quantity manufactured by gasworks*1,002.7858.4x738.7
    less Internal consumption2.13.49.3
    Quantity available for distribution1,000.6854.9x729.4
Distribution—
    Losses156.288.0101.0
    Sales—domestic271.2220.1x161.9
    — industrial and commercial573.1546.7x466.4
    Total distribution by gasworks1,000.6854.9x729.4
DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL GAS. GAS PURCHASED AND DISTRIBUTED BY GAS UNDERTAKINGS
Item1979–801980–811981–82
* Includes “natural gas” reformed by one gas undertaking in the North Island; excludes production of treated natural gas delivered from the natural gas treatment plant and the production of all untreated natural gas.
Purchases—megajoules (million)
    Quantity purchased by gas undertakings*12,927.814,022.516,593.6
    less Internal consumption and sales of C.N.G.57.564.6x479.3
    Quantity available for distribution12,870.313,958.0x16,114.3
Distribution—
    Losses1,418.31,352.4x1,280.6
    Sales—domestic1,797.91,731.91,899.8
    —industrial and commercial9,654.110,873.612,933.8
Total distribution by gas undertakings12,870.313,958.0x16,114.3
NUMBER OF ROAD VEHICLES 1981–82
ItemPetrol OnlyDiesel OnlyOther
Motorcars and station wagons34106
Goods service vehicles—
    2 000 kg or less gross laden weight88174
    Over 2 000 kg gross laden weight21543
Other835
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 1981–82
Item GasworksNatural Gas Distributors
Customers at end of the financial year—
    DomesticNo.14,39082,905
    Industrial and commercialNo.2,9268,234
New domestic customers connected during the year (less disconnections)No.–5,8413,532
Length of new domestic reticulation laid during the year (excluding replacement of old mains)Km-518
Gas appliances sold—cookersNo.5483,609
        — waterheatersNo.1862,860
        — spaceheatersNo.2547,671
        — otherNo.73819
Gas lost per km of equivalent 80 mm main100MJ/km2595,535

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other information on the gas industry will be found in the following reports.

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Report of the New Zealand Gas Council (Parl. paper D. 7).

Trade and Prices

Chapter 21. Section 21; MARKETING

21 A—MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Despite the rise in the last decade in exports of timber, wood pulp, and paper and of manufactured products in general, products of animal origin still average annually over 60 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of grass seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of farm produce. New Zealand remains one of the largest exporters in the world of butter and also (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of farm products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk and CreamCaseinTotal
* Of New Zealand produce.
 $(million)
1978240.976.6132.860.5510.3765.2580.0144.03,141.0
1979277.275.5130.362.3545.31,094.0683.3181.83,946.0
1980360.6105.8219.5112.5798.41,192.3930.8180.15,012.5
1981398.0137.7315.2117.2968.11,520.9892.6129.95,830.0
1982556.4181.5408.5142.01,288.31,564.1918.8152.96,527.8

The countries of destination for some of the main exports for 1981–82 are shown in the following table on a percentage basis. (Percentages are based on value of exports.)

Country of DestinationButterCheeseLamb Carcasses and CutsBeef and VealMutton Carcasses and CutsWool
Australia0.26.81.00.14.2
United States of America0.622.73.367.60.13.2
Japan0.227.15.13.523.713.2
United Kingdom47.515.155.22.214.810.7
Iran0.110.82.6
U.S.S.R.23.74.248.69.6
China, People's Rep. of0.29.2
Germany, Fed. Rep. of0.25.12.0 0.45.5
Canada 1.52.99.9 0.9
France0.11.90.10.25.9
Netherlands0.20.71.86.1
Greece 2.30.10.13.3
            Others27.317.215.815.610.225.6
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for farm products, especially butter and lamb. Until Britain joined the European Economic Community the British consumer had virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand supplies of butter, cheese, and Iamb as a result of the mutually advantageous trading arrangements made between Britain and New Zealand over a long period, which reflected close political and economic connections between their people and governments.

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is supplied to domestic markets, and only about 8 percent of world output enters into international trade. Among the few countries with significant levels of exports are Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Irish Republic. The principal importers are the countries of western Europe (in particular, the United Kingdom), the United States, Russia, and Japan. It is significant, however, that although the Common Market countries are substantial meat importers, much of the current trade now takes place between member countries of the Community as governed by the Common Agricultural Policy regulations.

During 1981–82, lamb exports to the United Kingdom recovered from the previous season's low level, but exports to the Middle East region declined by 50 percent.

Currently about 90 countries import New Zealand meat. Of these, six may be regarded as major markets. These are the United Kingdom and Iran, which in 1981–82 accounted for 57 and 16 percent respectively of New Zealand lamb exports; Russia and Japan which took 58 and 17 percent respectively of New Zealand mutton exports last season; and the United States and Canada which dominated the beef and veal trade at 76 and 10 percent respectively.

New Zealand's beef trade with North America developed in the late 1950s, as a result of a decline in the American dairy herd and a subsequent drop in output of manufacturing-type beef. The American beef herd is grain-fed and produces carcasses with a greater amount of external fat than the consumer requires. This fat is trimmed when the carcasses are being dressed. The trimmings which are used in the manufacture of processed meat products need to be supplemented with the lean type of beef that New Zealand (and Australia among others) can provide. Imports of beef into the United States are subject to “voluntary restraint” agreements under the counter-cyclical meat import law. Under this system New Zealand along with other suppliers, agrees to restrict the quantity of quota meat shipped for arrival in the United States during the calendar year, to a negotiated tonnage if the global estimate of US imports exceeds a ‘trigger’ level. In the first nine months of 1982 the United States Department of Agriculture estimated that imports for the calendar year would be below the ‘trigger’ level. However as a consequence of high drought induced production in Australia, it became apparent later in the year that the ‘trigger’ would be exceeded and voluntary restraints were negotiated with New Zealand, Australia and Canada. Initially New Zealand's restraint level was set at 154 200 tonnes, but an increase of 4600 tonnes was gained in December because some countries were unable to supply their share and this shortfall was reallocated. Actual imports of New Zealand produce during the calendar year fell short of the final voluntary restraint level because of late notice of the reallocation combined with administrative problems in obtaining entry of product into the United States.

A counter-cyclical beef import law was introduced by Canada from 1 January 1982, replacing the system of quota control which had operated since 1976. Quotas were not imposed in 1982.

Imports of beef and sheepmeats into the United States are shown in the following table.

Country of ExportImports Subject to Meat Import Law*Lamb
19781979198019811978197919801981
* Includes beef, veal, mutton, and goat meat.    
tonnes (000) product weight        
New Zealand15016214915913141313
Australia3663993662604521
Canada28354255
Mexico2821
Nicaragua2931218
Costa Rica31302029
Other countries42464740
                Total imports67470564555217191514
United States production11 2839 9259 999x10 353136.1128.8140.6148.8

Shipments of beef and veal to Canada totalled 21 153 tonnes in the year ended September 1982, while lamb shipments were 6895 tonnes.

In Japan imported mutton is used mainly for processing in sausage-type foods. Shipments of New Zealand mutton in the year ended September 1982, including those to South Korea (where almost all is processed and reshipped to Japan) totalled 22 553 tonnes, a reduction of 19 percent on the previous season. Shipments to the U.S.S.R. increased 27 percent to a record 63 079 tonnes.

It has been the policy of the Meat Board to diversify exports of lamb. The original initiative for this was the likelihood of Britain joining the EEC and, with that, the possibility of more comprehensive regulations covering imports of sheepmeats from outside the Community than the Common Customs Tariff of 20 percent. It was also considered that there was a need to reduce the continued dependence on one market.

In 1960 the Meat Export Development Company was established, an organisation charged with the responsibility for the orderly development of New Zealand lamb marketing in the United States and Canada. All New Zealand lamb sales to these countries are controlled by this company, the directorate of which is composed of nominees of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and representatives of the freezing companies. The head office of the company is in Wellington, while the North American operations are controlled from Toronto and New York.

The Market Development Committee, which consists of representatives of the Meat Board and the meat export trade, has each year set a percentage of lamb exports to be sold in markets other than the United Kingdom. A levy was struck, payable per kilogram on any shortfall in sales below the target figure. However, because of the high level of diversification performance in recent years the scheme has been suspended.

Iran continues to be the largest diversionary market for New Zealand lamb, although at 51 896 tonnes in 1981–82, shipments were down sharply on the previous season. Other principal markets were Japan (13 847 tonnes), Greece (9527 tonnes), United States (7186 tonnes), Canada (6895 tonnes), and Saudi Arabia (5890 tonnes).

Wool—New Zealand is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of wool. It holds third place as a producer; only Australia and the Soviet Union grow more. It is second to Australia as an exporter, and is the world's largest supplier of medium-to-coarse crossbred for use in soft woollen clothing, upholstery, and carpets. About 94 percent of the total clip is exported. During the 1981–82 season, wool earned New Zealand $910 million (f.o.b.) overseas.

The following table gives statistics on wool production, prices, and value of exports.

Year Ended 30 JuneNumber of SheepEstimated Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Auction PricePrice Converted to 1982 cents/kgValue of Exports
 (million)tonnes (000)cents/kgcents/kg$(million)
196046.926282.0486.7207.5
196551.328377.4406.3208.6
197059.932856.5239.1204.2
197555.929491.8246.5261.7
198063.5357265.1358.6930.8
198168.8381247.5289.5892.0
198270.2363255.7255.7910.0

The most common way of selling wool is by open auction in New Zealand. About two-thirds of the clip is sold this way. The auction season runs from August to the following June. Sales are held at 8 centres around the country and they attract buyers representing all the main wool importing countries. Growers can also sell their wool to merchants privately in New Zealand, and the New Zealand Wool Board buys certain types of wool direct under its Extra Choice Scheme. Small quantities of wool are also shipped to Britain for sale at auction.

Prices fluctuate from season to season. The Wool Board operates a floor price scheme which assures growers of a minimum income each season. In addition to this, the board administers a separate minimum supplementary price scheme on behalf of the Government. The board's market intervention and strata price control policies help to steady the market in times of uncertainty. Continued weak prices throughout the 1981–82 season resulted in a 23 percent increase in the Wool Board's stockpile from 343 373 bales to 422 245. Despite a further decline in prices for the first 6 months of the 1982–83 season, the stockpile has decreased to approximately 390 000 bales.

World wool production has been increasing steadily since 1977–78 particularly in New Zealand and most of the centrally planned economies (notably China +43 percent). For some developing countries marked increases have also occurred—in Turkey. Brazil, and Pakistan. The current high levels, however, are still below the unprecedented high levels achieved in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Since World War II there has been no significant change in the broad distribution of production, which remains concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the Soviet Union and China. The nine countries in the following table account for 75 percent of world production; of the world total, Australia produces 25 percent, New Zealand 13 percent, Argentina 6 percent, and South Africa 4 percent.

Wool production does not, of course, coincide with the distribution of sheep population since the production of wool or yield per sheep varies considerably according to differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

The International Wool Secretariat, founded by the woolgrowers of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa in 1937 and now a partnership of the grower organisations of these countries plus Uruguay and Brazil, is engaged in research, product innovation, and marketing, and the general promotion of wool. In recent years wool has had to meet strong competition from synthetics but the secretariat's campaign, and particularly the use of the Woolmark identification, has contributed to establishing a clear price premium for wool.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table. (Sources: International Wool Textile Organisation, Commonwealth Secretariat, International Wool Study Group, I.W.S.)

CountryWoolled SheepWool Production
1978–791979–801980–81*1979–801980–81*1981–82*
* Provisional.  
  (million) Greasy (million kilograms)  
Argentina32.832.030.7166163x165x
Australia134.2136.0134.4713700x711x
New Zealand63.568.871.2357381363x
South Africa24.324.2x24.3111x112x116x
Soviet Union142.6143.6x141.6472462454x
United Kingdom29.931.432.34852x51x
United States12.412.712.94849x51x
Uruguay17.217.2x20.072x75x72x
China95.2102.6104.9153176x189x
World total964.8x989.7x1 001.02 7982 8512 861

The major importing countries of virgin wool are shown in the following table. (Source: International Wool Textile Organisation.)

Country of Import197619771978197919801981*

* Provisional

† Clean content

  
 (million kilograms)
Belgium63.046.751.554.542.233.5
China†7.39.59.117.029.147.5
France165.2117.4114.4128.7117.2124.4
Italy107.987.692.5115.3117.7113.6
Japan269.8214.4201.9213.3175.6167.4
Soviet Union†109.6111.6127.0134.5124.2138.7
United Kingdom62.0136.6149.8121.595.5x106.0
United States33.930.428.524.033.043.7
West Germany99.376.477.191.979.571.1

The following table shows wool entered for export from New Zealand to major wool-consuming countries. (Source: Department of Statistics.)

Country1977–781978–791979–801980–81*1981–82

* Provisional.

† Including exports to other countries.

 actual tonnes
China7 30110 94814 68534 38925 460
Japan17 43631 32526 46822 52935 575
Netherlands22 97517 22615 96018 09618 150
Soviet Union22 45531 41439 00427 92536 316
United Kingdom45 09937 69029 99127 99332 766
United States8 5309 39911 10110 2539 246
West Germany19 79220 66517 97415 89314 086
Belgium10 3529 2517 8778 2169 932
France17 47819 41026 29820 50219 148
Italy8 37313 49115 04211 66512 495
Australia and Pacific Islands7 6648 0048 4577 2459 436
Total exports242 782259 122285 243280 252284 817

The following table shows the number of bales purchased by New Zealand mills during the past 5 seasons. (Sources: New Zealand Wool Board, Manufacturers' Monthly Levy Returns.)

 1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82
Tonnes (Greasy equivalent)
Wool purchased18 77324 39020 80422 67427 774

Dairy Produce—The international market for dairy products is characterised by its small size relative to the total world production of milk, with only around 3 percent to 4 percent of production entering international trade. As such, it is very vulnerable to fluctuations from external causes, whether these be climatic, commercial, or political. It only takes marginal production changes in the major producers, transferred via shortages or surpluses on to the international market, for severe shifts to occur in the international supply position and international prices.

There are only really 4 main dairy exporters, namely: the EEC; New Zealand; Australia; and Canada, in that order of magnitude, who provide about four-fifths of all exports. Relatively smaller quantities are exported by the Nordic countries, East Europeans, and the U.S.S.R.

The New Zealand Dairy Board exports annually over 600 000 tonnes of manufactured dairy products, of which around half go to the affluent countries in Europe, North America, and Japan, and the other half to the developing countries, with a heavy emphasis on South-east Asia and Latin America. New Zealand now relies on the United Kingdom for only one-quarter of the value of its dairy export exchange earnings, although the United Kingdom still remains the principal market for butter.

Developed countries have a tendency to express social and political policies towards their farmers through price support mechanisms; high prices which are fixed with little regard to commercial reality encourage production but discourage consumption, thus creating surpluses. It is the disposal of these surpluses, by means of heavy Government export subsidies, which really undermines the stability of the international market.

New Zealand is almost the only country for which dairy exports are economically important. For most other countries, dairy exports are a question of surplus disposal, and therefore inconsequential to national economics. Consequently, New Zealand maintains strong and consistent pressure in international councils to achieve a stable balance between supply and demand in international trade. While attempts in GATT or other international organisations to negotiate improved access conditions in developed countries have met with a minimum of success, international arrangements covering consultative procedures and minimum prices have contributed to stabilising markets.

The “Tokyo Round” of GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTN) resulted in the negotiation of the International Dairy Arrangement to replace the OECD agreement on wholemilk powder and the GATT agreements on skim-milk powder and anhydrous milkfat. The new arrangement (signed by New Zealand in December 1979), as well as extending the product coverage and providing for an annual review of the minimum prices, established the International Dairy Products Council to evaluate the international market situation and provide a forum for seeking solutions to problems in international dairy trade.

The 1982 minimum prices per tonne established under the arrangement are:

 US$
Whole-milk powder950
Skim-milk powder600
Buttermilk powder600
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF)1,440
Butter1,200
Cheese (certain types only)1,000

GATT bilateral access negotiations have made some progress with the recent EEC agreement to allow the import of 9500 metric tonnes per annum of New Zealand cheese, from 1980. Additionally, access for cheese into the United States was secured at a higher level, with New Zealand's quota rising from 7447 tonnes to 17 442 tonnes per annum.

The following tables compare production and exports of butter, cheese, and skim-milk powder by selected countries. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

PRODUCTION
CountryButter*CheeseSkim-milk Powder
19791980*1981 †197919801981197919801981

* Includes butter equivalent of AMF.

† Provisional.

‡ Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

§ Twelve months ended 31 May of following year.

tonnes (000)
Australia‡8479761541351535657x78
Canada98102x113167177x177114109x137
EEC1 981x1 964x1 9133 582x3 689x3 8262 052x2 080x2 020
    Denmark130113109189221243523632
    France596618x6001 1171 146x1 185659x736x701
    Ireland133127122584953148136142
    Netherlands202179183440454476194x172x177
    United Kingdom161169172234237242233237251
    West Germany568578546733776x814625639592
New Zealand§262257x24210684111169181194
U.S.A.4475195611 6861 807x1 907412527x592
EXPORTS
CountryButter*CheeseSkim-milk Powder
197919801981197919801981197919801981

* Includes butler equivalent of AMF.

† Provisional.

‡ Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

§ Excludes trade between member countries.

tonnes (000)
Australia‡2311x858x49x5610x12x47
Canada33x3x4936062
EEC§497589x480267307x349643580x432
New Zealand‡243214207698082172163134
U.S.A.5456668101140

Butter—World butter production in the period 1978 to 1980 averaged around 6.9 million tonnes. Excluding trade between the member states of the EEC and New Zealand's special Protocol 18 arrangement, international commercial trade in butter and anhydrous milkfat (AMF) for the period averaged 488 000 tonnes. In addition, 173 000 tonnes of anhydrous milkfat were given as food aid. The relatively small size of international trade compared with production illustrates the vulnerability of the international market to distortions resulting from the disposal by large producing countries via export subsidies.

The access level to the United Kingdom market has been progressively reduced since the U.K. entered the European Community. The U.K. was permitted to import 94 000 tonnes of butter from New Zealand in 1981 and 92 000 tonnes in 1982. A figure for 1983 of 87 000 tonnes has been agreed on but its formal introduction has been delayed and access is being granted on a month-to-month basis. Access to the U.K. and other European markets after 1983 will be negotiated during 1983.

Skim-milk Powder—World production of skim-milk powder has stabilised at around 4.0 million tonnes per annum. This follows a 25 percent growth in production during the early 1970s.

The surplus stock situation of the mid-1970s eased significantly by 1979 and a run-down in EEC stocks, enabling lower EEC export subsidies, resulted in a gradual improvement in international prices. This international market firming continued through 1980 with improved EEC stock management and lessened export subsidies.

Casein—Casein, which is produced from skim milk, was originally chiefly used in industrial products such as the manufacture of coatings for high quality paper. In the past 10 years, however, the nutritional value of caseins and their derivatives has been realised, and it is now being put to an increasing range of edible uses. Caseins are used as high-grade protein in food manufacture, where their nutritional and functional properties make them desirable ingredients in bakery goods, specialty high protein foods, coffee creamers, snack foods, and other products.

New Zealand is the largest exporter of casein, with most of the production going to the United States of America, EEC, and Japan.

The major countries producing casein are shown in the following table.

Producing CountryCasein
19771978197919801981*

* Provisional.

† Twelve months ended 31 May following year.

‡ Twelve months ended 30 June following year.

 tonnes (000)
New Zealand†56.763.366.260.347.0
Australia‡18.617.215.115.1x8.4
Poland35.030.034.0x28.0x25.0
France19.522.231.738.730.3
West Germany12.814.816.319.215.7
Netherlands14.015.018.015.0
Irish Republic7.511.212.916.9x14.5
Argentina5.03.02.73.83.0

Source; New Zealand Dairy Board.

DIVERSIFICATION OF MARKETS—The value of New Zealand's dairy exports to markets outside the United Kingdom has markedly increased over the last couple of decades. In 1955 only 13 percent of the value of New Zealand's total dairy exports went to markets outside the United Kingdom. In 1972, for the first time, more than half of the dairy exchange earnings came from these other markets. Since then, dairy exchange earnings from the United Kingdom market have slowly declined to about one-quarter of the total.

The rate of diversification away from the United Kingdom in exchange earnings terms has now stabilised. The United Kingdom continues to be the most important outlet for New Zealand butter, taking still over 80 percent of total butter exports. Continued diversification successes are restricted by limited market opportunities for milkfat products. Sales of butter to the Soviet Union and Japan are conducted on an ad hoc basis when these countries have domestic shortages, and as such they do not represent long-term secure markets. The growth in cheese exports to Japan has slowed, while cheese exports to the United States—which had rapidly increased in recent years—have stabilised under new import quota provisions.

The following table shows the changing direction of New Zealand's dairy export earnings in the period since 1970.

Product197019751982
United KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll Markets
* Including other dairy products.  
 $(million)
Butter104.0113.2121.0146.8323.3511.1
Cheese35.747.920.273.719.5171.1
Casein3.233.50.419.42.9141.2
Other dairy products8.847.8151.65.2609.3
All dairy products151.7242.5141.6391.5350.91,432.8

The percentage of dairy export earnings obtained from the United Kingdom in 1970, 1975, and in recent years is shown in the following table.

ProductPercentage from United Kingdom
1970197519811982
* Including other dairy products.
Butter91.982.471.563.3
Cheese74.527.413.011.4
Casein9.62.10.7*2.0*
Other dairy products18.4....
All dairy products62.636.229.224.5

In March 1975, in the context of Britain's renegotiation of its terms of entry to the community, the Common Market Heads of Government set guidelines for the quantities of butter for which New Zealand would have access to the British market for the first 3 years after 1977. They also agreed to periodic adjustments to the Protocol 18 prices taking into account, among other things, prices paid to EC farmers, production costs in New Zealand, and trends in freight charges. In addition, they left the way open for further access for New Zealand cheese after 1977.

In the Tokyo Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was concluded in 1979, New Zealand was successful in obtaining the Agreement of the European Community to an annual quota of 9 500 tonnes of New Zealand cheese. Compared with the 70 000 tonnes of cheese which New Zealand exported to the Community prior to Britain's accession, the new quota is not large, but nevertheless it has enabled New Zealand to resume the marketing of cheese throughout the European Community.

Improved access to the EC was also negotiated for beef. The EC's annual global tariff quota was increased from 38 500 tonnes to 50 000 tonnes, thus providing some additional access opportunity in which New Zealand might share.

In June 1976 the Community's Council of Agriculture Ministers agreed on the arrangements for the import of New Zealand butter into Britain in the years 1978–80. The quantities agreed for those years were 125 000, 120 000, and 115 000 tonnes respectively.

In September 1980 New Zealand agreed under an arrangement with the Community that it would reduce its 1980 butter quota by 20 000 tonnes in return for an increase in New Zealand's c.i.f. price to the level of 75 percent of the European Community's intervention price. Agreement on New Zealand's butter exports to Britain during 1982–83 was reached at the beginning of April 1981. Under this arrangement, Britain was allowed to import 94 000 tonnes of New Zealand butter in 1981 and 92 000 tonnes in 1982. In October 1982, it was agreed in principle that the access level for 1983 should be 87 000 tonnes, and that post-1983 access arrangements should be subject of study and decision during 1983.

Although efforts continue to be made by the New Zealand dairy industry to diversify butter exports, market opportunities outside Europe are limited and therefore continued access to Britain for substantial quantities of butter remains essential.

Although the Treaty establishing the European Community included provision for a common market organisation for sheepmeat, this was not considered necessary because the Community was by no means self-sufficient in sheepmeat production. Member states operated national controls on sheepmeat imports from third countries and the introduction of a Community regulation only became necessary when French restrictions on imports of sheepmeats from European Community members other than Ireland became an issue between the United Kingdom and France in 1978.

In May 1980 the European Community Agriculture Council agreed on the regulation of the sheepmeat sector and that such regulation would come into effect only when voluntary restraint agreements had been concluded with third-country suppliers. In October 1980 New Zealand formally entered into an agreement by which the European Community agreed on guaranteed access for New Zealand of 245 500 tonnes of sheepmeat per annum in return for which the European Community reduced the 20 percent ad valorem tariff to 10 percent. The present agreement operates until 1984 at which time it will be subject to a review as to its operation for later years.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Butter—New Zealand continues to retain an important supply position in the United Kingdom butter market, as the following table illustrates. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom has dramatically increased in recent years and, with the decreasing level of consumption, is becoming a relatively larger influence on the market.

Country of OriginButter
1978197919801981
tonnes (000)
New Zealand130.0120.0108.0100.5
Belgium/Luxembourg1.20.20.3
Denmark59.543.539.843.2
West Germany13.69.111.29.0
France5.91.61.31.3
Ireland48.340.030.031.0
Netherlands37.724.913.021.9
Other countries0.1
                Total imports296.2239.3203.5207.0
United Kingdom production161.7157.7168.6170.2

(Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine per head in the United Kingdom in 1970, 1975, and in recent years.

Product19701975197919801981
kilogram per head
Butter8.88.46.86.15.5
Margarine5.45.06.57.17.1

(Source: Milk Marketing Board, U.K.)

Meat—The following table shows the imports of fresh, chilled, or frozen meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportMutton and LambBeef and Veal
19781979198019811978197919801981
 tonnes (000)
New Zealand2142001891523466
Australia127211211063
Argentina11111315
Denmark271855
Ireland, Republic of142149159102
Botswana41515
France20181410
West Germany30291417
Other countries424221523
                Total imports226207191157273276233186
United Kingdom production228230x278x2631 028x1 042x1 122x1 058

The Meat and Livestock Commission estimated that in 1981 the inhabitants of the United Kingdom consumed per head 19 kilograms of beef and veal, 7 kilograms of mutton and lamb, 21 kilograms of pigmeats, 4 kilograms of offal, and 14 kilograms of poultry.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand, which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Acts 1956, 1971, and 1980 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Industry Act 1977, the Milk Act 1967, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, the Poultry Board Act 1980, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (safeguards citrus fruit, and honey).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all dairy products intended for export and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The New Zealand Dairy Board is a statutory authority operating under the Dairy Board Act 1961 and acts as the administrative body for the industry and as its export marketing agency. Of the board's directors, 11 are elected by the co-operative companies, 2 are appointed by the Government, and 1 by the New Zealand Milk Board. The board acquires all export dairy products from the manufacturing companies, sells the goods overseas, and returns the proceeds, less marketing costs, to the companies.

The board sells its products throughout the world, and is currently exporting to over 100 countries. Sales are made in the United Kingdom through the board's own sales organisations. In other markets, the board either sells through its own local companies, or through local agents, or in the case of some buyers it sells direct on a contract basis. Increasingly the board is posting its own personnel overseas in key markets as liaison representatives and, where warranted, subsidiary trading companies have been established.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 to protect the national and producers' interests. Up to 31 January 1981, the board obtained funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals). However from 1 February 1981, the levy was extended to cover meat for both domestic and export consumption (excluding pigmeat) and collected as a per head charge at time of slaughter. The current levy rates are—

Cents per Head
Lambs20
Other sheep and goats29
Bobby calves (under 27 kg)24
Vealers150
Other adult cattle330

Funds from the levy and interest on investments totalled $16.7 million in the year ended September 1982. Income exceeded expenditure by $1.8 million.

The board's main responsibilities are:

  1. Meat export licensing;

  2. The grading, storage, and shipment of meat;

  3. Market research;

  4. The promotion of New Zealand meat;

  5. Improvement in the quality of New Zealand meat;

  6. Meat price stabilisation.

The board has engaged in most activities in the export trade in the interests of the producer.

The board has had a major influence on meat marketing policy through the regulation of shipments, control over quality, and the development of markets through promotion, in which it is investing some $7.3 million a year.

In its market support activities the board promotes the sale of meat on an international scale. To this end it has established in its major markets a network of market consultants assisting the board through its overseas offices, which are in London, New York, Tokyo, Brussels, and Tehran.

Prior to 1971 the board's power to participate in the purchase and sale of meat in any country outside New Zealand was limited under the terms of the Act to the establishment of markets in those countries where no substantial market for New Zealand meat previously existed and to the expansion and maintenance of those markets. An amendment to the Act passed in October 1971 extended the board's power to enable it to buy any meat derived from sheep and sell in or export to any country. These powers were further extended in 1974 by an Order in Council which enables the board to buy and sell beef. In the 1971–72 season the board purchased a sizeable proportion of lambs slaughtered for export, while, at one stage in the 1974–75 season, it was purchasing mutton, beef, and lamb. During the 1975–76 season and again in 1976–77 and 1977–78, the board intervened and purchased a significant proportion of the export mutton produced.

The board again intervened in the mutton and lamb markets in the 1981–82 season, purchasing about 90 percent of the season's mutton production and 16 percent of the season's lamb production. At the beginning of the 1982–83 season, continued uncertainty in the outlook for both lamb and mutton exports resulted in the New Zealand Meat Exporters Council agreeing that the board offer to buy all export lamb and mutton from October 1, 1982 at the Government supplementary minimum price levels.

The administrative and promotional work of the board has served to ensure that the long-term interests of the industry are not ignored. This function embraces all activities in moving meat from producer to consumer in the quickest and most efficient manner with due regard to the stability of prices and markets. A Pork Industry Council functions under the Pork Industry Act 1974. Its principal functions are to promote and organise the orderly development of the pork industry; to assist in the marketing of pigs; to maintain and improve quality; to increase production; to promote efficiency; and to ensure a supply of foodstuffs for pigs. The council is now amalgamated with the Pork Marketing Board.

Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board—an amalgamation of the old Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation—was established on 7 February 1978 by the Wool Industry Act 1977. The board is a grower-controlled authority which has as its object to obtain, in the interest of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Currently the board is involved in a number of activities associated with the marketing of wool including the operation of a minimum prices scheme and a market intervention scheme aimed at reducing fluctuations in prices and cushioning declines in the market. It is also deeply involved in the research and promotion of New Zealand wool and is a partner in the International Wool Secretariat.

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the board, with private sales by growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than 2 cases, or with permission of the board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory).

The board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the board exceed the amount which the board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. The board may distribute up to 50 percent of the surplus among growers, or such greater proportions as the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries approves. The balance is added to the reserve fund. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShareGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1977–7812,3826,3226,06012,138
1978–799,9914,8565,13517,273
1979–8014,5615,4439,11822,716
1980–31–12,043–12,043–130
1981–8217,28911,1736,1165,986

Potatoes—The New Zealand Potato Board was reconstituted by the Potato Industry Act 1977 as predominantly a producer organisation. It consists of 9 members—a nominee of the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries representing the interests of the consumer, 6 grower members (3 nominated by the New Zealand Potato Growers Federation and 3 by the New Zealand Vegetable and Produce Growers Federation), and 2 merchant members representing the New Zealand Agricultural Merchants Federation and the New Zealand Fruit and Produce Merchants and Auctioneers Federation.

The principal functions of the Potato Board are to promote and assist in the orderly development of the potato industry in New Zealand, and to ensure as far as practicable an adequate supply of potatoes. It maintains a register of potato plantings and charges a registration fee. The board has the power to administer a legal minimum quality standard scheme for potatoes; to specify standards for table and seed potatoes; to foster, arrange, or undertake the disposal of, surplus potatoes or sub-standard potatoes or the export or import of potatoes where necessary; to further sales by publicity or otherwise; to maintain statistics and disseminate information to growers; and to foster research and development in the industry.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the national milk scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient, distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The board, with the approval of the Minister of Agriculture, may make a levy on milk to finance its operations and retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for treating milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Secretary of Trade and Industry. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs and Poultry—Under the Poultry Board Act 1980 the Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, was dissolved and its functions merged with those of the New Zealand Poultry Board.

The functions of the New Zealand Poultry Board are—

  1. in general, to promote, organise, and develop the poultry industry;

  2. to regulate and control the production, marketing, and distribution of eggs and egg products within New Zealand and elsewhere; and

  3. to assist, foster, and promote efficiency in the production, marketing, and distribution of poultry and poultry products.

The board has 8 members, of whom 3 are appointed as representatives of the Government and 5 as representatives of poultry farmers.

The board operates principally through licensed egg marketing agents in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs or, as directed by the board, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control.

Imported Citrus Fruits, Bananas, Pineapples, and Grapes—The importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples, and grapes are the responsibility of a public company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are 2 Government representatives on the company's board of directors.

Honey—In 1981 a major restructuring of the honey-marketing system was initiated. Previously, the statutory Honey Marketing Authority had exercised control over the export of honey. By industry decision, the authority is now in the process of winding-up its activities, and the exporting of honey is being opened to all parties.

A New Zealand honey co-operative has been formed and has acquired the South Island assets of the former Honey Marketing Authority.

A hive levy, payable by all producers who own 50 or more honey-producing hives, is administered by the National Beekeepers Association for the benefit of the industry generally. The rate of the levy is determined annually—currently it is 17.5c per hive.

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Farm products form the bulk of New Zealand's exports. They come to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year, but production is considerably higher in the 6 months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least 2 to 3 months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Exports and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand export trade as it relates to transport services. Shipping receives special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisations.

The council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, N.Z. Railways, road transport operators, harbour boards, the New Zealand Chambers of Commerce, the Manufacturers' Federation, forestry and fishing industries. It has been successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport, and other services produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines, and it continues its efforts to improve the efficiency and economy of transporting New Zealand produce to its markets.

PRICES FOR FARM PRODUCTS: Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation were amalgamated under the Wool Industry Act on 7 February 1978. One of the main activities of the new board is the continuance of the corporation's minimum or floor price plan, and its market intervention and strata price control schemes.

The floor price plan was introduced in 1952 by the corporation's predecessor, the New Zealand Wool Commission. It guarantees wool growers a minimum income from the wool they sell. The board prepares a table of minimum prices for all types of wool (there are almost 2000) before the start of a new selling season. The prices are fixed in agreement with the Minister of Agriculture, and are not altered during the season. If wool is sold either to commercial buyers or to the board, at a price below the appropriate minimum, the board makes a supplementary payment to the grower up to the floor level. Supplementary payments are made from the board's Wool Income Stabilisation Account. The account is funded by a 1 percent levy on the returns for wool sold for the first time at above minimum prices.

The minimum price per kilogram greasy weight for the 1982–83 season was 250 cents.

The floor price plan applies to all grower-owned scoured and greasy wool sold for the first time at auction in New Zealand and Britain. There are also procedures to protect greasy wool sold privately in New Zealand.

The board can buy wool at any price under its market intervention policy. It will do this to prevent lots being sold significantly below the market, and to cushion declines in the price. Intervention levels can be set above, at, or below, floor prices. Levels can be changed at any time by the board's directors, although their aim is to set levels which can be held for some time. The board will bid at auction if prices drop to intervention levels. If the commercial benches do not raise the price, the board buys. During the 1981–82 season the board purchased 187 046 bales, and in the first 6 months of the 1982–83 season, 36 562 bales.

When prices are above intervention levels, the board operates its “strata price control”. It bids when necessary to prevent prices falling more than a set percentage on the previous day's levels.

The following table shows weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction. The Last column shows the average minimum price to growers set by the New Zealand Wool Board.

Season Ended JuneGreasy Wool Sold at AuctionTotal Sale ValueSate Value per KilogramAverage Minimum Price per Kilogram
 Tonnes (000)$ (million)cc
1977200.93441.2219.58136.00
1978198.61378.2190.43150.00
1979204.35447.2218.80170.00
1980235.73624.9265.09200.00
1981258.01x638.5247.48215.00
1982255.91654.4255.70250.00

The next table shows index numbers based on prices of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The All Wool and Each Group Index is on its own base: average over all sales of 1975–76 season (= 1000).

SeasonAll WoolFine Wools*Medium WoolsCoarse Wools

* 28 microns and finer.

† 29 to 34 microns.

‡ 35 microns and higher.

1975–761000100010001000
1977–782066179220762066
1978–792363200323972367
1979–802831244428142848
1980–812672242426172683
1981–822758269126592747

Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) were introduced in 1936 for butter and cheese. The present legislative authority for the fixing of purchase prices for all dairy produce which the Dairy Board acquires for export is the Dairy Board Act 1961, as amended by the Dairy Board Amendment Acts of 1972 and 1975.

Since the 1975–76 season, the Dairy Products Prices Authority has established separate values for the milkfat and solids-non-fat (s.n.f.) components of milk on a farm gate basis at the beginning of each season. These values are established having regard to the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry, realisations and market prospects, and the state of the Dairy Industry Account. They may normally not increase by more than 10 percent nor decrease by more than 5 percent on the previous season's values.

Using the milkfat and s.n.f. prices established by the prices authority as a base, the board, in turn, fixes the export purchase prices for the major dairy products by using New Zealand average yields and costs. The board may apply differentials between products to enable the product mix to be more closely matched with expected market requirements, but in doing so must establish purchase prices for products in such a manner that the average payment for the fat and s.n.f. components is at the level set by the prices authority.

The results of the board's export trading each season are recorded in 2 separate accounts—one for the seasons' trading in milkfat products, and the other for trading in s.n.f. products. The differences between export sales prices less selling costs and the purchase prices paid, results in a surplus or deficit in both of these accounts at the end of the year.

The board may pay up to 50 percent of any surplus in either of the trading accounts as an end-of-season distribution, provided such distribution is not considered by the Government to affect adversely the national economy and the stability of the dairy industry. Any remaining surplus, and any deficit, is then transferred to the Dairy Industry Reserve Account.

This system of purchase prices, trading, and reserve accounts, ensures that severe fluctuations in overseas prices are smoothed out when translated into the price the farmer receives for his milk. In the short term, a surplus or deficit in the Reserve Account may occur, but in the longer term the account must be self-balancing from overseas revenue.

The following table gives the average value of milkfat and s.n.f. in wholemilk “at farm” as set by the Dairy Products Prices Authority plus the end-of-season distribution paid from the milkfat account.

Season Ended 31 MayMilkfat ValueS.N.F. ValueEnd of Season DistributionTotal Wholemilk Value

* Provisional.

† Interim.

 (cents per kilogram of milkfat)
1978–79111.8653.867.52173.24
1979–80131.0054.0023.00208.00
1980–81162.0068.0035.07x265.07x
1981–82*189.0079.0048.00316.00
1982–83†224.0094.00....

These values enabled the following average prices to be paid by the Dairy Board to companies for the main products acquired for export.

Season Ended 31 MayButterCheeseSpray Skim-milk PowderAcid Casein
* Period 1/2/78–31/5/78.
 (cents per kilogram of product)
1978*94.7189.8350.13134.87
1978–79107.0797.2852.25136.66
1979–80125.23112.2657.24149.54
1980–81152.20x136.14x69.21x184.76x
1981–82*185.96163.2484.47219.27

Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 14A—Farming.

Town Milk Supply—The objects of the New Zealand Milk Board are the provision of an adequate supply of milk of good quality for human consumption and the organisation of the town milk industry on an economic basis. The board arranges supply contracts with milk producer companies for all districts, reports to Government on the adequacy of the town milk producer price, makes recommendations as to aspects of price fixation, fixes local allowances for cartage and such special distribution allowances as may be necessary, makes financial adjustments with all those in the industry to see that they get the prices or allowances to which they are entitled, and in doing so pays out subsidy on behalf of Government.

The total Government subsidy on town milk paid during recent 12-month periods ended 31 August has been as follows: 1977–78, $51,068,392; 1978–79, $44,192,130; 1979–80, $40,523,536; 1980–81, $33,747,479; and 1981–82, $27,179,856. These figures include deferred payments.

The following table shows production and sales of town milk under the control of the New Zealand Milk Board.

Year Ended 31 AugustProductionQuantity on Which Town Milk Price PaidVolume of Town SalesPrice per Litre Paid to Producers Finest GradeGovernment Subsidy per Litre of Town Milk Sales
* Provisional. 
  litres(m) CC
1978706.5534.3395.412.56412.916
1979722.9535.2386.313.38711.439
1980723.3514.2382.915.127x10.804
1981674.2471.7374.218.735x9.223
1982663.0437.1366.122.631*7.595

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being “ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market”. The next table gives prices for New Zealand lamb and beef at the end of the last week in March. Approximately 40 percent of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat is generally accounted for by lamb, and the 8–12.5 kg and 13–16 kg P grades quoted in the table usually account for 10 to 15 percent and 30 to 35 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported.

End of Last Week in MarchLamb
Prime GradeY Grade
8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg16.5 to 19.5 kg8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg
 New pence per kilogram equivalent
197899.2–100.397.0–98.194.8–95.598.8–99.997.0–98.1
1979105.8–106.9104.7–105.8100.3–101.4104.3–105.8103.6–104.7
1980116.8–119.0112.4–114.6106.9–109.1110.2–112.4108.0–109.1
1981125.7–126.8121.3–123.5114.6–117.9123.5–124.6121.3–123.5
1982143.3–145.5143.3–145.5138.9–141.1137.8–138.9141.1–143.3

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by the meat operators in New Zealand. The producers have a choice on how to sell their export meat. They can sell on schedule, on owner's account, on a pool account system, on the basis of prices received from a nominated ship, on the hoof, or they can sell through a producer co-operative.

The New Zealand Meat Producers Board can, by use of its statutory powers issue its own schedule of meat export prices. It has taken this course of action in the past when it has considered that exporters were unduly pessimistic in their assessment of future overseas market prices, or when the schedule offered by exporters for lamb or mutton was below the board's minimum price. Intervention of this type by the board involves not only the setting of the schedule but also the marketing overseas of the various products on its own account.

Mutton prices declined during the 1980–81 season and the board decided that instead of paying supplements to the producer, it would offer to purchase mutton during the 1981–82 season at its minimum prices, and market the product on its own behalf.

Lamb prices were reasonable at the beginning of the 1981–82 season but began to decline in February and as a result schedule prices fell, reaching the board's minimum price level by the end of March. Various alternative proposals regarding ownership, control of product, and supplementation were considered before the board decided at the end of April to revert to the established policy of offering to purchase the remainder of the season's kill at minimum prices. However most exporters elected to retain ownership.

Overseas prices for beef were generally stable until July when they declined for a period before recovering again in September. However because of the appreciation of the US dollar against the NZ dollar, board supplements were required for only part of the year. Supplements were paid on the M Cow grades from the beginning of the season until the end of February and then again during August. Supplements for the prime beef and bull categories ceased in the middle of January.

The opening schedules for the latest 5 seasons are given below. The prices quoted are for dressed weights “on the hooks” at freezing works. The prices for lamb and mutton are for bare meat only with an additional payment being made for the wool and pelt.

OPENING NORTH ISLAND SCHEDULE PRICES
Class of Meat1978–791979–801980–811981–821982–83

* Includes early season premium of 9 cents per kilogram.

† New Zealand Meat Producers Board Minimum Price.

‡ Based on Supplementary Minimum Price.

 cents per kg
Lamb—     
    PL, 8.0–12.5 kg93.792.0*115.0136.0133
    PM, 13.0–16.0 kg90.786.0‡114.0145.0‡148‡
    YL, 8.0–12.5 kg89.090.0*110.0125.0126
Mutton—     
    ML, 22 kg and under31.0†40.056.050.0‡50.0‡
    MM, 22.5–26.0 kg16.525.540.030.021.0
Beef—     
    PI—Steer, 245.5–270 kg87.5128.5123.0143.0‡147.5‡
    LI—Steer, 245.5–270 kg83.0123.5114.5143.0147.5
    M—Cow, 145.5 kg-170 kg79.5106.5105.0‡125.0‡126.0‡
    Bull, 220–245 kg95.0129.5130.0143.0‡147.5‡

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The scheme which had operated since 1955 has been replaced by a more comprehensive system with 2 principal aims: first, to establish floor prices at a more realistic level and, second, to provide a mechanism which will allow for the replenishment of the funds paid out during the periods of low prices by levying farmers' receipts when prices exceed certain “trigger” levels.

Minimum prices are based on the average of the actual price for the preceding season, the estimated price for the current season (towards the end of which the determinations are made), and a forecast for the following season during which the prices will operate. The Meat Export Prices Committee will have discretion to set the minima up to 10 percent above or below the average of the 3 seasons. The committee also determines the trigger prices for each of the 5 benchmark grades of meat. A meat income stabilisation levy is imposed when schedule prices exceed the appropriate trigger price, the proceeds going into individual buffer accounts (sheep meats and beef) established at the Reserve Bank within the Meat Industry Stabilisation Account.

In general, the scheme aims at placing a floor under the prices the producers receive, financed by funds accumulated when returns are at higher levels. It is, in short, a price-smoothing scheme which, at the same time, pays necessary regard to changes in market demand. Because of the importance of meat in the national economy, it will also have the effect of softening the impact of any sharp movements in overseas prices.

The minimum and “trigger” prices for the 1982–83 meat season are shown in the following table.

Class of MealMinimum PricesTrigger Prices
cents per kg
Lamb—  
    PM, 13.0 to 16.0 kg114153
Mutton—  
    ML, 22 kg and under4263
Beef—  
    PI Steer, 245.5 to 270 kg128175
    M Cow, 145.5 to 170 kg98145
    Bull, 220.5 to 245 kg127175

These are known as the “benchmark” prices. They are the key grades for each category of meat. Other grades will be priced at appropriate differentials.

In addition to the above scheme the Government announced in the 1978 Budget the Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme. This scheme differs from the Price Smoothing Scheme in that it offers direct price support to the producer. The minimum prices announced under this scheme for the 1982–83 season are as follows:

Supplementary Minimum Price
Lamb PM (13.0–16.0 kg)146c/kg
Mutton ML (22 kg and over)51c/kg
Prime Beef PI Steer (220.5–270 kg)147c/kg
Manufacturing Beef M Cow (140 kg and over)125c/kg
Bull (220.5–245 kg)147c/kg

In the possible event of the weighted average schedule price for a benchmark grade falling below the supplementary minimum price, the supplementary minimum price for all the other relevant non-benchmark grades of meat will be determined and the producers will be paid accordingly. The minimum prices are set for a two-year period but can be increased in the second year.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Farm industry reserves were built up during the Second World War when, in furtherance of the Government's stabilisation policy, farmers agreed that increases in overseas realisations for meat and dairy produce be paid into special funds for later use for the benefit of the industry concerned. The wool reserve account (later the capital funds of the Wool Marketing Corporation) arose in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a contributory charge levied on wool sold at that time. Much of it was used to buy in wool in 1966–67 but this was all resold by 1972. About half the meat industry reserve was used to purchase lambs in 1971–72 to provide a higher price schedule, but was recovered from the ensuing marketing of the meat. The meat industry and wool reserve accounts were both drawn on again in 1974–75. Under a new stabilisation scheme for the wool industry, from the start of the 1976–77 selling season, wool growers paid a 3 percent levy on gross wool proceeds into a stabilisation fund. The levy is now 1 percent. Where necessary, supplementary payments back from the fund will assure them of a minimum price.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve and stabilisation accounts at given dates.

YearWool Board Capital and Reserves at 30 JuneWool Income Stabilisation Account at 30 JuneMeat Income Stabilisation Account at 30 SepMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SepDairy Produce Account at 31 May
* Minimum Wool Prices Funding Account.
 $(000)
197896,950–8,07697,978–2,091
1979105,34052,464*32,301102,204–27,247
1980127,46869,540*22,881105,28434,111
1981  –43,500115,074101,171
1982  –64,608129,282173,991

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the marketing of farm produce will be found in the annual reports of the various producer boards, including the New Zealand Dairy Board, the New Zealand Meat Producers Board, the New Zealand Wool Board, and the New Zealand Milk Board. Other useful publications include the external trade publications of the Department of Statistics and the following:

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Export News—Department of Trade and Industry (monthly).

White Paper on the CATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl. paper G. 14a, 1979).

New Zealand and the European Community—New Zealand Planning Council (1978).

The New Zealand Meat Producer—New Zealand Meat Producers Board (monthly).

The New Zealand Dairy Exporter—New Zealand Dairy Board (monthly).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

21 B—DOMESTIC TRADE AND SERVICES

Domestic trade embraces retail and wholesale trade and part of the service field. The trend of retail trade is one of the most perceptive barometers of economic activity as it constitutes a large proportion of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services.

The sixth of New Zealand's 5-yearly Censuses of Distribution, which provide the basis for the current monthly and quarterly surveys of retail and wholesale trade, was taken for the year 1977–78, and was the first fully-integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in wholesale or retail trade, hotels and restaurants, etc., and the supply of personal and household services.

All activities from the purchase of goods and supplies to the point at which the goods or services were sold were within the scope of the sixth census, which was for the year ended 31 March 1978 or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The census formed part of the department's five-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and for this reason any comparison with the censuses of distribution prior to 1977–78 should be treated with caution.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78

In 1977–78 the distribution industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. Wholesale Trade;

  2. Retail Trade;

  3. Restaurants and Hotels;

  4. Personal and Household Services.

The statistical tables which follow give summaries of those four divisions. The definitions used in these tables are the same as listed for the Census of Manufacturing statistics (see section 18), with the following exceptions.

Establishments—Productive units, usually warehouses, shops, stores, hotels, repair-workshops, etc., engaged predominantly in selling goods and services.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, engaged in predominantly servicing those establishments.

(The 5 oil companies, classified as wholesalers of “petroleum products”, were not required to advise separate details of establishment/ancillary unit activities.)

The following table gives a general summary of the results from the 4 divisions and of the 1977–78 Census of Distribution as a whole.

ItemWholesale TradeRetail TradeRestaurants and HotelsPersonal and Household ServicesTotal
* At mid-April 1978.
 Number
Establishments6 18327 8787 1666 56347 790
Ancillary units2722093630547
Persons engaged*—     
    Males56 39074 46722 99414 752168 603
    Females20 99568 38232 1929 721131 290
                Total77 385142 84955 18624 473299 893
Salaries and wages paid—  $(million)  
    Males4223298862901
    Females1052219128446
                Total526550179901,347
Depreciation5849288143
Purchases and other expenses8,7255,62960827315,236
Sales and other income9,7766,54890444117,668
Value added1,2871,0323061722,797
Capital expenditure, less disposals89825315239

WHOLESALE TRADE—The following tables provide a summary of wholesale trade during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

WHOLESALE TRADE 1977–78
 Number
Establishments6 183
Ancillary units272
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978—
    Males56 390
    Females20 995
                Total77 385
Salaries and wages paid—$(thousand)
    Males421,874
    Females104,600
                Total526,474
Depreciation58,325
Purchases and other expenses8,725,066
Sales and other income9,775,811
Value added1,286,572
Capital expenditure, less disposals88,768

RETAIL TRADE—The following tables provide a summary of retail trade during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

RETAIL TRADE 1977–78
 Number
Establishments27 878
Ancillary units209
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978— 
    Males74 467
    Females68 382
              Total142 849
 $(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid— 
    Males328,926
    Females221,374
              Total550,300
Depreciation48,600
Purchases and other expenses5,629,070
Sales and other income6,547,549
Value added1,032,333
Capital expenditure, less disposals82,344

RESTAURANTS AND HOTELS—The following tables provide a summary of the restaurants and hotels division during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

RESTAURANTS AND HOTELS 1977–78
Number
Establishments7 166
Ancillary units36
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978:
    Males22 994
    Females32 192
              Total55 186
$(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males88,259
    Females91,108
              Total179,367
Depreciation27,928
Purchases and other expenses608,368
Sales and other income904,065
Value added306,118
Capital expenditure, less disposals52,891

In the two following tables statistics of the restaurants and hotels division are given at industry major group and subgroup or group level.

PERSONAL AND HOUSEHOLD SERVICES—The following tables provide a summary of the personal and household services division during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

PERSONAL AND HOUSEHOLD SERVICES 1977–78
Number
Establishments6 563
Ancillary units30
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978:
    Males14 752
    Females9 721
              Total24 473
$(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males61,954
    Females28,480
              Total90,434
Depreciation8,449
Purchases and other expenses273,180
Sales and other income440,868
Value added172,138
Capital expenditure, less disposals15,260

SUMMARY OF CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78—The following table shows a summary of the results of the Census of Distribution 1977–78 as a whole. Further information on the Census of Distribution is available in previous Yearbooks and in the Census of Distribution volume published by the Department of Statistics.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78
Number
Establishments47 790
Ancillary units547
Persons engaged at mid-April, 1978:
    Males168 603
    Females131 290
              Total299 893
Salaries and wages paid:$(thousand)
    Males901,012
    Females445,562
              Total1,346,574
Depreciation143,302
Purchases and other expenses15,235,685
Sales and other income17,668,292
Value added2,797,161
Capital expenditure, less disposals239,264

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade was made by the Department of Statistics until the December quarter 1969. It was replaced by a monthly sample survey in January 1970 and the results of this sample are aggregated to obtain quarterly figures.

The present sample survey was revised in June 1982, based on 15 store-type groupings from the 1977–78 Census of Distribution. The survey coverage was extended to include three new store-type groups: automotive, fuel, and repairs; liquor including licensed accommodation; and accommodation; while restaurants and takeaways previously part of the other food group, is now a separate store-type group. The survey now follows internationally accepted definitions as used in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

In order to provide a long-term historical series for users of the retail trade statistics, the department has recast the store-type estimates previously released to conform to the new store-type classification.

The following table gives quarterly sales and also stocks as at 31 March for store-type groups.

Quarter EndedButcherSupermarket/GrocerOther FoodFootwearClothing and TextilesFurnitureHousehold AppliancesHardwareChemistDepartment and GeneralAutomotive, Fuel, and RepairsRestaurants and TakeawaysLiquor incl. Licensed AccommodationAccommodation*†Other StoresAll Stores

* Excludes licensed accommodation.

† Accommodation store types do not usually bold trading stocks.

 $(million)
1981—Retail Sales
    Mar75.5501.333.634.8112.4114.998.954.176.1168.01,257.9118.3272.434.8222.83,175.8
    Jun83.5529.634.148.9149.0130.7113.655.076.2213.31,393.6127.6262.426.7231.43,474.8
    Sep91.4572.638.739.4137.4148.0125.558.881.7205.71,540.4132.0268.626.5266.33,733.2
    Dec103.0661.145.249.3169.4151.3133.070.4102.1274.81,534.4147.1337.328.5335.74,142.6
1982—          
    Mar88.5604.239.443.1132.7141.4113.960.788.5197.41,545.2147.0305.841.7262.13,811.6
    Jun97.2628.538.958.3175.1157.2142.161.289.0243.21,571.2148.1292.233.9252.93,989.0
    Sep100.4664.544.042.9152.8159.8140.460.393.3216.71,587.5149.7311.039.9267.24,030.4
    Dec111.7743.753.449.6178.0150.2150.072.5114.2299.11,484.5156.5376.138.7338.04,316.2
Retail Stocks as at 31 March
19794.088.12.340.5142.980.564.031.436.0132.0346.88.156.4157.61,190.5
19805.4111.42.955.2159.6104.976.635.540.8154.6419.69.863.7185.81,425.9
19816.0137.93.559.0165.091.488.441.944.2173.4454.911.868.2204.11,549.8
19827.8156.13.966.5178.1111.695.145.352.3194.5608.514.169.8231.91,835.6

Retail Trade Statistics Adjusted for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally adjusted values of retail trade sales have been prepared. To do this, seasonal adjustment factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately-centred moving averages).

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: December quarter, 1980 (= 1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives a series in constant December quarter, 1980 dollars

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table for all store types.

Quarter EndedTotal Sales or TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $In Constant Dec Qtr 1980 $ Seasonally AdjustedIn Current $In Constant Dec Qtr 1980 $
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedAs RecordedSeasonally AdjustedSeasonally AdjustedPercentage Change*
* Each quarter on previous quarter.
 $(million)$$$%
1981—Mar3,175.83,345.63,243.81,000.71,054.11,022.1+2.0
          Jun3,475.83,554.13,316.51,104.11,128.81,053.5+3.1
          Sep3,733.03,779.63,410.41,190.31,205.21,087.5+3.2
          Dec4,142.93,813.73,330.41,306.41,202.61,050.2–3.4
1982—Mar3,811.44,012.83,410.61,193.71,256.71,068.1+1.7
          Jun3,989.34,082.83,348.01,256.81,286.31,054.8–1.2
          Sep4,030.44,077.23,249.81,273.71,290.71,028.8–2.5
          Dec4,316.23,951.53,102.11,348.91,234.99***.5–5.8

The following graph shows quarterly retail sales.

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—In this survey stores are classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The store-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

This survey was revised in March 1977. The revised survey includes wholesalers with sales turnover in excess of $100,000 at the 1973 Census of Distribution and covers approximately 89 percent of all wholesale turnover and 87 percent of wholesale stocks at that census.

Several wholesale store-types which were included in the 1973 Census of Distribution for the first time have been introduced into the quarterly survey. The major additions are timber merchants, timber products, cement and concrete stores, indent agents, exporters, manufacturers' agents, and wool, hide, and skin dealers. They have each been allocated to an appropriate survey store-type group. The revised survey also features the addition and deletion of a number of stores which were reclassified at the 1973 Census to and from wholesale, respectively, owing to changes of the proportion of wholesale trade between the 1968 and 1973 Censuses of Distribution. In addition some existing wholesale stores have moved between survey store types.

The following table shows wholesale turnover by store-type group during each quarter of the 2 latest years and wholesale stocks as at the end of each quarter of the 2 years.

PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
1981—Sales or Turnover
    31 Mar502.4127.653.9267.8226.5131.0
    30 Jun553.3144.970.1303.5264.6150.0
    30 Sep626.3136.882.3346.0306.3159.7
    31 Dec705.2151.075.6380.5313.5184.8
1982—
    31 Mar611.4153.870.8322.2292.7158.7
    30 Jun730.4159.284.9362.0314.3184.2
    30 Sep687.7173.385.5345.6326.2180.0
    31 Dec775.2151.973.3286.2299.2184.7
As at—
1981—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 Mar186.6102.158.3189.9190.1105.4
    30 Jun213.1104.563.8202.4202.5117.6
    30 Sep207.2104.563.4219.4213.5134.3
    31 Dec210.6114.665.5209.2222.2138.4
1982—
    31 Mar234.1119.073.7212.6223.3138.0
    30 Jun252.0121.976.3236.2237.6141.8
    30 Sep244.2121.080.8280.3245.9157.0
    31 Dec239.9132.691.3272.5245.3150.3
PeriodTotal
General MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended—$(million)
1981—Sales or Turnover
    31 Mar132.3107.540.255.3372.42,016.92,124.4
    30 Jun132.6115.050.057.8386.72,228.52,197.3
    30 Sep152.9130.055.670.7362.92,429.52,421.0
    31 Dec171.8130.753.673.3364.72,604.62,482.4
Quarter ended—$(million)
1982—Sales or Turnover
    31 Mar156.9132.250.667.8395.02,412.02,538.0
    30 Jun160.9135.363.174.3405.32,673.72,689.1
    30 Sep174.5144.264.479.4384.22,645.12,625.4
    31 Dec174.5123.258.475.8388.62,591.02,474.3
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1981—
    31 Mar77.5147.142.640.3197.21,337.11,324.3
    30 Jun74.1143.244.441.6183.71,390.91,386.6
    30 Sep77.1149.242.642.0175.71,429.01,422.5
    31 Dec86.1154.745.841.2177.71,466.01,477.4
1982—
    31 Mar89.6155.249.943.6202.01,540.91,526.0
    30 Jun97.2159.352.845.1209.71,629.71,629.2
    30 Sep101.1166.756.949.2207.01,710.01,700.4
    31 Dec99.4167.556.449.1208.51,717.01,732.1

INSTALMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles on hire-purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on instalment credit trading, published as parliamentary paper H.49, 1968, is a useful reference.

The Hire Purchase Act 1971 is the governing legislation in New Zealand.

Regulations to control hire-purchase trade have existed since 22 July 1955. Goods coming into the category “Other consumer goods” were exempted from hire-purchase restrictions from 29 October 1977, and, from 3 February 1978, new regulations covering hire-purchase sales of new cars were introduced. These allowed for a minimum deposit of 60 percent, with a maximum repayment period of 12 months. For used cars the repayment was extended once more to 18 months. With effect from 19 April 1978 hire-purchase sales and credit sales of colour television sets, together with the conditions applying to the hire of television sets, were no longer regulated. The maximum period of credit on new motor cycles was extended to 18 months, and on secondhand motor cycles to 24 months, while the minimum deposit for the latter was reduced to 33⅓ percent.

The quarterly survey of hire-purchase advances made by the Department of Statistics was revised for the June 1980 quarter and the revisions made retrospective to the June 1977 quarter to enable comparisons to be made. For the revised survey the list of businesses surveyed was updated to include large finance companies not previously covered and retail stores whose sales on hire purchase exceeded $0.5 million during the year ended March 1978.

Sales on hire purchase by businesses covered by the revised survey represented some 92 percent of total hire-purchase sales in 1977–78 as recorded in the 1978 Census of Distribution.

Only sales covered by the regulations governing hire purchase are included in the survey. Credit sales, charge accounts, laybys, and other forms of instalment or credit selling covered by the Census of Distribution are not included in the quarterly figures.

The following table shows the value of advances as recorded by the surveyed businesses.

Quarter EndedMotor Buses, Trucks, and TractorsCars, Motor Cycles, Caravans, etc.Plant and MachineryHousehold and Personal Goods, incl. TV SetsTotal Advance Under H.P. AgreementsTotal Owing Under H.P. AgreementsPercentage of Payments Overdue
Advance on H.P.Advance as % of Cash ValueAdvances on H.P.Advances as % of Cash ValueAdvances on H.P.Advances as % of Cash ValueAdvances on H.P.Advances as % of Cash Value
 $(m) $(m) $(m) $(m) $(m) $(m)
1981—
    Mar33.77545.25016.26845.183140.2763.82.5
    Jun36.37651.14217.97348.883154.2790.32.3
    Sep42.47563.34615.07157.683178.4848.91.9
    Dec44.66866.04517.86160.982189.3890.32.1
1982—
    Mar41.97368.44422.66459.983192.8945.92.1
    Jun53.67175.84717.46369.383216.11,010.02.0
    Sep54.76870.34618.86366.984210.71,060.51.8
    Dec53.66973.44720.27271.479218.61,089.81.9

CREDIT CARD SALES—A form of short-term credit trading which has grown rapidly during the past 3 years is the use of credit cards as a substitute for cash. This has largely been the result of the introduction of bank credit cards by the 4 trading banks. On 1 July 1983 bank credit became available at Post Office Savings Banks. The following table gives the value of sales by trading bank cards, Trustee bank Visa, American Express and Diners Club.

Year  Billings
Total Advances Outstanding*N.Z. Cardholders Spending in New ZealandN.Z. Cardholders Spending OverseasTotal
* As at December
    $(million)
1981153.3428.7135.3564.2
1982230.4608.3157.1765.3

COMMERCIAL PRACTICES—Legislative provisions dealing with the control of prices and with consumer protection are briefly described in Section 23 Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs. Further Sections of the Commerce Act 1975 are described below.

TRADE PRACTICES—Part II of the Commerce Act 1975 is designed to stimulate competition through the alleviation of the harmful effects of various undesirable trade practices that are, or may be, considered contrary to the public interest as defined in section 21 of the Act. Some of these practices are prohibited, for example, profiteering and black marketing. Other types of practices are those that may be approved by the Commerce Commission if they are not considered harmful to the public interest. They include collective pricing agreements, individual resale price maintenance arrangements, and pyramid selling schemes. This commission may also make orders against a third category of practices which it considers contrary to the public interest. These include refusals to supply, and directed insurance.

MONOPOLIES, MERGERS, AND TAKEOVERS—Part III of the Commerce Act is designed to ensure that some control is maintained over aggregations of economic power in New Zealand. Aggregations which constitute a merger or takeover proposal under the Act are investigated and considered by the Examiner of Commercial Practices in terms of the effects on the public interest, which is defined in the Act. The examiner may consent to a proposal, or where he considers it is likely to be contrary to the public interest, it may be referred to the Commerce Commission which will hold a public hearing to decide in terms of public interest whether the merger or takeover should proceed.

Monopoly and oligopoly situations can be investigated by the examiner on complaint or on evidence of misuse of market power. If found to be contrary to the public interest, situations are made the subject of a hearing held by the Commerce Commission, which is empowered to take corrective action.

CENSUS OF SERVICES 1980–81

The first economic Census of Services formed part of the series of integrated economic censuses of business activities in New Zealand being carried out by the Department of Statistics over a five-year period. The census covers the following activities of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification for the year ended 31 March 1981:

  1. Real Estate and Business Services.

  2. Sanitary and Similar Services.

  3. Social and Related Services.

  4. Recreational and Cultural Services.

Census Coverage No.
    Establishments and ancillary units..20 110
    Paid employees, and working proprietors/partners..237 572
Census Values in Accounting Terms
    Expenditure—$(thousand) 
        Purchases, including fuel and power500,890 
        Levies and duty49,147 
        Employer contributions46,769 
        Salaries and wages2,310,933 
        Depreciation73,081 
        Indirect taxes13,095 
        Insurances17,234 
        Interest, etc.103,574 
        Other expenses721,897 
                Total expenditure..3,836,621
  Stocks-
        Closing stocks72,943 
        Less opening stocks60,964 
  11,979
        Income—
        Interest, etc.50,***189 
        Subsidies13,303 
        Rents, etc.12,876 
        Other4,194,957 
        Total income 4,283,303
Net profit—
        Total income adjusted for stocks4,283,303 
        Less total expenditure3,836,621 
  446,682
        Less salaries of working proprietors or partners 136,438
        Net profit 310,244
Census Values in Economic Terms
        Operating surplus—$(thousand) 
        Total income, adjusted for change in stocks4,283,303 
        Less interest, etc., received50,1894,233,115
        Total expenditure3,836,621 
        Less interest, etc., paid103,574 
  3,733,047
                Operating surplus 500,068
        Value added—
        Operating surplus500,068 
        Levies and duty49,147 
        Salaries and wages2,310,933 
        Employer contributions46,769 
        Depreciation73,081 
        Indirect taxes13,095 
 2,993,093 
        Plus capitalised salaries and wages1,2792,994,372
Less subsidies..13,303
    Value added 2,981,069

In the following 2 tables statistics are given at industry level for activities covered in the census.

ServiceEnterprise GroupsEnterprisesOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at End of FebruarySalaries and Wages Paid to Employees
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
Real Estate and Business ServicesNumber  Number $(000)
                  Land and estate agents7097651 08154 53648,368
    Real estate valuing and appraising8787933051,089
    Total real estate7968521 17454 84149,456
    Legal services9009021 0309 64761,320
    Accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping services1 1671 2231 30519 99265,407
    Data processing and tabulating services1391491933 45838,652
    Architects3323333581 4088,967
    Consulting engineers20720828122 13421,707
    Land surveyors1321321671 53015,791
    Quantity surveyors4747663842,850
    Town planning consultant services11111339148
    Engineering, architectural, and technical services, n.e.c21521826831 38613,836
                  Total engineering, architectural, and technical services9389471 15356 88163,299
    Advertising agencies9910213411 53118,633
    Commercial artists and display specialists21721722016783,542
    Market research agencies23252925352,567
    Public relations consultant services5354541831,198
    Advertising services, n.e.c.7677883422,004
                  Total advertising services46547452543 26927,943
    Security services4748751 46913,177
    Debt collecting and credit rating services2933584693,450
    Typing, duplicating, and other office services898996215789
    Contract packing services2121232842,652
    Mailing and delivery services121212186436
    Management consultant services90951073902,832
    Business services, n.e.c.36537343542 82518,971
                  Total business services, n.e.c. (except rental and leasing)64467180645 83842,308
                  Total business services4 2304 3655 0121439 085298,928
    Machinery and equipment rental and leasing18018222761 1649,381
                  Total, real estate and business services5 1965 3956 4132545 090357,765
Sanitary Services
    Collection and disposal of refuse33133233811 2279,499
    Sewerage and urban drainage25125125631 45114,633
                  Total sanitary and garbage disposal services38738859442 67824,132
    Cleaning services7017107911513 02349,289
    Fumigation and pest control services29292989372
                  Total sanitary and similar services1 1151 1271 4141915 79073,793
Social and Related Community Services* —
    Pre-school education1692761 478542 81516,116
    Primary education2692692 513131 512373,920
    Secondary education26526536120 659319,563
    Tertiary education343444115 891197,433
    Other education services46152460822 62719,929
    Ancillary units servicing education77847714
                  Total education services1 1851 3325 0046673 551927,675
    General practitioners1 6871 6871 7085 34322,425
    Private medical specialists5225225231 2824,142
Private dental practices7657687892 59911,908
    Optometrists and dispensing opticians1561581825963,188
    Physiotherapists13313314313551,277
    Chiropractors777780209612
    Public and private hospitals1431523562263 610700,239
    Other health services159295403144 71743,619
    Medical, dental, and other health services3 6353 7864 1843778 711787,409
    Medical laboratories181864621 14410,075
    Dental laboratories13313313613281,252
    Radiologists in private practice2929372631,848
    Medical and dental laboratories and radiologists180180237631 73513,175
    Private veterinary practices18118221939364,971
    Other veterinary practices, incl. clubs4444753575,099
    Boarding kennels and catteries, etc.71717114090
    Veterinary services, boarding kennels, and catteries, etc.29629736531 43310,160
    Ancillary units servicing medical, dental, other health, and veterinary services1010181 37317,041
                  Total medical, dental, other health and vet. services4 1114 2634 78612183 252827,786
                  Licensed Old People's Rest Homes318324392175 53626,012
                  Total social and related community services5 5975 90710 182204162 3391,781,473
Recreational and Cultural Services
    Motion picture production47495013733,825
    Motion picture distribution2123271491,199
    Motion picture projection6163154701 6178,227
    Motion picture distribution and projection8186181701 7669,426
    Radio and television broadcasting131345104 29766,756
                  Total motion picture and other entertainment services139147276816 43680,008
    Racing and trotting clubs1561561573 5075,743
    Self-employed jockeys, horse trainers and TAB9909901 3394 41013,430
                  Total amusement and recreational services, n.e.c.1 1461 1461 4967 91719,173
                  Total recreational and cultural services1 2851 2931 7728114 35399,181
                  Total services13 17913 71719 781329237 5722,312,212
ServicePurchases and Operating ExpensesTotal Sales and other IncomeValue AddedNet Capital Additions
Real Estate and Business Services$(thousand)
    Land and estate agents76,208100,26874,6764,131
    Real estate valuing and appraising2,8916,2704,737225
                Total real estate79,099106,53879,4124,356
    Legal services120,076207,931156,3153,901
    Accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping services117,770190,388145,7813,021
    Data processing and tabulating services102,930113,90065,36126,468
    Architects23,26435,92422,775382
    Consulting engineers43,68058,38838,3341,121
    Land surveyors22,79626,39220,2991,200
    Quantity surveyors5,5849,5497,050110
    Town planning consultant services50879046733
    Engineering, architectural, and technical services, n.e.c.27,63432,98420,360820
                Total engineering, architectural, and technical services123,466164,027109,2863,666
    Advertising agencies159,746168,44829,9741,559
    Commercial artists and display specialists12,08115,8457,970601
    Market research agencies.6,4677,0913,414199
    Public relations consultant services3,0043,7692,097105
    Advertising services, n.e.c.7,1078,0763,452200
                Total advertising services188,404203,23046,9072,665
    Security services22,36023,95816,0301,095
    Debt collecting and credit rating services10,99211,2184,016168
    Typing, duplicating, and other office services2,2482,6981,447121
    Contract packing services12,59013,1204,115822
    Mailing and delivery services1,9442,16772025
    Management consultant services7,60210,0095,390275
    Business services, n.e.c.44,64451,73328,5621,564
                Total business services, n.e.c. (except rental and leasing)102,380114,90460,2804,070
                Total business services755,026994,379583,93043,790
    Machinery and equipment rental and leasing56,60563,15921,5715,514
                Total real estate and business services890,7301,164,076684,91353,660
Sanitary Services
    Collection and disposal of refuse42,67545,33415,6841,691
    Sewerage and urban drainage58,96459,48734,0813,091
    Total sanitary and garbage disposal services101,640104,82149,7664,782
    Cleaning services66,62475,22360,1001,606
    Fumigation and pest control services1,5662,1071,06479
                Total sanitary and similar services169,830182,150110,9306,467
Social and Related Community Services* —
    Pre-school education21,35821,81114,4381,061
    Primary education427,582431,263382,06343,435
    Secondary education368,532372,637328,35942,367
    Tertiary education258,004259,904195,63121,080
    Other education services30,42531,96020,6051,424
    Ancillary units servicing education1,4301,17369610
                Total education services1,107,3311,118,748941,792109,377
    General practitioners53,604104,65175,9122,756
    Private medical specialists13,74028,50819,334736
    Private dental practices33,44557,20937,599586
    Optometrists and dispensing opticians17,04223,92011,032575
    Physiotherapists3,1715,8484,28896
    Chiropractors2,1263,8602,51282
    Public and private hospitals946,852931,634760,50289,076
    Other health services58,06259,61346,8611,869
    Medical, dental, and other health services1,128,0431,215,244958,03995,777
    Medical laboratories18,01223,26715,909201
    Dental laboratories3,7346,4674,220153
    Radiologists in private practice4,0636,6784,623164
    Medical and dental laboratories and radiologists25,80936,41224,752518
    Private veterinary practices23,30130,79413,6871,129
    Other veterinary practices, including clubs19,79020,4656,776117
    Boarding kennels and catteries, etc.1,0741,32053796
    Veterinary services, boarding kennels and catteries, etc.44,16552,58021,0001,342
    Ancillary units servicing medical, dental, other health and veterinary services65,78364,74918,9112,112
                Total medical, dental, other health and veterinary services1,263,8001,368,9841,022,70399,749
                Licensed Old People's Rest Homes47,22351,31832,1589,310
                Total social and related community services2,418,3542,539,0491,996,653218,437
Recreational and Cultural Services$(thousand)
    Motion picture production14,21315,5596,2821,224
    Motion picture distribution9,0349,2883,266178
    Motion picture projection32,01837,31314,641–62
    Motion picture distribution and projection41,05246,60117,907116
    Radio and television broadcasting149,119145,95783,2698,187
                Total motion picture and other entertainment services204,384208,117107,4589,527
    Racing and trotting clubs75,39276,41933,1542,232
    Self-employed jockeys, horse trainers, and TAB77,932101,51347,9622,055
                Total amusement and recreational services, n.e.c.153,324177,93381,1164,286
                Total recreational and cultural services357,708386,049188,57413,814
                Total Services3,836,6214,271,3252,981,069292,377

The two following tables show regional summaries of the census by statistical areas.

ServicesEnterprise GroupsEnterprisesOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at End of FebruarySalaries and Wages Paid to EmployeesPurchasing and Operating ExpensesSales and other IncomeValue AddedNet Capital Additions
EstablishmentsAncillary Units
* For further information on health, education, and recreational and cultural services refer to Sections 5, 7a, and 8 of this Yearbook.
Real Estate and Business ServicesNumber   $(000) $(000) 
    Northland15215517419536,47412,36718,65113,965337
    Central Auckland1 8711 9282 1591215 311128,415356,965443,093234,94516,605
    South Auckland - Bay of Plenty73975085435 34139,22288,449125,60980,0084,443
    East Coast4545464623,7206,1518,8327,190304
    Hawke's Bay1891952151 75912,24324,18535,34925,012863
    Taranaki1331341479947,42113,62120,94315,3411,309
    Wellington1 1871 2201 375610 82094,666242,565305,717175,22923,594
                Total, North Island4 0604 2014 9702235 640292,162744,303958,195551,68947,456
    Marlborough4646512811,9803,4765,3784,02634
    Nelson1081121236894,7548,92312,9329,551679
    Westland3434361701,1802,2463,0492,24971
    Canterbury70972977635 31935,71885,421117,85372,3433,523
    Otago2622673131 87013,83130,15943,03228,149953
    Southland1261291441 1218,14016,20123,63716,904945
                Total, South Island1 2151 2611 44339 45065,603146,426205,881133,2246,205
                Total, New Zealand5 1965 3956 4132545 090357,765890,7301,164,076684,91353,660
Sanitary and Similar Services
    Northland33334814763,1936,0176,5434,197274
    Central Auckland27227831943 38518,26456,30259,26032,1791,016
    South Auckland - Bay of Plenty16216320831 8829,15122,92424,87515,111443
    East Coast151519893469131,10065120
    Hawke's Bay58586815212,5867,1087,8275,069227
    Taranaki3637494752,1523,9544,4932,83758
    Wellington23023527964 10217,28733,61436,52123,152640
                Total, North Island7908009901510 93052,979130,832140,61983,1972,679
    Marlborough1818222169311,5801,8181,14966
    Nelson3030392081,2332,6912,7801,80411
    Westland1111151469581,3451,3981,168 
    Canterbury17818020932 68010,01817,83818,81312,628713
    Otago65679119164,22010,10810,5896,6972,944
    Southland3939486943,4555,4366,1334,28753
                Total, South Island32833242444 86020,81438,99841,53127,7333,787
                Total, New Zealand1 1151 1271 4141915 79073,793169,830182,150110,9306,467
Social and Related Community Services*—Number   $(000) $(000) 
    Northland18219041754 11647,81365,92169,33453,7356,369
    Central Auckland1 6571 7002 4936440 326461,605623,248661,183521,07751,464
    South Auckland - Bay of Plenty7918341 5553022 477256,071346,392365,024289,68229,057
    East Coast899018422 15423,95131,45332,87126,678984
    Hawke's Bay25927248896 56872,71996,709101,88781,1715,711
    Taranaki21021939635 33652,12367,10670,57857,1396,094
    Wellington1 0741 1301 8383733 822363,558500,602519,922405,61857,876
                Total, North Island4 1674 3767 371150114 7991,277,8401,731,4301,820,7991,435,101157,554
    Marlborough596211421 45717,17822,17522,90618,8651,071
    Nelson14415125754 36146,53759,49262,02251,1753,642
    Westland38399811 44614,61219,85520,05415,6892,508
    Canterbury8078381 3662123 399245,166338,069354,039272,09827,328
    Otago3363546331911 851133,242182,318190,861151,95321,796
    Southland14815334365 02646,89865,01668,36851,7734,537
                Total, South Island1 4611 5532 8115447 540503,632686,924718,251561,55260,882
                Total, New Zealand5 5975 90710 182204162 3391,781,4732,418,3542,539,0491,996,653218,437
Recreational and Cultural Services
    Northland21213512139745,1646,0862,89254
    Central Auckland266268361163 58329,81999,963114,66251,2774,250
    South Auckland - Bay of Plenty25525631971 9659,17538,12845,45322,3031,738
    East Coast10101421588064,2915,0522,31574
    Hawke's Bay54547356442,18011,44113,4286,372247
    Taranaki50506726871,4827,1778,5703,979132
    Wellington199204291203 58236,176115,455108,14059,4965,200
                Total, North Island8278351 1605310 83280,612281,618301,391148,63311,695
    Marlborough1212141462201,1971,56660841
    Nelson28283832529704,5735,4222,81155
    Westland11111511626173,9424,4492,015233
    Canterbury262262323131 7179,56438,57543,11020,1471,014
    Otago777710968355,69219,51620,33310,206575
    Southland939311345091,5058,2879,7784,155200
                Total, South Island465465612283 52118,56976,09084,65839,9412,118
                Total, New Zealand1 2851 2931 7728114 35399,181357,708386,049188,57413,814
Total services
    Northland38839967485 75858,45489,467100,61474,7897,034
    Central Auckland4 0604 1725 3329662 605638,1021,136,4791,278,198839,47973,334
    South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1 9442 0032 9364331 665313,619495,892560,961407,10335,681
    East Coast15916026342 86328,82342,80847,85536,8331,383
    Hawke's Bay560579844159 49289,729139,443158,491117,6257,048
    Taranaki42944065957 49263,17791,858104,58479,2967,594
    Wellington2 6842 7873 7836952 326511,687892,236970,300663,49487,310
                Total, North Island9 83310 20914 491240172 2011,703,5932,888,1833,221,0032,218,619219,385
    Marlborough13413820132 00020,30928,42731,66924,6471,212
    Nelson31032145785 51053,49475,67983,15665,3414,386
    Westland949516421 92417,36727,38828,95021,1212,813
    Canterbury1 9522 0082 6744033 115300,466479,903533,816377,21632,578
    Otago7387641 1462615,472156,985242,101264,815197,00526,268
    Southland403413648107 35059,99994,940107,91677,1195,736
                Total, South Island3 4633 6085 2908965 371608,619948,4381,050,321762,45072,992
                Total, New Zealand13 17913 71719 781329237 5722,312,2123,836,6214,271,3252,981,069292,377

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on domestic trade will be found in the following publications.

Census of Distribution 1977–78—Department of Statistics (bulletins and volume).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. Paper G. 14).

Additional information on the 1977–78 Census of Distribution is available from the Department of Statistics, Auckland.

Chapter 22. Section 22; EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A—GENERAL SURVEY

New Zealand has always been heavily dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Today the value of New Zealand's overseas trade as a proportion of gross national product is among the highest in the world. In the early days of colonisation the infant farming industry found a ready market in Australia for basic foodstuffs such as potatoes, grain, butter, and cheese. Timber and gold temporarily constituted a sizeable proportion of exports, but the most consistent export was wool, which made up 22 percent of the value of exports in 1853, when statistics were first compiled. In the 1870s it accounted for over half the value; from 1880 to 1898 its share was from 40 percent to 50 percent. From 1899 to 1964 wool consistently earned one-third of New Zealand's export receipts. Since then the proportion has declined, and in the year ended June 1982 wool made up only 14 percent of exports by value.

Real and lasting diversification of the exports of farm products was made possible by the introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882. This accentuated the development of New Zealand's economy as a complement to the British economy, to the benefit of both. The proportion of New Zealand's total exports going to Britain grew from 70 percent in 1860 to 77 percent in 1900, and reached 88 percent in 1940. At first, exports of frozen meat increased more rapidly than those of butter and cheese; the early emphasis was on frozen mutton and lamb, with beef and veal becoming more significant later. The great expansion of exports of dairy produce occurred after 1900, and was encouraged by the centralised factory production of butter. From 1913 until recent years, meat, dairy products, and wool accounted for over 60 percent of total exports of New Zealand goods.

New Zealand's heavy dependence on the British market continued into the post-Second World War era. From about the beginning of the 1960s the increasing emphasis on diversification away from this dependence has been reflected in the growth of beef exports to the United States, of cheese and forest products exports to Japan, and of lamb exports to the Middle East, the United States, and Canada; the establishment of a growing trade in meat and dairy produce with the developing countries of South-east Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America; the growth in exports to the USSR; the expansion of trade with Australia under NAFTA and with other South Pacific countries; and the export of an increasing range of manufactured goods to supplement agriculture as a source of export earnings.

Britain's entry into the European Community in 1973 gave added impetus to New Zealand's efforts to diversify its market for agricultural products. The enlarged Community, despite its restrictions on imports of agricultural products, remains New Zealand's largest single trading partner, accounting for 23 percent of New Zealand's exports and 18 percent of New Zealand's imports during the year ended June 1982.

New Zealand's principal exports to the Community are wool, lamb and butter. Special terms of access to the Community market have been negotiated for the latter two products. When the Community introduced a common marketing regime for sheepmeats in 1980, New Zealand entered into a voluntary restraint agreement whereby New Zealand has undertaken to limit exports of sheepmeat to the Community to 245 500 tonnes annually in return for a reduction in the EC import tariff. The special arrangement for butter dates from Britain's accession to the Community and represents its acknowledgment of New Zealand's dependence on access to the British market for substantial quantities of butter. The annual quantities which New Zealand is permitted to supply to the British market during 1981 (94 000 tonnes) and 1982 (92 000 tonnes) were agreed in April 1981. The quantity for 1983 (87 000 tonnes) was approved in principal in October 1982.

Access into the North American market is vitally important. New Zealand's trade with the United States is circumscribed by various quantitative restrictions imposed on beef, mutton, veal, and dairy products. Beef and veal exports can be subject to quotas under the terms of the Meat Import Act of 1979, and during 1982 import restrictions were imposed under this law. Dairy Products (except casein) are subject to fixed quotas. Dairy products exported to Canada are also subject to quantitative restrictions and quotas may be applied to restrict beef imports.

New Zealand and Japan have continued to develop closer economic and trade relations, with Japan becoming New Zealand's second largest overall trading partner for the year ended June 1982. While overall bilateral trade has continued to increase in value, the volumes of some New Zealand products have declined as a result of adverse economic conditions in Japan. Close contact has been maintained with regular consultations between the two Governments at Ministerial and official level. Continued efforts have been made to improve access for New Zealand agricultural exports particularly dairy products, beef, leather, selected fruits and squid and radiata pine.

The newly-independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention since the formation in 1971 of the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the islands. Australia and New Zealand concluded a trade and economic co-operation agreement with the Forum Island countries in 1980.

At the same time our diplomatic and trading links with China, Korea, and the ASEAN countries, have been extended and a significant volume of trade has developed.

Australia has been New Zealand's most important export market in recent years. Between 1966 and 1982 trade between the 2 countries was governed by the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This was replaced from 1 January 1983 by a more broadly based trading arrangement, establishing a closer economic relationship between the two countries that will ultimately result in the removal of all restrictions on trans-Tasman trade.

New Zealand's trade with the USSR has grown substantially in recent years. Our exports are dominated by dairy products, wool, sheepmeats and animal products, while imports from the USSR and other Eastern European Socialist countries include rail, marine and motor vehicles, a range of manufactured goods, and fertilisers.

The rapid expansion of New Zealand's trade with the Middle East area since the mid 1970s has now slowed, reflecting the decrease in revenues achieved by the oil exporting states over the last year. The continuing war between Iran and Iraq has also been a destabilising factor. The main trade commodities are the traditional ones for each country—meat, dairy products and wool from New Zealand, petroleum products from the Middle East. Iran remains particularly important as New Zealand's second market for lamb.

The pattern of New Zealand's export commodities is changing. Whereas, in the year ended June 1972, meat, dairy products, and wool earned 74 percent of New Zealand's export income (Reserve Bank figures), in the year ended June 1982 they earned 60 percent of the total export income. Over this 10-year period earnings from exports of manufactured goods, including forest products, rose from 13 percent to 27 percent of total export income.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v. (v.f.d. in 1980, 1981, and 1982).

YearBritainAustraliaJapanUnited StatesOther Countries
Exports percent
1920745..165
1930803..512
1940883..45
1950663..1021
1960534..1330
June     
Year     
1970368101630
19752212121242
19801412131447
19811314131347
19821415131444
Imports percent
19204817..1817
1930478..1827
19404716..1225
19506012..721
19604318..1029
June     
Year     
1970302181328
19751920141334
19801519131439
19811119151837
1982920171638

TRADE RELATIONS: United Kingdom—The preceding table shows that, while the United Kingdom has remained an important market for New Zealand's exports, it is no longer our predominant trading partner for either exports or imports. The British consumer for a long time enjoyed virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of trading arrangements reflecting traditional economic, political, and cultural bonds between the people and governments of the two countries.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the two-way trade between the countries.

In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually declined. This decline was given impetus by New Zealand's increased efforts to diversify her export products and markets in view of British moves towards joining the European Community. Thus in 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports, but by the year ended June 1982 its share had fallen to 14 percent. However, the United Kingdom is still New Zealand's single largest market for lamb and butter exports, taking 57 percent by volume of both products in the 1981–82 year.

Entry into the EC, involving the assumption of obligations under the community's Common Agricultural Policy, required Britain to terminate the 1959 and 1966 trade agreements with New Zealand on 31 January 1973, and to begin to phase in the common customs tariff and other EC policies affecting the import of goods from those countries. New Zealand phased out by 1 July 1977 the tariff preferences previously given to imports from Britain, with the exception of certain automotive products.

North America—The United States was New Zealand's fourth largest export market in the 1981–82 trade year, having taken exports worth $835.6 million. It is our major market for beef and veal, which in 1981–82 accounted for some 50 percent by value of total exports to the United States. However, this trade has been circumscribed since 1964 by the imposition of quantitative restrictions. A new Meat Import Act was passed late in 1979 so that these import controls now include a countercyclical formula under which the level of beef imports increases when United States domestic production is low and vice versa. In September 1982, New Zealand was obliged to conclude an informal “Voluntary Restraint Agreement” with the United States, under which New Zealand beef, veal, mutton and goat exports to the United States in 1982 were restricted to 340 million pounds. New Zealand entered into this agreement (as did Australia and Canada, the other major suppliers, which came to separate agreements with the United States) in order that total United States imports of these meats would remain below 1.3 billion pounds in 1982. Had 1982 imports been estimated to reach that level, more severe restraints would have been applied under the United States Meat Import Act of 1979. Other main exports to the United States are lamb, wool, casein (the United States is our largest market for casein), fish, hides and skins and a growing range of manufactured items. Since the 1950s, an array of import quota controls has been applied to dairy products, especially butter, cheese, and milk powder. These controls have severely limited New Zealand's ability to expand its sales of dairy products to the United States, although with the loss of the traditional British market it is now our second largest market for cheese.

Canada is New Zealand's sixth largest export market, having taken exports of $128 million in 1981–82. Beef and veal are again our main exports to Canada, followed by lamb and mutton, sausage casings, wool, machinery, textile products, and casein. The Canadian Meat Import Act of 1981 permits the Canadian Government to restrict beef imports although no restrictions were imposed in 1981 or 1982.

A new Trade and Economic Agreement, between Canada and New Zealand came into force on 1 January 1982, replacing the 1932 Canada - New Zealand Trade Agreement. The new agreement retains the current preferential duty rates and provides for compensation should tariff rates be increased or quantitative restriction intensified.

South Pacific—In 1971 New Zealand and Australia, with the Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, and Western Samoa, formed the South Pacific Forum. Since then, Papua New Guinea, Kiribati, Niue, Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu, have become full members. The forum has initiated a regional shipping line, and studies into market expansion for Island products. The signing of the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA) by the Forum Island countries, which came into force on 1 January 1981, marked a major step towards economic development of the region. This Agreement provides that Australia and New Zealand grant non-reciprocal duty-free and unrestricted access for most of the products exported by Forum Island countries. It also recognises that the full potential of the access provisions can be achieved only through closer economic co-operation and development assistance aimed at enhancing the export capabilities of the Island countries. In September 1981 a team of New Zealand officials visited Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu to publicise the benefits available under SPARTECA. Officials have also addressed seminars in Fiji.

Japan—Exports to Japan have increased from $25.5 million in 1963 to $873 million in the year ended June 1982. Major exports are aluminium (17.3 percent), dairy products (17.2 percent), wool (13.9 percent), forestry products (13.6 percent), meat (11.6 percent), fish (8.4 percent), fruit and vegetables (5.8 percent), ironsands (3.2 percent), and hides and skins (2.8 percent). Japanese imports of beef, butter, skim milk powder, processed cheese, semi-processed leather, and some fish, fruit and vegetables are subject to global import quotas.

ASEAN Countries—The member countries of the Association of South East Asian Nations (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand) are an increasingly important market to New Zealand for agricultural, forestry, and manufactured exports. New Zealand's exports to the ASEAN group have increased substantially over the last six years to reach $438.6 million (or 6.6 percent of total exports) in the latest trade year 1981–82. New Zealand's trade relations with ASEAN are governed by the ASEAN/New Zealand Joint Trade Study Group (established in 1976) which meets periodically to review trade developments. In addition, a private sector initiative to assist trade development with the region was concluded at a meeting between the ASEAN Chambers of Commerce and Industry and the New Zealand Chambers of Commerce in April 1981. New Zealand also continues to place a strong emphasis on bilateral relations with each individual country and now has a Trade Agreement with each ASEAN member (except Singapore, with which New Zealand has a Scientific, Industrial and Technological Agreement).

China—Trade between New Zealand and China has expanded substantially since the normalisation of relations between the two countries in 1972. New Zealand exports to China increased from $1.7 million in 1971–72 to $172.8 million in 1980–81. In 1981–82 exports decreased by 29 percent compared to the previous year, to $122.7 million. This was partly due to a reordering by China of domestic economic priorities, including import requirements. Exports are predominantly bulk commodities; wool, tallow and forest products. Other significant export items over recent years include leather, hides and skins, iron and steel, aluminium and dairy products. China's exports to New Zealand have increased at a much slower rate to reach $47.9 million in 1981–82. Agricultural development is an important part of China's modernisation programme and in recent years New Zealand has participated in some livestock and pasture development projects in this sector. Prospects for co-operative manufacturing ventures in light industry have already been realised in some cases and further growth and diversification in the sale of goods and services is expected. A Joint Trade Commission meets annually to review developments in bilateral trade.

Korea—Exports to the Republic of Korea which increased from $1.6 million in 1970–71 to $68.8 million in 1978–79, declined to $57 million in 1980–81 as a result of an economic downturn. However, the Korean economy has recently shown signs of recovery with New Zealand exports totalling $102.2 million for the year ended June 1982. Major exports are wool (29.7 percent), tallow (21.7 percent), wood pulp (11.6 percent), hides and skins (7.6 percent), and mutton (4.1 percent). Korean imports of livestock, butter, cheese, milk powder, mutton, beef and fish are subject to quotas.

Latin America—Peru, Mexico, and Venezuela have become useful markets for New Zealand dairy products, especially for milk powder and anhydrous milk fat (AMF). Total New Zealand exports (including dairy products) to these countries in 1981–82 were $53 million to Peru, $45 million to Mexico, and $36 million to Venezuela. On 30 September 1982 the Federation of Labour lifted its trade ban with Chile.

Eastern Europe—New Zealand's exports to Eastern Europe, including the Soviet Union, reached a peak of $385 million in the 1981–82 year. The Soviet Union is by far the most important market in the region, accounting for $348 million. This makes the Soviet Union our fifth largest export market, and one of our major markets for dairy products, wool, and mutton.

New Zealand's exports to the region reflect the Eastern European need to meet occasional shortfalls in domestic production of food (dairy products and mutton), and the requirement for raw materials for manufacturing (wool and tallow). Emphasis is being placed on diversification from the narrow range of traditional exports, and newer products exported to Eastern Europe include breeding sheep, seeds, milking equipment, animal identification ear tags, and pharmaceutical raw materials.

New Zealand imports from Eastern Europe jumped to $58-million in 1981–82, primarily through a $25 million part-payment for electric rail units from Hungary. Other goods imported were chemicals, machinery, textiles, glassware, fertilisers, motor vehicles, and fishing vessels.

Middle East—Exports to this region rose from $3 million in 1970–71 to a peak of $440 million in 1980–81, but fell to $288 million in 1981–82. The decline in sales to Iran (from $243 million to $103 million) and to Iraq (from $70 million to $43 million) was a significant cause. Saudi Arabia, which took $50 million of New Zealand goods, is the other major market in the region. Agricultural products (meat, dairy products and wool) are New Zealand's main exports, but a wide range of other foods and manufactured goods are also now exported. Markets for mostly manufactured goods are being developed in the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain.

A move to domestic fuel production, plus an increase in imports from other sources, caused a drop in New Zealand's imports of Middle East oil. As a result, the figures for total imports from the region decreased from $526 million in 1980–81 to $459 million the following year. Oil has not been imported in quantity from Iran since 1979–80, and imports from Kuwait, Qatar and Saudi Arabia are also down.

In 1979 a four-year contract was signed to supply lamb to Iran, and annual purchases have exceeded the quantities initially established. Meat agreements have also been signed with Algeria and Iraq, although there has been difficulty in renewing the latter. However a five-year “evergreen” dairy products agreement with Iraq has been renewed.

Australia—Between 1966 and 1982 the New Zealand Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) governed trans-Tasman trade. Under NAFTA there was a very substantial increase in 2-way trade particularly in manufactured goods. Between 1964–65 and 1981–82 New Zealand exports to Australia increased from NZ$34 million to NZ$1,029 million, while imports from Australia rose from NZ$128 million to NZ$1,365 million.

The central element of NAFTA was Schedule A which provided for the elimination of duties on goods included in the schedule. The agreement also contained a number of other arrangements which promoted reciprocal trade.

In spite of NAFTA's success in fostering a rapid expansion of trans-Tasman trade, by the late 1970s both New Zealand and Australia felt that NAFTA no longer provided the most appropriate framework for promoting trade between the two countries. It did not provide any automatic mechanism for improving access conditions by the removal of quantitative restrictions, nor did it guarantee that existing conditions of access would be maintained for these products not covered by NAFTA arrangements.

Closer Economic Relationship—Following negotiations during 1980–82 the CER Agreement was signed on 14 December 1982 and came into effect on 1 January 1983.

In general, the agreement provides for the phased removal of duty rates by 1 January 1988 at the latest, and the progressive liberalisation of all remaining quantitative restrictions on trans-Tasman trade, with all such restrictions being eliminated by 1995. Factors creating inequality of trading opportunity are to be equalised, and to that end, all performance-based export incentives are to be removed by 1987. The agreement applies to all goods, although certain products and industry groups have been subject to modified programmes of trade liberalisation which take into account their special adjustment needs.

Provisions of the agreement cover agricultural support and stabilisation measures; the treatment of agricultural and horticultural products subject to monopoly import arrangements in New Zealand; Government purchasing regimes; rules of origin; antidumping and countervailing action; action that can be taken during the transition period to free trade to deal with cases of severe material injury or the demonstrable threat of injury to an industry as the result of trade liberalisation; situations where producers in one country might be able to source intermediate goods from third countries on a more favourable basis and so obtain significant advantages over their competitors in the partner country; and other trade distorting factors such as differences in standards, labelling requirements and technical specifications and technical procedures. These provisions are intended to enable trans-Tasman trade to be conducted on the basis of equality of opportunity and of fair competition. The new agreement also provides for consultation on the operation of any aspect of CER, for an annual Ministerial review and for a general review of the agreement in its sixth year.

Trans-Tasman trade statistics are given in the following table.

June YearNew Zealand Imports* from AustraliaNew Zealand Exportsto AustraliaVisible Balance of Trade with AustraliaRatio of Imbalance in Australia's Favour

* Current domestic value.

† Including re-exports f.o.b.

‡ Valuation for 1980, 1981 and 1982 is v.f.d. (value for duty).

 NZ$(million)
1978655.2411.3– 243.91:1.59
1979798.5499.5– 299.01:1.59
1980891.3‡631.5– 259.81:1.41
19811,043.6‡815.6– 228.01:1.27
19821,365.5‡1,028.9– 336.61:1.32

TRADE PER HEAD—Trade per head of population is affected, not only by the volume of trade but also by the value, i.e., the prices received for exports and the cost of imports.

The following table shows the value, per head of mean population, of New Zealand's trade over the last 5 Years.

Year Ended JuneExports (f.o.b)Imports (c.i.f)Total Trade
 $$$
19781,058.691,046.922,105.61
19791,299.891,227.392,527.28
19801,648.291,654.813,303.10
19811,925.851,912.633,838.48
19822,179.952,355.574,535.52

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold, specie, passengers' baggage, ships stores, and bunkering totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports
 $(000)
1976–77–378,240
1977–78–29,297
1978–79144,695
1979–80–150,124
1980–81–108,490
1981–82–757,365
NOTE: Minus signs indicate an excess of imports.

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS—Provisional trade data are published in an appendix to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics fairly soon after the period to which they relate.

Annual volumes containing comprehensive surveys of final data are also published by the Department of Statistics.

New Zealand has used the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) as from 1 July 1962, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. Since 1 July 1978 the classification has been in accordance with the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Net Month1979–801980–811981–82
Exports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.*Imports
v.f.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuev.f.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuev.f.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
* Final net month figures.
July318.2297.7318.0480.9470.6509.6522.4516.6558.0
August369.3416.3448.5381.8392.5427.9462.0533.8574.5
September352.5349.6379.4445.3492.3528.6476.3566.5606.5
October396.9445.2477.4414.6425.6472.4493.6551.2600.9
November439.1398.3429.2492.6438.0468.6560.1556.9597.2
December442.5358.9385.0519.9480.8513.1556.4597.0642.4
January386.0385.1410.6381.3394.4416.5497.5453.0494.5
February478.5470.0502.7507.5352.4382.2607.6561.8603.5
March527.7411.2452.1660.4479.3525.6629.5645.1690.2
April463.1375.1404.9547.6409.0445.9552.5633.0689.3
May523.6408.7441.4576.2626.5672.9729.6623.7677.3
June454.5454.7484.1627.1580.9613.0646.3669.0729.0

Valuation of Exports—It has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when wool exports were valued at appraisal prices. Most meat and dairy product exports are consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which they are consigned. Price changes may occur in these markets before the actual sale of the produce.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have ports of call in New Zealand during the period.

Valuation of Imports—From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised), statistics on the c.i.f. basis (cost including freight and insurance) became available at item level.

Since 1 July 1978 figures are based on Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

The proportional difference between the 2 figures of valuation now made available—viz, v.f.d. (value for duty) and c.i.f.—varies from period to period depending on: (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential charges in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. In all the tables, imports are now shown at v.f.d., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries passed by the Customs Department. Generally the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf.

Annual Statistics—For trade statistics a June year has been adopted since 1 July 1962 and this accords fairly well with the farm production year.

The following table shows for the June year 1982 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the countries trading with New Zealand.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1982
CountryExports f.o.b.Imports v.f.d.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of Origin
 $(000)
O.E.C.D. Countries
E.E.C. Countries
    Belgium53,56853,61840,566
    Denmark9,1509,25129,751
    Destination unknown—E.E.C.20,92820,928
    France106,984107,32772,725
    Germany, Federal Republic of121,926123,542280,694
    Greece49,25349,3482,551
    Greenland3535
    Ireland7,6747,98011,802
    Italy112,164112,99586,871
    Luxembourg66425
    Monaco2240
    Netherlands88,90089,34676,740
    United Kingdom957,377962,540636,056
    Vatican City State3
        Total, E.E.C. Countries1,527,9691,536,9191,238,223
Other O.E.C.D. Countries
    Australia990,6381,031,7431,400,519
    Austria3,4713,60812,448
    Canada128,459128,762149,267
    Finland2,9722,9839,107
    Iceland14414420
    Japan874,386876,0671,199,913
    Liechtenstein22
    New Zealand (reimports)9,247
    Norway4,3314,50815,045
    Portugal4,5454,5454,737
    Spain17,47217,75618,208
    Sweden5,1925,50458,958
    Switzerland10,90511,17452,367
Turkey890890642
United States of America838,349853,0111,202,380
        Total, O.E.C.D. Countries4,409,7234,477,6155,371,103
China—
    People's Republic of China122,361122,39748,002
    Province of Taiwan96,54496,76169,473
Asia
    Afghanistan1109
    Bangladesh1,3991,4014,396
    Brunei28932112,774
    Burma2,5252,525307
    Hong Kong94,64295,60089,974
    India33,73260,91233,918
    Indonesia99,03499,282303,407
    Korea, Republic of104,065104,08053,416
    Macau398398198
    Malaysia101,940102,45036,581
    Maldives141142
    Mongolia9
    Nepal594595163
    Pakistan17,05918,9673,870
    Philippines98,80698,8868,346
    Singapore94,96097,319278,813
    Sri Lanka6,0436,1816,955
    Thailand45,07945,16116,477
    Viet Nam, Socialist Republic of46
Oceania
Cook Islands12,65415,5724,651
    Fiji81,70191,71522,493
    French Polynesia29,99730,515280
    Kiribati1,6271,84628
    Nauru1,0031,09530,326
    New Caledonia19,41220,427357
    Niue2,6512,945519
    Papua New Guinea64,17470,0296,442
    Pitcairn Islands6064
    Samoa18,95820,5085,286
    Solomon Islands5,7576,1291,561
    Tokelau515667
    Tonga16,08217,0112,711
    Tuvalu1111,15616
    Vanuatu4,2614,6805
    Wallis and Futuna Islands184184
Latin America-Caribbean
    Argentina1,2521,282958
    Associated States in Eastern Caribbean10,94610,951158
    Bahamas1,4701,4703,742
    Belize87387371
Bermuda4,9774,977304
Bolivia17172
Brazil13921023,118
British Virgin Islands12312352
Cayman Islands115115
Chile1,16265,45838
Colombia253254132
Costa Rica9911
Cuba5,916
Dominican Republic67567525
Ecuador1,1481,1487,813
El Salvador202202107
Falkland Islands
French Guiana4545
Guatemala8898899
Guyana1,3781,378134
Haiti1,1081,10829
Honduras138
Jamaica4,0674,0673,035
Mexico45,57545,5754,185
Montserrat66
Netherlands Antilles1,6661,6661,566
Nicaragua22303
Panama5,3615,36321
Peru53,29853,3951,261
Surinam44
Trinidad and Tobago15,73615,73768
Uruguay989824
Venezuela36,54936,550
Middle East
    Bahrain9,7439,75592,781
    Egypt14,19814,20838
    Iran103,709103,709166
    Iraq43,34143,3432,007
    Israel8078487,723
    Jordan423480
    Kuwait13,43913,47431,437
    Lebanon8278271
    Libyan Arab Republic11
    Oman12,98813,288
    Qatar3,8823,88421,344
    Saudi Arabia50,74350,792273,622
    Syrian Arab Republic3,7023,702
    United Arab Emirates23,79823,85130,300
    Yemen, Arab Republic1,0841,084
Eastern Europe
    Albania4
    Bulgaria73473634
    Czechoslovakia10,55710,5578,050
    German Democratic Republic1,2261,2261,791
    Hungary2,7852,78626,026
    Poland5,4845,4849,672
    Romania5,3335,3331,887
    U.S.S.R.348,182361,72234,618
    Yugoslavia9,9339,9341,219
Africa
    Algeria4,1684,168
    Angola33
    Botswana30351
    Cameroon80
    Central African Republic71
    Ethiopia555570
    Gambia1111
    Ghana11,167
    Ivory Coast65065022
    Kenya1,4171,4181,302
    Liberia
    Madagascar35
    Malawi1,5051,505907
    Mauritania5555
    Mauritius15,98915,99354
    Morocco57757884
    Mozambique1,2471,24788
    Namibia11
    Niger44
    Nigeria19,74619,756
    Reunion3613611
    Senegal1
    Seychelles19192
    Somalia119119
    South Africa23,96024,39016,737
    Sudan3528
    Swaziland888822
    Tanzania1,1751,1752,512
    Togo5
    Tunisia5625621
    Uganda315
    Zaire3447
    Zambia1151181
    Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia)1471501,964
Other countries
    Antarctic stations (U.S.A.)27
    Antarctic regions (foreign)8
    Cyprus3,9353,93526
    Destination unknown—Other4,6494,649
    Gibraltar264264
    Malta2,7982,798212
    St Pierre and Miquelon6060
        Total, Merchandise Trade6,527,7946,733,7917,044,773

VOLUME INDEX OF EXTERNAL TRADE—For the index of the volume of external trade, both the import and the export series are linked chain series with changing (price) weighting patterns, each year being calculated on base previous year and then linked on.

Exports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy-Produce
197895578797810858619971013
19791012719953121492610831079
1980118078311281080102710351091
1981104091510851245x102411351155
1982101692210861186101411081142
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsAll Groups
1978109631559451170
19791175375410021275
19801196411110581332
1981127344481070x1396
19821269443510271378

Imports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearPetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport Equipment
19781133105390512231306921
1979115113261015109115071212
198011561448982132616351290
198110901228810131516121740
198291015141166155321701589
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
19789921085112011291092
197911141242121111461219
198013271323112511491284
198112051315x109410841252
19821814154511259071387

IMPORT LICENSING—Import licensing for private imports was first introduced in December 1938, and has continued in varying degrees of intensity since that date. The objectives of import licensing have been diverse, but have included ensuring a stable market for industry, utilising domestic resources to the fullest extent, encouraging investment and productivity, and helping to protect the balance of payments.

There was some movement away from import licensing controls during the early 1950s. Then in 1957 the prices for our agricultural exports fell sharply, and the government of the day reimposed import licensing on virtually all commodities.

Since 1960 there has been a steady pattern of exemptions from licensing, especially for raw materials and those finished goods, such as machinery and equipment, vital to our primary and secondary industries. In 1982 some 78 percent of all private imports were exempt from licensing. Those remaining under control included many of the wide range of consumer goods made in this country.

The main policies which are being continued in the 1982–83 licensing period are:

  1. an Excessive Price/Quality Differentials Policy, which permits manufacturers to import plant and equipment, components and parts when it can be established that the prices of the New Zealand-made equivalents are manifestly excessive, or that their technology or quality is significantly deficient;

  2. a Production Rationalisation Policy, introduced to encourage the transfer of resources into export production;

  3. an Export Production Assistance Scheme, introduced specifically to facilitate export competitiveness;

  4. an Import Licence Tendering Scheme, to provide some additional licences for consumer goods and, in so doing, to provide information on the appropriateness of existing levels of duty, so that these can be reviewed as part of a gradual move towards a tariff-based regime of protection.

Two significant developments were introduced in the 1982–83 licensing period. The first was the Government's decision to allocate by tender 15 percent of basic licences for consumer goods, as a further means of increasing the flexibility of licence allocation. The second development was the publication of a booklet detailing holders of basic import licences.

ADMINISTRATION—Before 1975 the administration of import licensing policy was the joint responsibility of the Customs Department and the Department of Trade and Industry. In 1973, to Department of Trade and Industry assumed sole responsibility for licensing administration. The Customs Department, however, retains an important role, particularly in the receipt of applications, the issue of licences, and the administration of certain policies delegated to it.

Import provisions are published in an annual Import Licensing Schedule. The policies followed by the Government for individual products, and a number of general licensing policies, published for the first time in 1981–82, were again published in the 1982–83 licensing period.

INDUSTRIES DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. The Commission superseded the Tariff and Development Board on 19 September 1975. The Industries Development Commission Act 1961 differs only in minor respects from the Tariff and Development Board Act. The Act was amended in 1979 to allow for the appointment of associate members with expertise in those industries under study.

The commission's functions are as set out in section 7 of the Act and are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the commission's development function. Its current commitments include studies of the motor vehicles and electronics industries, and a review of the textile industry plan.

During 1982 the commission completed studies of general rubber goods tyres, and fruit-canning industries.

In addition the commission presented a report on the writing instruments industry, as a statutory requirement following the Government's acceptance of a report by the Emergency Protection Authority.

EMERGENCY PROTECTION AUTHORITY—The Emergency Protection Authority operates under section 10a to 10e of the Industries Development Commission Act 1961 and Section 4 of the 1979 Industries Development Commission Amendment Act. It was set up under an amendment to the Tariff and Development Board Act 1961 of 22 November 1967. Its function is to advise, when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or the Minister of Overseas Trade, whether urgent action is necessary to protect New Zealand industry in relation to the importation of any goods and if so the nature of such action.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE—The Department of Trade and Industry assists in promoting overseas trade through the service of Trade Commissioner posts at Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, The Hague, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New York, Noumea, Ottawa, Paris, Peking, Perth, Port Moresby, Rome, San Francisco, Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. A marketing officer is located in Santiago. This representation reflects New Zealand's interest in expanding and diversifying export markets and in keeping foreign governments and businesses abreast of trade developments and investment opportunities in New Zealand. In addition the Air New Zealand overseas managers in Tahiti and Hawaii act as Trade Correspondents of the Department of Trade and Industry. Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

Trade Commissioners can be of considerable help to New Zealand exporters by reporting on market prospects for particular products. They can supply information on access conditions (customs duty, quotas, sales tax, etc.) and on other market requirements such as packaging, labelling, or testing requirements. Trade Commissioner reports can describe the market situation, and recommend marketing methods. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting in advance the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in the territory enable valuable advice to be given. The task is made easier if adequate notice of the visit is given.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with the territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make official representations to the government concerned.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, such as representing New Zealand at international conferences, and reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories.

Business people may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned. However, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Trade and Industry in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 39, Official.

TRADE PROMOTION—The Trade Promotion Council was established in 1962, under the terms of the Trade and Industry Act 1956, as an advisory body to the Minister of Overseas Trade on measures required to assist the further development of New Zealand's export trade. The 17 members were drawn from leaders of industry and commerce in New Zealand and were widely representative of agriculture, manufacturing, professional and technical services, labour, financial, and regional interests. The council, which met twice a year under the chairmanship of the Minister of Overseas Trade, made recommendations to the Government in such areas as the provision of export incentives and financial facilities; increasing the public awareness of the importance of exporting; the improvement of facilities in New Zealand and overseas to assist exporters; the co-ordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs, and publicity in overseas markets; and the exploration of new markets by trade surveys and missions.

The council's Export Award affords recognition to individuals, companies, and organisations which have made significant contributions to the expansion of New Zealand's export trade. There is also the Governor-General's Award for exceptional export performance, which is open only to winners of the Export Award who have had at least a further 5 years' exporting with exceptional sustained export performance.

Since the Export Awards Scheme was introduced in 1965, 130 New Zealand exporters have been granted an export award. Nine companies have been granted the Governor-General's Award since its inception in 1974.

In March 1982 it was announced that the Trade Promotion Council was to be abolished since it was considered that it had fulfilled its role as a catalyst for export development programmes. However, the councils Export Award Scheme and the Governor-General's Award were to continue under different arrangements.

The Export Guarantee Office (EXGO) operates in accordance with the Export Guarantee Act 1964. The office's function is to promote export trade by providing insurance against commercial and political risks arising from the export of goods or services. It also provides guarantees to lending institutions for amounts advanced to exporters of goods or services which are covered by a contract of insurance issued by EXGO. The Export Guarantee Office can provide a wide range of policies sufficient to meet most requirements.

NEW ZEALAND EXPORT-IMPORT CORPORATION—The New Zealand Export-Import Corporation was established under the New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974 to engage in overseas trade. It may also act on behalf of the Government and of any manufacturers, producers, exporters, and importers who request it to do so. The corporation offers a range of services including complete marketing overseas. Among its prime activities the corporation has been concerned with assisting small and medium size firms producing goods with export potential. The corporation also operates a Trade Centre in Sydney, which assists member New Zealand exporters selling in Australia. The corporation also has a representative based in Caracas, Venezuela. The corporation holds the New Zealand interest in the Bahrain - New Zealand Trading and Storage Company (BANZ) which has been established to operate a port and storage facility in Bahrain.

22 B—EXPORTS

The growth and diversification of the New Zealand economy are heavily dependent on increasing exports to pay for rising imports of goods needed by industry and a growing population, as well as to provide for large payments for “invisibles” in the form of services. Overseas trade is the lifeblood of the economy. New Zealand's export trade has become more diversified in recent years, as regards both products and markets. While the traditional export commodities, dairy products, meat, and wool, remain the backbone of the export trade, new commodities such as wood pulp, paper, and other products of our forest industries, and manufactured goods, are of growing importance.

In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of export statistics. Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment”. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

Since July 1962, the Standard International Trade Classification has been used in classifying export trade. Currently, goods are classified according to the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

MAIN EXPORTS—The following table gives total exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 5 June years by the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneMeat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsHides, Skins, and PeltsWool
Milk, CreamButterCheeseCasein
 f.o.b. value $(million)
1978765.2132.8240.976.660.5144.0580.0
19791,094.0130.3277.275.562.3181.8683.3
19801,192.3219.5360.6105.9112.5180.1930.8
19811,520.9315.2398.0137.7117.2129.9892.6
19821,564.1408.5556.4181.5142.0152.9918.8
Year Ended JuneSausage CasingsTallowFruit and VegetablesPulp, Paper, and Paper-boardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports
* Including commodities not listed.
 f.o.b. value $(million)
197827.032.476.8148.13,141.0172.33,313.5
197930.242.4103.8179.33,946.0121.44,067.4
198033.543.4128.7247.75,012.5139.85,152.2
198146.847.7170.0312.95,830.0235.26,065.3
198248.653.2215.1346.76,527.8206.06,733.8

The commodity groups shown above account for more than 70 percent of the total value of merchandise exports. In recent years, however, manufactured goods have come to play an increasingly important part in New Zealand's export trade.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade have varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. The preceding subsection includes a table of volume index numbers for these commodities and for manufactured goods and other commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs.

The value of total exports and of exports of some of the principal pastoral products is illustrated in the following graph.

The following graph illustrating the volume of exports is based on the table on page 606 of the preceding section.

For many years, exports of wool, meat, and dairy produce averaged over 70 percent (by value) of New Zealand's export trade. Despite the growing importance of manufactured goods and forest products, they still make up approximately 50 percent by value. During both the June years 1981 and 1982, exports of these products made up 56 percent of the total value of exports.

Other principal exports during the June years 1981 and 1982 were (in millions of dollars): fresh, chilled, or frozen fish, including crayfish ($132.6 and $153.0); apples ($47.3 and $52.0); lamb and sheep pelts ($63.7 and $83.3); sawlogs and veneer logs ($56.0 and $26.9); wood pulp ($151.3 and $155.7); inedible tallow ($46.7 and $51.7); casein ($117.2 and $142.0); and newsprint ($99.2 and $110.6).

The volume of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce during the 3 latest years are shown in the following table. The Statistical Summary, towards the end of this Yearbook, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities over a period of 50 years.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)UnitYear Ended June
198019811982
* For 1981, weights are accumulated, six months net weight and six months gross weight (which was introduced for cargo data). While this should be noted, some analyses have shown insignificant variations in the respective weights.
RacehorsesNo.2 5232 2942 346
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
    Beef—
        Bone intonne8 5076 8876 322
        Bonelesstonne200 240217 810220 148
    Vealtonne6 7926 8807 004
Lamb—
    Carcasses(000)19 31724 79720 564
    Boneless or cutstonne61 17970 61564 794
    Mutton*tonne87 47891 603119 882
    Other meat and edible offalstonne40 20046 65153 871
Milk and cream—
    Condensed and evaporatedtonne1 2081 5401 031
    Skimmed milk powdertonne172 435163 433135 032
    Other driedtonne91 13492 043117 903
    Other kindslitre (000)6 2258 95210 309
Buttertonne231 002203 058197 617
Cheesetonne69 24180 48081 048
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozentonne57 72685 57679 436
Crayfish, fresh and simply preservedtonne2 2592 5272 375
Barley, unmilledtonne84 67951 55922 523
Maize, unmilledtonne29 19922 4729 780
Fruit and vegetables—
    Apples, fresh, whole fruittonne92 57399 53096 435
    Kiwifruit, freshtonne16 02917 89520 221
    Potatoes, freshtonne11 26812 45913 692
    Peas—
        Dry, including splittonne32 32935 77126 231
        For sowingtonne15 16310 2088 649
        Frozentonne12 89711 82613 890
    Onions, freshtonne41 42546 51147 492
    Vegetables, frozen, excluding peastonne9 08711 00412 530
Chocolate and preparationstonne5 0927 2348 242
Feeding stuff for animals—
    Lucerne meal and pelletstonne17 93415 03712 737
    Meals of meat, fish, etc.tonne55 34960 99092 153
    Poultry mash and pelletstonne4 0154 2857 248
    Other kindstonne25 37128 66725 687
Margarine and shorteningtonne11 1039 6209 928
Hides, skins, and furskins, raw—
    Cattle hides(000)877994973
    Calf and kip skins(000)9749211 013
    Sheep and lamb skins in fleece(000)3 6113 9444 595
    Lamb pelts(000)16 33523 44221 910
    Sheep pelts(000)6 4667 6018 651
    Opossum skins(000)3 2022 7412 032
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifercu metre1 285 839848 112433 605
Timber, sawn, sliced, or peeled—
    Douglas fircu metre62 40261 06931 518
    Pinus radiatacu metre274 596332 598333 711
Wood pulp—
    Mechanicaltonne256 472288 388194 325
    Sulphate, not dissolving gradestonne221 537226 768227 251
Wool*—
    Greasytonne127 501134 357125 431
    Slipetonne16 78618 97518 893
    Scouredtonne140 756136 156137 244
Iron ore and concentratestonne (000)3 4992 8202 706
Sausage casings, naturalhank (000)6 9137 8007 873
Clover and grass seedstonne10 2886 6186 923
Petroleum products—
    Distillate fuellitre (000)112 75651 658
    Residual fuel oillitre (000)286 185202 661
Tallow, inedibletonne82 863104 679105 352
Caseintonne58 56442 61744 626
Caseinatestonne7 4194 8596 248
Newsprinttonne223 290230 974199 000
Kraft paper and kraft cardboardtonne83 75285 29095 805
Yarn of wool or hairtonne5 7495 7815 342
Carpets and carpetingsq m (000)3 1312 4442 724
Iron or steel—
    Bars, rods, angles, etc.tonne54 06530 9229 926
    Universals, plates, and sheetstonne38 72733 54328 073
Aluminium, unwroughttonne119 557135 283115 066
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s., of metaltonne3 3414 5173 960
Domestic electric refrigerators and freezersNo.82 27588 10784 008

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)Year Ended June
198019811982

* Exports of petroleum products are largely bunkering fuels which from 1982 are categorised under non-merchandise trade.

† Includes parts.

 $(000)
Racehorses23,29826,87932,317
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
    Beef—
        Bone in26,62222,76122,630
        Boneless478,498543,942578,361
    Veal34,30720,14518,928
    Lamb—
        Carcasses373,022591,378539,547
        Boneless or cuts113,166154,763170,840
    Mutton97,704108,074145,832
    Other meat and edible offals71,28568,98475,424
Milk and cream—
    Condensed and evaporated2,2722,9423,137
    Skimmed milk powder119,199168,565178,920
    Other dried91,153130,945211,025
    Other kinds5,1429,75513,341
Butter360,607398,004556,423
Cheese105,861137,714181,465
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozen62,250100,763111,595
Crayfish, fresh and simply preserved28,35131,87941,386
Barley, unmilled11,5058,7714,063
Maize, unmilled3,8753,3302,363
Fruit and vegetables—
    Apples, fresh, whole fruit35,75247,29752,021
    Kiwifruit, fresh34,52641,78852,712
    Potatoes, fresh2,4163,1243,356
    Peas—
        Dry, including split10,65914,16914,674
        For sowing4,6133,6973,957
        Frozen6,1746,80510,807
    Onions, fresh6,20115,67416,560
    Vegetables, frozen, excluding peas6,0498,51312,658
Chocolate and preparations7,90112,66618,714
Feeding stuff for animals—
    Lucerne meal and pellets3,0632,4621,956
    Meals of meat, fish, etc.16,39320,25428,239
    Poultry mash and pellets8991,1122,457
    Other kinds10,46815,33224,912
Margarine and shortening15,19319,13523,498
Hides, skins, and furskins, raw—
    Cattle hides29,78926,38629,656
    Calf and kip skins11,7577,22910,008
    Sheep and lamb skins in fleece16,01211,94214,881
    Lamb pelts62,90943,7***658,254
    Sheep pelts34,30219,97025,080
    Opossum skins23,42219,84013,907
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifer68,74156,02226,889
Timber, sawn, sliced, or peeled—
    Douglas fir7,8219,0615,493
    Pinus radiata29,23941,76642,518
Wood pulp—
    Mechanical43,26555,05946,826
    Sulphate, not dissolving grades76,57196,200108,891
Wool—
    Greasy366,921362,693363,572
    Slipe47,17447,20451,226
    Scoured516,665482,705504,044
Iron ore and concentrates29,23027,59431,951
Sausage casings, natural33,48146,80748,649
Clover and grass seeds13,99011,57514,850
Petroleum products*—
    Distillate fuel26,80015,933 
    Residual fuel oil38,71139,793 
Tallow, inedible42,19446,73251,716
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins14,03619,09624,318
Casein112,522117,235141,960
Caseinates17,56016,49221,464
Leather—
    Bovine and equine, including calf38,94527,84835,696
    Lamb skin33,07419,31122,620
Furs, dressed or dressed and dyed7,9166,4305,636
Woodchips, softwood9,75715,97919,460
Newsprint paper80,98899,242110,572
Kraft paper and kraft cardboard32,27739,98651,376
Articles of pulp, paper or paperboard12,41915,59218,892
Yarn of wool or hair36,20041,94745,327
Carpets, carpeting and rugs42,07040,48055,038
Iron or steel—
    Bars, rods, angles, etc.17,24411,4444,514
    Universals, plates, and sheets17,82215,87417,355
Aluminium, unwrought151,115204,569182,285
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s., of metal6,41810,10710,867
Tools for use in the hand or in machines3,6506,2859,801
Agricultural machinery and implements†22,89625,88429,560
Textile and leather machinery3,1384,9824,871
Electric power machinery and switchgear10,62216,91318,930
Domestic electric equipment—
    Refrigerators and freezers16,70320,54423,071
    Other†5,85913,04518,579
Road motor vehicles†25,86627,34028,377
Aircraft†3,0298,8642,886
Ships and boats†4,83211,1579,079
Clothing, excluding fur clothing23,21030,66435,303
Printed matter11,89417,09428,389
Prams, toys, games, sporting goods5,0986,2518,964

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) are summarised according to the sections and divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2). Minor changes in the way data were compiled during 1982 for non-merchandise trade for bunkering and ships stores, have resulted in some discrepancies between figures for 1982 and previous years.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
Section and DivisionYear Ended June
198019811982
* Exports of petroleum products are largely bunkering fuels, which from 1982 are categorised under non-merchandise trade.
 $(000)
0 Food and Live Animals Chiefly for Food
    00 Live animals chiefly for food32,50734,14553,015
    01 Meat and meat preparations1,192,2821,520,8651,564,137
    02 Dairy products and birds' eggs687,668853,4681,149,835
    03 Fish, crustaceans, and molluscs, and preparations thereof130,312178,322230,266
    04 Cereals and cereal preparations21,18720,28818,385
    05 Vegetables and fruit128,735170,017215,086
    06 Sugar, sugar preparations, and honey10,43412,17213,513
    07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof13,73514,25020,388
    08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)30,82439,16057,564
    09 Miscellaneous edible products and preparations19,74027,72233,305
        Total, section 02,267,4252,870,4093,355,495
1 Beverages and Tobacco
    11 Beverages2,4019,06410,476
    12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures2,9983,9993,238
        Total, section 15,39913,06313,714
2 Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
    21 Hides, skins, and furskins, raw180,121129,856152,888
    22 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruit273341398
    23 Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed)33137100
    24 Cork and wood126,025135,640107,733
    25 Pulp and waste paper120,747151,819156,410
    26 Textile fibres (other than wool tops) and their wastes932,899894,496920,834
    27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals (excluding coal, etc.)1,7542,2033,187
    28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap36,99934,43037,094
    29 Crude animal and vegetable materials, n.e.s.69,90286,61395,361
        Total, section 21,468,7511,435,5341,474,006
3 Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials
    32 Coal, coke, and briquettes1,07911,96113,219
    33 Petroleum, petroleum products, and related materials*67,20758,0482,023
    34 Gas, natural and manufactured121
        Total, section 368,28770,01115,242
4 Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, and Waxes
    41 Animal oils and fats44,70548,82754,098
    42 Fixed vegetable oils and fats632468709
    43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin7155091,366
        Total, section 446,05249,80456,173
5 Chemicals and Related Products n.e.s.
    51 Organic chemicals3,4453,7074,822
    52 Inorganic chemicals1,3921,5632,062
    53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials5,2347,0427,776
    54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products11,05914,14522,218
    55 Essential oils and perfumes, etc.11,74513,46919,246
    56 Fertilisers, manufactured1,7749371,172
    57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products283476900
    58 Artificial resins and plastic materials, and cellulose esters and ethers14,03619,09624,318
    59 Chemical materials and products, n.e.s.144,759155,900192,141
        Total, section 5193,727216,337274,655
6 Manufactured Goods Classified by Material   
    61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.s., and dressed furskins82,01456,09066,247
    62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.9,00015,66018,554
    63 Cork and wood manufactures (excluding furniture)54,13061,94569,703
    64 Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper pulp, of paper, or of paperboard139,354176,706209,203
    65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and related products95,244103,723123,064
    66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s.22,06531,11938,243
    67 Iron and steel49,73944,92550,789
    68 Non-ferrous metals168,728226,730214,736
    69 Manufactures of metal, n.e.s.59,34073,67789,321
        Total, section 6679,614790,574879,859
7 Machinery and Transport Equipment
    71 Power generating machinery and equipment2,8944,3034,594
    72 Machinery specialised for particular industries36,24746,83956,205
    73 Metal working machinery2,6584,8944,552
    74 General industrial machinery and equipment, n.e.s., and machine parts, n.e.s.29,74737,89852,924
    75 Office machines and automatic data processing equipment154317492
    76 Telecommunications, sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment7,5989,62813,144
    77 Electrical machinery, apparatus and appliances, n.e.s., and parts thereof47,25472,11283,850
    78 Road vehicles (including air-cushion vehicles)32,70430,04630,543
    79 Other transport equipment8,19720,35012,092
        Total, section 7167,452226,387258,395
8 Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
    81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, etc., fixtures and fittings n.e.s.1,1942,1283,032
    82 Furniture and parts thereof16,43021,16125,892
    83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar containers2,4983,0223,100
    84 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories31,12045,90353,977
    85 Footwear3,8905,0287,334
    87 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments and apparatus, n.e.s.6,2145,6287,617
    88 Photographic apparatus, optical goods, watches and clocks1,8702,0122,370
    89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s.49,13270,37395,451
        Total, section 8112,348155,256198,773
9 Commodities and Transactions Not Classified Elsewhere in the S.I.T.C.
    94 Live animals, n.e.s.58146286
    95 Arms of war and ammunition, etc.67527110
    96 Coins (other than gold coins) not being legal tender in New Zealand6
    97 Gold, non-monetary2,6582,4831,091
        Total, section 93,3972,6561,487
        Total New Zealand produce exports5,012,4535,830,0316,527,799
        Re-exports139,759235,245205,992
        Grand total, merchandise exports5,152,2126,065,2776,733,791
n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) are given in the table below. It should be noted that Australia includes Cocos, Norfolk Island, and (from 1980) Christmas Island. The United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone (until 1980), Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

CountryYear Ended June
197719781979198019811982
* Including destination optional.
 $(million)
Australia382.3412.6501.2634.1817.91,031.7
Canada65.973.5101.498.0132.3128.8
France78772.694.5126.794.7107.3
Germany, Fed. Rep. of96.***90.6102.5116.2149.5123.5
Iran43.270.024.4129.6243.1103.7
Japan403.5435.6600.6635.2785.0876.1
Netherlands84.***73.965.784.294.589.3
United Kingdom642.***595.2676.7714.9760.2962.5
United States353.***439.0632.2721.4796.4853.0
U.S.S.R.144.***81.0129.1250.9225.9361.7
Other countries*866.***x903.3x1,056.9x1,511.2x1,815.6x2,096.0
    Total merchandise exports3,159.7x3,247.4x3,985.2x5,022.5x5,915.1x6,733.8

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

ASEAN and ESCAP—In recent decades there has been a steady growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asian-Pacific area. This country enjoys a close relationship with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP).

The following table shows the total value of merchandise exported to and imported from these two regions. These figures are based on the ESCAP countries, with the ASEAN member countries indicated.

CountryYear Ended June 1981Year Ended June 1982
Exports* f.o.b.Imports v.f.d.Imports c.i.f.Exports* f.o.b.Imports v.f.d.Imports c.i.f.

v.f.d.—Value for Duty

* Includes re-exports.

† ASEAN member countries.

 $(000)
Afghanistan1055611109114
Australia817,8601,074,0701,113,1341,031,7431,400,5191,416,924
Bangladesh2,2136,7428,2601,4014,3965,370
Brunei84323,21823,94032112,77412,913
Burma2483033352,525307339
China, People's Rep. of172,80434,99439,976122,39748,00254,538
Cook Islands13,9434,2775,47215,5724,6515,828
Fiji86,65322,01223,09791,71522,49323,668
Kiribati1,086771,8462828
Hong Kong80,72759,94465,87395,60089,97498,429
India29,66224,86927,48460,91233,91838,136
Indonesia†95,762174,325184,15399,282303,407316,267
Iran243,117136146103,709166174
Japan785,031833,699959,604876,0671,199,9131,395,910
Korea, Republic of58,42138,85841,409104,08053,41657,056
Malaysia†85,58124,58027,560102,45036,58141,130
Maldives26142
Mongolia910910
Nauru1,53518,80129,4831,09530,32643,818
Nepal987895595163204
New Zealand (Reimports)7,7418,2569,2479,856
Niue3,1592993292,945519821
Pacific Islands Trust Territory3,21044329
Pakistan16,8752,9133,18318,9673,8704,079
Papua New Guinea57,4474,2644,72570,0296,4427,062
Philippines†80,5064,8366,13698,8868,34610,198
Samoa, Western20,0334,9836,32420,5085,2866,707
Singapore†99,686311,462337,12997,319278,813298,599
Solomon Islands7,0951,0571,2016,1291,5611,869
Sri Lanka3,2003,2505,4616,1816,9559,402
Thailand†44,6746,3447,17545,16116,47717,700
Tonga12,8592,8213,69317,0112,7113,463
Tuvalu133661,1561616
Vanuatu3,841224,68055
Viet Nam, Socialist Rep. of4394814652
    Total2,828,3372,691,4002,934,2023,100,7553,581,4473,880,683

Oceania—Exports to the countries of Oceania have increased substantially in recent years. In 1975 the total was $54.0 million compared with $283.9 million in 1982. Fiji is the principal importer of New Zealand's exports to Oceania, taking over 30 percent of the total each year.

From July 1980 the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau are included in Oceania. Previously, trade figures were collected separately and not included in New Zealand external trade data.

The following table shows the increase in value of total exports over the past 5 years.

CountryYear Ended June
19781979198019811982
 $(000)
Canton and Enderbury Islands1
Cook Islands3,94315,572
Fiji42,42955,01971,14286,65391,715
French Polynesia11,81014,76922,13027,97730,515
Kiribati1,0261,3878751,0861,846
Nauru6681,0141,1781,5351,095
New Caledonia11,82410,72214,62018,25620,427
Niue3,1592,945
Papua New Guinea17,99323,17535,91457,44770,029
Pitcairn Island75411148864
Samoa13,17516,27118,73120,03320,508
Solomon Islands1,9722,9484,9127,0956,129
Tokelau1856
Tonga7,5448,98410,39712,85917,011
Tuvalu33791161331,156
Vanuatu2,5443,1864,3533,8414,680
Wallis and Futuna Islands136105126228184
    Total111,229137,699184,609244,353283,933

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the latest available June years. Note: Australia includes Cocos, Norfolk Island, and (from 1980) Christmas Island. The United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone (until 1980), Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1980June Year 1981June Year 1982
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

* For 1981, weights for wool are accumulated, six months net weight and six months gross weight (which was introduced for cargo data). While this should be noted, some analyses have shown insignificant variations in the respective weights.

† Excludes Province of Taiwan.

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)*
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia8 15730,3108 12730,13110 07539,043
Belgium7 67223,9198 43824,5159 54830,420
Canada1 8666,7012 2807,8632 2808,503
China†14 68543,75133 70196,83427 45684,571
China, Province of Taiwan4 59916,8442 4968,9464 12115,370
Czechoslovakia5 47315,8434 44311,7423 66910,276
Egypt2 4738,1632 7428,4953 44611,777
France26 16976,95920 65556,28818 82554,657
Germany, Democratic Republic of2 6597,3201 0742,3943361,034
Germany, Federal Republic of18 00660,40416 85055,28414 54750,056
Greece11 61243,2757 99629,2667 62829,847
Hong Kong3 72914,3222 6569,9623 10912,745
India4901,5381,5474,5082 6548,568
Iran14 58055,79919 08270,7266 36524,310
Ireland2 1237,3422 0266,2351 5724,466
Italy14 48550,88911 78239,51712 49545,619
Japan26 38091,07622 55372,60936 258121,550
Korea, Republic of4 82418,7594 92318,7097 76330,179
Netherlands15 95051,37119 14557,84618 35256,083
Pakistan2 1288,2153 03512,1502 79511,349
Poland4 02811,0114 57411,3521 8075,156
Portugal1 1253,2819502,6887952,406
Spain1 7285,2331 7604,7421 5314,769
U.S.S.R.39 004117,11733 45889,13431 04687,702
United Kingdom30 05491,64430 06486,52933 27198,710
United States of America11 11536,10610 08130,7889 06129,576
Yugoslavia4 33313,1235 23815,5292 7158,789
Other countries5,59520,4447,81327,8208 05031,311
    Total285 043930,760289 488892,602281,568918,842
Beef and Veal (Fresh, Chilled, or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean4501,3078692,5897392,136
Australia1 5694,5852 2527,2701 8816,268
Bahrain6512,5606222,6687443,434
Bermuda7072,2926272,1468532,908
Canada22 42950,90726 16966,95923 60261,565
China, Province of Taiwan3281,4185832,2787623,842
Cyprus1 2353,4983911,4074951,613
Fiji3367692066533821,260
French Polynesia2 4828,4703 26410,4582 87910,350
Hong Kong2 1089,4532 55712,5762 82214,672
Japan3 61813,7485 58019,9916 08521,995
Jordan5711,670
Kuwait4381,785972533791,326
Malaysia2871,3523191,7085132,403
Malta3911,44619083493587
New Caledonia4351,8614001,8604232,237
Papua New Guinea6191,1321 2602,2111 7873,117
Philippines9502,8355632,6644832,646
Saudi Arabia2 0386,6591 3075,0411 5246,516
Singapore2 4709,9282 50512,0723 02215,143
Trinidad and Tobago7451,9241 4133,9361 9164,864
U.S.S.R.3 7718,724138
United Arab Emirates6182,5419544,4411 2466,036
United Kingdom6 01416,4887 36121,6044 45313,900
United States of America158 446364,088169 436392,353173 216419,220
Other countries2 4888,6562 0837,2043 17211,874
    Total215 624528,428231 578586,849233 474619,920
Lamb (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)*
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Algeria2 0604,120
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean1 6892,7701 6313,7631 3843,415
Belgium1 2862,7141 4913,6211 7335,881
Canada8 87318,55110 56224,5247 33420,258
Cyprus1 2051,7031 3512,3786931,478
Denmark1 3202,5579952,4471 2883,506
Fiji3 1573,0182 8953,1612 0593,255
France5741,2211 9476,0553 59313,410
French Polynesia5691,2135531,4155481,649
Germany, Federal Republic of6 38912,3077 02615,5115 34814,030
Greece6 93910,6269 57919,6357 33716,533
Iran42 91768,66691 506168,81145 72176,813
Iraq8 65413,28724 99952,74815 11128,297
Italy3 5136,4514 1989,1493 84110,194
Japan11 23316,93918 42732,84216 95035,911
Jordan3 7286,0172 4635,36129
Netherlands9041,5616281,3331 7594,693
Oman9221,4361 0762,1011 5963,716
Papua New Guinea2 9991,9153 8193,4053 3653,621
Saudi Arabia10 40115,82010 40320,5927 81514,607
Singapore9961,7351 0502,0541 1482,875
Switzerland1 7604,1591 5094,2801 4114,719
United Arab Emirates1 2082 0891 5523,2611 8104,023
United Kingdom172 747248,808178 687312,387190 718392,400
United States of America13 41728,03713 95130,9789 99923,779
Other countries10 82512,6019 46214,3309 16617,197
    Total318 225x486,201x401 760x746,140343 790710,387
Mutton (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)*
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium409017237475162
China, Province of Taiwan3513221 2481,0001 0831,081
Egypt1 4791,7214 3894,573205109
Fiji195204230264580738
France10616483151132240
Italy455886113107131
Jamaica437410547590606723
Japan10 11210,47023 06123,74128 15034,625
Korea, Republic of5 1484,9315 5385,1474 0214,163
Kuwait24042022943744110
Mauritius112169187264164271
Netherlands1332392595691 2732,547
Papua New Guinea535301421312954837
Peru1 0001,1108171,005213247
Saudi Arabia2373932 3163,1225871,394
United Kingdom3 7424,9605 8339,58713 51121,541
U.S.S.R.61 39469,48044 14453,75364 22170,876
Other countries2 1722,26320443,0733 9566,038
    Total87 47897,70491 603108,074119 882145,832
Other Frozen Meat
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Egypt9427941 9991,591662386
France3 87211,0473 8968,3984 60710,067
French Polynesia139351233570159366
Germany, Federal Republic of9464,5521 9839,6961 1654,592
Iran6851,3064819071 1861,483
Italy292624332576349741
Japan3 2156,9393 6457,7033 3248,124
Kuwait292433498658266303
Netherlands9021,8639561,5421 4701,989
Peru338242999692488289
Saudi Arabia5238391 2081,3901 1451,479
Switzerland175471231734239770
United Kingdom23 28034,99025 93927,62133 24735,112
United States of America5421,5234081,0773171,308
Other countries4 0585,3093 8435,8315 2468,416
    Total40 20071,28546 65168,98453 87175,424
Butter
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia2 0702,6011 8722,924410993
China, Province of Taiwan8331,1811 1982,3538842,414
Fiji2 7454,0602 3745,0751 2203,585
French Polynesia8901,7039632,2831 0813,473
Hong Kong2 0282,7272 9775,6172 4836,559
Indonesia10 63714,53010 33919,1356 83321,011
Iran513700426651
Iraq3 7414,1514 1825,6571 0001,861
Jamaica7679249721,975251616
Japan6128502034564481,376
Malaysia4 5346,2976 01511,2744 76214,648
Mexico6 7379,6137 41915,2781 7065,077
Nigeria1 4992,2281 4752,8011 0002,621
Oman1873118621,9001 2133,189
Panama, Republic of1 3071,8621 2742,120275645
Peru7 76311,0596 54413,7427 63224,335
Philippines5 3447,3525 52410,6534 13512,517
Poland3 5005,854
Saudi Arabia3925951 1122,6332 1658,144
Singapore5 0826,2665 14110,0112 4696,908
Thailand2 4393,4313 0785,8012 3166,861
Trinidad and Tobago1522501 0482,1251 2183,135
U.S.S.R.34 40441,65734 31854,65251 850131,930
United Arab Emirates9491,5542 0404,8601 7405,498
United Kingdom120 713214,94688 884188,13293 530264,152
United States of America1 8593,3931 7014,7291 0863,469
Venezuela3 0743,253
Other countries9 73013,1127 61915,3127 91021,407
    Total231 002360,607203 058398,004199 617556,423
Cheese
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean619934526988194379
Australia4 3037,1934 9959,2505 33212,339
Canada7981,1066821,2421 0012,632
French Polynesia229509226637225797
Germany, Federal Republic of2 5653,4607 22411,1153 6779,265
Hong Kong204327217427272682
Iraq4 3615,1133 8015,3434 1066,355
Jamaica9671,2521 5803,1911 1062,031
Japan22 81230,12122 55835,61524 06249,113
Malta5676418261,186202284
Netherlands86432 9713,196165309
Panama, Republic of9881,2441 5812,2371 1512,228
Philippines2 1062,5902 2713,6412 7485,494
Portugal527492795807125127
Singapore3265623537493781,153
Trinidad and Tobago1612621 2631,924144250
U.S.S.R.4 8504,6324 8597,576
United Kingdom4 57512,1726 17416,0848 69427,448
United States of America19 72832,83613 25927,45617 03941,169
Venezuela7899999921,5039141,710
Other countries2 5304,0033 3356,4914 65410,122
    Total69 241105,86180 480137,71481 048181,465
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Argentina4 4824,1123885
Australia1 7463,6592 0054,2248793,307
Bangladesh400408466672198377
China*4 7494,2092 2983,3713 4666,028
China, Province of Taiwan7 2707,16610 22312,9057 43512,924
Dominican Republic2 5351,8894 6725,668512675
El Salvador3 5854,4672 5913,498103202
Fiji1 5231,5821 7972,8591 4252,747
Hong Kong1 7411,2491 6021,8802 8374,380
Indonesia39 93327,76539 17541,17325 21532,671
Iraq5 1134,9913 3062,8432 1132,926
Japan15 33810,15514 12314,46812 24014,899
Malaysia30 17023,07636 30041,52228 78341,711
Mauritius5 2745,1041 7832,7621 6662,976
Mexico9 5215,85210 76511,51217 41526,011
Netherlands7781,3132 8526,5949042,525
Nigeria4 7234,5165 0176,0518 62114,361
Pakistan3 2052,8431 5212,1372 0493,701
Peru17 28612,43819 89720,12020 32827,770
Philippines48 72135,43438 39340,39135 82449,588
Saudi Arabia1 2738952 0332,7531 0071,269
Singapore13 21510,41012 12115,9076 69210,864
Sri Lanka4 3434,1991 3101,7782 1133,302
Thailand14 24810,88717 56718,92716 27723,700
Trinidad and Tobago3 9325,0532 6694,1703 0105,354
U.S.S.R.1 0171,0945 0006,22525 00242,901
United Arab Emirates1 7661,5082 1072,3541 8792,464
Venezuela6 5895,9327 38710,93616 08131,037
Other countries14 05612,11113 16017,65113 73924,460
    Total268 536214,315262 179305,436257 613395,131
Casein
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium1 3092,574206522
Canada8621,7089712,7339472,923
China*3772200566240768
China, Province of Taiwan4125702957945471,756
Germany, Federal Republic of2 6345,0371 9505,0677261,968
Italy358692104276121326
Japan13 70526,24611 80433,6909 89832,150
Korea, Republic of5591,1153399284801,256
Mexico1 7273,7979232,7141 4764,471
Netherlands1 1732,2548232,1745451,476
South Africa3536824041,0633451,034
United Kingdom8541,5734311,1836561,679
United States of America32 90963,46923 04962,90527 71989,551
Other countries2 980x5,308x1 324x3,144x9282,604
    Total59 872x115,097x42 823x117,759x44 626141,960
Inedible Tallow
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Bangladesh6 3633,1792 0378981 770938
China*33 47318,54426 03612,5244 6902,551
China, Province of Taiwan3 0251,32111 6974,7919 0474,458
Fiji1 4087561 7658521 783893
India52927119 4558,80615 5117,764
Kenya2 2281,2541 9189712 0031,163
Korea, Republic of5 3642,43113 2085,56448 34322,298
Malawi2 2601,0091 5396942 1741,100
Mozambique1 5656822 6971,0962 2661,178
Netherlands3 4321,295294120
Singapore8032799 6144,0021 671849
South Africa2291302 2149714 5682,446
Thailand5963192 3561,187805440
U.S.S.R.9 2604,7526 5973,460
United Kingdom1 2055548043941510
Other countries33 07516,2175 9072,6863 8152,046
    Total101 383x51,698x104 67946,732105 35251,716
Kiwi Fruit
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia6551 3435851,3941 1582,914
Austria2114532996727331,860
Belgium1 1962,2909182,1029642,493
Canada2665902986564271,159
France3086576101,3949502,400
Germany, Federal Republic of4 90911,2854 98011,3245 91314,703
Italy32181788231
Japan3 1317,0664 28010,4125 35914,956
Netherlands3 4706,8022 0605,0811 1582,900
Sweden352737330685407987
Switzerland86191228504371951
United Kingdom2785845091,1386081,519
United States of America9992,1842 2005,0261 5614,336
Other countries1693442785845241,304
    Total16 02934,52617 89541,78820 22152,712
Sheep and Lamb Pelts
 No. (000)$(000)No. (000)$(000)No. (000)$(000)
Belgium2 52314,9043 1479,0173 33910,369
France4 75019,7225 89110,9664 71313,591
Italy1 8197,5273 0685,4875 13113,139
Netherlands1 2927,0271 0353,2131 1403,942
Spain2 4956,9723 8095,7063 1225,527
United Kingdom3 20314,4875 05211,3015 87516,533
United States of America6 32026,2958 11816,1726 72018,886
Other countries3991,2779221,8665221,346
    Total22 80198,21131 04363,73030 56283,333
Sausage Casings
 hanks hanks hanks 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Canada1 3457,2591 58111,0171 32010,150
Germany, Federal Republic of3221,9546234,7237736,260
Japan5802,2185582,6506882,921
Netherlands15386911989890563
Portugal1581,0321571,1402181,565
United Kingdom1 6647,0001 2927,0911 6478,055
United States of America1 9739,3192 18412,5081 79210,350
Other countries7183,8291 2856,7801 3458,784
    Total6 91333,4817 80046,8077 87348,649
Apples (Fresh Whole Fruit)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Canada888342940461807432
Destination unknown—EEC39 39115,12837 93517,46737 19819,949
Destination unknown—non-EEC5 3642,05511 5045,2848 2404,454
Hong Kong3 6421,3823 0371,3373 0901,670
Singapore6 2612,4036 1552,9163 8912,103
United Kingdom8 1563,13316 0007,45917 0109,069
United States of America13 0695,02714 4597,73614 4837,836
Other countries15 8036,2829 5004,63711 7166,508
    Total92 57335,75299 53047,29796 43552,021
Kraft Paper and Cardboard
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia17 5727,79022 98712,31023 29717,180
China*8 1902,2985 9432,5707 5432,863
Hong Kong12 1134,02812 7515,27316 3357,582
Indonesia15 3856,06919 9638,33419 9089,451
Japan36441,3052 5611,031615308
Malaysia5 1932,1493 4491,6114 7832,437
Pakistan5 6252,3336953901 626961
Saudi Arabia2 2931,0676 1613,3893 2601,922
Other countries13 736x5,237x10 7805,07918 4398,674
    Total83 75232,27785 29039,98695 80551,376
Feeding Stuff for Animals
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China, Province of Taiwan2 7151,3162 2671,17711 3595,723
Japan48 08511,73049 46114,57253 74819,779
Malaysia3 9612,2441 5441,7041 7282,262
Philippines14 3163,99911 6523,37426 7228,187
Singapore6 6312,9724 4103,0592 7572,375
Spain3 9929806 4821,4342 9202,080
United Kingdom3 1661,6306 0744,0722 8861,658
United States of America1 1265473 7022,5171 9231,720
Other countries18 6755,40523 3867,25033 78113,779
    Total102 66830,824108 97939,160137 82557,564
Wood Pulp
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia140 36946,624154 40665,440146 00572,662
China*31 95310,54126 44610,29413 4895,268
China, Province of Taiwan4 9822,0416 2822,66910 4834,364
Indonesia1 2103633 1591,3906 9743,416
Japan242 39043,118262 61250,723173 08342,146
Korea, Republic of29 4917,82126 0396,83937 21713,521
Philippines24 4558,31821 4179,41815 4307,364
Thailand2 1118494 3601,8385 5192,748
Other countries2 348x550x10 435x2,647x13 4054,250
    Total479 309120,227515 156151,258421 605155,739
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
 cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)
Australia16624,86018538,73920143,712
Japan22020,93526629,09126228,488
New Caledonia787581,1716877
Sudan8793111,150
Tonga227623421304
Other countries375,754386,302174,134
    Total44053,49250976,79548777,516
Sawlogs and Veneer Logs (Conifer)
 cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)
China*532,077442,585
Japan1 01156,52875750,69943426,878
Korea, Republic of2199,952362,003
Other countries31851173610
    Total1 28668,74184856,02243426,889
Fish (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia11 87416,22713 06525,16814 19135,424
Germany, Federal Republic of8451,5382 6033,587170343
Japan19 53218,96330 93937,14132 14341,347
Korea, Republic of2 6921,3561 1025661 5951,264
Netherlands8741,9125131,1554801,110
U.S.S.R.8 3203,3176 7402,648
United States of America7 6639,56812 25516,4985 36110,786
Other countries14 24712,68616 77913,33018 75518,674
    Total57 72662,25085 576100,76379 436111,595
Newsprint
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia133 35249,938136 90160,200140 57582,041
Hong Kong8 5943,1287 5033,3003 5832,112
India20 4427,18626 59710,65615 1658,116
Indonesia11 2383,67912 0625,3474 5882,321
Malaysia21 7707,38517 4137,22117 4168,555
Singapore6 6962,1437 2772,9071 055519
Other countries21 1987,52923 2219,61216 6176,907
    Total223 29080,988230 97499,242199 000110,572

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest available June years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which goods were loaded for export.

PortYear Ended June
197719781979198019811982*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Whangarei56.048.858.467.773.571.2
Auckland874.5992.71,259.91,657.42,043.22,428.5
Hamilton8.815.116.320.715.619.7
Tauranga355.6379.6433.0574.5669.7797.1
Rotorua
Gisborne13.77.88.79.914.89.9
Napier269.2176.8175.3240.6313.7300.7
New Plymouth133.0138.969.6137.7227.2245.1
Wanganui6.710.18.910.812.510.1
Palmerston North5.30.3
Wellington537.7595.8853.9980.4992.61,189.1
Blenheim6.66.61.81.53.43.3
Nelson27.731.661.970.085.394.7
Greymouth0.91.11.51.5
Christchurch257.8293.1327.3457.4522.6539.5
Timaru186.0106.583.3112.1148.6123.7
Dunedin178.2290.7461.7550.3588.6742.8
Invercargill317.1218.3247.4254.7352.0330.5
    Total3,228.73,313.54,067.45,152.26,065.36,907.4

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, since over a third of all exports are dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with about a sixth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year.

RE-EXPORTS—The forwarding trade of New Zealand is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned or re-sold to Australia, the United States of America, and other countries.

The destinations of this re-export trade for the latest available June years are shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year
19781979198019811982
 $(000)
Australia18,62745,45726,83936,84841,105
Canada279233589251302
Fiji4,3875,9926,9979,95210,014
French Polynesia689415462689519
Germany, Federal Republic of77479763415,8281,616
Hong Kong2,7645121,042692958
Indonesia313565155248
Japan5,3639591,2621,0861,681
Malaysia8,7112,079449691510
Netherlands4,589178718555446
Papua New Guinea1,0201,3361,7252,8615,855
Philippines892811,72933580
Samoa1,0001,2341,3751,4991,550
Singapore61,5121,5784,2563,2772,359
Sweden76147122172312
Tonga441678635848930
United Kingdom5,6523,1605,1613,3015,163
United States of America18,0075,9009,89946,61014,663
Other countries4,3495,9518,36912,768117,681
    Total Merchandise Trade138,64276,94572,316138,317205,992

22 C—IMPORTS

Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed to the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis v.f.d. (value for duty in the country of export at the time of shipment). Formerly, the valuation basis was c.d.v. (current domestic value). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22a for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22a also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade, and also includes a sub-section on Import Control.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) for years prior to 1978–79. From 1 July 1978 figures are based on S.I.T.C. (Revised 2).

Year Ended JuneImports (v.f.d)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
 $(000)
1978152,30229,547119,538466,25714,925417,492
1979155,36431,283184,510502,22816,900453,451
1980201,35145,515204,878944,18220,723603,339
1981217,62843,034249,6871,247,68019,778611,933
1982351,04864,879320,4161,285,01725,198828,253
Year Ended JuneImports (v.f.d)
Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and Transport EquipmentMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports
 $(000)
1978618,327952,747215,49331,5293,018,158
1979785,4681,155,206264,09325,6383,574,139
1980971,6051,434,609348,82634,5974,809,625
1981946,5171,821,464399,44430,1585,587,323
19821,388,3132,191,572533,13956,9377,044,774

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions of S.I.T.C. (Revised 2) for the latest available June years.

Division values are on the basis of v.f.d. (value for duty). Section totals are given on this basis and also c.i.f. (cost, including insurance and freight).

Section and DivisionYear Ended June
198019811982
 $(000)
0 Food and Live Animals Chiefly for Food
    00 Live animals chiefly for food5,00610,46911,135
    01 Meat and meat preparations5,8694,6807,488
    02 Dairy products and birds' eggs2,2271,42086,632
    03 Fish, crustaceans and molluscs, and preparations thereof16,38918,31227,114
    04 Cereals and cereal preparations12,99515,88921,435
    05 Vegetables and fruit52,34454,87076,672
    06 Sugar, sugar preparations and honey45,07758,23962,181
    07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices and manufactures thereof57,27847,38049,622
    08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)1,3032,1273,494
    09 Miscellaneous edible products and preparations2,8634,2435,276
                        Total, section 0201,351217,628351,048
                        c.i.f.233,749256,036400,154
1 Beverages and Tobacco
    11 Beverages30,40727,30543,799
    12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures15,10815,72921,081
                        Total, section 145,51543,03464,879
                        c.i.f.49,87349,21373,287
2 Crude Materials, Inedible (Except Fuels)
    21 Hides, skins and furskins, raw6,7913,2404,331
    22 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruit6,5538,42411,683
    23 Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed)30,90828,44132,122
    24 Cork and wood9,16410,52914,050
    25 Pulp and waste paper1,9254,6356,143
    26 Textile fibres (other than wool tops) and their wastes18,04020,11722,114
    27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals (excluding coal, etc.)70,67287,190107,953
    28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap45,58072,919102,603
    29 Crude animal and vegetable materials, n.e.s.15,24514,19319,416
                        Total, section 2204,878249,687320,416
                        c.i.f.254,786320,135391,254
3 Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials
    32 Coal, coke and briquettes8108492,498
    33 Petroleum, petroleum products, and related materials943,2001,246,7041,282,320
    34 Gas, natural and manufactured171127199
                        Total, section 3944,1821,247,6801,285,017
                        c.i.f.1,024,3421,332,4601,369,058
4 Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats and Waxes
    41 Animal oils and fats243365139
    42 Fixed vegetable oils and fats16,58517,81422,443
    43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin3,8951,5992,617
                        Total, section 420,72319,77825,198
                        c.i.f.22,84621,88928,258
5 Chemical and Related Products, n.e.s.
    51 Organic chemicals112,215104,708139,472
    52 Inorganic chemicals62,20770,04391,116
    53 Dyeing, tanning and colouring materials29,24427,46143,379
    54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products113,248117,925146,741
    55 Essential oils and perfumes, etc.22,26421,23329,105
    56 Fertilisers, manufactured31,37746,17160,055
    57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products3,5004,1844,142
    58 Artificial resins and plastic materials, and cellulose esters and ethers173,022159,893238,077
    59 Chemical materials and products, n.e.s.56,26260,31476,165
                        Total, section 5603,339611,933828,253
                        c.i.f.633,124631,518861,244
6 Manufactured Goods Classified by Material
    61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.s., and dressed furskins6,1715,5568,504
    62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.37,68941,08252,004
    63 Cork and wood manufactures (excluding furniture)9,6289,23313,259
    64 Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper pulp, of paper, or of paperboard59,48559,36092,698
    65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and related products327,281309,482427,823
    66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.s.58,05760,38786,854
    67 Iron and steel263,117253,972411,585
    68 Non-ferrous metals93,68382,782122,108
    69 Manufactures of metal, n.e.s.116,494124,664173,479
                        Total, section 6971,605946,5171,388,313
                        c.i.f.1,045,6001,015,1291,479,792
7 Machinery and Transport Equipment
    71 Power generating machinery and equipment143,806133,721125,616
    72 Machinery, specialised for particular industries207,298227,8674347,653
    73 Metalworking machinery26,60934,74846,113
    74 General industrial machinery and equipment, n.e.s., and machine parts, n.e.s.193,803227,734304,096
    75 Office machines and automatic data processing equipment88,875119,127162,959
    76 Telecommunications, sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment46,65458,36984,891
    77 Electrical machinery, apparatus, and appliances, n.e.s., etc.155,019176,931254,783
    78 Road vehicles (including air cushion vehicles)413,432475,164608,448
    79 Other transport equipment159,113367,995257,013
                        Total, section 71,434,6091,821,4642,191,572
                        c.i.f.1,513,4411,954,1522,398,320
8 Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
    81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, etc., fixtures and fittings, n.e.s.3,9773,8676,131
    82 Furniture and parts thereof5,4914,8229,442
    83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar containers1,1071,3121,690
    84 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories16,85615,88028,121
    85 Footwear9,3479,29010,855
    87 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments and apparatus, n.e.s.70,04591,658118,859
    88 Photographic apparatus, optical goods, watches, and clocks71,79780,388104,696
    89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s.170,206192,228253,343
                        Total, section 8348,826399,444533,139
                        c.i.f.359,726412,025549,916
9 Commodities and Transactions Not Classified Elsewhere in the S.I.T.C.
    94 Live animals, n.e.s.163115499
    95 Arms of war and ammunition, etc.30,20925,14148,903
    96 Coins (other than gold coins) not being legal tender in New Zealand2,2832,1273,107
    97 Gold non-monetary1,9422,7754,428
                        Total, section 934,59730,15856,937
                        c.i.f.35,12131,07158,119
    Grand total, merchandise imports4,809,6255,587,3237,044,774
    c.i.f.5,172,6076,023,6287,600,402
n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—From the eighties of the last century until the early seventies of this century, the chief source of supply of New Zealand's imports was the United Kingdom. Prior to that the main source of supply was Australia, and in the latest years, as the United Kingdom has become more closely linked to Europe, Australia has once more moved into first place. During the year ended June 1982, imports from the United Kingdom were valued at $636 million and imports from Australia at $1,401 million.

In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June years 1981 and 1982 only 10.5 and 9.0 percent of imports came from that source. During those same June years 1981 and 1982, imports from Australia made up 19.2 percent and 19.9 percent respectively of New Zealand's total imports, and imports from Japan (an increasingly important trading partner) 14.9 percent and 17.0 percent.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentage received from the various geographic areas.

The table which follows show imports (valuation v.f.d.) during the latest 5 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Japan. It should be noted that Australia includes Cocos, Norfolk Island, and (from 1980) Christmas Island. The U.S.A. includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Island Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone (until 1980), Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific Islands.

Year Ended JuneCountry of ExportCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.JapanUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.Japan
 $(million)
19786237144463815326554213903,018
19795508964354825437994904953,574
19806931,0275915906939156506064,810
19815791,3999337895851,0749868345,587
19826351,5461,1051,1666361,4011,2021,2007,045

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by principal countries of origin for years ended June 1981 and 1982. V.f.d. basis of valuation is used.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1980–811981–82

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

* Does not include statistics for the Province of Taiwan.

 $(000)
Sugar (not refined)
    Australia37,44129,409
    Fiji18,59417,654
    All countries56,11359,256
Coffee, raw
    India3,7275,160
    Indonesia7,6487,164
    Kenya7271,048
    Papua New Guinea2,8823,647
    All countries17,27920,049
Rubber (crude and synthetic)
    Australia1,3832,360
    Canada2,3023,630
    Japan6,6687,538
    Malaysia9,1798,968
    U.S.A.2,7904,099
    All countries28,44132,122
Crude petroleum
    Indonesia164,042292,802
    Kuwait30,93513,806
    Saudi Arabia245,615273,622
    United Arab Emirates30,037
    All countries548,321644,148
Partly refined petroleum
    Bahrain19,63415,674
    Kuwait37,26717,612
    Saudi Arabia41,096
    Singapore106,424110,457
    All countries210,482143,744
Alcoholic beverages
    Australia6,6189,127
    France3,7396,515
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of1,0191,945
    Jamaica3,1752,906
    United Kingdom6,57112,237
    U.S.A.1,1182,992
    All countries27,24543,614
Inorganic chemicals
    Australia17,19519,530
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of3,6705,903
    Japan7,72512,572
    United Kingdom16,52719,289
    U.S.A.14,02818,054
    All countries68,59489,341
Woven fabrics of synthetic fibres
    Australia5,7658,073
    China*4,1225,421
    Japan23,99130,315
    U.S.A.13,01115,680
    All countries81,252105,846
Other woven textile fabrics
    Hong Kong7,85710,668
    India2,3623,354
    United Kingdom4,4444,310
    U.S.A.4,0426,214
    All countries32,81345,841
Glass and glassware
    Australia5,9249,697
    United Kingdom5,2605,856
    U.S.A.4,3516,098
    All countries25,38437,321
Tobacco (Unmanufactured)
    Thailand7331,213
    U.S.A.7,61712,571
    Zimbabwe5971,964
    All countries14,15719,574
Natural calcium phosphate
    Australia30,48934,495
    Nauru18,80030,324
    All countries51,82270,669
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products
    Australia33,47438,095
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of10,0489,601
    Switzerland6,6525,110
    United Kingdom41,64242,212
    U.S.A.7,2645,243
    All countries117,925120,171
Manufactured fertilisers
    Australia5,3905,938
    Canada8,8553,763
    Japan3,1027,230
    U.S.A.24,02630,603
    All countries46,17160,055
Motor spirit
    Australia70,250101,518
    Bahrain32,90854,842
    Singapore29,98413,513
    All countries151,164174,288
Kerosene and white spirit
    Australia61,30279,889
    Singapore75,56657,757
    All countries145,119138,627
Distillate fuels
    Australia32,21228,932
    Bahrain9,24422,248
    Singapore74,65762,405
    All countries130,376114,840
Organic chemicals
    Australia15,77516,138
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of5,90511,548
    Japan11,97016,058
    United Kingdom15,16716,948
    U.S.A.33,70245,467
    All countries104,708139,472
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose and artificial resins
    Australia7,27210,224
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of3,3195,549
    Japan5,1088,537
    United Kingdom9,15711,743
    U.S.A.11,72220,053
    All countries43,53867,618
Articles of rubber
    Japan8,55711,668
    United Kingdom5,5195,508
    U.S.A.6,1508,083
    All countries30,34937,790
Paper and paperboard
    Australia10,00418,418
    Japan12,78219,293
    United Kingdom9,03812,336
    U.S.A.5,4476,689
    All countries49,61278,649
Tubes, pipes and fittings of iron or steel
    Australia4,1127,673
    Japan8,45933,915
    United Kingdom2,8693,540
    All countries20,92659,163
Automatic data processing machines and accessories
    Japan10,72318,006
    United Kingdom6,4954,497
    U.S.A.43,81563,465
    All countries72,12799,841
Metalworking machinery
    Australia3,5564,515
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of3,3656,111
    Japan7,2267,285
    United Kingdom5,3635,140
    U.S.A.4,3487,301
    All countries34,74846,113
Textile and leather machinery
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of4,71610,020
    Japan6,1548,709
    United Kingdom5,0894,849
    All countries28,08244,855
Tools for hand use or in machines
    Australia6,6989,225
    Japan5,1117,343
    United Kingdom5,6756,803
    U.S.A.7,84411,647
    All countries36,21350,583
Miscellaneous manufactures of metal
    Australia12,31717,814
    United Kingdom9,2739,880
    U.S.A.5,4887,204
    All countries40,22152,671
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)
    Australia4,2495,735
    Japan3,3205,492
    United Kingdom3,9964,779
    U.S.A.11,63514,778
    All countries25,29533,430
Other non-electric power generating machinery
    Japan6,4895,854
    United Kingdom28,35710,724
    U.S.A.34,07518,441
    All countries81,71146,986
Textile yarn and thread
    Australia7,25011,722
    Japan9,51616,653
    United Kingdom5,9308,460
    U.S.A.7,27111,691
    All countries51,66179,550
Cotton fabrics, woven
    China*8,8269,588
    Hong Kong21,23130,803
    India3,2923,544
    Japan4,9158,823
    United Kingdom2,4803,086
    U.S.A.2,7283,898
    All countries61,68484,383
Copper and copper alloys
    Australia27,05335,192
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of2,0852,228
    United Kingdom2,2403,005
    All countries33,83944,908
Unwrought zinc
    Australia11,38519,109
    Canada5,0456,842
    All countries16,44125,972
Bars and rods of iron or steel
    Australia5,3695,988
    Japan13,45418,148
    United Kingdom855912
    All countries22,41128,622
Angles, shapes and sections of iron or steel
    Australia12,79315,078
    Japan5,02911,028
    United Kingdom8441,066
    All countries19,07328,070
Universals, plates and sheets of iron or steel
    Australia42,87877,843
    Canada6,7283,882
    Japan90,577140,403
    United Kingdom6,71612,440
    All countries151,438243,792
Iron and steel wire
    Australia5,3325,189
    Japan4,7896,855
    United Kingdom2,6983,526
    All countries14,37417,899
Pumps and centrifuges
    Australia2,4732,763
    United Kingdom4,8844,489
    U.S.A.5,7887,147
    All countries20,61925,021
Mechanical handling equipment
    Japan4,91212,539
    United Kingdom4,5996,029
    U.S.A.7,35211,275
    All countries24,74250,366
Other non-electric machinery and appliances
    Australia23,37625,988
    United Kingdom23,32222,829
    U.S.A.41,78843,121
    All countries137,752167,149
Parts, accessories of, tractors and motor vehicles (not motor cycles)
    Australia11,30216,049
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of4,2657,113
    United Kingdom20,52417,409
    U.S.A.7,9489,920
    All countries59,25872,381
Telecommunications equipment
    Japan32,96248,626
    United Kingdom7,7787,546
    U.S.A.8,58114,518
    All countries58,36984,891
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes
    Japan14,21017,941
    Netherlands2,0532,330
    U.S.A.5,3696,586
    All countries26,75135,231
Other electrical machinery and apparatus
    Australia6,8179,642
    Japan18,15924,033
    United Kingdom11,27810,522
    U.S.A.10,42517,189
    All countries56,28476,597
Tractors
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of3,2949,474
    Italy2,1502,880
    Japan20,27823,103
    United Kingdom10,34915,245
    U.S.A.4,2954,126
    All countries48,40962,892
Agricultural machinery and implements (excl. tractors)
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of2,3573,060
    United Kingdom3,2803,655
    U.S.A.6,6964,828
    All countries29,16225,765
Electric power machinery
    Australia5,5318,035
    United Kingdom7,7976,866
    U.S.A.5,5918,782
    All countries36,45460,006
Electric switchgear, etc.
    Australia5,98510,468
    Japan8,25213,715
    United Kingdom12,17212,105
    U.S.A.7,53610,900
    All countries47,15564,254
Excavating, levelling, boring, etc., machinery
    Japan13,86325,507
    U.S.A.13,85530,127
    All countries35,33069,538
Other machinery for special industries
    Australia8,62012,564
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of10,93829,349
    United Kingdom12,73014,918
    U.S.A.24,96734,375
    All countries86,692144,604
Railway vehicles
    Australia12,0524,274
    Canada7,442
    Hungary24,616
    Korea, Rep. of8,7693,510
    Japan4,2859,949
    All countries34,14445,085
Motorcars
    Australia56,01264,336
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of3,9776,691
    Japan151,371215,703
    United Kingdom43,60243,689
    All countries260,775342,124
Buses, trucks, and vans
    Australia22,60036,957
    Japan45,74985,365
    United Kingdom25,1187,583
    All countries100,253139,231
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus
    Australia12,37517,062
    Japan17,47719,383
    United Kingdom18,89623,703
    U.S.A.43,09557,082
    All countries116,757149,148
Aircraft
    France8403,350
    Netherlands9,31810,145
    United Kingdom2,04512,986
    U.S.A.253,334128,642
    All countries266,944158,267
Ships and boats
    Korea, Rep. of8,000
    Norway45,495
    Poland6,942
    U.S.S.R.30,10025,600
    United Kingdom2722,446
    All countries66,90753,662
Photographic and cinematographic supplies
    Australia12,74415,925
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of4,1025,290
    Japan4,3196,030
    United Kingdom2,5722,912
    U.S.A.12,71915,967
    All countries40,06654,204
Printed books and pamphlets
    Australia28,95943,565
    United Kingdom30,75735,427
    U.S.A.23,57630,690
    All countries98,532124,012

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantities of a number of principal items imported during recent June years.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended June
1979198019811982

* Quantity for 1981–82 year recorded in “litres of alcohol.”

† As from July 1981 the following items have been converted to litres by using a factor of 1 tonne = 1 205 litres: 334.11.01, 334.11.31, 334.11.61.

‡ As from July 1981 the following items have been converted to litres by using a factor of 1 tonne = 1 205 litres: 334.19.01, 334.21.01, 334.21.19.

§Excludes hardboards, softboards, wallpaper, lincrusta, and window transparencies.

Sugar, not refinedtonne171 925151 310119 686146 968
Coffee, rawtonne6 0847 6475 9967 364
Wine of fresh grapeslitre (000)1 7061 8862 3353 378
Spirits, liqueurs, and other spirituous beverages over 40 percent proofp. litre (000)6 4917 3354 0434 252*
Tobacco, unmanufacturedtonne2 7503 5063 4103 555
Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimedtonne23 81725 53621 60823,479
Natural calcium phosphatetonne (000)1 3491 2091 0251,025
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitatedtonne (000)258249248179
Crude petroleumtonne (000)1 8362 0182 0561 900
Partly refined petroleumtonne (000)796625620358
Motor spirit†litre (000)603 802663 940487 597414 813
Kerosene and white spirit‡litre (000)406 598460 894464 356355 718
Distillate fuelslitre (000)488 678536 949440 958335 563
Aluminium oxidetonne320 599259 201318 813339 399
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)tonne220 463149 752198 806168 381
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk formstonne89 09492 93377 105105 982
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins, excl. floor coveringstonne20 45825 35120 56229 051
Rubber tyres and tubes excl. bicycletonne2 7844 2814 2024 608
Paper and paperboard§tonne42 60943 54733 98845,765
Textile yarn and threadtonne9 17710 3968 77011,848
Cotton fabrics, woven, excl. tyrecordm2 (000)63 26175 82647 34854 560
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres excl. tyrecordm2 (000)68 29974 00955 71967 348
Iron and steel—     
    Bars and rodstonne31 47837 09236 27840 695
    Angles, shapes and sectionstonne46 11936 63041 22151 962
    Universals, plates and sheetstonne359 050340 922279 017388 639
    Wiretonne15 00919 53413 81715 862
    Tubes, pipes and fittingstonne23 28720 15815 07539 943
Copper and copper alloys excl. foil, powders and flakestonne14 16612 67712 20515 977
Unwrought zinctonne20 25522 59419 29622 265
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)no.93 752149 223124 446113 834
Tractorsno.3 7126 3435 4325 201
Metal working machinerytonne2 7823 2193 6043 523
Excavating, levelling and tamping machineryno.438384565898
Lifting, handling, loading machinery, telphers and conveyorstonne2 4832 1411 5424 195
Electric motorsno.444 160487 330528 7501 097 036
Thermionic, cold cathode, photocathode valves and tubes(000)634603704667
Railway vehicles excl. containers and partsno.2456742
Motorcars—assembledno.4 5644 9774 3015 051
    —unassembledno.60 07367 03685 841107 946
B uses, trucks, vans—assembledno.873703626575
    —unassembledno.15 59316 96220 09028 619
Aircraft, excl. parts, balloons, airshipsno.201174122187
Ships and boats excl. those for breaking up (including buoys)no.6 6144 9267041 157

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the value of a number of principal items imported during recent June years.

ItemYear Ended June
1979198019811982
 $(thousand) v.f.d.
Sugar, not refined35,63943,08256,11359,256
Coffee, raw16,03527,92817,27920,049
Alcoholic beverages20,58930,33227,24543,614
Tobacco, unmanufactured9,35713,52414,15719,574
Crude rubber, including synthetic, reclaimed21,41130,90828,44132,122
Natural calcium phosphate45,23847,57251,82270,669
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitated9,45311,66524,66623,213
Crude petroleum177,012366,163548,321644,148
Partly refined petroleum109,320174,091210,482143,744
Motor spirit79,451159,554151,164174,288
Kerosene and white spirit46,88894,073145,119138,627
Distillate fuels54,707105,650130,376114,840
Organic chemicals76,594112,215104,708139,472
Aluminium oxide50,07542,58170,46499,500
Inorganic chemicals (excl. aluminium oxide)46,99561,13868,59489,341
Medicaments, including veterinary76,06990,97598,920120,171
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)11,77910,10320,54920,710
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk forms68,882103,23195,152138,038
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins56,32469,79164,741100,039
Articles of rubber, n.e.s.18,60527,14330,34937,790
Paper and paperboard39,44150,23249,61278,649
Textile yarn and thread41,88950,69451,66179,550
Cotton fabrics, woven62,50883,70361,68484,383
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres80,36092,85181,252105,846
Other woven textile fabrics27,27937,64332,81345,841
Special textile fabrics and related products24,52032,07039,76960,177
Glass and glassware17,24324,56425,38437,321
Iron and steel—
    Bars and rods16,65321,40722,41128,622
    Angles, shapes and sections15,70214,55719,07328,070
    Universals, plates and sheets142,043161,920151,438243,792
    Wire11,22616,51414,37417,899
    Tubes, pipes and fittings20,23921,16120,92659,163
Copper and copper alloys29,57836,72033,83944,908
Unwrought zinc12,55817,97916,44125,972
Tools for hand use or in machines30,64936,08536,21350,583
Manufactures of metal, n.e.s.28,24034,87340,22152,671
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)20,30825,29225,29533,430
Other non-electric power generating machinery83,55192,75881,71146,986
Tractors31,63457,08848,40962,892
Agricultural machinery and implements (not tractors)12,44422,33229,16225,765
Automatic data processing machines and accessories37,67347,13272,12799,841
Metal working machinery20,40426,60934,74846,113
Textile and leather machinery25,25029,32428,08244,855
Excavating, levelling, boring, extracting machinery, etc.20,87019,25135,33069,538
Other machines for special industries50,22079,30386,692144,604
Pumps and centrifuges, filtering, etc., machinery, incl. parts14,57116,91520,61925,021
Mechanical handling equipment24,43927,24024,74250,366
Other non-electric machinery and appliances, incl. parts90,135111,591137,752167,149
Electric power machinery26,87132,08036,45460,006
Electric switchgear, etc.30,62240,35647,15564,254
Telecommunications apparatus45,99446,65458,36984,891
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes, etc.13,13013,74013,18415,235
Other electric machinery and apparatus, n.e.s.41,55952,40356,28476,947
Railway vehicles30,59217,94034,14445,085
Motorcars—assembled21,68826,91723,74033,838
    —unassembled145,453188,513237,036308,286
Buses, trucks and vans—assembled4,8074,0263,4026,247
    —unassembled59,79286,60996,851132,983
Parts, accessories of tractors and motor vehicles (not motor cycles)50,82960,96859,25872,381
Aircraft23,88135,583266,944158,267
Ships and boats103,561105,59166,90753,662
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus73,78992,694116,757149,148
Photographic and cinematographic supplies30,14635,20740,06654,204
Printed books and pamphlets (including maps, etc.)67,60987,86098,532124,012
n.e.s. —not elsewhere specified.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS BY END-USE—In the following table imports are classified by end-use in the form of economic categories. The classification involves some arbitrary decisions but it is adapted to practical purposes and the comparability of the time series has useful economic applications. Basis of valuation is c.i.f.

Class of Goods Imported*Year Ended June
19781979198019811982
* For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
 $(million)
Finished Capital Goods433.8445.2573.0935.01076.9
    Agricultural machinery and plant56.140.977.674.987.1
    Industrial machinery and plant135.7122.4145.5178.0272.5
    Construction machinery and plant11.615.714.324.343.1
    Transport and communications items54.366.495.0343.4234.1
    Other complete items176.0199.7240.5314.3440.0
Components and Materials for Capital Goods375.1398.4487.4551.7770.9
    For agricultural machinery and plant15.113.119.121.119.7
    For industrial machinery and plant69.563.894.887.7102.4
    For construction machinery and plant3.55.66.614.519.9
    For transport and communications items144.7116.5138.5161.3223.3
    For building, construction, roads23.527.236.440.963.4
    For other capital items118.9172.2192.0226.1342.2
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)369.9565.0658.9707.4926.2
    Complete transport items39.4137.6120.977.6111.0
    Parts for transport items202.6249.7313.0395.9529.0
    Other complete items49.187.9109.0111.8111.0
    Parts of other items78.889.9116.1122.2175.2
Consumer Goods796.2879.91,128.11,180.51,642.5
    Finished consumer goods420.2436.3580.0614.2931.8
    Components for consumer goods376.0443.6548.1566.3710.8
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere1,269.31,528.82,294.82,623.43,134.0
Stores Used Only for Defence32.423.030.425.649.8
                Total3,276.63,840.55,172.66,023.67,600.4
 Percent
Finished Capital Goods13.311.611.115.514.2
    Agricultural machinery and plant1.71.11.51.21.1
    Industrial machinery and plant4.13.22.83.03.6
    Construction machinery and plant0.40.40.30.40.6
    Transport and communications items1.71.71.85.73.1
    Other complete items5.45.24.65.25.8
Components and Materials for Capital Goods11.410.49.49.210.1
    For agricultural machinery plant0.50.30.40.40.3
    For industrial machinery and plant2.11.71.81.51.3
    For construction machinery and plant0.10.20.10.20.3
    For transport and communications items4.43.02.72.72.9
    For building, construction, roads0.70.70.70.70.8
    For other capital items3.64.53.73.74.5
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)11.314.712.711.712.2
    Complete transport items1.23.62.31.31.5
    Parts for transport items6.26.56.16.56.9
    Other complete items1.52.32.11.91.5
    Parts for other items2.42.32.22.02.3
Consumer Goods24.322.921.819.621.6
    Finished consumer goods12.811.411.210.212.3
    Components for consumer goods11.511.510.69.49.3
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere38.739.844.443.641.2
Stores Used Only for Defence1.00.60.60.40.7
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1982 New Zealand had 18 ports of entry for Customs purposes—eleven in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is v.f.d.

PortYear Ended June
19781979198019811982
 $(thousand)
Whangarei249,159313,774570,289788,490808,296
Auckland1,410,4971,685,6382,203,2112,586,0193,391,799
Hamilton22,10927,93036,73919,44426,169
Tauranga45,63347,76268,21382,203110,161
Rotorua......1,6323,845
Gisborne1,1951,8801,6091,5021,149
Napier55,21958,89675,14897,511115,361
New Plymouth47,69444,407117,999125,020133,869
Wanganui5,5296,6168,55310,54411,771
Palmerston North27,67530,32549,46547,85168,965
Wellington636,602813,299920,4581,004,7671,300,703
Blenheim5565988981,4041,536
Nelson22,70316,73527,72624,03335,995
Greymouth1,042298188743792
Christchurch306,156329,571480,675517,522652,513
Timaru8,6159,7099,60514,48215,930
Dunedin85,23195,126130,060133,853167,055
Invercargill92,54491,576108,789130,302198,864
            Total3,018,1583,574,1394,809,6255,587,3237,044,774

Between 60 and 70 percent of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. With the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached third place in importance. Christchurch occupies fourth place.

Imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Mangere Airport were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Christchurch Airport in the Christchurch figures. The value of imports by air, the commodities and their countries of origin are listed in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Some figures of imports and exports by air are given by main commodity groups in Section 13E of this Yearbook.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on New Zealand's external trade and external economic relations in general will be found in the following publications and sections of this Yearbook.

Department of Statistics publications:

Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Pocket Digest of Statistics (annual).

Exports: Final Statistics (annual).

Imports: Final Statistics (annual).

Report and Analysis of External Trade (annual).

Shipping and Cargo Statistics (annual bulletin).

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl paper A. 1).

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

White Paper on the GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl paper G. 14a 1979).

New Zealand Standard Classifications—Dept. of Statistics:

N.Z. Statistical Classification of Exports.

N.Z. Statistical Classification of Imports.

N.Z. Standard Country Code (NZSCC).

A number of trade agreements, conventions, exchanges of letters, etc., are published in the “A” series of parliamentary papers.

Export News—Department of Trade and Industry.

How to Export—Department of Trade and Industry.

Other Yearbook sections:

2. History, Government, and International Relations.

18. Manufacturing.

21A. Marketing of Farm Produce.

22 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

The New Zealand Customs Tariff dates back to June 1841 when the first Customs Regulation Ordinance was passed. In the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the present century, tariff policies were unsophisticated and tended to reflect the prevailing economic philosophy, the development of the country's agricultural base, and the British preferential system. From 1921, however, tariff policies directed at encouraging and protecting manufacturing industries were given greater importance. This policy evolution received a temporary check following the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 whereby, in return for concessions from the United Kingdom related to New Zealand's agricultural products, further preferences were accorded to British goods and some constraint placed on the use of the tariff for purely protective purposes. Recently the emphasis has moved away from quantitative restrictions towards tariffs as the principal means of protection for domestic industry.

The structure of the tariff was changed from 1 July 1962 when the Standard International Trade Classification was adopted. Since 1 July 1967, however, the tariff has been based on the Customs Co-operation Council Nomenclature (CCCN).

Consequential to the United Kingdom's decision to enter the European Economic Community, preferences on goods of United Kingdom origin were phased out, the process having been completed on 1 July 1977 with the exception of certain automotive products. Commonwealth Preferential Country rates were discontinued from 1 July 1978 but the former recipients of these preferences benefited in lieu from New Zealand's extended Generalised System of Preferences favouring developing countries.

On 1 July 1978 a fully revised Customs Tariff was introduced based on the recommendation of a Tariff Review Committee which had been given a 2-year period to put forward proposals to make the tariff compatible with modern trading conditions, industrial development requirements, and administrative facility. Tariff rates were set consistent with the committee's terms of reference which required, inter alia, an assessment to be made of rates necessary to accord domestic industry a reasonable level of protection against competing imports disregarding the existence of other forms of protection.

The tariff reduced the number of individual tariff items from approximately 4700 to some 2500 and also provided for the collection of statistics on a more detailed basis.

The 1978 review also identified a number of industries where further consideration was necessary and these formed the basis of an industry study programme. These included textiles and apparel, plastics and wine. Changes were made to the tariff as a result of these studies.

A reprint of the tariff was introduced with effect from 1 January 1983, in order to implement the CER tariff phasing.

The rates of customs and excise duty enforced in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

OBJECTIVES OF THE TARIFF—The objectives of the Customs Tariff can be summarised as:

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in multilateral and bilateral trade agreements.

  3. Harmonisation with New Zealand's external political objectives including the provision of assistance to developing countries.

  4. The collection of revenue.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—New Zealand was one of the original members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade reached in Geneva in 1947 and has since taken an active part in the work of the GATT in attaining its general objective of reducing barriers to trade and providing a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

The majority of the world's trading nations have now become contracting parties to the GATT and entitled to most-favoured-nation treatment. The non-discriminatory provisions within the GATT assist New Zealand to at least some degree in promoting its objective in seeking the right to trade on a multilateral basis.

The results of the tariff negotiations which took place in 1947 and on subsequent occasions are embodied in schedules to the General Agreement and are applied multilaterally so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants and, conversely, accords reciprocal concessions to all other contracting parties. These concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions in duty rates and bindings on duties against increase.

Developments have, however, tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports might reasonably expect to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised nations and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries such as New Zealand. This has been due principally to the maintenance of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The Kennedy Round of negotiations which was concluded in June 1967 did not correct this imbalance although New Zealand did obtain improved access and some tariff concessions on a limited range of products exported to some GATT countries in compensation for a reduction in rates of duty of up to 50 percent on a number of items. A new round of multilateral trade negotiations was initiated in Tokyo in September 1973. New Zealand took an active part in these negotiations whilst making it clear that the extent of its contribution to a successful outcome was dependent upon improvements in conditions of trade relating to products of principal export interest. New Zealand's global tariff offer represented a “binding” of certain tariff rates provided for by the revised tariff introduced from 1 July 1978, and covered items with a trade value of around $579 million. In addition, New Zealand made offers in the context of bilateral negotiations whereby participants exchanged requests for and offers of trading concessions on both tariff and non-tariff barriers affecting agricultural and industrial products. New Zealand also participated in a series of multilateral negotiations aimed at the formulation of codes of conduct, elaborating on or in addition to the existing GATT rules on international trade.

Useful concessions were obtained by New Zealand on tariffs and access for our major export products, particularly as the result of bilateral negotiations with the United States, the EEC, and Canada. Some benefit is also expected to derive from the multilateral arrangements negotiated on dairy and meat products, as well as the extensive tariff reductions which will be made by participating countries over the next few years on manufactured goods. A major disappointment for New Zealand was that the negotiations failed to grapple with the basic problems of agricultural protectionism and access, leaving relatively untouched the differences in rules and attitudes which exist between trade in industrial and agricultural products.

PREFERENCES AND OTHER BILATERAL TRADE AGREEMENTS: United Kingdom—A radical change in New Zealand's trade and tariff policy was necessitated by the United Kingdom's decision to enter into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973 and the effect of this action on New Zealand's exports to that country. Consequently the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade agreement was abrogated on 31 January 1973. The tariff preferences accorded to British goods in the New Zealand market were accordingly phased out in four steps which began on 1 July 1974 and were completed by 30 June 1977, except in the case of a range of automotive products.

Australia—During February 1983, the Australia - New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement was signed. This agreement gave effect to the understanding between Governments contained in the Heads of Agreement signed on 14 December 1982 and came into force on 1 January 1983. It replaces the 1933 Trade Agreement between Australia and New Zealand, the 1965 New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement, and the 1977 Agreement on Tariff and Tariff Preferences.

The impetus behind the agreement lay in the belief that such an arrangement would bring economic and social benefits to both countries, and to enable both countries to expand economic and trading links with other countries, particularly those of the South Pacific and South-East Asia. While the NAFTA had lead to significant growth in bilateral trade it was considered desirable that a new arrangement be entered into, based on eventual free trade of all goods which would better service the interests of Australia and New Zealand in the changing international economic environment.

The CER Agreement sets down detailed procedures for the gradual elimination of barriers to trade between Australia and New Zealand, set to an agreed timetable to minimise disruption. The liberalisation procedures will lead to the elimination of duties and quantitive restrictions on goods produced or manufactured within both countries. These procedures apply to all goods from 1 January 1983 with the exception of a limited number of product groupings such as plastics and wine, for which a modified programme for liberalisation will apply. Other products such as rubber, apparel, certain iron or steel products and motor vehicles and components have been deferred temporarily pending the completion of industry reviews and agreement between the two countries on how these goods can best be brought into the agreement.

Apart from provisions for the elimination of barriers to trade the agreement includes undertakings and detailed procedures in respect of such matters as dumping and countervailing action, intermediate goods issues, export incentives and safeguard measures to ensure that trade between Australia and New Zealand develops under conditions of fair competition.

Canada—On 25 September 1981 a Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement between the Governments of New Zealand and Canada was signed. This agreement came into force on 1 January 1982 and replaced the 1932 Trade Agreement and the 1970 amending Protocol as well as the 1973 Interim Preferences Agreement. It is designed to provide a framework for the development of a broader economic relationship between the two countries based on the present international trading environment. The agreement provides for the encouragement of bilateral trade and the facilitation of increased economic and technological co-operation.

The agreement provides that neither country should apply against goods originating in the other country, rates of duty higher than those in force on 1 January 1982. In cases where it is proposed to increase a rate of duty or reduce a margin of preference, provision has been made for consultation to take place. Consultations must also take place in an effort to reach a satisfactory solution where it is found that goods are being imported under conditions which constitute dumping.

The agreement also sets out new rules of origin, provision to consult on non-tariff measures, e.g., import licensing, and provisions in respect of agricultural, horticultural, and forestry products.

Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Developing Countries—New Zealand responded to the recommendation of the United Nations Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) that developed countries introduce Generalised Systems of Preference in favour of developing nations, and special developing country rates were incorporated in the Customs Tariff as from 1 January 1972.

When New Zealand introduced a revised Generalised System of Preference (GSP) on 1 July 1976 the new scheme was based on the negative-list concept and significantly increased the GSP coverage granted previously. Every effort was made to keep the list of exceptions to the minimum to give the greatest possible coverage to the scheme. Based on figures for the year ended 30 June 1982, total value of imports from GSP beneficiaries was $1,589 million, compared with $1,454 million for the year ended 30 June 1981.

The revised GSP was based on an intention to maintain, in terms of GSP criteria, specified margins of preference for developing countries up to a level of 20 percent. Since 17 December 1976 special provisions have been made for the duty-free importation of specified handicraft products.

Pacific Forum Islands—At the eleventh South Pacific Forum held in Kiribati in July 1980 the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA) came into existence. Under this agreement New Zealand and Australia will provide on a non-reciprocal basis duty free and unrestricted access into their markets for most of the products exported by the Forum Island countries.

The agreement took effect on 1 January 1981 and except for items subject to revenue duties and a few items of particular sensitivity to New Zealand the revised Customs Tariff introduced from that date reflected the duty-free access provisions of the agreement.

In New Zealand's case the preferential tariff applies only to goods of Pacific Island origin, which are either wholly obtained in the preferential area or partly manufactured in the area, where the Pacific Island and/or New Zealand content exceeds a nominated level which, except in special circumstances related to the development needs of smaller island countries, is set at 50 percent of factory cost.

OTHER TRADE OBLIGATIONS—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, and arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth resulting from direct negotiations with the countries concerned. In practice, some of the earlier arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) became superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Trade agreements which are still operative include those with Switzerland (1938 and since extended to Liechtenstein in 1956); the Federal Republic of Germany (1959, amended 1977); Japan (1958, amended 1962); the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1963, protocol 1973); the Polish People's Republic (1965); Republic of Korea (1967, amended 1976); People's Republic of Bulgaria (1968); Republic of Philippines (1968, amended 1976); Hungarian People's Republic (1970, revised and superseded 1978); The People's Republic of China (1973); Iran (1974); Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1975); Arab Republic of Egypt (1977); German Democratic Republic (1978); Indonesia (1978); and the Socialist Republic of Romania (1979); Republic of Iraq (1982).

ELIGIBILITY OF GOODS FOR TARIFF PREFERENTIAL RATES—In order to qualify for entry at preferential rates imported goods must meet certain origin requirements before they can be deemed to be the produce or manufacture of the countries entitled to the preferences. The provisions are contained in the Customs Regulations 1968 as amended. In general, with minor variations, they include the following:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and/or (in some instances) from one or more of the imported partly-manufactured materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods “wholly obtained”. (This provision applies only to South Pacific Forum Island countries and Developing Country Preferences and is instead of provisions (a) and (b).)

  4. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or other items of factory or works cost incurred in such countries in respect of each article is not less than half of the factory or works cost of the article in its finished state.

EXCISE—Excise duties are levied on alcohol used in manufacturers' warehouses licensed under the Customs Act 1966, locally produced beer, potable spirits, tobacco, and cigarette papers. These are the traditional “revenue” goods of New Zealand for which the Customs Department has responsibility.

In addition to the responsibility for the collection of Excise duty, the department also has to ensure the revenue is safeguarded on alcohol distilled in New Zealand for use as fuel, as a fuel extender, or for industrial purposes.

The Sikes' method of determining the strength of alcohol (proof spirit) was replaced in July 1981 by the International Organisation of Legal Metrology system (strength as a percentage of alcohol by volume of 20° Celsius). This system is the basis for the tariff of most countries that are members of the Customs Co-operation Council.

The following table shows net revenue from Customs and Excise duties for the past 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms and Excise Duties (Including Foreign Fishing Vessel Tax But Excluding Beer Duty)Sales Tax (Including Travel Tax and Departure Tax)Beer DutyMotor Spirits DutyOther ReceiptsTotal
 $(thousand)
1978273,674385,19158,693222,1571,920941,635
1979286,129465,58358,853281,9655,0961,097,626
1980331,622639,69358,159289,3778,1231,326,974
1981349,320791,41164,283284,0587,3381,496,410
1982475,0911,106,91774,338295,3908,8521,960,588

Motor spirits duty paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties. Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government Finance.

INTERNATIONAL COMMODITY AGREEMENTS: Sugar—New Zealand's annual requirement for sugar is approximately 160 000 tonnes. From 1973 the bulk of this was imported from Australia and Fiji under long-term contracts. Additional cargoes were purchased from Cuba and the Philippines. The long-term contracts expired in 1978. The Fijian contract was renegotiated in 1979 and is effective for 5 years expiring in 1983. On 30 April 1980 a new Australian - New Zealand Sugar Agreement was negotiated. This extends over a period of 5 years from June 1980 to December 1984.

In an effort to exert a greater control over market forces, producers and consumers have repeatedly made efforts over the past 20 years to encourage market stability through the implementation of a number of International Sugar Agreements. These agreements incorporate mechanisms that regulate the supply and price of sugar on world markets. Under the agreements exporters undertake to regulate their sales on the free market according to agreed quotas, while importers are to restrict their purchases from non-members during times when sugar prices remain within the range specified in the agreement. New Zealand has been a member of the International Sugar Agreements in 1958, 1968, and 1978.

Coffee—New Zealand is a party to the International Coffee Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 6 years. New Zealand was previously a party to the International Coffee Agreement of 1968 which finally expired in 1976, having been extended from 1973 as a purely administrative agreement.

Under the 1976 agreement provisions have been incorporated for adjusting basic quotas, regulating imports whenever quotas are in effect, and recording international coffee trade. As from 1 November 1980 the International Coffee Organisation has instructed importing countries to adopt the economic provisions of the International Coffee Agreement. As importers of coffee, therefore, we are required to limit or imports to a level within the global quota and to limit our annual imports from non-members to quantities established under the provisions of the Agreement.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on Customs tariff and revenue and on trade agreements will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Customs Department (Parl paper B. 24)

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14)

White Paper on the GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl. paper G. 14a 1979)

International Sugar Agreement, 1977 (Parl. paper A. 50 1979)

International Coffee Agreement, 1976 (Parl. paper A. 17 1979)

Trade agreements with individual countries are published as parliamentary papers in the “A” series.

Chapter 23. Section 23; PRICES, HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE, AND CONSUMER AFFAIRS

CONTROL AND STABILISATION OF PRICES—The principal enactments affecting the control of prices of goods and services are the Commerce Act 1975 and the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

Under the former statute a Positive List of Controlled Goods and Services is published by the Minister of Trade and Industry. Increases in the prices of goods and services included in this list are subject to the approval of the Secretary of Trade and Industry or, in the case of specified energy products, the Secretary of Energy. Applicants for price increases who are subject to this form of control may appeal to the Commerce Commission if they are dissatisfied with the Secretary's decision. Goods and services at present on the Positive List include cement, pharmaceuticals, fertilisers, canned foods, soaps, and freight forwarding charges.

Many domestic transport services are subject to price control in terms of the Transport Act 1962, and air transport charges are subject to approval by the Air Services Licensing Authority in accordance with the provisions of the Air Services Licensing Act 1951. The prices of certain other goods such as motor spirits, automotive and diesel oil, and milk and cream prices are fixed by Order in Council.

Regulations have been made from time to time under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 for the purpose of restraining and monitoring increases in the prices of most other goods and services which are not controlled by the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority. The current regulations in force are the Price Surveillance Regulations 1979.

The Commerce Act 1975—Part IV of the Commerce Act provides for goods and services to be placed under price control, and allows regulations to be made placing goods and services under price restraint. Decisions take the form of price orders or special approvals, and the Secretary of Trade and Industry is required on request to give the reasons for a decision to the applicant. The Commerce Commission sits as an independent judicial authority for the determination of appeals from decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry.

Decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry are made following investigations upon receipt of an application in accordance with procedures set out in the Act. Provision is also made for the Secretary to review prices on his own motion with the consent of the Minister of Trade and Industry. Before making a determination in respect of an application or following a review on his own motion, the Secretary is required by the Act to take certain criteria into account.

Criteria considered by the Secretary of Trade and Industry or the Commerce Commission in dealing with pricing matters include the costs of production and distribution of the goods concerned; the ability of the applicant to absorb costs; profit margins and the return on capital employed by the applicant; improvements in productivity and efficiency; and market competition.

The Ministry of Energy Act 1977 transferred to the Secretary of Energy all the functions, powers and duties conferred on the Secretary of Trade and Industry by Part IV of the Commerce Act 1975 with respect to energy products included in the Positive List.

The Price Surveillance Regulations 1979—These regulations came into force on 6 April 1979 and replaced the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974. The Price Surveillance Regulations require every trader to retain records of price increases and allow the Secretary to investigate the prices of any goods or services. If the Secretary is of the opinion that the price being charged is excessive he may invite the trader to reduce the price or to make refunds, and may recommend to the Minister of Trade and Industry that the goods or services be made subject to price control or that a public inquiry be held before the Commerce Commission.

The Price Surveillance Regulations also require manufacturers with an annual turnover of $7.5 million or more and suppliers of services with an annual turnover of $2 million or more to notify the Secretary of Trade and Industry of price increases and to supply the Secretary with their financial accounts and half-yearly reports indicating the net pre-tax profit earned during that period. Professional bodies are also required to notify the Secretary of Trade and Industry of increases in any scale of charges recommended to their members.

Importers, wholesalers, and retailers whose annual turnover is $5 million or more are required to supply half-yearly returns to the Secretary of Trade and Industry providing details of the turnover and gross profit earned in that period.

Wage, Price, and Rent Freeze—As from midnight on 22 June 1982 the Government imposed a wage, price, and rent freeze with the aim of reducing New Zealand's inflation rate. Under the price freeze regulations individual traders may not sell, or offer to sell, at prices higher than the normal price at which they last sold the relevant goods or services on or before 22 June 1982.

The regulations permit limited recoveries of certain Government charges and imported costs.

Relief from the regulations may be granted by the Pricing Authority where a business suffers a serious deterioration in its financial stability or economic viability.

Second-hand goods, livestock, goods sold at auction or by competitive tender, and goods sold directly for export are exempt from the freeze.

The Rent Freeze Regulations were amended on 13 June 1983, enabling landlords to increase rents of properties and dwellinghouses in certain circumstances:

  1. Rent is unreasonably low—Rents in dwellinghouses may be increased if a Rent Appeal Board is satisfied that the rent is unreasonably low because of the personal circumstances of a tenant who has since voluntarily vacated the premises.

  2. Severe hardship—Landlords seeking to increase rents of properties and dwellinghouses on the grounds of severe financial hardship will be subjected to means tests.

  3. Structural improvements to properties—Landlords applying for a rent increase on the grounds of significant improvements to their properties must have the written consent of their tenants to such an increase.

These new regulations do not apply to companies and incorporated bodies.

CONSUMER AFFAIRS—The responsibility for administering New Zealand's consumer legislation is shared by several Government departments, including the Departments of Trade and Industry, Health, Justice, and Labour.

Some examples are:

Department of Health—

Food and Drug Act

Poisons and Medicines Acts

Department of Justice—

Sale of Goods Act

Layby Sales Act

Hire Purchase Act

Motor Vehicle Dealers Act

Department of Labour—

Weights and Measures Act

Department of Trade and Industry—

Consumer Information Act

Wool Labelling Act

Merchandise Marks Act

Door to Door Sales Act

Safety of Children Night Clothes Act

Commerce Act

Under some legislation the departments concerned may be able to assist complainants but in most cases the legislation provides the avenue for action through the courts. Some problems can now be resolved through small claims tribunals. Following the passing of the Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976, small claims tribunals were set up in June 1977 in Christchurch, New Plymouth, and Rotorua. In 1979 two more were established in Invercargill and Gisborne, and in 1981 four further tribunals were set up in Auckland. In May 1982 tribunals were opened in Hamilton, Palmerston North, Lower Hutt, and Dunedin.

The Consumers' Institute runs a consumer complaints service and citizens advice bureaux are also established in some main centres and will assist complainants. Some of these bureaux have legal assistance sections for those with legal problems who may not be able to afford to seek private legal advice.

CONSUMER COUNCIL—The Consumer Council's functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services and by so doing to encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce. The council was established in 1959 and reconstituted an independent body under the Consumer Council Act 1966. The council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative Appointments Committee. The permanent heads of the Departments of Trade and Industry, Scientific and Industrial Research, Health and Education are also represented on the council.

The council has appointed District Consumer Committees in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and supports the Dunedin Consumer Association. The Council lays down the policies to be followed by the staff of the Consumers' Institute. The institute's work includes comparative tests and surveys of consumer goods and services; research into and advice on legal, financial, and welfare matters; representations to parliamentary committees and public inquiries; consumer education; complaints advisory service; and liaison with business, trade, and safety associations.

Citizens are encouraged to become members of Consumers' Institute at an annual subscription of $13. At the end of 1982, about 100 000 members received the monthly magazine Consumer. Members are entitled to purchase other Institute publications. Consumer Action is made available to schools, and information is given through the media.

Membership subscriptions and sales of publications provide about 50 percent of the Institute's finance. The remainder comes from Government grants and selected non-commercial sources. While the Institute liaises and co-operates with others, it maintains complete independence and impartiality.

The Consumer Council is a council executive member of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions, and co-operates with and assists other consumer organisations throughout the world.

PRICE STATISTICS—Prices of a large number of goods and services are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics with the primary object of compiling various index number series. The fields covered are external trade (imports, exports), household expenditure (retail prices, urban house property), the Stock Exchange (shares, dividend yields), wool auction prices, farm costs, capital expenditure, and industrial production (input and output prices).

It is usually possible to subdivide art index series into component group indexes which are often more relevant to specific applications than a combined series. Component group indexes are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and in the annual volume, Prices, Wages and Labour (Part A: Prices). Subdivisions of indexes not shown in these publications may be available on request.

Price indexes are constructed from prices weighted to reflect the importance of each ratio to the sector as a whole. Changes in the importance of individual items to a sector require periodic revisions of weights.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—The Consumers Price Index (CPI) measures changes in the general level of the prices of the goods and services which households purchase; it thus provides the best available measure of the effect of changes in retail prices on the average household budget. Index series of retail prices have a long history in New Zealand, starting with a food and rent index for the 4 chief centres back to 1891, and increasing in comprehensiveness both as to commodity and geographical coverage over successive series since that time. The most recent revisions to the Consumers Price Index were made in 1965, 1974, 1977, and 1980.

The basic objective of the Consumers Price Index is to provide a multi-purpose indicator of retail price changes of those goods and services which are purchased by individuals living in New Zealand. The weights in the Consumers Price Index are based on the pattern of expenditure of the population and, over the full period for which the Consumers Price Index has been compiled, this has shown considerable alterations. Analysis of any long-term time series must involve consideration of the effects of such changes in the pattern of expenditure.

The salient features of the Consumers Price Index may be summarised as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Clasper in its aggregative form.

  2. The number of published regimen items excluding fresh fruit and vegetables is 392.

  3. The sources of group and commodity weights are the average expenditure per household from the Household Expenditure Survey supplemented by crosschecks from other statistical sources. Where considered appropriate, the base weights assigned to selected items represent expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  4. Prices for most items are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including 3 combined areas. Some are obtained by mail.

  5. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its sub-groups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and sub-groups at quarterly intervals.

  6. Index numbers are published for 7 chief market centres and 12 larger market centres individually. Combined index numbers are also published for each of these two groupings and for all centres combined. Each centre and grouping of centres is shown on its own base.

  7. Expenditures on the following items are, for various reasons, excluded: direct taxation; purchases of shares, bonds or debentures; payments to superannuation funds and the like; savings; collectors' items; gambling; court fines; legal expenses for traffic cases, criminal and civil cases, estates, family settlements, divorces, adoptions, etc.; charitable and church donations; wages of domestic servants, home aids, home nurses, jobbing gardeners, etc.; catering and other service charges for private receptions; training, racing and stabling fees for race or trotting horses; purchase, boarding and breeding charges for animals; grazing fees and fees for pony clubs; overseas holidays (other than air fares); baby-sitting fees; life insurances other than those directly related to mortgage repayments; and interest charges on revolving credit schemes such as charge accounts and credit cards.

Full details on index methodology and changes between successive revisions are given in the publications listed under Further Information. Revisions are normally carried out every three years. The latest revision (on base December Quarter 1980 = 1000) has involved the reselection of pricing points, regimen contents, and items, and the reallocation of expenditure-based weights.

Changes in the expression bases do not alter percentage movements between index numbers, although some variation may be expected from the rounding of decimals.

The first Consumers Price Index table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—(ALL GROUPS)—TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, December Quarter 1980 (= 1000)
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—
    Percentages of base expenditure19.6218.3816.087.1318.2620.53100.00
December year annual average—
    1980940948957957946944948
    19811098110910681066111010901094
    19821233138312131194128012661270
Quarter ended—
    1982–31 Mar1191125711481126120811891194
    30 Jun1233134612181191126212341254
    30 Sep1254142312401207131412981299
    31 Dec1256150812481252133813441334
    1983–31 Mar1265153912501256134213551345
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruit and VegetablesMeat, Fish, and PoultryOther FoodsRentalsHome OwnershipFuel and LightHousehold FurnishingsHousehold Supplies and Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure2.714.6612.252.9015.472.548.405.14
December year annual average—
    1980957945932x962946973958945
    19811089106611121081x1114107810771049
    198212121179125912821402123112131206
Quarter ended—
    1982–31 Mar11831149120911891269112411681127
    30 Jun12341171125612711360126212101209
    30 Sep12281189128513231441127112321238
    31 Dec12041206128613461539126812421249
    1983–31 Mar12831196128713611573127212431249
PeriodApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure5.641.492.9715.299.136.385.03100.00
December year annual average—
    1980958954929947936952951948
    198110681061116211001085108711041094
    198211991175137212631266122313221270
Quarter ended—
    1982–31 Mar11291113129311921173117212411194
    30 Jun11971169134512461205121013181254
    30 Sep12121188139412991306124013541299
    31 Dec12581229145513151378127113731334
    1983–31 Mar12631229145013211377128814011345

The annual average level of consumer prices rose by 16.1 percent in 1982, compared with a rise of 15.4 percent during the preceding year. Although price increases were recorded in all main groups of the index the major contributions to the overall result came from the following subgroups: home ownership, private transport, other foods, tobacco and alcoholic drinks, household furnishing, and other supplies.

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indexes are omitted.

The index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Changes calculated between any two index numbers for a centre can be compared to changes for the same periods in other centres. Interpretations of such comparisons should be made with the understanding that only movements in the general level of retail prices in the centres are involved. How much cheaper or dearer it is to live in one centre than another cannot be determined. The index has been designed with the assumption that expenditure patterns are the same in each centre, but in reality completely identical goods, services and shops do not occur. The index, therefore, aims at pricing the same goods and services at the same stores each period rather than attempting consistency between centres. The differences in the samples between centres prevents comparisons of price levels.

The inclusion of a table showing indexes of comparison of prices for each market centre with those for 25 market centres combined has been discontinued. Availability and consequent pricing of goods of identical specification in all centres has become an impossible objective and this index would therefore be unreliable as an inter-centre comparison of changes in price levels.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES
Base: Weighted average each centre and grouping, separately, December Quarter 1980 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth Quarter 1980December YearFourth Quarter 1980December YearFourth Quarter 1980December YearFourth Quarter 1980December Year
19811982198119821981198219811982
Auckland100010931221100011271412100010581191100010691201
Hamilton100010991234100011131396100010801209100010691187
Napier-Hastings100011031235100011111386100010611208100010741208
Palmerston North100011021242100011141420100010691235100010601179
Wellington-Hutt100010941230100011061388100010661219100010541200
Christchurch100011081258100011081418100010721228100010801199
Dunedin100010961218100010871300100010681224100010701197
Seven chief market centres100010981232100011151399100010651210100010681198
Whangarei100011021235100011051394100010721219100010571193
Tauranga100010871237100010981356100010811237100010711213
Rotorua100010891220100011121397100010721232100010651181
Tokoroa100010821220100010931351100010751212100010521179
Gisborne100011091252100010921334100010651209100010551150
New Plymouth100010891226100010981398100010871236100010521173
Wanganui100010981228100010791282100010691206100010691192
Masterton100011071243100011021288100010761220100010581180
Nelson100011061259100011021368100010751220100010641178
Greymouth100010921233100010891266100010631193100010581181
Timaru100011071261100010811289100010621209100010771201
Invercargill100011031230100010841320100010731213100010651184
Ten larger market centres†100010981237100010951343100010731219100010631187
Twenty-five market centres combined*100010981233100011091383100010681213100010661194
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth Quarter 1980December YearFourth Quarter 1980December YearFourth Quarter 1980December Year
198119821981198219811982

* Includes 5 smaller market centres, viz Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Ashburton, and Gore.

† For 1981 represents 12 secondary centres.

Auckland100011041271100010951278100010951272
Hamilton100011281293100010841268100010991275
Napier-Hastings100011001264100010831254100010911264
Palmerston North100011141291100010821251100010941279
Wellington-Hutt100011061285100010871264100010901272
Christchurch100011171290100010971255100011001283
Dunedin100011001273100010851246100010861248
Seven chief market centres100011091279100010911266100010941272
Whangarei100011011266100010881287100010921275
Tauranga100011271291100010881265100010951273
Rotorua100011321305100010811258100010951275
Tokoroa100011261295100011201311100010971272
Gisborne100011221292100010911265100010941263
New Plymouth100011051276100010841248100010901268
Wanganui100011121281100010891258100010891248
Masterton100011161291100010901269100010951257
Nelson100011101280100010881262100010941272
Greymouth100011201293100010881260100010891245
Timaru100011131288100010951274100010911261
Invercargill100011011272100010881267100010891255
Ten larger market centres†100011131282100010901269100010921265
Twenty-five market centres combined *100011101280100010901266100010941270

AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES—Quarterly weighted average prices over 25 centres for the fourth quarter 1981.

CommodityUnitPrice
  Cents
Apples, eatingkg134.07
Bananaskg129.38
Orangeskg129.41
Cabbagekg67.07
Carrotskg85.13
Onionskg175.35
Potatoeskg65.00
Peaches, canned425 g tin80.59
Peas, green frozen1 kg pkt172.39
Beef, blade steakkg465.00
            corned silversidekg467.17
            prime rib rolledkg409.75
            porterhouse steakkg656.82
        rump steakkg596.53
Hogget, cut leg, knuckle endkg364.07
    forequarterkg229.64
Lamb, leg, wholekg406.58
Pork, cut leg, knuckle endkg539.48
Pork, loin chop;.kg560.17
Bacon, middle rasherskg887.38
Mince, beefkg330.67
Ham, cooked, pressed, slicedkg1016.56
Sausages, beefkg225.17
Fish, sole or flounder, wetkg354.81
fresh, filleted—e.g. tarakihi groperkg681.58
Salmon, canned220 g167.84
Chicken, deep frozenNo. 6 (Med)420.93
Eggs, min. 636g/dozenDozen154.91
Butter500 g96.00
Cheese, mild cheddarkg352.83
Milk, delivered600 ml25.05
Milk powder, full cream400 g tin206.53
Biscuits, chocolate wheaten200 g84.66
Bread, unsliced, wrapped750 g65.50
Cake, block, light fruit500 g220.12
Oatmeal, fine porridge1.4 kg163.99
Flour, white1.5 kg108.08
Rice, long grain500 g81.98
Breakfast flake biscuits750 g126.47
Honey500 g ctn137.35
Jam, apricot400 g tin105.84
Coffee, instant100 g jar194.84
Tea250 g106.34
Margarine, table500 g108.45
Cooking oil vegetable500 ml135.36
Salt, iodised2 kg bag86.61
Spaghetti in tomato sauce440 g tin71.54
Soup, tomato450 g tin70.26
Sugar, white1.5 kg pkt127.08
Aerated waters incl. bottle1 litre98.30
Ice cream, vanilla2 litre221.32
Chocolate, block150 g119.55
Meals, grill, steak and chipsEach565.11
Meals, coffee and 2 sandwichesEach124.34
Takeaways, chicken, hot snackBox222.73
Takeaways, hamburger, hotEach104.92
  $
Timber, dressed, 150 mm × 25 mm finishing tanalised radiata pinePer 100 lineal metres175.55
Concrete blocks, 390 mm × 190 mm × 140 mmPer 10093.66
Paint (waterbased), highgloss white4 litre tin32.82
Coal, domestic255 kg32.21
Electricity, domestic (incl. water heating)–30 days2520 MJ29.99
Gas, domestic–30 days1100 MJ11.59
Fuel oil, domestic heating, deliveredlitre0.54
Electric jug, chrome finish, 1500 W std elementEach40.25
Electric range, 4 elements, automaticEach809.01
Refrigerator, single temp., 0.26 cu mEach584.26
Refrigerator, dual temp., freezer-fridge 0.32 cu mEach767.79
T.V. set, colour 56 cmEach1,199.24
Lawn mower, rotary type, 2 stroke, 46 cmEach506.93
Venetian blind, 175 cm wide, 130 cm dropEach122.55
Carpet, broadloom, 80/20 wool/nylon. 950g/m2Metre124.72
Vinyl flooring, 183 cmMetre26.69
Pillow, dacron-filledEach11.40
Mixing bowl, stainless steel, 20 cmEach8.06
Fork, table, stainless steel, med. qualityEach0.72
Preserving jars, glass, 1.1 litre, incl. rings and sealsDoz.8.84
Torch battery, dry cell, 1 250Each0.50
Electric light bulb, 100 WattEach0.85
Household cleaning powder500 g1.05
Detergent, plastic container990 ml1.85
Disinfectant560 ml1.06
Fly spray, aerosol300 ml can2.02
Shoe polish38 g0.68
Soap powder1.10 kg1.51
Postal letter, standard, surfaceEach0.20
Telephone rental (private), main exchange1 year144.00
Drycleaning, Man's two piece suitEach5.44
Licence, T.V., black and white1 year27.50
Licence, T.V., colour1 year45.00
Singlet, athletic, man'sEach5.37
Pantyhose, sheer, av. size, popular brandPair2.70
Shorts, casual sports, boy'sPair6.88
Socks, ankle, girl'sPair2.51
Nursery squares, 76 cm × 76 cm, cottonDoz22.45
Baby's vestEach2.70
Dress patternEach2.00
Wool, hand knitting, crepe, double knitting50 g1.95
Slippers, felt, man'sPair10.30
Shoe repairs, cemented leather half sole size 5 woman'sPair11.77
Bicycle, man's 10 speed, without accessories, N.Z. manufactureeach310.71
Petrol, 96 octane10 16.10
Cigarettes, filter tippedpkt. of 201.04
Tobacco, cigarette50 g1.89
Beer in public bar—glass200 ml0.34
Wine, N.Z. sherry medium dry2.25 1 Flagon8.56
Aspirin, 24 tabletspkt1.16
Razor blades (not bonded)pkt of 51.45
Baby talcum powder330 g2.20
Toilet paper, 2 ply, 37.8 m4 rolls1.81
Toilet soap150 g0.39
ToothbrushEach0.66
Toothpaste100 g tube0.99
Suitcase, largeEach52.99
Umbrella, collapsible, woman'sEach9.07
Envelopes, 16 cm × 9 cm, lick × stickpkt of 200.54
Writing pad, 203 mm × 127 mm, lightweight80 leaf pad0.76
Pencil, black leadEach0.21
Film colour slide (including processing), 35 mm, 25 ASA, 20 exposuresEach10.83
Developing and printing, 126 colour film, 12 prints, 87 mm × 90 mmTotal8.21
Tennis balls, 2nd gradePair3.13
Newspaper, delivered, dailyEach0.19
Popular book, paperbackEach3.95
Opticians fee, full examination and spectacles with caseEach82.83
Dental filling, simple amalgam, one surfaceEach11.40
Dentures, full set, acrylicSet343.27
Football admission to ground, club gameEach1.04
Cinema admission, adult, eveningsSeat2.87
Rugby club subscription, per annumPer member24.89
Tennis club subscription, per annumPer member36.40
Funeral, burial ($00)Each942.22
                cremation ($00)Each862.47
Hair cut, woman's wetEach12.66
                Man's dryEach4.11

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The following tables provide a comparison of retail and wholesale prices between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices have been converted into New Zealand currency and the metric liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity.

Comparisons in annual movement of Consumer Price Indexes of selected countries are given in the following table. (The base is December Quarter 1980 = 1000.)

YearNew ZealandAustraliaCanadaFrance (Paris)JapanUnited KingdomUnited States
1978711807798762879720762
1979809880871843910816849
1980948969959957974963963
19811094106310791083102710771062
1982127011811196121010551170..
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS
(During the 4th quarter of 1982 in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)*Australia (Sydney)Great Britain (200 Areas)*Japan (Tokyo)*

* November.

† December.

‡ Milk loaf, sliced.

§ Green tea, loose.

‖Processed cheese.

¶Sirloin.

  centscentscentscents
Bread750 g65.54107.3‡86.8137.1
Flour1.5 kg107.92111.097.2152.6
Tea500 g106.83216.4254.91 282.6§
Coffee (instant)100 g192.87249.3209.9362.2
Sugar1 kg126.5467.895.1147.3
Milk (fresh)600 ml25.0547.947.490.6
Cheesekg352.32402.8‖566.9652.5
Butter500 g92.04182.2218.2408.7
Margarine500 g108.45127.476.6234.4
Baconkg885.491030.2627.6¶
Beef—rib roastkg408.13509.61238.01764.9
Lamb—legkg409.35491.8764.5
Pork—legkg541.34616.5522.5795.0
Pork chopskg562.15639.7

Sources: Australia: Australian Statistician. Great Britain: Department of Employment Gazette. Japan: Bureau of Statistics.

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES
(In 4th quarter 1981 or month in that quarter, in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand*FranceGreat BritainUnited States

* Fourth quarter.

† November 1981.

  $$$$
Wheattonne183.000263.815257.906
Oatstonne170.000222.602
Flourtonne312.220284.436
Sugar50 kg39.29034.771
Butter500 g0.8502.598
Cheesekg2.0703.5204.508
Motor spiritlitre0.3260.9410.618

PRODUCERS PRICE INDEX—The Producers Price Index (previously called the General Price Index) replaced and considerably extended the Wholesale Prices Index, which was discontinued from the March quarter 1978. The Producers Price Index measures quarterly price level changes commencing with the December quarter 1977. It is intended to provide a measure of average price changes over all industrial and government sectors of the economy.

Price indexes for inputs and outputs at both all-industry and group levels are contained in this index. The all-groups level of the Producers Price Index reflects price level movements as these affect the inputs and sales of business and government. Industry groups for which separate index series are available correspond with the New Zealand System of National Accounts production groups. It is conceptually impossible to calculate an output index for the non-market oriented groups of Central Government Services, Local Government Services, and Private Non-profit Services to Households. Their activities differ substantially in character from market-oriented industries in that their output is produced for free distribution or at prices which bear no relationship to the cost of production.

The use of identical industry classification in the national accounts and in the Producers Price Index is part of the Department of Statistics long-term policy to integrate all economic statistics. With price deflation of the current value of each industry's input of goods and services and its output, it is possible to calculate the industry's real net output and contribution to the Gross Domestic Product. This will be in constant prices or, effectively, in volume terms.

The list of goods and services priced was selected on the basis of input-output commodity flows contained in the department's Inter-Industry Study for 1971–72. These were updated by comparison with data collected for other statistical series including the Farm Costs and the Wholesale Prices Index regimens, Import and Export lists, and other economic censuses recently undertaken. In selecting the goods and services to be priced, careful consideration was given to the coverage and representativeness of various commodity groups. In particular, their absolute importance to the producing industry and the whole economy was taken into account. Specifications for the commodities and services were obtained in collaboration with suppliers of the price data to ensure representativeness of priced commodities and adherence to these specifications over time.

The weight assigned to an industry to obtain the all-industry group index is based on the New Zealand System of National Accounts Production Accounts for 1975–76. Commodity weightings within each industry index are based on data from the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study. Adjustments have been made for significant variations in relative commodity weightings occurring between the date of the study and the index expression base.

Prices for inputs are producer prices (i.e., factory door prices including commodity taxes). Separate indexes are prepared for transport and distribution charges. Where reliable unit-values are available, these have been incorporated in the relevant input indexes. It is not intended to produce separate sub-indexes for the imported components of each industry's input.

Industry outputs are priced at approximate basic values (i.e., before the addition of commodity taxes or deduction of subsidies). These correspond to factory door prices or as close to this level as the firm's pricing policy allows. Downstream commodity taxes are excluded. In cases where price differentiation occurs between items both consumed locally and exported, separate pricing is usually obtained.

The following table shows price indexes of inputs (i.e., current purchases of commodities and services) and of outputs by industry groups. As already stated, input prices are producers' prices and include commodity taxes paid by, and subsidies received by, the producer.

PRODUCERS PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
31 Dec 197731 Mar 198230 Jun 1982
InputsOutputsInputsOutputsInputsOutputs

* Includes industry groups 5 to 13.

† Includes industry groups 1 to 21.

Agriculture100010002062188121121867
Fishing and hunting100010002056168721721731
Forestry and logging100010002006206721082280
Mining and quarrying100010001842196519512113
Manufacture of food, beverages and tobacco100010001925187619571934
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries100010001744167817971713
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture100010001988193621192044
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing100010001930183020201906
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products100010002412218524982221
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal100010001900183519771926
Basic metal industries100010001819181518381824
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment100010001837185419321918
Other manufacturing industries100010001901183719631898
Electricity, gas, and water100010002022185722272046
Construction100010001982190520831980
Trade, restaurants, hotels100010001915187819891945
Transport and storage100010002302198024062097
Communications100010002070144021541718
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services100010001912186520271964
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings100010002024150921341629
Community, social, and personal services100010001897182220041915
Central Government services1000..1982..2077..
Local Government services1000..2048..2158..
Private non-profit services to households1000..1948..2060..
Primary food processing100010001958188519851948
Other food processing100010001823185618721900
Hotels, restaurants, and takeaways..10001983..2065
All manufacturing groups*100010001962188820311947
All market groups†100010001982187320641945
                All industry100010001983..2065..
PRODUCERS PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
30 Sep 198231 Dec 1982
InputsOutputsInputsOutputs

* Includes industry groups 5 to 13.

† Includes industry groups 1 to 21.

Agriculture2169194322021982
Fishing and hunting2280178823071851
Forestry and logging2184209721942086
Mining and quarrying2013216520372194
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco2046201320772024
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1833173118401734
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture2153205021602054
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing2073193420981934
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products;2547228125592307
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal2037194320401957
Basic metal industries1846182618721850
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1974193719881944
Other manufacturing industries1985192120231944
Electricity, gas, and water2256205922612059
Construction2127202921572048
Trade, restaurants, hotels2108200321252018
Transport and storage2567213525702169
Communications2261171822781721
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services2102204921212071
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings2167171021861751
Community, social, and personal services2054195220701963
Central Government services2127..2150..
Local Government services2246..2281..
Private non-profit services to households2101..2108..
Primary food processing2092204521282059
Other food processing1906193419211939
Hotels, restaurants, and takeaways21792210
All manufacturing groups*2088198921071999
All market groups†2135199521552013
                All industry2136..2157..

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE PRICE INDEX (CEPI)—A new series of price indexes, jointly called the Capital Expenditure Price Index, was released in May 1981 by the Government Statistician. These new indexes provided measures of price level changes of physical capital assets purchased by businesses and Government in New Zealand.

The concept of price employed is the “price to the final user” and does not include freight or installation costs unless these are normally included in the final price. No account can be taken of special discounts. Sales tax has been included where applicable.

Each capital expenditure asset-type index is constructed by combining the relative price changes of representative items. The importance given to each item is determined by the expenditure made on all the assets which that item represents. The relative importance of any item, vis-a-vis other price items, is known technically as the “weight” for that item.

Because expenditure on capital items tends to be irregular the weights used in the CEPI have, in general, been based on expenditure over a two to five year period ranging from 1975–76 to 1979–80. In deriving the weighting pattern for the CEPI the Department of Statistics has primarily used statistics on external trade, manufacturing, and building. These have been supplemented with data from a diversity of sources including other Government departments, marketing and producer boards, manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers.

The following table shows index numbers for the 4 quarters of 1982. It should be noted that the index numbers relate to the price levels ruling at the mid-point of each quarter.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1979 (= 1000)
Capital AssetQuarter ended 1982
MarSunSepDec
Residential buildings—
    Houses, flats, garages1544159716551669
    Hostels1531156716031604
Non-residential buildings—
    Commercial buildings1500153815741581
    Factories1500155115821593
    Hospitals, rest homes1502155315891591
    Educational buildings1493154215751587
    Motels, hotels1478153115641577
    Farm buildings1483156515901580
Other construction—
    Transport ways1489156116231647
    Pipelines1472151815431553
    Electrical works1365140614131419
    Earthmoving and site work1475156915841606
Land improvements—
    Land clearing1453150515331554
    Fencing1377141714561472
    Irrigation and land drainage1430149415251540
    Reclamation and river control1447151815451571
Transport vehicles—
    Cars, less than 1600 c.c.1287133713601370
    Cars, 1600 c.c. and above1282129813291345
    Commercial vehicles, less than 2500 kg1398144515041512
    Commercial vehicles, 2500 kg and over1189127013421339
    Buses1537155515641581
    Trailers1389146314781480
    Motor cycles1108110210941072
    Fishing boats1500161216351663
    Light fixed wing aircraft1570163517061730
    Helicopters1617161916841684
Plant, machinery, and equipment—
    Agricultural tractors1204124312531258
    Self-propelled harvesting machinery1367146214861496
    Other harvesting and mowing machinery1268132313541367
    Soil preparation and cultivation machinery1364146714861503
    Other agricultural machinery and equipment1372143014921525
    Farm motor cycles1107111511671277
    Self-propelled construction machinery1518154915801588
    Non-self-propelled construction machinery, quarrying machinery1453151715381537
    Food and drink processing machinery1409144714821485
    Bottling and packaging machinery1400147415141527
    Textile machinery1316136713911426
    Woodworking machinery1387141514561490
    Printing and publishing equipment1248128913281327
    Metal working machinery1395143914691477
    Forklifts and mobile material-handling equipment1320136513851394
    Mechanical hoists, conveyors, etc.1573166016871727
    Electrical distribution equipment1468149515061534
    Electric motors, up to 7 kw (1–9 hp)1413145614651524
    Electric motors, 7 kw and over (over 9 hp)1283136913681371
    Industrial engines, non-electric1352137113711401
    Airconditioning and cooling equipment1441154315591572
    Refrigerating equipment1241129613001315
    Industrial boilers and heating equipment1517159316851675
    Pumping and compressing equipment1386140214361441
    Office and shop equipment, electronic1024103910431041
    Office and shop equipment, non-electronic1168120212371237
    Office and shop furniture and fittings1420156915971620
    Duplicating and photocopying machines988990942841
    Scales and weighing machinery1166117111841173
    Shipping and transportation containers1488153815841602
    Tanks, vats, and storage units1436147615321538
    Photographic and optical equipment1226130813431359
    Technical and scientific equipment1289134813981482
    Medical, dental, and hospital furniture and equipment1408146114821504
    Stereo equipment855918930927
    Television receivers1089114211641173
    Peripheral data processing units1103115112011307
    Radio-telephone and telegraphic equipment1287130713631371
    Domestic-type furniture and furnishings1336138314001414
    Domestic-type appliances1357140814391437
    Domestic-type equipment and utensils1345140014261440
    Portable power tools1246130713161328
    Sport and recreation equipment1351141414431440

More information on the methodology of the index is available from the Department of Statistics, to which any queries should be addressed.

FARMING COSTS PRICE INDEXES—Three farming costs price indexes are calculated. These cover sheep farming, dairy farming, and all farming. There is also a fanning capital expenditure price index. These indexes are designed to measure price movements only as they would affect a fixed quantity and pattern of materials and services used by the farmers in each category.

It is emphasised that these indexes are not cost of production indexes, i.e. they do not purport to measure the actual total costs of running a farm, but only measure the movements in prices paid for commodities and services used by farmers.

Full descriptions of these indexes were published in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics; the sheep fanning index in the September 1973 issue; the dairy farming index in the October 1973 issue; and the all farming index in the March 1974 issue. All these indexes are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract.

The index values for the all-farming index for the latest available 4 years are set out below. It is followed by the capital expenditure price index, and by the separate indexes for sheep farming and dairy farming. All these farming indexes are on base: year ended June 1971 (= 1000) and represent the average of price levels over the whole of the year shown or at the mid-point of the third month of the quarter.

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711979198019811982
* Excludes depreciation 9.63 percent.
Wages and rations13.7110002713323840444744
Sharemilkers5.4310002036241925362990
Animal health and breeding expenses3.2110002188246227983314
Electricity1.3210003019388940484478
Feed8.5710002353266831583823
Freight2.8810002454298436194163
Fertiliser and lime11.1910001948324846535803
Seeds1.3210002315282230613120
Shearing expenses3.6310002671305036684192
Weed and pest control1.2810002503299535784020
Other farm working expenses2.8110002641305135934132
Repairs and maintenance8.7310002756322638844652
Vehicle expenses7.5710002727340941994866
Administrative expenses2.8710002498301740174872
Insurance1.0710001111116011601164
Rates3.0810002976348840995471
Interest10.0110001430153616781816
Rent1.6910001377136915361810
All groups90.37*10002330285234924142

The table following shows a capital expenditure price index for farming. Some expenditure on topdressing comes into both indexes. Capital expenditure on land development includes topdressing and it is also included as a normal part of farm maintenance in the all-farming costs price index.

ItemPercentages of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711979198019811982
Farm buildings17.5210002911336841264924
Transport vehicles19.7610002953342438704454
Tractors and farm machinery24.6910003193370843014770
Land development38.0310002436307938354535
    Total100.0010002808335340084645
ItemSheep FarmingDairy Farming
Percentage of Base ExpenditureYear EndedPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended
1981198219811982

* Excludes depreciation accounting for 9.64 percent of base expenditure.

† Excludes depreciation, accounting for 11.28 percent of base expenditure.

Wages and rations16.344723501313.9140544701
Sharemilkers6.6725362990
Animal health4.64247129032.4329023509
Seeds and fertiliser15.664437545711.1046535775
Shearing expenses3.4736684192
Breeding expenses1.1342455135
Dairy shed expenses1.4829643485
Feed8.5931123811
Repairs and maintenance8.61388045249.8238004649
Other farm working expenses9.73350940335.9335634024
Vehicle expenses9.15407147088.0443375038
Administration expenses3.88403549233.3840874972
Interest9.61167718158.8716811819
Other standing charges9.27267933817.3722772923
    Total items90.36*3595425788.7234584129

PRICE AND VOLUME INDEXES OF EXTERNAL TRADE—The aims of these index series are to analyse the changes in the values of imports and exports from period to period (annually and moving 3-monthly) in order to isolate the relative price, or more correctly “unit value”, and volume components.

All these index series are of the Fisher Ideal type, which involves the calculation of two indexes (for both price and volume) for each current period on the previous year as base, one index using the weighting pattern of the base year and the other using the weighting pattern of the current period. The averaging method known as the “geometric mean” applied to these two indexes produces the index for the current period on the previous year's base which is then linked on to the index for the earlier year to provide a continuous series. The 3-monthly moving indexes (as published in the Monthly Abstract) are provisional until the calculation of the annual definitive index for the year in which they fall. The indexes for calendar quarters are then aligned to the annual indexes. Revision is also necessary on occasion as a result of corrections made by the Customs Department to provisional external trade data on which the indexes are based. The annual indexes for years ended 31 December and 31 March are calculated from the figures for component quarters.

The indexes use the whole range of data available on external trade and involve imputing trends in prices and quantities of some items to other items where it is impracticable to obtain meaningful quantity and price series. The items for which quantity data are not available and those unsuitable for pricing have imputed to them the average price and volume movements of the remainder of the division in which they are classified, or, in some cases the price and volume movement at the next higher level of index aggregation. This means that the weighting system takes account of the value of unpriced items even though these items cannot be used as explicit price or volume indicators. The imputation of movements to the unpriced items is done primarily at the S.I.T.C. (Revised) division level. However, in some cases the values of a whole division are adjusted by imputing to them the price and volume movements obtained by amalgamating the movements of several divisions.

The methodology of the indexes makes the import and export indexes consistent in approach and content with each other, and the adopted internal classifications of commodity groupings of exports facilitates the construction of export index series for industry groupings. The classification is also consistent with the United Nations recommended classification groupings for both exports and imports.

The year ended 30 June 1971 is the standard expression base for price and volume indexes for exports and imports and the tables in which they are published have been standardised in content and constituent components in line with the standardisation of the index methodology.

Although the price and volume indexes are produced as complementary series, only the price indicators are published here. The volume indexes are shown in the section on External Trade.

Export Indexes—The export items explicitly dealt with in the index represent approximately 95 percent of the total value of exports. The proportion of manufactured exports so treated is higher than this overall average. To qualify for inclusion as an explicit indicator of price or volume movement in the index a commodity must have an aggregate value of at least $20,000 in the base year and a minimum of $16,000 in the current 3-monthly period. This represents some 525 different items as well as subdivisions of these items. The 5 percent by value of exports that do not have a statistical unit are included in the index by imputation.

The annual indexes on the previous year as base are chain-linked to give longer-term valid comparisons. Provision is made for alignment of individual quarters in both price and volume series once annual indexes are constructed. Because of the varying quantities of particular commodities sold each quarter, the mean price or unit-value, and consequently the index number of any year, is not necessarily equal to the arithmetic mean of the quarterly figures.

Re-exports are not included in the export indexes. The items covered are defined as goods and materials grown or produced in New Zealand, and articles manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials (but not including imported goods which are exported in an essentially unchanged condition).

The following table gives export prices index numbers for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended 30 JuneButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By productsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Groups
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197822482026234217993555241523932038214831502415
197924392186257222973900289628052421238035502784
198027222809307628144785353633882939281343663385
198134083169398031124598359336663477318242353761
198248774142535733584782385941794085367545444306

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined on a long time series. Separate series are prepared for December years and years ended June, the latter relating more closely to the farming year.

YearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
December Year
1932191194
1942341342
1952806798
1962818813
197212941266
197317151623
197416271596
197515071582
197620402085
197723802394
197825392544
197930813081
19803516x3563x
19813908x4021x
June Year
1932202204
1942342342
1952809803
1962797791
197211721160
197315551477
197417291653
197514711512
197617981857
197722872301
197823932415
197928052784
198033883385
198136663761
198241794306

IMPORT INDEXES—The import prices index has, since 1959, reflected changes in the c.i.f. valuation of imports. Price changes at item level are measured at the current domestic valuation in the country of origin and are adjusted by the c.d.v.: c.i.f. valuation ratio at division level.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended JunePetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport EquipmentFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197853402075227624271897244226032372242053592589
197956182133263327791994267223692524246856382716
19801055624383123294621912859262529682934105943447
19811455727403585334725793228311133753720146204116
19821776030473987377527493835320437874438178364688

The following table shows a longer time series of all groups import prices index numbers on the same expression base for years ended March, June, and December.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearYear Ended
31 March30 June31 Dec (Calendar Year)
1956706715721
1966733734734
1976200021432318
1977239824452547
1978255625892644
1979267027162986
1980320634473857
1981398841164405
198245304688..

TERMS OF TRADE—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (= 100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of base year was arbitrarily made and is not intended to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have necessarily been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices, export prices, and terms of trade.

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—ALL COUNTRIES
Base: Calendar Year 1957 (= 100)
Year Ended JuneImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of TradePeriodImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade

* Provisional.

† Calendar year (base).

    Quarter—   
1957†1001001001979–30 Sep41635485
196912110788          31 Dec44537785
1970126109871980–31 Mar48339181
197113411283          30 Jun50939077
197214013093          30 Sep53839974
1973147165113          31 Dec54341877
19741651851121981–31 Mar55242677
197521816978          30 Jun57443876
197628820872          30 Sep609x460x76x
197732825879          31 Dec623x48277
1978347270781982–31 Mar62848978
197936431286          30 Jun65349676
198046237982          30 Sep67450274
198155242176          31 Dec68050574
1982*62948277    

SHARE PRICES INDEX—This index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies, the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. The weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

Weights for representative groups are fixed and are based on the aggregate value for the month of November 1978 of the total value of shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

SHARE PRICES AND DIVIDEND YIELDS—ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS
Base: Month of November 1978 (= 1000)
Calendar YearShare PricesDividend Yields
1977919993
1978998994
19791083986
19801376924

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY—The New Zealand Household Survey originated from a 1971 recommendation of the Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee that an inquiry should take place into the pattern of private households' expenditure, as a source for the weighting pattern of the Consumers Price Index. The resulting Household Survey commenced on 1 July 1973, and has been conducted on an annual basis since that date. In 1975–76 the survey year was changed from a July-June year to an April-March year.

Although the survey's main objective initially was to provide statistics on the expenditure patterns of private households in New Zealand, its objectives have since extended into collecting information on the social and demographic characteristics of responding households, and on household income. As a result, the survey now provides sample-based statistics on household characteristics, household expenditure, and household income for a wide variety of uses.

A sample of approximately 4500 private households is randomly selected for the survey every third year, to provide data for revision of the Consumers Price Index, and a smaller sample of approximately 3500 private households is selected in other years. In the 1981–82 year, 3487 private households (comprising 10 540 persons) participated in the survey, each household containing an average of 3.02 persons.

Questionnaires collected from each household include:

The Household Questionnaire—The household questionnaire collects information on the demographic characteristics of household members, and determines the composition of the household for subsequent survey purposes.

The Expenditure Questionnaire—The expenditure questionnaire collects details of expenditure and sales in areas such as housing, home maintenance, household operation, transport, holidays, health, recreation, and education. Regular household expenditure commitments such as rates, rent, electricity, telephone rental, and television licence fees, are collected using the ‘latest payment/period covered’ approach, and is subsequently rated up to an annual equivalent at the clerical-processing stage. Irregular household expenditure for items and services costing $100 or more, is collected on a 12-month recall basis.

Expenditure not covered by the expenditure questionnaire is eventually recorded in personal diaries, which are issued to each household member over the age of 15 years. Details of items bought and money spent is collected in diaries over a period of 14 days.

The Income Questionnaire—Each household member aged 15 years or over is required to complete an income questionnaire which is administered by an interviewer.

Details of employment and income are collected. Regular income is collected by means of the ‘latest receipt/period covered’ approach, and rated up to equivalent annual amounts at the clerical-processing stage. Irregular income is collected on a 12-month recall basis, which requires respondents to report the total gross amount received from each source of irregular income during the last 12 months.

Classification of Expenditure Data—Expenditure data collected in the survey are classified according to the Household Survey Commodity Classification, which is a structured, four digit classification based on commodity groups of the Consumers Price Index. Household expenditure is categorised under eight main headings:

Food—Including meals away from home;

Housing—Rent, mortgage repayments, repairs and maintenance, and net capital costs of house sales and purchases;

Household Operation—Electricity and fuel, household equipment and appliances, furniture, furnishings, domestic supplies and services;

Apparel—Clothing and footwear;

Transportation—Public transport in New Zealand, overseas travel costs, net cost of vehicle sales and purchases, repairs and maintenance to vehicles, vehicle registration and relicensing, vehicle running costs, and drivers licence and parking fees;

Tobacco and Alcohol—Tobacco products, alcohol purchased by the bottle and by the glass;

Other Supplies—Medical, health, personal, recreational, educational, and cultural supplies, goods and equipment;

Other Services—Medical and health services, entertainment charges, education fees, accommodation charges, personal services, club subscriptions, union dues, health insurance premiums, legal and financial services, and animal services.

In all cases, information as reported or recorded by household members is processed without adjustment for under-reporting of income and expenditure. Overseas experience suggests that expenditure on tobacco and alcohol, on meals away from home, and on food items such as ice cream and confectionery, tends to be under-reported in household surveys. Other data sources indicate that a similar situation occurs in the New Zealand Household Survey.

In the tables which follow, the aggregate income/expenditure has been averaged over all households in the survey. The averaging procedure has the effect of reducing some average income/expenditure statistics to a level below that which would normally be expected (e.g., expenditure on rent).

Household Income—The following table shows the income distribution of households which participated in the 1981–82 Household Survey.

Annual IncomeApproximate Equivalent Weekly IncomeNumber of Households
$$ 
Under 6,500Under 125427
6,500–7,999125 and under 153223
8,000–9,999153 and under 192264
10,000–11,999192 and under 230253
12,000–13,999230 and under 268215
14,000–15,999268 and under 307226
16,000–19,999307 and under 385420
20,000–24,999385 and under 480460
25,000–29,999480 and under 575379
30,000 and over575 and over620
  3 487

Household Expenditure—The table below shows average weekly expenditure per household on each expenditure group, analysed by selected family types, for the year ended 31 March 1982.

Expenditure GroupCoupleCouple With 1 ChildCouple With 2 ChildrenCouple With 3 or more ChildrenSolo Parent With Child(ren)Non-Family HouseholdsExtended Family HouseholdsAll households
 Average Weekly Expenditure ($)
Food41.6754.7961.2773.1943.5728.1769.3050.03
Housing60.3767.9979.8968.7539.9134.6765.7559.47
Household operation42.6751.1847.1250.5530.5226.4649.2541.80
Apparel15.9221.9523.2826.2218.898.8425.7318.64
Transportation45.7557.2158.8157.0532.8528.4761.4447.55
Tobacco and alcohol11.3714.7213.3313.978.6510.3519.8312.68
Other goods17.4024.0125.3626.4315.739.3325.0019.48
Other services16.1418.6023.9725.3714.5611.7821.6018.39
    Total expenditure251.28310.45333.03341.54204.69158.08337.90268.03
    Total households8413865954702037342583 487

Comparison Between 1980–81 and 1981–82—The following table gives an analysis by commodity group and subgroup of average weekly expenditure per private household for the 1980–81 and 1981–82 Household Surveys.

Commodity Group and SubgroupAverage Weekly Household ExpenditurePercentage of Total Expenditure
1980–811981–821980–811981–82

* Care should be exercised in interpreting differences between 1980–81 and 1981–82 in average weekly household expenditure at the subgroup level. Because of sampling error seemingly large differences in average weekly household expenditure between the two years may not be statistically significant.

† Averages have been rounded to the nearest five cents.

Food—$$  
    Fruit3.253.751.41.4
    Vegetables3.554.051.51.5
    Meat8.359.303.63.5
    Poultry1.151.300.50.5
    Fish1.001.100.40.4
    Farm products, fats, oils5.856.902.52.6
    Cereals, cereal products5.206.402.22.4
    Sugar, syrups, spreads, beverages5.656.202.42.3
    Other foodstuffs2.152.600.91.0
    Food consumed in eating places; take-away foods7.758.453.33.2
    Total, food43.8050.0518.818.7
Housing—
    Rent7.258.353.13.0
    Capital outlay2.407.401.02.8
    Property purchase and sale expenses1.452.350.60.9
    Property mortgage repayment12.3514.605.35.4
    Property rates and insurance4.655.652.02.1
    Other housing costs15.4021.106.67.9
    Total, housing43.5559.4518.722.2
Household operation—
    Fuel and power6.456.802.82.5
    Home appliances8.9510.203.83.8
    Furniture3.804.901.61.8
    Furnishings0.801.050.40.4
    Floor coverings2.002.250.90.8
    Household textiles2.302.501.00.9
    Household equipment and utensils2.853.201.21.2
    Household supplies3.604.201.51.6
    Household services5.956.652.62.5
    Total, household operation36.7541.8015.815.6
Apparel—
    Men's clothing3.603.751.51.4
    Women's clothing5.856.652.52.5
    Boys', girls' and infants' clothing2.002.200.90.8
    Other clothing costs2.252.401.00.9
    Men's footwear1.050.900.40.3
    Women's footwear1.751.750.70.7
    Children's footwear and footwear costs1.000.950.40.4
    Total, apparel17.4018.657.57.0
Transportation—
    Public transport in N.Z.2.602.801.11.0
    Overseas travel5.355.402.32.0
    Purchase of vehicles14.2014.656.15.5
    Fuel, oil, parts, accessories15.5516.506.76.2
    Vehicle repair and maintenance3.703.951.61.5
    Vehicle insurance and fees2.852.951.21.1
    Other private transport costs1.101.250.50.5
    Total, transportation45.3547.5519.517.7
Tobacco and alcohol—
    Tobacco3.253.951.41.5
    Alcohol7.558.703.23.3
    Total, tobacco and alcohol10.8012.704.64.7
Other supplies—
    Medical and health supplies0.700.850.30.3
    Toiletries and cosmetics2.052.250.90.8
    Personal supplies0.901.050.40.4
    Personal goods2.052.100.90.8
    Stationery supplies0.851.050.40.4
    Leisure and recreational equipment, goods and supplies4.554.502.01.7
    Newspapers, magazines and books2.703.151.21.2
    New and used recreational and towed vehicles2.552.251.10.8
    Supplies not elsewhere classified2.002.250.90.8
    Total, other supplies18.3519.507.97.3
Other services—
    Health services2.352.751.01.0
    Personal services1.601.700.70.6
    Educational, cultural, leisure and recreational services4.655.202.01.9
    Accommodation services1.401.250.60.5
    Miscellaneous services6.707.402.92.8
    Total, other services16.6518.407.26.9
    Total expenditure232.65268.00100.0100.0
    Number of households3,3563,487  

Further Information—Only national statistics on an annual basis, are available from the Household Survey. The survey is not designed to provide statistics at a subnational level or at more frequent intervals than annually.

A full description of the Household Survey, including an account of the sample design, concepts, definitions and collection methodology, is published in the annual report New Zealand Household Survey which is available from the Government Printer.

Further information on legislation affecting prices and the consumer, price levels, the CPI, household expenditure, and other matters touched on in this section will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Prices, Wages and Labour. Pt. A, Prices—Department of Statistics (Annual).

Household Survey Report—Department of Statistics (Annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics (Monthly).

Consumer Council (Parl. paper G. 29).

Reports of the Consumers Price Index Advisory Committees (Parl. paper G. 28a, 1978, and Parl, paper H. 40, 1971).

Report of the Government Statistician (Parl. paper G. 28).

Report on Consumers Price Index Revision 1980—Department of Statistics.

Chapter 24. Section 24; CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

Periodically, the Department of Statistics prepares statistics of the amount of food available for consumption in New Zealand, from data supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and from other sources. These statistics are estimates of the total amounts of basic foodstuffs available in New Zealand for human consumption during the calendar year, making allowances for estimated quantities which are produced by households for their own consumption, including the households of commercial producers. The estimates are not of the amounts actually consumed, nor of the actual average intake of nourishment. Nor can these figures be reconciled with the figures for the average per household expenditure on food for the year recorded by the Household Survey, as the latter figures are of the expenditure on food in the form it is actually bought, often in a much more highly processed form.

Dairy Products—New Zealanders are the world's largest consumers of butter per head, but are fairly moderate consumers of cheese. The annual amounts available of the main items of dairy produce, eggs, and ice cream, estimated per head of mean population, are shown in the following table.

Food CommodityUnit193819771978197919801981*

* Provisional.

† Includes the whole-milk equivalent of cream consumed as such.

‡ Includes condensed milk, evaporated milk and cream, milk powders, and sugar of milk.

Fresh milk and cream† (whole milk equivalent)litre129167166163157154
Processed milk‡kg275464
Cheesekg288455
Ice creamlitre21718161816
Butterkg191413121316
EggsNo.240270267270278270

Meat, Poultry, and Fish—Gradual changes are taking place in consumption patterns for meat, poultry, and fish, of which the most notable is the increase in the consumption of poultry. New Zealanders remain among the world's largest consumers of meat, judging from the amount available per head.

Estimates of the amounts of meat available per head are expressed on a bone-in dressed carcass basis.

Allowances have been made for non-commercial catches of fish, and for home production of poultry.

Catches of fish in the Exclusive Economic Zone which are not landed in New Zealand are not taken into account as they do not contribute to the amount of fish available for consumption in New Zealand.

Food CommodityUnit19381975197619771978197919801981*

* Provisional.

† Year ended 30 September for 1938 figures. Figures for other years refer to December years.

Beef†kg5248545756.449.846.246.4
Veal†kg44433.01.71.11.3
Mutton and lamb†kg3137333031.532.129.830.1
Pigmeats†kg1212111312.911.611.210.4
Edible offal†kg46655.45.05.05.3
Poultrykg29101011.211.612.113.4
Fish—         
    Fresh, frozen, smokedkg5225x5466
    Shellfishkg1111111
    Cannedkg11111111

Vegetables and Fruits—The estimates in the following table are based on commercial production plus allowances for production in home gardens and orchards. The estimates include, at fresh weights, the fruits and vegetables grown in New Zealand and either quick-frozen or canned for local consumption.

There are considerable variations from year to year for many of the commodities and these are often a reflection of a poor growing season or a bountiful one, fluctuations in the supply of imported fruit, or a change in consumption pattern.

Availability per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

Food CommodityUnit193819771978197919801981*

* Provisional.

† Includes asparagus, beans, brussels sprouts, cucumber, leeks, parsnips, pumpkin, spinach, swedes, sweetcorn, etc.

‡ Includes grapefruit, lemons, mandarins, tangelos, etc.

§Includes nectarines, plums, grapes, pineapples, tamarillos, kiwi fruit, passionfruit, etc.

Fresh vegetables       
    Potatoeskg545753424644
    Kumaraskg425355
    Cabbageskg147x8888
    Carrotskg59x1091010
    Cauliflowerkg..5x5555
    Lettucekg..4x5455
    Onionskg..913101613
    Tomatoeskg9101191010
    Other vegetables†kg..10x14151615
Canned and other processed vegetableskg11921191919
Quick-frozen and dried vegetableskg..1415151515
Fresh fruit       
    Orangeskg767677
    Other citrus fruit‡kg345577
    Bananaskg91211101211
    Appleskg202735293533
    Pears and quinceskg334454
    Berryfruitskg..22222
    Apricotskg..22222
    Peacheskg..75555
Other fruit§kg..8x81089
Dried fruitkg..33333

Other Foodstuffs—Most of the foodstuffs in the following table show relatively slight fluctuations in The amounts available per head in different years.

Food CommodityUnit193819771978197919801981*

* Provisional.

† Includes dried peas, beans, and lentils.

‡ Includes barley, and corn used for cornflour and maize used for corn flakes only.

Sugar, syrups, and honeykg443736353533
Pulses†kg11111
Nutskg..22232
Cocoakg111111
Cereals—       
    Wheatkg817272697473
    Oatskg412222
    Ricekg222222
    Other‡kg..1
Lard, tallow, animal fatskg..22222
Vegetable oils and other fatskg..56666

Non-alcoholic Beverages and Tobacco

 Unit19381951196119711978197919801981
Teakg33332222
Coffeekg....122222
Tobaccokg22223323

Alcoholic Beverages—The following table shows the estimated consumption of alcoholic beverages.

Year Ended 31 DecemberTotal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Mean Population
BeerWineSpiritsBeerWineSpirits

* Litres, not proof litres.

† Years ended June.

 litres (m)litres (m) Proof litres (m)litreslitresproof litres 
194083.31.52.0*50.90.91.2*
1970329.215.95.4116.85.61.9
1975389.826.3†9.6126.38.6†3.1
1978398.736.1†11.0x127.411.5†3.5
1979370.135.2x11.6118.511.2†3.7
1980378.741.410.8120.913.3†3.4
1981384.645.511.1121.814.5†3.5

PROPORTION OF FOODSTUFFS EXPORTED—New Zealand is a major exporter of dairy produce and meat, and has a growing export trade in fruit and vegetables. The following table shows for these commodities the percentage of the New Zealand production that is exported.

Product196819771978197919801981*
* Provisional.
 Percentages exported
Dairy products—
    Processed milk738379828773
    Cheese846373717888
    Butter807579868077
Meat, poultry, fish
    Beef616768686969
    Veal586667747977
    Pig meat341248
    Mutton6180x82808485
    Lamb92
    Offal767273727367
    Other meat239595959595
    Poultry..1111
    Fresh, smoked, or frozen fish2541x52704660
    Shellfish5246684060100
Fruit and vegetables
    Apples403736464446
    Pears17119121124
    Berryfruits52129343432
    Potatoes28x4755
    Onions355641594154
    Canned vegetables944533
    Quick-frozen vegetables302728333233
Other foodstuffs
Barley21318152712
Honey41617342617
Pulses556353586977
Eggs2117757
Tallow and animal fats778684838786

FOOD AVAILABLE PER DAY—The following table shows by commodity group the food available for consumption in New Zealand per day, per head of mean population.

 Grams Per DayCalories Per DayProtein Per Day (Grams)Fat Per Day (Grams)
Food Commodity197719801981*197719801981*197719801981*197719801981*
* Provisional.
Cereals207214213755780773232323222
Potatoes and other starchy foods16113913311510198322
Sugar, syrups, and honey1029590386358340
Pulses and nuts131312575551211222
Vegetables242283275647471432
Fruits2042342291121261251
Meat (incl. poultry)324290294681606609423638565049
Eggs404342586260455444
Fish19x221823x24212x321x11
Milk and cheese540500485544483457282323292625
Oils and fats (incl. butter)576066441470514363641
    Total1 909x1 8931 8573 236x3 1393 119108x9796130x121124

FURTHER INFORMATION—Fuller information on food available for consumption in New Zealand is usually published as an appendix to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Finance

Chapter 25. Section 25; ECONOMIC AGGREGATES

25 A—NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

The aim of national accounting statistics is to provide a consistent and systematic summary of the transactions taking place in the economy. Information on the production and use of goods and services, on the generation and redistribution of incomes, and on capital transactions is required for planning purposes, social and economic analysis, economic policy formation, and decision-making both inside and outside government.

In the earlier years of national accounting development, both preparers and users of national accounts became aware of the need to develop a comprehensive internationally-comparable system which fulfilled the above needs. This culminated in 1968 with the publication by the United Nations Statistical Office of a revised system of national accounting. The New Zealand System of National Accounts (NZSNA) is based on these United Nations guidelines and their adoption now places New Zealand's national accounts on a similar conceptual basis to those of other market economies.

The NZSNA For example, the Inter-industry Study of the New Zealand economy for 1971–72 and its 1976–77 updated version use the same concepts and classifications as the NZSNA. The industrial groupings of the NZSNA are the same as those of the 25-industry format of the Inter-industry Study. These series, therefore are statistically reconcilable.

The concepts of Balance of Payments statistics are very similar to, but not entirely coincident with, those of the NZSNA, although the external account of the NZSNA covers similar transactions to those recorded in the Balance of Payments.

Unlike the old series, which was concerned with the economic use of resources owned by New Zealand residents regardless of where those resources were used, the NZSNA concentrates on the economic activity occurring in New Zealand irrespective of whether the income generated accrues to New Zealand or overseas residents.

At this stage the NZSNA comprises the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation, 25 Production Groups Accounts and detailed tables relating to Gross Fixed Capital Formation and Stocks.

The principal tables in this section refer to the 5 years ended March 1978 to 1982.

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS OF THE NATION—The Consolidated Accounts of the Nation comprise 4 accounts:

  1. Gross Domestic Product and Expenditure—Gross Domestic Product is a measure of the value added from all economic activity in New Zealand. The account shows the various forms of income generated by the economy and the categories of the final expenditure on the domestic product.

  2. National Disposable Income and its Appropriation—National Disposable Income is the value of income available to New Zealanders. Consisting mainly of the incomes generated in New Zealand, adjustments are made for the income paid to and received from the rest of the world. The account also shows that part of disposable income which was spent by New Zealanders on current consumption and the portion of income which was saved.

  3. Capital Finance—Capital expenditure is recorded in this account. The difference between the accumulation of capital assets and the sources of funds (mainly savings and the income set aside for the use of assets) gives a residual to be borrowed from (or lent to) the rest of the world.

  4. External Transactions—This account brings together all transactions with the rest of the world. The residual “Surplus of Nation on Current Transactions” records New Zealand's net borrowing from the rest of the world.

Terms Used in this Section

Accounting Period—Generally financial years ending 31 March or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

Gross Domestic Product—The total market value of goods and services produced in New Zealand after deducting the cost of goods and services utilised in the process of production, but before deducting allowances for the consumption of fixed capital.

Compensation of Employees—Payments of salaries and wages whether in cash or in kind to employees. Includes contributions paid on employees' behalf to superannuation funds, private pension schemes, the Accident Compensation Corporation, casualty and life assurance schemes, etc.

Consumption of Fixed Capital—The value of depreciation at ordinary rates allowed for taxation purposes, plus an estimate for the normal rate of accidental damage based on the insurance claims by each industry group.

Indirect Taxes—Taxes which are assessed on producers in respect of the production, sale, purchase, and use of goods and services, and which add to the market prices of these goods and services. Includes sales tax, local authority rates, import and excise duties, and also registration fees such as motor vehicle registration which are paid by producers.

Subsidies—Grants made by Government to market-oriented producers who regard the transfers as an addition to income from current production. These grants include payments to ensure a guaranteed price or to enable market prices of goods and services to be held below the cost of production. Transfers made by local authorities out of rates receipts to finance the losses of their trading departments and deliberately incurred losses of government trading organisations are also included.

Intermediate Consumption—The value of non-durable goods and services used in production. Valuation is at purchaser's values.

Gross Output at Producer's Values

  1. Market Production Groups: The total market value including commodity taxes on all goods and services produced during the year including stocks of work-in-progress. Included is output produced for both sale in the market and capital formation on own account.

  2. Non-market Production Groups: These producers may sell a proportion of their output in the market and such receipts are included in total output. However, most of the services produced represent unmarketed output and are valued at cost price. This assumption is necessary because there is no other basis for valuation.

Operating Surplus—This is a residual item, being gross output at producer's values less the sum of intermediate consumption, compensation of employees, consumption of fixed capital, and indirect taxes net of subsidies. It is approximately equal to accounting profit before the deduction of direct taxes, dividends, and bad debts and before the deduction of interest paid or the addition of interest received.

Final Consumption Expenditure

  1. Resident Households: All outlays on consumer goods and services including expenditure on consumer durables such as motor vehicles and furniture; included are payments made by Government on behalf of households and the imputed rent of owner-occupied dwellings.

  2. Producers of Government Services and Private Non-Profit Services to Households: Total current expenditure by these producers less the value of any sales or own account capital formation (i.e. the total net current costs incurred in providing the services).

Increase in Stocks—The change in value, between the beginning and the end of the year, of stocks of raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods.

Gross Fixed Capital Formation—The outlays of producers on durable real assets, such as buildings, motor vehicles, plant and machinery, hydro-electric construction, roading, and improvements to land. In measuring the outlays, sales of similar goods are deducted. Land is excluded from gross fixed capital formation. Included is the value of construction work done by a firm's own employees. The term “gross” indicates that consumption of fixed capital has not been deducted from the value of the outlays.

Statistical Discrepancy—In these accounts, the items making up Gross Domestic Product and Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product are estimated independently. Including the statistical discrepancy on the expenditure side of the first Consolidated Account is simply a convention. It does not imply that one side of this account is more accurate than the other.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES—The following table gives the principal aggregates of the national accounts over a 5-year period.

AggregatesYear Ended March
1978197919801981*1982*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Gross domestic product15,21717,54120,96624,12728,598
    Plus net factor receipts from rest of world−337−420−453−512−629
Gross national product14,88017,12120,51323,61527,909
    Less consumption of fixed capital−1,198−1,331−1,479−1,650−1,869
National income at market prices13,68215,79119,03421,96526,099
    Plus net current transfers from rest of world−7−42154632
National disposable income13,67415,74819,04922,01126,131

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS—The first of the 4 consolidated accounts of the nation follows.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE
ItemYear Ended March
1978197919801981*1982*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees8,2279,63511,26113,42916,153
Operating surplus4,6045,2986,5877,0358,269
Consumption of fixed capital1,1981,3311,4791,6501,869
Indirect taxes1,4661,7211,9962,3582,912
Less subsidies−277−444−357−345−606
Gross Domestic Product15,21717,54120,96624,12728,598
Final consumption expenditure—
    General government2,3772,8983,3244,1455,006
    Private9,33210,50212,38714,66917,143
Increase in stocks6362881,6471,1321,402
Gross fixed capital formation3,3463,5463,7294,3145,955
Statistical discrepancy−20216223715011
Gross national expenditure15,48817,39721,32424,40929,517
Exports of goods and services4,1974,7886,0517,0018,276
Less imports of goods and services−4,467−4,644−6,409−7,283−9,195
Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product15,21717,54120,96624,12728,598

The second of the consolidated accounts shows national disposable income, that is, the income available to New Zealanders, how it is spent, and how much is saved.

NATIONAL INCOME AND OUTLAY
ItemYear Ended March
1978197919801981*1982*
* Provisional.
 $ (million)
Compensation of employees8,2279,63511,26113,42916,153
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world, net...........
Operating surplus4,6045,2986,5877,0358,269
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world, net.−337−420−453−512−629
Indirect taxes1,4661,7211,9962,3582,912
Less subsidies−277−444−357−345−606
National income13,68215,79119,03421,96526,099
Current transfers from the rest of the world, net.−7−42154632
National Disposable Income13,67415,74819,04922,01126,131
Final consumption expenditure
    Government—Central2,1062,5652,9283,6584,426
    Government—Local271333396487579
    Private—Households9,19910,34612,21514,45716,895
    Private—Non-profit organisations serving households133156172212248
    Savings1,9662,3483,3383,1973,983
Appropriation of National Disposable Income13,67415,74819,04922,01126,131

The third of the consolidated accounts shows capital expenditure and how it is financed.

CAPITAL FINANCE
 Year Ended March
Item1978197919801981*1982*

* Provisional.

† Includes all Government-owned producer enterprises.

 $ (million)
Increase in stocks6362881,6471,1321,402
Gross fixed capital formation—     
    Private2,0312,0842,4282,8704,048
    Central Government†9961,1069221,0311,437
    Local Government†319356379413469
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world, net...........
Net lending to the rest of the world−615−318−796−748−1,516
Gross Accumulation3,3663,5164,5814,6975,841
Savings1,9662,3483,3383,1973,983
Consumption of fixed capital1,1981,3311,4791,6501,869
Capital transfers from the rest of the world, net.
Statistical discrepancy202−162−237−150−11
Finance of Gross Accumulation3,3663,5164,5814,6975,841

The fourth consolidated account records all transactions with the rest of the world.

EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS
ItemYear Ended March
1978197919801981*1982*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
 Current
Exports of goods and services4,1974,7886,0517,0018,276
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world..........
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world86808693175
Other current transfers from the rest of the world163166223302343
Current receipts4,4455,0346,3607,3968,794
Imports of goods and services4,4674,6446,4097,2839,195
Compensation of employees to the rest of the world..........
Property and entrepreneurial income to the rest of the world423500539605804
Other current transfers to the rest of the world170208208256311
Surplus of nation on current transactions−615−318−796−748−1,516
Current disbursements4,4455,0346,3607,3968,794
 Capital
Surplus of nation on current transactions−615−318−796−748−1,516
Capital transfers from the rest of the world, net..........
Net incurrence of foreign liabilities6243836611,0341,778
Capital receipts965−135286262
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world, net..........
Net acquisition of foreign financial assets252−237−6522752
Statistical discrepancy−243302−7059210
Capital disbursements965−135286262

PRODUCTION ACCOUNTS—The Production Accounts show the production of goods and services in New Zealand in each year, analysed according to economic activity. Each account measures the gross output of goods and services and the costs incurred. The classification used in establishing these groups firstly distinguishes between those producers that are market-oriented and those that produce goods and services that are not normally marketed.

Market producers are then classified according to industry based on the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

Groups not normally producing for the market are subdivided into those owned by Central Government, by local government, and by private non-profit organisations which provide services for households.

The revised system explicitly recognises the Government as a producer when it carries out its conventional role of the provision of administrative, health, education, defence services, etc. Similarly, the large number of organisations which provide services on a non-profit basis—religious orders, schools, hospitals, sporting clubs, etc.—are included as a separate group in the national accounts. Also included among the non-market production groups is an account recording the wages paid by households employing domestic labour.

An additional table is provided which distinguishes market production groups according to the sector of ownership.

Two points require further clarification, the first relating to the item “imputed bank service charge”. Financial enterprises whose expenditure is largely financed out of net receipts of interest (such as trading banks and finance companies) require special treatment in the national accounts. The interest that they receive is viewed as consisting of a pure interest component and a “service charge” which is paid by the users of banking services. However, this imputed service charge has not been allocated to customers and therefore the convention is adopted that all is paid by a nominal industry which accordingly has a negative operating surplus equal to the value of the service charge. Total output is therefore zero and the effect is that a correct operating surplus figure is recorded for all market producers in aggregate.

Secondly no figure is given for the consumption of fixed capital by the producers of Central Government and local government services. This conceptual omission is entirely due to the present inability to obtain relevant data from the cash accounts maintained by these two producers.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by Production Group—The following table shows gross domestic product (GDP) by the kind of economic activity, i.e. by production group.

Production GroupsYear Ended March
1978197919801981*1982*

* Provisional.

† For imputed bank service charge.

Market production groups$(million)
Agriculture1,4521,7672,4242,4282,454
Fishing and hunting4046696891
Forestry and logging119131179230245
Mining and quarrying186141138172250
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco9001,2491,2901,7001,977
Textiles, wearing apparel and leather industries342367483490625
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture212270339407500
Manufacture of paper and paper products; printing and publishing420437570672820
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products338416613584727
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal153158176200272
Basic metal industries123141180180224
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment8539541,1661,3111,836
Other manufacturing industries4346495681
Electricity, gas, water388443683748824
Construction8488859071,0381,254
Trade, restaurants, hotels3,2313,6254,2875,1156,054
Transport, storage9221,0341,1871,3731,591
Communication376447527641726
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services1,3841,6371,8502,1162,574
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings578569602644782
Community, social and personal services5696777658941,055
Nominal industry†−290−384−420−525−678
    Total, market production groups13,18815,05618,06320,54024,283
Non-market production groups
Central government services1,5711,9432,2442,8213,323
Local government services144186229269335
Private non-profit services to households132155177216250
Domestic services of households1112141518
    Total, non-market production groups1,8582,2962,6643,3223,925
    Total, all production groups15,04517,35220,72723,86128,208
Plus: import duties150166212231337
Plus: other indirect taxes not allocated to production groups2223273552
Gross Domestic Product15,21717,54120,96624,12728,598

The contribution of each production group to gross domestic product (GDP) is shown as a percentage of the total GDP in the following table.

Production GroupsYear Ended March
1978197919801981*1982*
* Provisional.
 Percentage
Agriculture9.510.111.610.18.6
Fishing and hunting0.30.30.30.30.3
Forestry and logging0.80.70.91.00.9
Mining and quarrying1.20.80.70.70.9
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco5.97.16.27.06.9
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries2.32.12.32.02.2
Manufacture of wood and wood products incl. furniture1.41.51.61.71.7
Manufacture of paper and paper products; printing and publishing2.82.52.72.82.9
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products2.22.42.92.42.5
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1.00.90.80.81.0
Basic metal industries0.80.80.90.70.8
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment5.65.45.65.46.4
Other manufacturing industries0.30.30.20.20.3
Electricity, gas, water2.62.53.33.12.9
Construction5.65.04.34.34.4
Trade, restaurants, hotels21.220.720.421.221.2
Transport, storage6.15.95.75.75.6
Communications2.52.52.52.72.5
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services9.19.38.88.89.0
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings3.83.22.92.72.7
Community, social and personal services3.73.93.63.73.7
Central government services10.311.110.711.711.6
Local government services0.91.11.11.11.2
Private non-profit services to households0.90.90.80.90.9
Domestic services of households0.10.10.10.10.1
Not allocated−0.8−1.1−0.9−1.1−1.0
    Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The following table shows the components of GDP by each of the 25 production groups for the latest available 5 years. The figures for 1980–81 and 1981–82 are provisional.

YearComponents of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry InputTotal Industry Output
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Gross Domestic ProductIntermediate Consumption
$(million) at Producers' Values
MARKET PRODUCTION GROUPS
Agriculture
1977–7828091222855231,4521,3152,768
1978–793211,234249631001,7671,7033,470
1979–803881,72528773482,4242,0954,520
1980–814471,60632585352,4282,2894,717
1981–82*5321,7043821042682,4542,6445,098
Fishing and Hunting
1977–78171851403070
1978–79212051465298
1979–80303281169106175
1980–81313071168113180
1981–82335361291121212
Forestry and Logging
1977–786648926119113232
1978–7975521028131131262
1979–8086871239179151330
1980–811061131436230188417
1981–821311041449245199444
Mining and Quarrying
1977–7838981634186134319
1978–794272143017141174315
1979–80475323205138121260
1980–815979242111172181352
1981–8271152302629250237487
Manufacture of Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
1977–7856413386166479002,2393,139
1978–79710309102188601,2492,5053,754
1979–80798229119182391,2903,0134,303
1980–81955443148195401,7003,3815,082
1981–821,130483175228401,9774,0846,060
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather Industries
1977–7826652223342630973
1978–792885224313676671,034
1979–803589825414838921,375
1980–813947027464909591,449
1981–82482118315116251,1431,768
Manufacture of Wood and Wood Products incl. Furniture
1977–7815435202212392604
1978–79165851821270415684
1979–802041161821339534873
1980–8124813721314076441,052
1981–8231315926425008641,363
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products; Printing and Publishing
1977–7823912842114206561,076
1978–7926811443134377091,146
1979–80323184491625708471,417
1980–81389213551936721,0301,702
1981–82469269622328201,2182,038
$(million) at Producers' Values
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
1977–782081403214573381,1531,491
1978–792461863524754161,1351,551
1979–803062853929476131,6472,260
1980–813471954534375842,0452,629
1981–824182584842407272,4963,222
Manufacture of Non-metallic Mineral Products except Products of Petroleum and Coal
1977–788453151153212365
1978–799053151158223381
1979–8010654151176241417
1980–81112711611200260460
1981–821341201821272337609
Basic Metal Industries
1977–786643131123283406
1978–797551141141338479
1979–809075141180385565
1980–8110361161180415595
1981–8212878172224524748
Manufacture of Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery and Equipment
1977–78596173493948531,5422,394
1978–79669179525529541,7342,688
1979–80784262566511,1662,0973,263
1980–81907268637621,3112,3673,678
1981–821,152518749971,8363,0634,900
Other Manufacturing Industries
1977–78241423434992
1978–792515244655102
1979–803013244967116
1980–813316345671127
1981–824231368197178
Electricity, Gas, Water
1977–781202086133388438826
1978–791462306835443464906
1979–8018143371356835881,270
1980–8122045080457486931,441
1981–8227546386568248181,642
Construction
1977–78589213451098482,1252,973
1978–796401994812148852,1223,006
1979–806841784712149072,1303,037
1980–817682194915131,0382,4393,477
1981–82906279591891,2543,0524,306
Trade, Restaurants, Hotels
1977–781,3131,140160642243,2312,8676,098
1978–791,4951,238176749343,6253,4007,025
1979–801,7701,452191910364,2874,0678,354
1980–812,1051,7332061,113425,1154,5779,691
1981–822,5381,9882221,333266,0545,56611,621
$(million) at Producers' Values
Transport, Storage
1977–7865618013144899228791,800
1978–79759162154701111,0349902,023
1979–80889193170721371,1871,2112,398
1980–811,036208172891331,3731,5572,930
1981–821,2032281901101411,5911,9153,506
Communication
1977–7827672253137675450
1978–7932098283244777524
1979–80371124314252788615
1980–81434156495264198739
1981–825191535343726119845
Financing, Insurance, Real Estate and Business Services
1977–785626359210371,3847472,131
1978–7968174211011381,6378652,502
1979–8079980312312611,8509892,839
1980–819848491351482,1161,1273,244
1981–821,2251,00615918622,5741,3553,929
Ownership of Owner-occupied Dwellings
1977–7837299106578290868
1978–79325112132569370940
1979–803231211586024171,019
1980–813221331896444971,141
1981–824091422317825551,337
Community, Social and Personal Services
1977–78278226304165695291,099
1978–79331267375076776311,308
1979–80387289405777657451,510
1980–81471322446368948801,773
1981–82567373537091,0551,0792,134
Nominal Industry (for imputed bank service charge)
1977–78−290−290290
1978–79−384−384384
1979–80−420−420420
1980–81−525−525525
1981–82−678−678678
Total Market Production Groups
1977–786,3964,6041,1821,28327713,18816,98730,175
1978–797,3675,2981,3141,52144415,05619,14334,199
1979–808,6306,5871,4611,74235718,06322,85240,915
1980–8110,1467,0351,6302,07334520,54026,33646,876
1981–8212,2688,2691,8492,50360624,28332,16556,448
$(million) at Producers' Values
NON-MARKET PRODUCTION GROUPS
Central Government Services
1977–781,566..51,5716282,199
1978–791,938..51,9437272,670
1979–802,236..82,2448063,050
1980–812,810..102,8211,0103,831
1981–823,313..103,3231,3064,628
Local Government Services
1977–78142..2144255398
1978–79183..2186291477
1979–80226..3229332561
1980–812664269416686
1981–823314335488823
Private Non-profit Services to Households
1977–78112164132122254
1978–79135174155139294
1979–80155184177160337
1980–81191205216192408
1981–82223206250220469
Domestic Services of Households
1977–78111111
1978–79121212
1979–80141414
1980–81151515
1981–82181818
Total Non-market Production Groups
1977–781,83116101,8581,0052,862
1978–792,26817112,2961,1573,453
1979–802,63118152,6641,2983,962
1980–813,28220193,3221,6184,940
1981–823,88520203,9252,0135,939
All Production Groups—Total
1977–788,2274,6041,1981,29327715,04517,99233,037
1978–799,6355,2981,3311,53344417,35220,30037,652
1979–8011,2616,5871,4791,75735720,72724,15044,877
1980–8113,4297,0351,6502,09234523,86127,95451,816
1981–8216,1538,2691,8692,52360628,20834,17862,387

In the following table the components of GDP for the total market production groups are shown by sector of ownership. As in other tables, the 1980–81 and 1981–82 figures are provisional.

Year Ended MarchComponents of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry InputTotal Industry Output
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Gross Domestic ProductIntermediate Consumption
$(million) at Producers' Values
Private Sector
1977–785,1964,1071,0081,24816011,39915,15126,550
1978–795,9134,7421,1161,47927712,97317,08730,060
1979–806,9295,7801,2351,68618015,44920,53935,988
1980–818,1406,1501,3792,00017317,49723,57841,075
1981–829,8747,3051,5752,41241220,75328,83849,592
Central Government Sector
1977–7898836713027921,4211,2712,692
1978–791,196446147311371,6841,4083,091
1979–801,392636172441442,1021,4923,594
1980–811,643718193581382,4751,8034,278
1981–821,950804209721542,8812,2005,081
Local Government Sector
1977–7821213044826368565932
1978–792581105111313996491,048
1979–803091715512335138211,333
1980–813631675815345689551,523
1981–824451606619416491,1271,776
Nominal Industry (for imputed bank service charge)
1977–78−290−290290
1978–79−384−384384
1979–80−420−420420
1980–81−525−525525
1981–82−678−678678
Total Market Production Groups
1977–786,3964,6041,1821,28327713,18816,98730,175
1978–797,3675,2981,3141,52144415,05619,14334,199
1979–808,6306,5871,4611,74235718,06322,85240,915
1980–8110,1467,0351,6302,07334520,54026,33646,876
1981–8212,2688,2691,8492,50360624,28332,16556,448

GROSS FIXED CAPITAL FORMATION—Gross fixed capital formation tables record purchases of capital assets, reduced by the value of sales, plus the value of construction work done by an establishment's own employees; no deduction has been made for assets used up during the period of account. Land purchases and sales, but not land improvements, are excluded by definition.

The following table shows gross fixed capital formation by production group within each sector of ownership.

Production GroupYear Ended March
1978197919801981*1982*
* Provisional.
 $(million
Market production groupPrivate Sector
Agriculture245335442533656
Fishing and hunting148503229
Forestry and logging1318151824
Mining and quarrying84563663−6
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco129173205281323
Textiles, apparel, and leather industries2730302543
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture157162442
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing44717183106
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products52546091212
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1113161552
Basic metal industries17171423143
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment64607880116
Other manufacturing industries32324
Electricity, gas, and water11244
Construction13−118570108
Trade, restaurants, hotels206240274318409
Transport and storage150131118135239
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services263261240244428
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings6505906407881,066
    Total, market production groups2,0012,0552,3952,8293,997
Non-market production groups
Central Government services
Local government services
Private non-profit services to households3029334252
Domestic services of households
    Total, non-market production groups3029334252
    Total, private gross fixed capital formation2,0312,0842,4282,8704,048
Market production groupsCentral Government
Agriculture1219192936
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging1414111517
Mining and quarrying9472413550
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco
Textiles, apparel, and leather industries
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture12132
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1111
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products1931105
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal.
Basic metal industries
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment62334
Other manufacturing industries
Electricity, gas, and water285297247241284
Construction99588
Trade, restaurants, hotels43323
Transport and storage811638895296
Communication688665100121
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services88937984110
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings
Community, social and personal services249767
    Total, market production groups6877685876511,044
Non-market production groups
Central government services309338335380393
Local government services
Private non-profit services to households
Domestic services of households
    Total, non-market production groups309338335380393
    Total, Central Government gross fixed capital formation9961,1069221,0311,437
Market production groupsLocal Government
Agriculture
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging11114
Mining and quarrying11
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco12222
Textiles, apparel, and leather industries
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal
Basic metal industries
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment
Other manufacturing industries
Electricity, gas, and water100113126152191
Construction1111
Trade, restaurants, hotels45556
Transport and storage6966534847
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services2521192119
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings
Community, social and personal services
    Total, market production groups201208207231270
Non-market production groups
Central government services
Local government services118148172182200
Private non-profit services to households
Domestic services of households
    Total, non-market production groups118148172182200
    Total, local government gross fixed capital formation319356379413469
Market production groupsTotal
Agriculture257354461562692
Fishing and hunting148503229
Forestry and logging2833263345
Mining and quarrying178127789943
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco130175206283324
Textiles, apparel, and leather industries2730302543
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture169172744
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing45717184107
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products525479121317
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1113161552
Basic metal industries17171423143
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment71628182119
Other manufacturing industries32324
Electricity, gas, and water385411375397479
Construction23−19079117
Trade, restaurants, hotels214247282325418
Transport and storage299360259278582
Communication688665100121
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services400383345356564
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings6505906407881,066
    Total, market production groups2,8883,0313,1893,7115,311
Non-market production groups
Central government services309338335380393
Local government services118148172182200
Private non-profit services to households3029334252
Domestic services of households
    Total, non-market production groups458515540603645
    Total, gross fixed capital formation3,3463,5463,7294,3145,955

In the following table the composition of gross fixed capital formation is shown by type of capital good. The 1980–81 and 1981–82 figures are provisional.

YearType of Capital GoodTotal
Residential BuildingsNon-Residential BuildingsOther ConstructionLand ImprovementsTransport EquipmentPlant, Machinery, and Other Equipment
$(million)
Private Sector
1977–7867338499552745452,031
1978–79608387108763585462,084
1979–80661407661064667222,428
1980–81816448921485198472,870
1981–821,1076562221787851,1004,048
Central Government
1977–78512862511476317996
1978–7950335253221652811,106
1979–804828519821104265922
1980–8141325199271023361,031
1981–8230342411332843371,437
Local Government
1977–782043174182737319
1978–791642201243340356
1979–801353218243239379
1980–811549245233052413
1981–821352284283259469
Total
1977–78745713525873769003,346
1978–796747645621235568673,546
1979–807227464831516021,0263,729
1980–818728225361986511,2354,314
1981–821,1491,0519172391,1021,4965,955

STOCK CHANGE BY PRODUCTION GROUP—The following table shows increase in stocks by production group.

Production GroupYear Ended March
1978197919801981*1982*
* Provisional
 $(million)
Market production groups
Agriculture41−10116915449
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging486382102126
Mining and quarrying56112
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco3277746287
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries3520732773
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture1511292835
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing268204525
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products25151274551
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal14512513
Basic metal industries17−10351923
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment13313954133
Other manufacturing industries2−2627
Electricity, gas, and water52110824
Construction16−4−2119
Trade, restaurants, hotels207162827503707
Transport and storage351419
Communication103141321
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services335105
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings
    Total, market production groups6332831,6401,1081,398
Non-market production groups
Central Government services357243
Local government services
Private non-profit services to households
Domestic services of households
    Total, all production groups6362881,6471,1321,402

The next stage in the development of the new system of national accounts will be the preparation of constant price accounts. This involves expressing both Production Accounts and the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation in terms of constant dollars to eliminate the effect of price changes and thereby obtain measures of the real contribution of industry groups to changes in Real Gross Domestic Product. Better information on structural changes in the economy and industry productivity can also be derived from such statistical series. Other future developments include quarterly national accounts in current dollar values. Such estimates will considerably increase the usefulness of the national accounts, particularly for economic policy purposes.

The introduction of the new series of national accounts from 1971–72 onwards produced a definite and clear hiatus between the previous and present series of statistics of which users should be aware. A full and detailed report explaining classifications, definitions, and concepts has recently been published in New Zealand System of National Accounts—Concepts and Design, 1971–72 to 1980–81.

25 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

A country's balance of payments statement is a comprehensive account of its economic transactions with the rest of the world. The New Zealand balance of payments estimates are based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual (Fourth Edition), published by the International Monetary Fund and are in conformity with the methods used by other countries.

Annual and quarterly estimates of the New Zealand balance of payments are shown in more detail in an annual volume, Balance of Payments, published by the Department of Statistics, from the Department of Statistics' Information Network for Official Statistics (INFOS), and the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

MAJOR PRINCIPLES—The major principles used in preparing a balance of payments statement are:

  1. Goods sold from one country to another are recorded at the time ownership changes, and other transactions are recorded at the time they occur.

  2. Exports and imports of merchandise are valued at f.o.b. (free on board) in the exporting country.

  3. As far as possible, all transactions are shown on a gross, rather than on a net, settlement basis.

  4. Wherever possible, all transactions are valued at market prices.

  5. All transactions are recorded in New Zealand dollars. Where another currency was used for the transaction the currency exchange rates ruling at the time the transaction occurred have been used to convert the transaction to New Zealand dollars.

COMPONENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS—The following description refers to the summary table on a following page.

Exports/Imports (as Published in External Trade Statistics)—These are for March years and are otherwise identical with the figures published in Section 22, External Trade. Exports are valued f.o.b.; imports are valued c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight).

Adjustments to Balance of Payments Concepts—There are some imports and exports which are included in the balance of payments but not in external trade statistics. These include ships and aircraft purchased by New Zealand residents for use in international trade.

A considerable portion of New Zealand's exports are sold on consignment in the United Kingdom. The change of ownership occurs well after the goods have been recorded in New Zealand external trade statistics. Also, the valuation in external trade statistics is an estimate of future realisations. Adjustments to bring trade statistics to balance of payments concepts show mainly as a credit entry.

The debit entry contains the adjustment of imports from c.i.f. value to f.o.b. value.

Exports/Imports (f.o.b. Exporting Country)—New Zealand's exports and imports of merchandise on a balance of payments basis.

Balance on Merchandise Trade—The surplus of exports f.o.b. over imports f.o.b.

Transportation, Travel, Insurance, Other Miscellaneous Services, and Government Transactions—The exports of services from, and imports of services to, New Zealand. The balance on services is the difference between the sum of the credit entries and the sum of the debit entries for these items.

International Investment Income—The credit entries show the income accruing to New Zealand residents from overseas investments while the debit entries show the income accruing to overseas residents from their investments in New Zealand.

Balance on Invisibles—The balance on services plus international investment income credits minus international investment income debits.

Transfers—This item provides the counter-entries for gifts of goods, services, and financial assets to and from New Zealand. Examples are immigrants' transfers, gifts and donations, foreign aid payments, and relief supplies.

Balance on Current Account—The balance on merchandise trade plus the balance on invisibles plus transfer credits minus transfer debits. It is a measure of the surplus of outflows of goods, services, and transfers from New Zealand over the inflows of goods, services, and transfers into New Zealand.

Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand, New Zealand Direct Investment Overseas, and Other Private Long-Term Capital Movements—These items show the changes in long-term claims on the rest of the world and long-term liabilities to the rest of the world of the private sector.

Government Capital Movements—Includes all Government capital movements except movements in Government-held reserve assets and Government borrowing to maintain New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves. Direct investment transactions of Government-owned corporations are included.

Capital Movements by Monetary Institutions—This item includes those capital movements by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand and the trading banks which are not movements in reserve assets or borrowing to maintain reserves.

Residual—This is the balancing item. It is the difference between the sum of the credit column and the sum of the debit column. It covers any errors in the balance of payments estimates and all omissions. Included in the omissions are short-term private capital movements.

Balance Before Compensatory Financing—The balance on all transactions, other than reserve transactions and transactions undertaken to maintain reserves. This balance is commonly referred to as the overall balance.

Compensatory Financing—Borrowing undertaken by the Government, Reserve Bank, and other organisations for the purpose of maintaining the level of New Zealand's reserves.

Balance after Compensatory Financing—The balance on all transactions other than reserve transactions. The change in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves due to transactions is the same in direction and magnitude as this balance.

Reserve Transactions—The movements in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves during the year. Reserves measured in New Zealand dollars may change because transactions have occurred or because the value of the New Zealand dollar has changed relative to the currency in which the reserve asset is denominated. The presentation shows the total change in reserves and, separately, a counterpart to changes in reserves caused by exchange rate changes. The difference of these two items is equal to the change in reserves caused by transactions in reserve assets.

New Zealand's reserves may change because of an allocation of Special Drawing Rights by the International Monetary Fund. This is not regarded as a transaction and there is a counterpart item for such an allocation.

Geographic Area—The geographic area covered by New Zealand balance of payments statistics includes metropolitan New Zealand, and the Cook, Niue and Tokelau Islands, which are part of the New Zealand monetary area.

GEOGRAPHIC DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical (as distinct from a currency) basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled by the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

United Kingdom (including Channel Islands).

Australia (including Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, and Cocos Islands).

USA—United States of America, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and other American islands in the Pacific.

Canada.

Japan.

Other EEC Countries—The members of the European Economic Community which form a common market; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Greece (from 1 January 1981), Italy, the Federal German Republic, Denmark and Ireland. The United Kingdom is also a member of the EEC but is shown separately.

Other OECD—Austria, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey.

Asia-Oceania—Asian countries east of Iran and all Pacific countries except Australia, Japan, the Americas, and New Zealand.

Latin America-Caribbean—All the Americas except Canada and the USA.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Finance Corporation, the Asian Development Bank, South Pacific Air Transport Council, and other international organisations.

ACCOUNTING SYSTEM—The system used in preparing the New Zealand balance of payments statement is by double entry. Every transaction results in a pair of equal credit and debit entries. Any entries which are not automatically paired are deliberately furnished with special off-setting entries. The sum of all the credit entries in the statement is thus in principle numerically equal to the sum of all the debit entries, with any inequality that may arise being attributable to net statistical errors and omissions. In practice, the residual item comprises short-term capital movements, data on which are not compiled, as well as errors and omissions.

Accounting Period—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

Residents and Non-Residents—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents. Residents include the general government, all individuals, private nonprofit organisations, enterprises and mobile equipment, located or operating within the territory of an economy.

General Government—The general government of New Zealand includes New Zealand embassies, consulates and military establishments located abroad. Conversely the embassies and consulates, etc. of foreign governments which are located in New Zealand are not considered to be New Zealand residents.

Individuals—The concept of residence adopted for individuals is designed to encompass all persons who may be expected to consume goods and services, participate in production, or engage in other economic activities in New Zealand on other than a temporary basis.

As a general rule, persons who live, or who intend to live, in New Zealand for at least one year are considered to be residents. The exception to this are employees of foreign governments, such as diplomatic and consular representatives stationed in New Zealand. These employees are regarded as non-residents. New Zealand citizens however, who are employed by foreign embassies are regarded as New Zealand residents employed by foreigners.

Enterprises—Enterprises resident in New Zealand are the actual units that engage in the production of goods and services in New Zealand. Therefore subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies are treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

Mobile equipment—Foreign-owned mobile equipment operating in New Zealand for more than one year is classified as being resident in New Zealand.

Ships and aircraft owned by New Zealand residents and operating in international trade are regarded as New Zealand domiciled, while foreign-owned ships and aircraft trading to New Zealand are treated as non-resident. The exception to this are foreign-owned ships and aircraft operating in international trade under a financial leave arrangement (e.g. Boeing 747s leased by Air New Zealand).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND THE OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS RECORD—There are several very important differences between a Balance of Payments Statement and the Overseas Exchange Transactions Record prepared by the Reserve Bank (see Section 29, Banking and Currency). The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the overseas exchange transactions record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export data in the balance of payments are based on external trade statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b. exporting country. The overseas exchange transactions record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation basis (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas the overseas exchange transactions record includes net settlements in many instances, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments statement is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remitter or remittee, whereas the overseas exchange transactions record is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, balance of payments statistics cover all of New Zealand's transactions with the rest of the world. The overseas exchange transactions record measures only transactions involving receipts and payments of foreign exchange.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND THE EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS ACCOUNT OF THE NATIONAL ACCOUNTS—As far as possible, the balance of payments statement and the external transactions account are prepared using the same principles and definitions. However, they have different uses and there are some major differences in content. The most important of these is the inclusion of the undistributed earnings of direct investment enterprises in the balance of payments. These earnings are included as a memorandum item in the external transactions account. Therefore the balance on current account (i.e. the surplus of the nation on current account) in the external transactions account is more favourable than the balance on current account as shown in the balance of payments statement.

Users Preference: Balance of Payments Vs. External Transactions Account of the National Accounts—A user who is interested in the effect of New Zealand's transactions with the rest of the world on the major economic aggregates of the economy should use the external transactions account of the National Accounts, which is an integrated system designed for this type of analysis.

A user who is interested in a close examination of New Zealand's external transactions should use the balance of payments, which offers a more detailed classification of transactions than the external transactions account.

SUMMARY TABLE—The following table presents a summary of New Zealand's transactions with other countries during the four latest available financial years.

Item1978–79x1979–80x1980–811981–82
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit
 NZ$(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)3,8443,5304,8804,9975,7465,6156,7177,150
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts12−2586−429−54−428x−96−501
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)3,8563,2724,8854,5685,6925,187x6,6216,649
    Balance on merchandise trade584318505x–28
Transportation558518694728746x828x895978
Travel166388197500239529298622
Insurance−176−712271430
Other miscellaneous services104286136380150448x233644
Government transactions481104514463x171x78156
    Balance on services–435–666–792x–912
International investment income109685136636166x758x2741,032
    Balance on invisibles–1,011–1,165–1,3841,670
Transfers166208223208302246x343294
Balance on current account–469–832–823x–1,650
Overseas direct investment in N.Z. (net)264343194x374
N.Z. direct investment overseas (net)3692118x116
Other long-term private capital movements—        
Increases in assets (net)−6−81−64−26
Increases in liabilities (net)−768767167
Government capital movements (excluding movements in Government-held reserve assets)—        
    Increases in assets (net)41240x7
    Increases in liabilities (net)100322132
Capital movements by monetary institutions (excluding movements in reserve assets)—        
    Increases in assets (net)1122
    Increases in liabilities (net)3
Residual (includes short-term private capital movements and errors and omissions)−30359−96x−205
    Balance before compensatory financing–520–360–730x–1,276
Government borrowing (net)337397837824
Reserve bank borrowing (net)52−5233
Other official borrowing (net)30606
IMF drawings (net)−57−127−164−130
Total compensatory financing (net)2803236511,333
    Balance after compensatory financing–240–38–7957
Changes in Reserve Assets
    Monetary gold−1
Special drawing rights (SDRs)—        
    Total change in holdings1−114−14
Counterpart to allocation/cancellation293228x
Counterpart to valuation changes112
Change due to transactions−29−45−25x−16
Reserve position at the IMF—        
    Total change in holdings30−4437x−37
    Counterpart to valuation changes3
    Change due to transactions30−4436−39
Assets of the N.Z. banking system—        
    Total change in holdings−6054−86−19
    Counterpart to valuation changes
    Change due to transactions−6054−86−19
Treasury and other Government-held securities—        
    Total change in holdings−17324154
    Counterpart to valuation changes628522
    Change due to transactions−178−3−5131
Summary of reserve transactions—        
    Total change in reserves−20424−4684
    Counterpart to valuation changes35613427
    Changes in reserves due to transactions−240−38−7957
    Total reserves at 31 March (as shown in Reserve Bank Bulletin)804784760836

A summary of New Zealand's balance of payments transactions by regions during the years 1980–81 and 1981–82 is shown in the table on the following 2 pages.

REGIONAL SUMMARY 1980–81 AND 1981–82
ItemUnited KingdomOther E.E.CAustraliaUnited States of AmericaCanada
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit
 NZ$(million) 1980–81
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)8096585124287721,09772685212796
Balance on merchandise trade15184−325−12631
Services359600891323244982443811618
International investment income281373976611219177313
Balance on invisibles−350−156−221−295−12
Transfers1313226473117301476
Balance on current account−100−51−590−40520
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand84−9343313
New Zealand direct investment overseas−3641281
Other long-term private capital movements39−15−38−3−11−728−9−1−14
Government capital movements7531175−7
Capital movements by monetary institutions
Residual−13984596−254−30
Balance before compensatory financing−54−172.1−6118
Compensatory financing438458845218
Balance after compensatory financing−54−362158
Total change in reserves−51  −41 2 17 9
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes 3 −5  2 
Change due to transactions −54 −36 2 15 8
 NZ$(million) 1981–82
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)9386115605009951,4848611,144136143
Balance on merchandise trade32760−489−283−7
Services400647761254066483345054941
International investment income3223781008616265268432
6 Balance on invisibles−452−141−319−374−20
Transfers1313726594148422296
Balance on current account−31−61−861−637−24
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand69111423333
New Zealand direct investment overseas17−72433−8
Other long-term private capital movements115−9−1−158−21−146−21
Government capital movements2−1−4−3206−5
Capital movements by monetary institutions
Residual−1,25215669552−11
Balance before compensatory financing−1,102−31100−2
Compensatory financing1,46034711389706827
Balance after compensatory financing11−7−21−2
Total change in reserves 12 −3 1 −16 1
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes 2 4 1 4 2
Change due to transaction 11 −7  −21 −2
JapanOther O.E.C.D.Asia-OceaniaLatin America-CaribbeanOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit
NZ$(million) 1980–81
7006461091281,035701147287495525,6925,187
60−19333119197505
86116155079165113152711,2102,002
441687231936123632166758
−67−117−82−16−36−32−1,384
2162235214414302246
−5−132223103161−46−823
911981194
2987118
−3−120−226−53−1−866−64
−4−3−376−1432240
−2−2
−128−8−238−106−115242−96
−130−120−32242178−730
10312732571503111,6951,044
−2872−1518−79
 −21 7  2 −15 45 −45
 7    −0.1 27 34
 −28 7  2 −15 18 −79
NZ$(million) 1981–82
8951,042571381,152940171438566036,6216,649
−147−81212128252−28
1121901650121186−519111821,5192,430
963108455223322382741,032
−132−108−31−27−27−39−1,670
21732853114316343294
−278−186156100226−55−1,650
829−84374
5321116
−73−2151−1167−26
8−5−67−161325
−2−2
127−39−44−107−262144−205
−67−216−2−3−3583−1,276
188523792299681302,8081,475
11512−1−1−3−4757
11517−1−3−39 84
  4 1   8 27
11512−1−1−3−4757

Commentary—New Zealand is a small economy dependent on overseas trade. The value of New Zealand's exports of merchandise over the 3 years 1979–80, 1980–81 and 1981–82 averaged 23 percent of its GDP, and the value of its imports of merchandise (valued f.o.b.) averaged 22 percent. The current account receipts (credits) in its balance of payments averaged 30 percent of its gross domestic product (GDP) and the current account payments (debits) averaged 35 percent.

Over these 3 years, the earnings from merchandise exports made up 77 percent of total current account credits, while the cost (f.o.b.) of imports of goods accounted for 64 percent of New Zealand's current account payments. Thus the New Zealand's balance of payments is dominated by the fluctuations in the earnings from exports and in the payments for imports of goods.

The balance on merchandise trade is strongly influenced by changes in New Zealand's terms of trade (see Section 23) as well as by changes in the volumes of exports and of imports (see the export and import volume indexes, Section 22A).

The balance on current account for the 1981–82 financial year was a deficit of $1,650 million. This can be compared to a deficit of $823 million in 1980–81.

The $1,276 million overall deficit (i.e. Balance before Compensatory Financing) was more than covered by the compensatory financing transactions undertaken by the Government and the Reserve Bank. Consequently, there was an increase in New Zealand's overseas reserves of $57 million for this latest financial year. This can be compared to a decrease of $80 million in New Zealand's overseas reserves in 1980–81.

There has been a long-term trend towards a more diversified pattern of trade for New Zealand. During 1959–60, 54.9 percent of New Zealand's exports were sold to the United Kingdom and 46.8 percent of imports were purchased from the United Kingdom. By 1981–82 the United Kingdom took only 14.2 percent of exports and was the source of only 9.2 percent of imports.

The table below shows New Zealand's merchandise trade with various regions during 1981–82 expressed as percentages of the total merchandise trade.

Country or Group of CountriesExports f.o.b.Imports f.o.b.
 percentage
U.K.14.29.2
Australia15.022.3
U.S.A.13.017.2
Canada2.02.2
Japan13.515.7
Other E.E.C.8.57.5
Other O.E.C.D.0.92.1
Asia-Oceania17.414.1
Latin America - Caribbean2.60.6
Other12.99.1
    Total100.0100.0

SURVEY OF DIRECT INVESTMENT BY COMPANIES—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivation, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries (i.e., New Zealand companies under control of an overseas company), branches of overseas companies, companies where many of the shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall within this category. The question of control is decided on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum). The same criteria apply for direct investment overseas by New Zealand companies and residents.

Direct investment flows assume various forms; they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following 4 tables are in terms of inflows and outflows at current prices. The total worth of direct investments assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; a year's inflows and outflows of investment capital on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and the relationship to other capital movements can be defined precisely.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows all capital transactions between the foreign direct investor (including direct investment enterprises of the investor in other countries) and the New Zealand direct investment enterprise.

March YearUnited KingdomOther EEC CountriesAustraliaU.S.A. and CanadaOther CountriesTotal. All Countries
NZ$(million
1977–7897.8−5.575.4−13.65.1159.2
1978–79203.42.027.137.5−6.1263.9
1979–80136.110.799.5101.5−5.1342.7
1980–8184.0x−9.234.4x46.3x38.2x193.7x
1981–8269.111.1142.065.786.3374.2

The following graph shows changes in overseas direct investment in New Zealand.

Income from Private Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table covers income payable to other countries from investment in companies where the foreign investor holds 25 percent or more of the shares in the New Zealand company. It also includes the income from New Zealand branches of foreign firms. That portion of the undistributed profit of resident enterprises which accrues to foreign investors (who met the 25 percent condition) is also included.

March YearUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A. and CanadaOther EEC Countries*Other CountriesTotal, All Countries
* Other than United Kingdom.
Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
1977–78108.669.531.40.516.4226.3
1978–79116.377.454.52.710.4261.4
1979–8049.064.646.71.29.0170.4
1980–81x92.071.444.11.016.7225.3
1981–82130.5125.470.72.121.1349.8

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Industry1978–791979–801980–811981–82
NZ$(million
Direct Investment Flows into New Zealand
Farming, hunting, and fishing1.21.45.1x−1.0
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying0.918.6x−12.0
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco−9.514.615.520.3
    Meat and dairy products3.6−5.723.4−5.8
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear1.81.81.3x−0.2
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.70.90.4x17.4
    Pulp, paper, and printing−1.92.35.63.5
    Leather and rubber products1.10.51.82.2
    Chemical and mineral products48.676.118.9x24.6
    Metalworking3.010.9−7.0x58.0
    Engineering and transport equipment5.033.316.242.4
    Miscellaneous manufacturing10.015.48.152.1
Building and construction7.5..2.3x−1.8
Wholesale and retail trade26.4113.112.6x131.1
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property161.794.570.262.6
Transport and communications1.3−23.60.7−23.8
Services3.56.30.3x4.4
    Total263.9342.7193.7*374.2
Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
Farming, hunting, and fishing1.60.32.0x3.0
Forestry and logging    
Mining and quarrying0.61.01.8x−2.6
Manufacturing—    
    Food, drink, and tobacco15.820.117.223.3
    Meat and dairy products6.8−9.4−5.8−4.1
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear2.42.41.03.3
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.80.72.3
    Pulp, paper, and printing5.87.34.15.1
    Leather and rubber products2.81.75.13.7
    Chemical and mineral products35.619.316.1x27.5
    Metalworking9.55.55.9x11.8
    Engineering and transport equipment22.422.922.332.5
    Miscellaneous manufacturing17.022.420.850.0
Building and construction2.72.01.7x1.8
Wholesale and retail trade52.420.769.4x68.3
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property71.845.056.8114.1
Transport and communications12.15.06.05.4
Services1.23.50.94.4
    Total261.4170.4225.3x349.8

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding viz, direct investment flows out from New Zealand and ‘he income earned from direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

March YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States and CanadaOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
NZ$(million)
Direct Investment flows out from New Zealand
1977–78−4.426.07.44.0x32.9
1978–791.418.49.26.935.9
1979–809.054.12.226.491.6
1980–81−3.0x41.4x29.2x50.9x118.4x
1981–8216.724.425.349.6116.1
Income from Direct Investment Overseas
1977–782.837.43.27.250.6
1978–792.519.22.811.435.8
1979–8011.625.23.513.653.8
1980–819.7x39.3x8.7x22.8x80.4x
1981–8211.756.115.543.6127.0

25 C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

Input-output analysis, as an important economic tool, was devised by Professor Leontief, an American economist, in the 1930s to define and measure the interdependence of the different industries within the economy. It provided a means by which, for example, it was possible to measure the effects of a stated increase or decrease in the demand for houses on the timber industry, the cement industry, and the industries producing glass, steel, paint, bricks, tiles, concrete blocks, nails, plumbing requisites, and all the hundreds of other items that go into houses, as well as on the demand for imports and other primary inputs.

An inter-industry study involves three distinct tasks. They are:

  1. The systematic collection, evaluation, and arrangement of a vast body of statistical information on production and consumption covering, as far as possible, every area of the economy. This is the basic data on which the worth of the whole study depends.

  2. The formulation of an appropriate theoretical scheme.

  3. The application of theoretical methods and devices to the analysis of empirical data.

In a sense, input-output analysis brings together those who in economic research have always tended to drift apart—the producers of elegant theories, and those engaged in empirical research and the accumulation of data. Input-output analysis gives scope to the theorist but at the same time keeps him anchored firmly to the basic data, to the figures of goods poured out by factories, transported by ships, trucks, and trains, and sold over shop counters.

The term “Inter-Industry Study” refers to the whole task of investigation, compilation, and preliminary calculations as well as the mass of input-output tables and derived tables that forms the end product.

THE BASIC INPUT-OUTPUT TRANSACTIONS TABLES—In the inter-industry transactions table the entire economic activities of a country are divided into industry groups, which may number some hundreds. In New Zealand they range from 12 in the earlier studies to 128 in the latest study. A great deal of investigation and research is necessary in order to discover what each industry consumes, both in the form of the products of other industries and in the form of primary inputs such as labour; and what it produces and supplies to other industries in the form of raw materials, components, and semi-finished products, and as well as what it supplies to final consumers such as households.

Each industry appears twice in the table—in a row as a producer and in a column as a consumer. The rows and columns intersect, so that what appears in a row as part of industry A's output sold to industry B can also be read down the industry B column as part of industry B's input purchased from industry A.

The cell at the intersection of row (i) and column (j) shows in dollar values how much output of industry (i) has been absorbed by industry (j) for current production purposes.

The other basic input-out transactions table is the commodity into commodity transactions table. Each commodity appears twice in the table—in a row as production and in a column as consumption. The rows and columns intersect, so that the cell at the intersection of row (i) and column (j) shows how much of the total output of commodity (i) is used to produce commodity (j).

The first commodity into commodity transactions table was produced in the 1976–77 Inter-Industry Study. This is published on the following pages at the 25-commodity level of detail.

DERIVED TABLES—If the basic transactions table is subjected to a mathematical process, known as inversion of the matrix, a derived table or model is produced. This derived table will show on a unit basis (that is per $ or per $ million, etc.) what will be required in additional output from every industry in the economy to support an increase of one unit in the final output of a selected industry. Such an account is often known as a table of total requirements (direct and indirect) per unit of final demand. The words “direct and indirect” are used to indicate that the table includes not only the direct requirements of the selected industry, but also the additional requirements of industries supplying that industry with raw materials, components, and services, and the additional requirements of industries supplying those industries, and so on through an ever-widening circle of the economy until the economic reverberations die away. A similar table for commodities can be calculated.

NEW ZEALAND INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES—The Department of Statistics has published three major inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. The Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–60 was published in four parts, the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1965–66 in two parts, and the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1971–72 in one part. The 1959–60 and 1965–66 Studies used similar methodology. The 1971–72 Study, however, adopted concepts used in the United Nations System of National Accounts (1968) and formed the basis for the Department of Statistics' revised National Accounts. The few differences between the 1971–72 Study and the revised National Accounts has been reduced further in the 1976–77 Inter-Industry Study. The 1959–60 and 1965–66 Studies are comparable, as are the 1971–72 and 1976–77 Studies, but comparisons between the 1965–66 and 1971–72 Studies should be made with considerable caution. Work has begun on the 1981–82 Study.

UPDATING OF INPUT-OUTPUT STATISTICS—It is a common criticism of inter-industry studies (and not only in New Zealand) that they are invariably years out of date and therefore stale and of historical interest only. A considerable delay is inevitable with a full-scale study because of the enormous amount of preparatory investigation necessary and the fact that sometimes the detailed information required for input-output purposes is not available until a considerable time after the close of the year or other period that is the subject of the study. Consequently, the Department of Statistics updated its 25-industry 1971–72 basic transactions table to 1976–77 using information from the provisional National Accounts for 1976–77. Derived tables have also been recalculated for 1976–77 and have been published together with a description of the updating methodology. (Miscellaneous Series Bulletin No. 14 Provisional New Zealand Input-Output Tables 1976–77 available from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington). The 1976–77 25-industry basic transactions table was also published in the 1980 Yearbook. It is planned to introduce an improved updating methodology to facilitate annual 25-industry updates of the 1976–77 Study.

25 D—REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

The Gross Domestic Product is the total value of all goods and services produced in New Zealand during a financial year (ended 31 March). The “Real” Gross Domestic Products for a number of years are estimates of the total production of goods and services in each of those years, all valued at the prices prevailing in one particular year, so that the totals for each year indicate the relative volumes of production, and the differences in the volumes of production in the respective years are apparent.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—For earlier years, the Index of Real Gross Domestic Product measured the relative levels of the volume of production in each year, with each sector of the economy represented in proportion to its contribution to gross domestic product at factor cost in 1965–66. The bases for these analyses were input-output tables for 1965–66. The economy was divided into 11 industry groupings representing the major divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC), but with major division 1 “Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry, and Fishing", split into 3 groups, namely: Agriculture, Hunting and Fishing, Forestry and Logging.

The industry groupings, and the contribution made by each to the gross domestic product in the base year 1965–66, are shown below.

Industrial GroupsPercentage of Base Year Gross Domestic Product
Agriculture15.0
Hunting and fishing0.2
Forestry and logging0.6
Mining and quarrying0.7
Manufacturing21.7
Electricity, gas, and water2.6
Construction7.3
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels18.8
Transport, storage, and communication8.2
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services12.0
Community, social and personal services12.9
100.0

From 1978–79 onwards, an interim index with no industrial breakdown has been produced to continue the series until a new Real Gross Domestic Product series based on the revised system of national accounts (see section 25A, National Accounts) can be produced. This interim index is based on the estimated real output of the NZSNA production groups weighted according to their 1977–78 contributions to gross domestic product (GDP). The Index of Real Gross Domestic Product is presented in the following table, analysed by the industry groupings where available.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
Base for each Industrial Group and for All Industrial Groups combined: 1965–66 (= 1000).
Industrial Groups1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82*
* Provisional.
Agriculture1103117211751119........
Hunting and fishing1268123213331389........
Forestry and logging1491149817321659........
Mining and quarrying1427131717662157........
Manufacturing1639164316831578........
Electricity, gas, and water1838204621802214........
Construction1296136311791186........
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels1349132712981226........
Transport, storage, and communication1363135113381334........
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1319134213741386........
Community, social, and personal services1223126312701284........
All industrial groups combined13671390139213541390140314021447
Annual percentage increase—All industrial groups combined4.01.70.1–2.72.70.9–0.13.2

INDEX OF EMPLOYMENT—The Index of Employment is based on the numbers of persons in the total labour force as estimated by the Department of Labour. The total labour force includes all persons actively engaged for 20 or more hours per week and excludes the unemployed.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER LABOUR FORCE MEMBER—Increases in real production are due partly to increases in the numbers of persons engaged, and in part to other factors (additions of productive fixed capital assets, improvements in management, organisational measures) as well as to greater labour effort or improved skills of the labour force. While the elements pertaining to labour input are relatively easy to quantify, the measurement of the other factors is exceedingly difficult.

The 3 indexes are compared in the following table. All 3 indexes are on base 1965–66 = 1000.

YearReal G.D.P.EmploymentReal G.D.P. per Labour Force Member
IndexAnnual Percentage Increase*IndexAnnual Percentage IncreaseIndexAnnual Percentage Increase*
* Minus sign signifies a decrease.
1974–7513674.012063.811330.2
1975–7613901.712231.411370.4
1976–7713920.112401.41123−1.2
1977–781354−2.712460.51087−3.2
1978–7913902.712510.411112.2
1979–8014030.912641.01110−0.1
1980–811402−0.11263−0.11110-
1981–8214473.2........

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Additional information on economic aggregates will be found in the following Department of Statistics publications.

Balance of Payments (annual report).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics (The N.Z. System of National Accounts 1972–73 to 1980–81 was issued as an appendix to the April 1982 Monthly Abstract. Main aggregates and summary tables are published in each edition, as are annual and quarterly balance of payments data).

Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy (1959–60, 4 parts), (1965–66, 2 parts), (1971–72, 1 part), (1976–77 [Provisional] Bulletin).

New Zealand System of National Accounts—Concepts and Design 1971–72 to 1980–81.

Chapter 26. SECTION. 26; CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

The Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic, social, and cultural development of the people as a whole and the quality of their environment. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare. The Central Government budgets for and controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway and road construction, and telecommunications, and on other functions such as social welfare, health, education, defence, and paying interest on the public debt.

Taxing, charging, and borrowing are the three alternative avenues of raising revenue to meet Government expenditure. The problem of choice between these avenues can be described as the choice of the most efficient and equitable way of paying for publicly-provided services. However, the problems of finance and of raising revenue cannot be considered in isolation. In the first place some Government expenditure, such as subsidies and transfer payments (for example, pensions, superannuation payments, and family benefits), can and do alter the equity of the tax system. For instance, subsidies and monetary benefits can be regarded as refunds of tax. In the second place, it is now generally accepted that a system of raising revenue must be in accord with the general objectives of Government economic policy. In the final analysis, any system of Government finance, embracing both expenditure and the raising of revenue, must be designed to achieve the economic objectives of growth, a high level of employment, price stability, and external balance of payments in an efficient manner, tempered by the prevailing views about freedom and the equitable distribution of income.

The Central Government, by budgeting for a surplus (revenue exceeding expenditure) or a deficit, or by varying the impact of taxation or the level of Government expenditure on certain sectors of the economy, is able to regulate internal economic activity.

STRUCTURE OF THE PUBLIC ACCOUNTS—The general structure of the public accounts is in the form established by the Public Finance Act 1977, effective from 1 April 1978. The public accounts comprise 6 accounts in place of the 7 which formerly appeared. These 6 are as follows:

Consolidated Account and National Roads Fund—Before the coming into force of the Public Finance Act 1977 there were 3 general accounts, the Consolidated Revenue Account (now renamed the Consolidated Account), the National Roads Fund (non-trading account), and the Works and Trading Account.

All taxation is credited to either the Consolidated Account or the National Roads Fund. The Consolidated Account also receives most miscellaneous revenues, and ordinary Government expenditure is debited to it. Previously the Works and Trading Account received all the trading revenues of the trading enterprises within the Public Account, met their operating costs and capital expenditure, and also met the expenditure by administrative departments on capital works such as water and soil conservation, the development of natural resources, airports, some roading, and public buildings. The funds available in the Works and Trading Account for works were supplemented by transfers from the National Development Loans Account (now the Loans Account), capital equipment credit arrangements, and contributions from the Consolidated Account.

Under the Public Finance Act 1977 the basic form of the public accounts was changed by the abolition of the Works and Trading Account. This was accomplished by providing separate bank accounts outside the Public Account for the Ministry of Energy (in respect of the trading activities of the Electricity Division and the State Coal Mines) and the Railways Department, and transferring the remaining activities to the Consolidated Account.

The National Roads Fund was retained unchanged under the restructuring. Highways taxation is credited to the National Roads Fund, which meets both capital and maintenance expenditure on roading, but a proportion of the motor spirits duty and the mileage tax is credited to the Consolidated Account.

Loan Accounts—There are 2 loan accounts, the Loans Account and the Loans Redemption Account. The Loans Account receives loan money raised for works and development. A proportion of this is transferred to the Consolidated Account, and most of the balance is advanced by way of capital to the Housing Corporation, the Post Office, New Zealand Railways, the Ministry of Energy, and other State enterprises outside the public account.

Money received into the Loans Redemption account includes an annual contribution from the Consolidated Account towards the repayment of the public debt, the proceeds of every issue of Treasury bills, and money borrowed for the purpose of repaying or converting loans to the Crown. The main purpose of the account is the repayment or conversion of loans, but money not required for these purposes may be transferred to the Loans Account.

Reserve Account and Trust Account—Any money in the Consolidated Account regarded as surplus to the immediate requirements of the account may be transferred to the Reserve Account and invested in New Zealand or overseas. The Minister of Finance has authority to realise these investments and re-transfer the proceeds to the Consolidated Account at his discretion.

Money held in trust or awaiting disposal is paid into the Trust Account. Funds in the Trust Account may be invested in Government or other approved securities.

Suspense Account—In addition to these 6 accounts there is a Suspense Account. This is simply a holding account for receipts banked to the credit of the Public Account but not yet allocated to one of the 6 accounts.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of 3 months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following table shows gross Government expenditure and the net amount of expenditure which requires financing from the Public Account. The functional classification is intended to focus attention on the broad areas in the economy in which there is substantial Government activity. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

It is to be remembered that the Public Account as shown in this section is prepared on a receipts and payments (cash) basis, and consequently the accounts of the operations of various departments (prepared on an accrual basis) shown in other sections will differ to some extent from those appearing here.

The functional classification of Government expenditure is shown in the following table. Fuller explanations of some items is given with the similar table in the Budget (Parl. paper B.6).

Item1979—801980—811981—82
GrossNet*GrossNet*GrossNet*

* Net expenditure is generally arrived at by deducting trading and departmental receipts from gross expenditure.

† Includes imprests outstanding of $15.7 million in 1980—81 and $12.5 million in 1981—82.

Administration—$(million)
    General administration271.2239.7327.5290.2406.1359.1
    Law and order201.7164.7251.9208.8303.0253.5
    Government services142.9109.0176.1136.3220.0162.9
    Miscellaneous services38.08.347.1x10.455.212.2
    Stabilisation171.1170.9140.1140.1126.5126.5
 824.9692.6942.7x785.81,110.8914.2
Foreign relations—
    Defence346.1340.8455.9446.4593.7581.1
    Foreign Affairs112.7110.7135.5131.5142.7138.8
 458.8451.5591.4577.9736.4719.9
Development of industry—
    Land use527.4315.7616.7x362.4817.3531.2
    Fuel and power442.8146.2750.6x136.4961.6247.6
    Other industrial services260.0252.3307.7298.3423.8404.8
 1,230.2714.21,675.0x797.12,202.71,183.6
Education—      
    Education1,019.51,009.31,302.31,292.01,503.91,493.2
Social services—      
    Social Welfare2,110.92,096.02,540.62,524.32,991.02,972.6
    Other social services143.379.0128.465.4137.669.7
 2,254.22,175.02,669.02,589.73,128.63,042.3
Health—
    Health1,137.51,136.21,358.21,356.31,603.11,601.2
Transport and communications—
    Transport759.7264.7864.6329.41,054.3401.3
    Communications571.20.3749.6x3.2900.659.3
 1,330.9265.01,614.2332.61,954.9460.6
Debt services and miscellaneous—
    Debt services766.4766.4896.9896.91,211.01,211.0
    Miscellaneous investment transactions43.74.291.794.0†154.8164.0†
    Miscellaneous financing transactions372.3372.3411.1411.1406.5406.5
 1,182.41,142.91,399.71,402.01,772.31,781.5
    Total9,438.47,586.711,552.59,133.414,012.711,196.5

The following table shows Government expenditure and how it is financed.

Item1979—801980—811981—82

* Net expenditure as in previous table.

† Includes the purchase by the Reserve Bank of $40 million of Government securities in 1979—80, the sale of $9.5 million of Government securities in 1980—81, and the purchase of $554.5 million of securities in 1981—1982.

‡ Excludes suppliers' credit and currency realignment adjustments.

Expenditure*— $(million) 
    Administration692.6785.8914.2
    Foreign relations451.5577.9719.9
    Development of industry714.2797.11,183.6
    Education1,009.31,292.01,493.2
    Social services2,175.02,589.73,042.3
    Health1,136.21,356.31,601.2
    Transport and communications265.0332.6460.6
    Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions770.6990.91,375.0
    Subtotal7,214.48,722.310,790.0
    Miscellaneous financing transactions372.3411.1406.5
    Total expenditure7,586.79,133.411,196.5
    Financed from   
    Taxation—   
    Income tax4,465.65,298.96,514.7
    Customs, sales tax, and beer duty1,013.91,189.21,633.5
    Highways tax139.5189.3211.6
    Motor spirits tax177.6139.5147.2
    Other taxation223.4233.9291.0
    Total taxation6,020.07,050.88,798.0
    Interest, profits, and miscellaneous receipts539.8557.7580.2
    Total taxation, interest, etc.6,559.87,608.59,378.2
Amount to be financed from borrowing1,026.91,524.91,818.3
Borrowing in New Zealand1,502.4821.12,274.7
    Less repayments in New Zealand591.5253.3854.8
 910.9567.81,419.9
    Plus sales (less purchases) of investments—207.0+207.0
    Net borrowing in New Zealand+703.9+774.8+1,419.9
    Internal surplus (+) deficit (—)—323.0—750.1—398.4
Borrowing overseas661.11,510.52,101.4
    Less repayment overseas324.0761.21,550.7
337.1749.3550.7 
    Plus sales(less purchases) of overseas investments—9.4+4.5—149.3
    Net borrowing overseas327.7753.8401.4
    Cash surplus (+) deficit (—)+4.7+3.7+3.0

The following table shows details of expenditure from the principal public account, the Consolidated Account. Most of the revenue of the Consolidated Account is derived from taxation. This is shown in detail in the next section, 26B Public Account Taxation.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1979198019811982
* Programme V Electoral. From 1 April 1980 the cost of preparing the electoral rolls has been incorporated in the Post Office vote. Previously it was part of the Justice vote.
Permanent appropriations—$(thousand)
    Under Special Acts of Legislature—Civil List2,9063,3364,1454,787
Debt services—
    Interest590,111757,793891,4971,202,928
    Transfer to Loans Redemption Account75,00060,000103,464116,171
    Administration and management5,1087,8314,9048,112
Total—Debt services670,219825,624999,8651,327,211
    Superannuation60,44859,51175,00489,583
    Miscellaneous73,69977,27559,79251,540
Total—Permanent appropriations807,272965,7461,138,8061,473,121
Annual appropriations—$(thousand)
    General Administration—
    Vote—
    Accident Compensation40455199
    Audit3,0543,6504,3915,070
    Broadcasting121131134155
    Building Performance Guarantee Corporation12141518
    Commission for the Environment556628750995
    Customs13,93916,88222,47426,472
    Inland Revenue33,22739,13549,34660,752
    Internal Affairs39,30857,08563,71075,473
    Legislative5,4729,42110,56310,385
    Prime Minister's Department1,0861,1411,3991,605
    State Services Commission44,07552,13361,49282,221
    Statistics9,50310,49212,89824,255
    Treasury7,7008,73810,38412,135
    Valuation7,5148,62410,68812,298
    Total—General administration165,607208,119248,295311,933
    Law and order—
    Vote—
    Crown Law8189061,2671,867
    Justice72,83584,018103,107121,650
    Police94,169110,797139,400169,374
    Security Intelligence Service1,6742,2153,3413,879
    Total—Law and order169,496197,936247,115296,770
    Government services—
    Vote—
    Government Printing Office24,77328,25633,17135,141
    Works and Development127,697114,671142,884179,052
    TotalGovernment services152,470142,927176,055214,193
    Stabilisation—
    Vote—
    Stabilisation120,470158,618127,639126,494
    Total—Administration608,043707,600799,104949,390
    Foreign relations—
    Defence—
    Defence299,506346,091455,939593,647
    Foreign Affairs—    
    Foreign Affairs93,819112,624135,199142,531
    Total—Foreign relations393,325458,715591,138736,178
Development of industry— $(thousand)  
    Land use—    
    Agriculture and Fisheries288,608228,513242,702328,681
    Forest Service133,301152,835193,877236,084
    Lands and Survey80,47287,897111,349124,426
    Maori Affairs45,49143,03232,04531,467
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation8,57110,03711,51415,547
    Total—Land use556,443522,314591,487736,205
    Fuel and power—
    Energy17,99332,143102,944178,508
    Other industrial services—
    Trade and Industry26,63528,48050,94669,172
    Labour117,985162,314169,935252,070
    Scientific and Industrial Research47,17955,47868,87782,192
    Tourist and Publicity13,63513,46715,48419,254
    Total—Other industrial services205,434259,739305,242422,688
    Total—Development of industry779,870814,196999,6731,337,401
    Education—
    Education936,6711,019,4751,302,3241,503,860
    Social services—    
    Housing Corporation66,36963,13168,13773,777
    Social Welfare1,804,2302,110,9042,540,5672,990,994
    Maori Affairs12,36416,37321,06926,420
    Internal Affairs8,7236,3746,6017,820
    TotalSocial services1,891,6862,196,7822,636,3743,099,011
    Health—    
    Health981,0501,137,5361,358,0261,603,118
    Transport and communications—
    Transport—
    Roads, etc.16,74326,86223,85441,810
    Transport95,917118,358130,882148,438
    Post Office*6,6497,213
    Total—Transport and communications112,660145,220161,385197,461
    Total—Annual appropriations5,703,3056,479,5247,848,0249,426,419
Unauthorised expenditure1,8223,85017,32350,000
Transfer to Reserve Account80,000100,000
Transfer to Trust Account404
Capital losses on investments (net)....Cr.6841,132
Exchange differences on overseas transactions....Cr.11,00474,304
    Total payments6,512,8037,529,1208,992,46511,124,976

LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the Loans Account were as follows:

ItemYear Ended March
198019811982

* Includes Inflation Adjusted Savings Bonds of $42,289,000 in 1979—80, $148,263,000 in 1980—81, and $414,114,000 in 1981—82.

† Includes capital equipment credit arrangements.

‡ The principal features of the “tap” issue method of selling Government stock are that each issue remains open for subscription for up to 6 months, and that the issue price is adjusted monthly so that the yield reflects the period to maturity for which stock is actually held.

§ Includes discounts on “tap” issues.

Receipts$(thousand)
Loans raised—   
    In New Zealand*1,042,935917,7231,675,435
    Overseas†571,4501,570,2482,136,184
    Loan subscriptions unallocated31,471
International Finance Agreements Act 1961—   
Non-negotiable, non-interest-bearing stock and notes issued to international financial institutions8,512174,0674,410
Premiums on “tap” issues‡56595
Securities issued: Reserve Bank indemnity207,761
                Total receipts:1,654,3682,662,0944,024,385
                Excess of payments over receipts5369,302
 1,654,3682,662,6304,033,687
Payments
Permanent appropriations—   
    Subscriptions—ADB9139441,057
                        —IBRD4950321
                        —IMF37,838
Encashment of securities—ADB6308301,200
                                    —IBRD10010050
                                    —IMF55,000
Charges and expenses of raising loans—new issues6,7888,78229,238§
            Total, permanent appropriations8,48048,54486,866
Annual appropriations—   
    Development of industry—   
        Electricity135,16786,916134,667
        Geothermal4,793
        Mines20,38125,15534,030
 160,341112,071168,697
Social services—   
    Housing corporation57,16632,50029,300
Transport and communications—   
    Railways31,48645,31376,023
    Post Office2,00054,000
 33,48645,313130,023
Miscellaneous investment and financing transactions—   
    Capital participation—   
        Air New Zealand Ltd.17,80054,200
        Alliance Textiles Ltd.1,000
        Development Finance Corporation10,000
        Export-Import Corporation1976,251
        New Zealand Steel Development Ltd.1,950540
        Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.36,4925,31617,907
        Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.8,0007,000
        Tourist Hotel Corporation2,5741,1901,372
        Winstone-Samsung Industries Ltd.15,000
Miscellaneous financing transactions—   
    Housing Corporation164,334164,32872,500
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation208,000246,800334,000
            Total, annual appropriations662,590652,519830,539
Loan receipts from previous year allocated31,45516
Capital equipment purchased under credit arrangements52,99260,04541,095
Transfer to consolidated account678,000956,0001,281,000
Transfer to loans redemption account230,000740,0001,582,000
Reserve Bank indemnity207,761
Security in favour of—   
        Asian Development Bank (ADB)1,3621,3621,540
        International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)4414472,870
        International Monetary Fund (IMF)6,709172,258
        Total payments1,640,5742,662,6304,033,687
        Excess of receipts over payments13,794
 1,654,3682,662,6304,033,687

WORKS PROGRAMME AND ROADING EXPENDITURE—Details of the works programme and roading expenditure are shown in the following table.

ItemYear ended 31 March
1979198019811982
* Provision mainly for Clutha Valley development for hydro-electric purposes.
Administration—$(million)
    Works—    
    National water and soil conservation25.526.840.848.2
    Development of natural resources*10.73.82.98.2
    Public buildings—
    Government services15.712.516.417.6
    Law and order13.813.415.916.8
    Miscellaneous10.412.69.511.7
    Total76.169.185.5102.5
Foreign relations—
    Defence8.79.011.315.4
    Public buildings—overseas posts1.31.31.62.3
    Total10.010.312.917.7
Development of industry—    
    Energy295.9249.9246.6300.2
    Forestry10.410.814.919.7
    Land utilisation9.311.615.719.4
    Tourism2.32.92.42.3
    Miscellaneous4.05.87.58.7
    Total321.9281.0287.1350.3
Education—$(million)
    Primary, secondary, and special education—
    Buildings78.767.175.676.7
    Tertiary education—    
    University buildings24.724.723.323.9
    Technical institutes10.510.312.314.6
    Teachers colleges3.83.02.22.3
    Total117.7105.1113.4117.5
Social services—
    Housing construction49.443.134.826.1
    Public building—social welfare2.72.72.73.4
    Total52.145.837.529.5
Health—
    Health and hospital buildings6.47.26.87.0
Transport and communications—
    Railways19.820.619.923.5
    Reading168.9173.8215.6254.2
    Transport1.85.73.63.3
    Post Office56.960.565.488.9
    Broadcasting0.91.01.71.3
    Total248.3261.6306.2371.2
    Grand total832.5780.1849.4995.7

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes oil local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund in recent years were as follows:

ItemYear Ended March
1979198019811982
Receipts$(thousand)
Motor spirits duty (less refunds)109,67487,771120,540129,000
Road user charges48,30251,23468,37082,533
Other taxation, etc.1,158x1376020
Contribution from Consolidated Account14,00024,00016,00035,000
Miscellaneous3,4384,963x4,550x5,252
Interest10482115179
Excess of payments over receipts3,027
    Total176,676x171,214209,635251,984
PaymentsPayments
State highways maintenance43,69150,89268,14081,356
State highways construction41,64735,68640,48945,498
Subsidies to local authorities66,61968,79083,41299,066
Administration and general expenses14,20415,84116,90921,713
Repayment of temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account4,000---
Unauthorised expenditure6524
Excess of receipts over payments6,509-6834,347
    Total176,676x171,214209,635251,984
    Balance at end of year7,0093,9824,6659,012

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalance at 31 March
1979198019811982
* Cash received but not yet allocated.
 $(thousand)
Consolidated Account68,01069,44671,19683,621
Loans Redemption Account152,192255,150129,877143,571
Loans Account55,35769,15168,61559,313
National Roads Fund7,0093,9824,6659,012
Reserve Account98,787185,615119,327250,336
Suspense Account*2072551197
Trust Account19,75230,24228,08340,583
    Total401,314613,841421,764586,633

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
1979198019811982
 $(thousand)
Cash76,62281,32985,03788,050
Imprests62,18653,57069,27581,811
Investments in New Zealand5,970212,9665,9676,109
Investments overseas256,536265,976261,485410,663
    Total401,314613,841421,764586,633

26 B—PUBLIC ACCOUNT TAXATION

A summary of income tax revenue and total public account taxation revenue in the aggregate and per head of mean population is given for a series of years in the following table. The total taxation figures include taxation revenue paid into both the Consolidated Fund and the National Road Fund.

Year Ended 31 MarchIncome TaxTotal Public Account Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population
 $(million)$ $(million)$
1970779.2279.3966.01,181.0423.46
19752,136.0701.0174.52,865.3940.37
19772,828.5906.3873.63,844.91,232.07
19783,482.81,113.1075.34,626.31,478.57
19793,655.21,168.0973.34,989.5x1,594.50
19804,465.61,429.1074.26,020.01,926.52
19815,298.91,683.96x75.2x7,050.5x2,240.59x
19826,514.72,060.2574.08,798.02,782.34

The following table shows receipts of taxation, under the various heads, during 5 recent years. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

ItemRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19781979198019811982

* Additional to portions paid into National Roads Fund.

† Ceased 30 June 1979. Replaced by International Departure Tax.

Consolidated Account—$(million)
    Direct taxation—
    Income tax3,482.83,655.24,465.65,298.96,514.7
    Estate and gift duty48.753.149.739.132.4
    Land tax8.49.510.711.633.8
    Property speculation tax0.20.1
    Total, direct taxation3,540.13,717.84,526.15,349.66,580.9
    Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty272.8286.1331.6349.3475.1
    Beer duty58.758.958.264.374.3
    Motor spirits tax (less refunds) *99.7153.9177.2139.5147.2
    Motor vehicles fees and charges42.645.745.646.546.7
    Sales tax371.5449.7624.1775.61,084.1
    Film-hire tax0.61.00.70.91.1
    Mileage tax*2.50.30.4
    Racing taxation33.738.542.846.151.0
    Foreign fishing vessel entry tax0.8
    Foreign travel tax†13.715.99.3
    International departure tax6.312.414.4
    Domestic air travel tax3.48.5
    Energy resources levy32.528.918.619.624.2
    Stamp duties—$(million)
    On instruments25.326.230.539.659.3
    On cheques, etc.3.43.53.78.313.0
    Lottery duty2.13.95.56.46.8
    Total, indirect taxation960.01,112.51,354.41,511.92,005.6
    Total taxation receipts to Consolidated Account4,500.04,830.45,880.56,861.58,586.5
National Roads Fund—
    Highways revenue (less rebate)126.3159.1x139.5189.0x211.6
    Total public account taxation4,626.34,989.5x6,020.07,050.5x8,798.0

A comparison of public account taxation revenue and national disposable income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of national disposable income.

YearNational Disposable IncomePublic Account Taxation
TotalPercentage of National Disposable Income
 $(million)percent
1977—7813,6744,626.333.8
1978—7915,7484,989.531.7
1979—8019,0496,020.031.6
1980—8122,0117,050.5x32.0
1981—8226,3448,798.033.3

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the heading of Customs does not include receipts from motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund. The following table shows customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest available 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms and Excise Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation
* Including Foreign Fishing Vessel Entry Tax but excluding Beer Duty.
 $(thousand)percent
1978273,67458,693332,3677.2
1979286,12958,853344,9826.9
1980331,62258,159389,7816.5
1981349,32064,283413,6035.9
1982475,09174,338549,4296.2

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22D, Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—Prior to 31 March 1978 the National Roads Fund derived its revenues from a tax on motor spirits, heavy traffic licence fees, and a mileage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. From 1 April 1978 Road User Charges replaced Heavy Traffic Licence Fees and Mileage Tax. Other revenues of the fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc. For 1968—69, tax on petrol paid to the fund was 14.8c per gallon. From 1 April 1969 the rate was increased to 17. 1c per gallon by the transfer to the fund of 2.3c per gallon previously credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account, and from 1 April 1971 to 18.1c per gallon by the transfer of a further 1c a gallon. From 1 April 1978 tax paid to the fund was reduced to 4.25c per litre, but this was increased to 6c per litre from 1 April 1980.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities to levy a local authorities petroleum tax on motor spirits and diesel fuel up to a prescribed maximum, and divided the country into tax areas for this purpose. All tax areas decided to make levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The 1970 Act has since been superseded by similar provisions in the Local Government Act 1974. The proceeds of any tax imposed are distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers. The maximum tax rate permissible is, at present, 0.66 cents per litre on motor spirits, and 0.33 cents per litre on diesel fuel.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes paid into the National Roads Fund have been as follows during the latest five years. Refunds have been deducted.

Year Ended 31 MarchMotor Spirits Duty*Mileage TaxHeavy-traffic and other FeesRoad User ChargesTotal
 $(000) 
* Less rebates and collection expenses. 
1978106,6969,11210,448126,256
1979109,4471,12648,301158,874
198087,47051,234138,704
1981120,19368,370188,563
1982128,53582,533211,068

SYSTEM OF TAXATION—The following precis of the New Zealand tax system takes into account all relevant amending legislation effective up to the year ended 31 March 1984.

Income tax is levied under the Income Tax Act 1976.

Tax Year—The New Zealand tax year is from 1 April to 31 March.

New Zealand Residents—New Zealand residents are liable to New Zealand tax on all income including income from outside New Zealand. Credit is allowed for any overseas tax paid, but this is limited to the New Zealand tax payable on that income.

A New Zealand resident is defined for tax purposes as a person whose permanent place of abode is in New Zealand. In general where a person is present in New Zealand for a period of not less than 365 days, he or she will be classified as a New Zealand resident throughout that period. Conversely a person absent from New Zealand for a period of not less than 365 days will generally be treated as not resident during that absence.

This means that people who come to New Zealand with the intention of residing permanently or to stay more than 365 days are taxed on their total income from all sources, both inside and outside New Zealand, as from the date of arrival.

Income Tax—Income tax is chargeable on most forms of income received by individuals, companies, and estates.

Income, because of its many forms, is not exhaustively defined, but includes income from the following: property; labour or effort; pensions, estates, and trusts (pensions paid by countries with which New Zealand has a double tax agreement, are generally exempt from tax in the country of origin and subject to tax in New Zealand. If a pension is taxed in the country of origin, credit is allowed in a New Zealand income tax assessment for the overseas tax paid to the extent that it does not exceed New Zealand tax payable on that income); value of benefit allowances received in cash or kind; wages or income (earnings-related compensation) paid by the Accident Compensation Commission where a taxpayer is unable to work because of personal injury or incapacity.

Capital Gains—There is no capital gains tax but certain “gains” are deemed to be income.

These are profits on sale of patent rights, and profits on sale of property (land and buildings). Generally profits from ordinary sales of a person's private residence, business, or farm property, are exempt from tax.

Apart from ordinary sales of a person's residence, business, or farm property, profits on sale of property are subject to income tax where the owner:

  • —acquires the property for the purpose or intention of resale,

  • —deals in property,

  • —is a builder,

  • —makes a profit which is primarily due to rezoning or likely rezoning,

  • —subdivides the property within 10 years of purchase,

  • —subdivides the property more than 10 years after purchase and carries out extensive subdivisional work before selling. (Only the “development profit” is taxable in this case.)

“Pay as You Earn” System—A “Pay as You Earn” (PAYE) system of collecting income tax is used for individuals.

How the PAYE System Works—Income for PA YE purposes falls into two general classes—

Salaries and wages and all other forms of remuneration. With these, PAYE tax is deducted at time of payment.

Business, farming, investment, and professional incomes. With these incomes, tax is not deducted at time of receipt but the taxpayer pays “provisional tax”, usually based on the income tax paid for the previous year.

In both cases an adjustment or “square-up” is made when the return of income for the particular year is furnished.

Tax, which is called “terminal tax”, is assessed on the basis of the annual return, and credit is allowed for the tax deductions or provisional tax paid during the year.

If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax—if insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

The Tax Code Declaration also incorporates a Tax Deduction Certificate. This is returned to the employee on termination of employment or at the end of the financial year.

The certificate shows the total amount of income earned; tax deducted; extra pays; superannuation deducted; the period of employment; tax free allowances.

This information is used when the employee fills out a tax return at the end of the tax year.

Annual Returns of Income—Most salary and wage earners file tax returns each year and over 70 percent of these receive refunds of overpaid tax.

Refunds can arise as a result of exemptions and rebates being claimed which are not allowed for in the tax code declaration, or being employed for part of the year only.

Most salary and wage earners use the return form IR 5. It is required to be completed and sent to the Inland Revenue Department by 7 June.

Salary and wage earners are assessed on their total taxable income, less any deduction for expenses and special exemptions. Rebates and the taxes previously paid are deducted from the tax assessed to give either a refund or further tax to pay. For more about exemption and rebates see below.

All Other Individuals—Individuals who are self-employed or in partnership or who receive income from investments, pay provisional tax. Provisional tax is payable in instalments—generally in two payments, one in September and the other in the following March.

Provisional tax is calculated using as a base the income received during the previous financial year.

Provisional taxpayers use form IR 3 which is to be furnished by 7 September. Expenses are deducted from the gross business or investment income and tax is calculated on the net income less any special exemptions. Credit is given for the provisional tax already paid and for any rebates. If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax. If insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Deductions for Expenses: Persons in Business—Expenses which are incurred in producing income, and relevant and incidental to deriving that income, may be claimed as a deduction from income. Expenses of a private, domestic, or capital nature are not deductible.

Salary and Wage Earners—Salary and wage earners may claim 2 percent of salary or wages up to a maximum claim of $52 without receipt. Actual and reasonable income-related expenses which are supported by receipts or other appropriate evidence, may also be claimed on (less any reimbursing allowances paid by employers).

Exempt Income—Income is exempt from tax in New Zealand only if provisions are made in the New Zealand Income Tax Act.

Some of the more common items exempt from tax are the following: maintenance or alimony payments; the first $200 of interest and dividends from all sources; Social Welfare benefits (except the National Superannuation Benefit and the unemployment benefit paid to beneficiaries who do not have a dependent child or children); war pensions and service disability pensions paid by any Government; interest on National Development Bonds (not exceeding $500 in any one year); income derived by charitable and certain non-profit organisations; lottery and raffle prizes.

Special Exemptions—Special exemptions are deducted from the income before tax is calculated. The following special exemptions are available for the year ended 31 March 1984.

ExemptionAmount
Life insurance, personal accident and sickness premiums paid for self, wife, or children, and superannuation.The amount paid or contributed up to a maximum exemption of—
 $1,200 if a member of an employer-subsidised superannuation fund for the whole year with proportionate increases if a member for only part of the year.
 $1,400 in other cases.
 These amounts take effect from 1 May 1983. Prior to this the amounts were $800 and $1,000.
Note: Premiums paid to overseas life insurance companies are allowable.

Rebates—Rebates are deducted from the total tax payable. Rebates for the year ended 31 March 1984 are shown in the following table.

RebateAmount
* In order to correctly calculate both the principal income earner and family rebates where a person enters or leaves New Zealand, the income derived during that pan of the year he or she was resident in New Zealand will be grossed up to its full-year equivalent.
Principal income earner*Allowable to individuals other than children; spouses of principal income earners; national superannuitants; principal income earners eligible for the new family rebate.
 The amount of the rebate for those who qualify will be—
 Where an individual's income is up to (and including) $5,672, the rebate will be 5.5 cents for $1 of income.
 Where an individual's income is between $5,672 and $12,001, the maximum rebate will apply, i.e. $312.
 Where an individual's income is over $12,000 and up to $14,600, the rebate will abate at 12 cents for each $1 of income in excess of $12,000.
Family rebate*Allowable to the principal income earner of a family with a child for whom the family benefit is paid. It is also available to widows, widowers and other solo parents who are in receipt of the family benefit.
 The full rebate of $1,404 is claimable where the combined incomes of the spouses do not exceed $9,800 for the year. The rebate will reduce by 15 cents for each $1 by which the combined incomes of the spouses exceeds $9,800 and will extinguish when that combined income reaches $19,160.
Housekeeper (under certain circumstances)Limited to the smaller of 31 cents for each complete dollar of payment made, or $310.
Dependent relativeLimited to the smaller of 31 cents for each complete dollar contributed to the support of a relative, or $60.
 A maximum of two dependants may be claimed.
Rates on owner-occupied homesA rebate of up to $25 per annum on rates paid to a local authority in respect of an owner-occupied home. The rebate will be allowable on the principal family home only.
Special home, farm, or fishing-vessel ownership account45 cents for each $1 of annual savings increase in Special Home, or Farm Ownership or Fishing Vessel Ownership Account.
 Maximum rebateable savings are: Home Ownership—$3,000 per year (rebate $1,350); Farm Ownership—$5,000 per year (rebate $2,250); Fishing Vessel Ownership—$5,000 per year (rebate $2,250).
First home mortgage rebateA rebate of 31 cents for each dollar of qualifying interest is allowable to first home owners who also occupy the property. The maximum rebate is $1,000 in any one year and the rebate is allowable in respect of the first five years of ownership.
Donations and school fees31 percent of all qualifying charitable donations and school fees. The maximum rebate being $200. The minimum qualifying payment for charitable donations is $5.00.

Rates of Tax—The following table shows the rates of income tax payable on each dollar of taxable income from 1 October 1982.

Taxable IncomeBasic Tax Rate*Basic Tax Rate (with surtax where applicable)Total (including surtax)
$   
* A temporary surtax of 10 percent on the basic tax rates will be applied to income over $24,000 as from 1 October 1982.
0—6,00020.020.01,200.00
6,001—24,00031.031.06,779.69
24,001—30,00041.045.19,485.24
30,001—38,00051.056.113,972.68
Over 38,00060.066.0

Taxes for Visitors: Who is a Visitor?—Generally a person who comes to New Zealand and intends to stay less than 12 months is taxed as a visitor or non-resident. If he stays for a longer period he is normally deemed to be a resident for tax purposes. A person not resident in New Zealand is liable to New Zealand tax on income from New Zealand but not on income from outside New Zealand.

How the Visitor is Taxed—A visitor to New Zealand is taxed on income from a New Zealand employer for personal services while in New Zealand; income from an overseas employer for personal services in New Zealand (there are certain exemption periods which are outlined in the following paragraphs); and any other income from New Zealand sources.

Income From a New Zealand Employer—The employer deducts the tax from the salary or wages of a visitor in the same way as for a resident.

Special Exemptions and Rebates Allowable in an Annual Assessment—In an assessment the visitor is allowed a proportion of the rebates allowable to the New Zealand resident. The proportion is based on the amount of time spent working in New Zealand. Visitors are not entitled to claim any special exemptions in respect of life insurance, or superannuation payments.

Income from an Overseas Resident—A visitor (other than a public entertainer) who performs personal (including professional) services in New Zealand for an overseas employer is exempt from New Zealand tax provided:

  1. the length of the visit or visits is not more than 92 days in any income year;

  2. the income received from the performance of those personal services in New Zealand is chargeable with tax in the country where the visitor is normally resident.

Public Entertainers—Public entertainers are subject to a withholding tax of 20 percent on the gross income derived by them. This is a final tax unless the: entertainer considers that the true rate will be lower. To be taxed at a lower rate a return of the income received and expenses incurred in New Zealand must be furnished.

Visitors from “Double Tax” Countries—Agreements to avoid double taxation have been entered into between New Zealand and Australia. Canada, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Fiji, Japan, Malaysia, The Netherlands, Phillipines, Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

A visitor from one of these countries who gets income for personal services in New Zealand from an overseas employer should refer to the relevant agreement. Depending on the circumstances and the terms of the particular agreement, the exemption period of 92 days could be extended.

Non-Residents: Who is an Absentee?—An absentee is a person whose home has not been in New Zealand during the income year but who derives income from a New Zealand source. An absentee is not entitled to any exemptions or rebates.

Withholding Tax on Non-residents—The Tax Act imposes a withholding tax on the following classes of income derived from New Zealand by non-residents—dividends, interest, royalties, and “know how” payments.

The rate of tax is 15 percent on the gross payments. It is a final tax on dividends, cultural royalties, and on interest except where the borrower and the lender are associated persons. On other royalties, “know how” payments, and interest where the payer and payee are associated persons, it is a minimum tax. A later assessment may be made if the rate of income tax on the income is greater than the withholding tax.

These provisions may be varied by the double tax agreements and the relevant agreement should be referred to.

Capital Brought into New Zealand—Capital brought into New Zealand is free from tax. However income earned from investing that capital is taxable. There is no limit on the amount that may be brought into the country.

Taxation of Companies—Companies in New Zealand are taxed in a different way to individual taxpayers.

The main differences are that—

  1. A company does not get any of the special exemptions or rebates which the individual taxpayer may claim.

  2. A company does not get the interest exemptions.

  3. Dividends received by a company incorporated in New Zealand are exempt from income tax.

  4. The rate of income tax is different.

New Zealand Companies: Income Tax—Resident companies pay tax on their income at the flat rate of 45 cents in the dollar.

Excess Retention Tax—Privately controlled New Zealand investment companies are liable for an “excess retention tax”.

Excess retention tax is payable if the investment company does not pay a dividend equal to at least 40 percent of its tax-paid profits and 100 percent of its dividends from other companies.

The rate of excess retention tax is 35 cents in the dollar on any “insufficient distribution”.

A refund of excess retention tax paid will be made if, in a later year, the investment company declares a dividend greater than the amount needed for that year.

Special Types of Companies—Differing methods of assessment apply to overseas shipping companies, life insurance companies, and certain types of mining companies.

Non-Resident Companies—Non-resident companies are taxed in the same way as resident companies except that they pay an additional tax of 5 percent of their income on top of the 45 percent rate payable by a resident company. Dividends paid to non-residents are subject to a non-resident withholding tax of 30 percent of the gross income. A withholding tax of 15 percent is payable on interest, royalties, and “know-how” payments. Both of these rates may be limited by the various double tax agreements. This is the final liability except for interest paid between associated persons, royalties (other than “cultural” royalties), and “know how” payments, when there may be an end-of-year assessment.

These provisions may be varied by a double taxation agreement and the relevant agreement should be referred to. Special concessions apply to non-resident investment companies receiving dividends or interest from approved “development investments”, and processers of minerals to the primary metal stage under a “special development project”.

Incentive Legislation—There are tax incentives to help New Zealand's export drive and to encourage agricultural development, mining, fishing, winemaking, and other industries. Full details of these are obtainable from the Inland Revenue Department.

Land Tax—Land Tax is assessed on the total “land value” of land owned at 31 March each year after allowing any special exemption. Both companies and individual taxpayers are liable to land tax which is due and payable on 7 October each year. The last day for payment is 7 November.

Various types of land, including land used solely or principally for farming or agricultural activities, and various land owners are exempt from land tax.

Special Exemption—The exemption is $175,000 reduced by $1 for every $1 by which the “land value” of the land exceeds $175,000. Thus no exemption is allowable when the “land value” exceeds $350,000.

Rates of Land Tax—Land tax is charged at a flat rate of 2 percent of the taxable land value (land value after exemptions).

Special Adjustments—There are special adjustments for absentee owners and in addition companies and estates can be subject to a special basis of assessment.

Estate Duty—Generally estate duty is a tax on the total net wealth of a deceased person.

The following reliefs have been abolished: widows; widowers; infant children; orphan infant children; and lineal ancestors or lineal descendants in the estates of deceased servicemen.

Scale of Rates of Estate Duty
Final Balance of EstateRate (Note: “Excess” means excess of the final balance in complete dollars)
Part A: For deaths from 21 June 1979 to 31 March 1980
$ 
Not exceeding 100,000Nil
100,001—250,00035 percent of excess over $100,000
Exceeding 250,000$52,500 plus 40 percent of excess over $250,000
Part B: For deaths from 1 April 1980 to 31 March 1981
Not exceeding 150,000Nil
150,001—250,00035 percent of excess over $150,000
Exceeding 250,000$35,000 plus 40 percent of excess over $250,000
Part C: For deaths on or after 1 April 1981
Not exceeding 250,000Nil
Exceeding 250,00040 percent of excess over $250,000
Part D: For deaths on or after 1 April 1982
Not exceeding 300,000Nil
Exceeding 300,00040 percent of excess over $300,000
Part E: For deaths on or after 1 April 1983
Not exceeding 350,000Nil
Exceeding 350,00040 percent of excess over $350,000

Special Exemptions from Estate Duty: Joint Family Homes—A home registered under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is excluded from the dutiable estate of the first spouse to die.

Matrimonial Home Allowance—Where the deceased had an interest in a matrimonial home (other than a joint family home) that interest is excluded if the home or other property of equivalent value passes to the surviving spouse.

Pensions from Superannuation Funds—These are excluded from the estate up to $2,000 per annum if payable to the deceased's spouse for the rest of his or her life or until remarriage.

Personal Chattels—The value of any furniture and personal effects passing to the surviving spouse is excluded from the dutiable estate. In addition, the first $6,000 of personal chattels passing to any other person is also excluded from the estate.

Charitable Bequests—Bequests to charities of up to $25,000 are exempt from duty.

The leaflet Estate Duty, available from the Inland Revenue Department, supplies more information.

Stamp Duty—Stamp Duty is payable on documents, executed in New Zealand or elsewhere, affecting property situated, or to be situated, in New Zealand.

The rates of duty are shown in the chart below.

Type of DocumentRate of Duty
Transfer of— 
    Mortgage, debenture, shares, share rights, mining rights40 cents for each $100 or pan of $100 of the value of the property.
    All other property, including land1 percent for the first $50,000 of the value of the property; 1.5 percent for the excess over $50,000 up to $100,000; 2 percent for the excess over $100,000.
Leases— 
    Rentals40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of 1 year's rent.
Deed$10.
Duplicate or counterpart$1.
Cheques (as from 4 July 1980)5 cents for each bill of exchange.

Gift Duty—The scale of rates of gift duty is set out below. It applies to all dutiable gifts made on or after 22 June 1979.

In those cases where gifts made before 22 June 1979 aggregated with gifts made on or after that date, the duty on the gifts made prior to 22 June did not change unless the aggregated figure exceeded $15,000.

The level at which gift statements are required to be filed has been raised to $8,000.

The exemption in section 71 of the Act for small gifts made by a donor in good faith as part of the normal expenditure has increased from $400 to $1,000. The exemption applied to all qualifying gifts made on or after 1 January 1979.

For estate duty purposes, however, the $1,000 limit applied to gifts made at any time by any person who died on or after 21 June 1979.

Value of Item “b” in section 62Rate (Note: “Excess” means excess of the value in complete dollars)
$ 
Not exceeding 15,000Nil
                15,001—20,0005 percent on excess over $15,000
                20,001—30,000$250 plus 10 percent of excess over $20,000
                30,001—40,000$1,250 plus 20 percent of excess over $30,000
    Exceeding 40,000$3,250 plus 25 percent of excess over $40,000

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest 5 years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
 $(thousand)
197845,6683,04548,713
197949,3203,74753,067
198047,4702,22449,694
198137,2171,78739,004
198230,1592,22532,384

Credit Card Transaction Duty—A duty of 5 cents is charged for each transaction entered into by the holders of multi-purpose credit cards. It applies to every transaction entered into on or after 10 July 1981.

Taxation Review Authority—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more authorities. There is at present only one authority. Every authority shall consist of one person who is a barrister or solicitor of the High Court of not less than 7 years practice and is appointed by the Governor-General. The functions of the authority are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the relevant legislation. A determination of an authority is subject to an appeal to the High Court as to any question of fact where the tax or duty exceeds $1,000 and to any question of law.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Statistics relating to deceased persons estates certified for duty during the year ended 31 March 1981 are given in the following table's. Estates of Maoris are included, but not hereditary interests in Maori land.

The following table analyses the estates certified by size of estate value.

Net Value of EstateEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesTotal EstatesAggregate Net Value of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
$(000)No.No.No.$(000)$(000)
Under 297114211218
2 and under 41622193811,194
4 " " 62662575232,627
6 " " 82492384873,396
8 " " 102492555044,525
10 " " 122562144705,143
12 " " 142882605487,136
14 " " 163042955998,982
16 " " 1833030263210,724
18 " " 2032131163211,9932
20 " " 2234132266313,9311
22 " " 2433331364614,8451
24 " " 308357841 61943,5098
30 " " 401 1018681 96967,9728
40 " " 506635071 17052,13222
50 " " 6044033877842,36813
60 " " 7032722054735,48526
70 " " 8021415737127,75319
80 " " 9021812434228,93267
90 " " 1001569124723,44949
100 " " 12021310131434,490227
120 " " 1401606322328,863364
140 " " 1601043513920,745599
160 " " 180764211820,0091,116
180 " " 20069279618,2341,450
200 and over33177408132,34725,896
Total, 1980—818 1036 53414 637661,00329,870
Total, 1979—808 2846 22914 513601,13445,310

The average net value per estate certified during 1980—81 was $45,159. Estates of males averaged $52,044 in value and estates of females $36,622. Duty assessed on estates of males amounted to $24.1 million and on estates of females $5.8 million.

The average amount of duty assessed within each of the various estate groups is now shown. The ratios of average duty to average net value are also given.

Net Value of EstateAverage Duty AssessedAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Net Value of Estate
Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined AverageEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined Average
$(000)$$$%%%
Under 1003388835411.13.11.8
100 and under 1208404837270.80.40.7
120 " " 1401,8491,0891,6341.40.81.3
140 " " 1604,0775,2674,3722.73.52.9
160 " " 1808,91310,6429,4535.36.35.6
180 " " 20014,37116,98415,1067.68.98.0
200 " " 22021,80120,61421,49610.49.810.2
220 " " 24030,85030,13630,12013.413.213.1
240 " " 26033,52541,40435,00213.516.614.1
260 " " 30044,92844,72644,90316.216.316.2
300 " " 35060,79254,78960,04218.916.918.7
350 and over142,191127,835139,40426.924.626.5
All estates, 1980—812,9718862,0405.72.44.5
All estates, 1979—804,1381,7713,1228.75.37.5

The following summary shows gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate. The figures refer to estates certified for duty during the year ended 31 March 1981.

ItemNet Value of EstateAll Estates
Under $6,000$6,000 and under $10,000$10,000 and under $20,000$20,000 and under $24,000$24,000 and under $40,000$40,000 and under $100,000$100,000 and under $200,000$200,000 and over

* Excludes any interests in Joint Family Homes.

† Only debts allowable under the Estate and Gift Duties Act are included.

‡ No allowance is made for the Matrimonial Home Allowances.

Gross Assets—$(000), except average per estate $
    Cash2,7994,28814,1957,37127,36546,04618,56013,569134,193
    Average per estate2,5094,3274,9275,6317,62613,32720,85333,2579,168
    Furniture, effects, etc.2704271,9861,0083,9896,5723,0861,85619,196
    Average per estate2424306897701,1111,9023,4674,5491,311
    Farm stock, implements, etc.91751491569692,4156,98810,654
    Average per estate8161737432802,71317,126727
    Private business interests1125113634453,5796,3759,08319,694
    Average per estate92439481231,0357,16320,2611,348
    Assurance policies4886523,2711,9106,71612,1855,8234,65135,696
    Average per estate4376581,1351,4591,8713,5266,54211,3992,438
    Loans2245983,5331,9389,27227,55221,46219,51984,097
    Average per estate2016031,2261,4802,5847,97424,11447,8405,745
    Shares, stocks, etc.3688033,5101,7198,29830,00022,31626,63193,644
    Average per estate3298101,2181,3132,3128,68225,07365,2726,397
    Real property*7401,80316,92713,89950,34167,41731,79538,493221,415
    Average per estate6631,8195,87510,61714,03019,51235,72494,34515,127
    Other property1932851,4537163,3148,2624,6714,63523,528
    Average per estate1722885045469232,3915,24711,3581,607
    Notional estate1624582,7531,9626,55014,2979,0088,26843,458
    Average per estate 1979—801454629551,4991,8254,13810,12120,2642,969
    Overseas property27462281406682,6513,0855,87512,720
    Average per estate2446791061867673,46514,399869
Debts—  $(000), except average per estate $   
    Unsecured9309252,8001,3003,7585,9603,1924,61123,476
    Secured3205571,2427001,8743,4503,1152,60913,867
    Total‡1,2501,4824,0422,0005,6329,4116,3067,22037,343
    Net value—Average per estate, 1980—813,6227,99315,26521,98331,07060,815137,461324,37945,159
    Net value—Average per estate, 1979—803,4147,94715,11021,92831,07859,666136,546310,84041,420

Realty comprised 31.7 percent of gross New Zealand assets in 1980—81 while the proportion of cash was 19.2 percent. The comparable figures for 1979—80 were 31.2 and 17.9 percent.

In the following table deceased persons estates are analysed by occupations. These figures refer to the year ended 31 March 1981.

Occupational GroupUnder $6,000$ 6,000 to 9,999$ 10,000 to 19,999$ 20,000 to 23,999$ 24,000 to 39,999$ 40,000 to 99,999$ 100,000 and OverTotal
 Number of Estates
Physical life scientists, technicians, etc.1152915538
Architects, engineers, technicians, aircraft and ships officers893015659229248
Medical, dental, and related workers76288354630160
Teachers, clergy and jurists9113812669127254
Artists, authors, athletes, sportsmen and related workers2285913544
Administrative and managerial workers26258945138250179752
Clerical and related workers44401316423920028746
Transport and communication workers116241238252118
Sales workers2621824214415739511
Protective service workers, armed forces, etc.641982628394
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, maids, etc.117171428239109
Caretakers, launderers, hairdressers, and related service workers1413391531254141
Farmers and farm managers4942139712614844991 545
Agriculture, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters2420602956438240
Miners, quarrymen, well drillers, etc.341879142
Metal and chemical processers357101912359
Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers, etc.4411715950
Food, beverage, and tobacco processers1621501855306196
Tailors, dressmakers, etc.5516775146
Shoemakers and leather goods makers355114129
Machinery fitters, assemblers, instrument makers, electrical fitters and related electrical and electronic workers3640130561531298552
Glass formers, potters, printers and related workers67251033203104
Painters, bricklayers, carpenters and other related construction workers3334914913011118466
Stationary engine operators, material and freight handlers, transport equipment operators375116267146927562
Labourers, and occupations not stated or not in employment7316081 6577351 8621 5543847 531
    Total1 1159912 8811 3093 5883 4551 29814 637

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover from 1 September 1976 is at the rate of 8.5 percent on gross on-course investments and 9.0 percent on gross off-course investments, subject to a rebate of 27½12; percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year.

Total deductions from gross on-course investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty, 8.5 percent; (b) club's commission, 8.5 percent in respect of win and place investments and 11.18 percent on doubles, quinellas and treble investments; (c) 0.5 percent levy for the purpose of the Stakes Subsidy Account; (d) 0.5 percent levy for the purpose of the Amenities Account; (e) 0.5 percent for the purpose of the on-course Development Account.

Total deductions from gross off-course investments are as follows (a) totalisator duty, 9.0 percent; (b) Totalisator Agency Board's commission, 7.75 percent in respect of win and place investments and 10.43 percent on doubles, quinellas, trebles and jackpot investments; (c) 0.5 percent levy for the purpose of the Stakes Subsidy Account; (d) 0.75 percent for the purpose of the Amenities Account; (e) 0.5 percent for the purpose of the on-course Development Account.

In the case of special races, win and place investments, a commission of 8.25 percent is deducted and on special doubles and quinellas a commission of 10.93 percent is deducted. In these cases the 0.75 percent levy for the amenities account is waived.

The Racing Amendment Act 1977 came into force on 1 August 1978. It included provision for the issue of restricted totalisator licences to registered non-totalisator racing, trotting, and greyhound racing clubs. The Act also lowered the legal minimum betting age from 20 to 18 years.

A further Racing Amendment Act came into force on 27 November 1980. It provided for the installation and operation of a computerised system of an on-course and off-course betting by the Totalisator Agency Board (TAB) in association with clubs; the extension of off-course betting to greyhound meetings; the representation of the Greyhound Racing Association on the TAB; a further deduction of one cent in the dollar from all betting pools (to finance the new system, to enable clubs to pay minimum dividends of $1, and to provide additional finance for administration of the three codes, including improvements in stakes); and the setting up of an account administered by the Racing Authority to assist projects of clubs in each code.

The Minister of Internal Affairs granted totalisator licences for 546 days in the racing year 1981—82. Of these 546 days, 322 were allocated to racing and hunt clubs, 194 to trotting clubs, and 30 to greyhound racing clubs.

The following table gives figures of totalisator duty, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19781979198019811982

* Retained by clubs and TAB.

† Includes restricted on-course betting.

‡ From November 1980.

 $(thousand)
Totalisator duty35,29040,82144,11546,95353,351
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or TAB36,14241,26144,56448,99056,338
Unpaid fractions*1,4501,6381,7881,8822,180
Amenities Account1,7442,0132,1612,3062,577
Stakes Subsidy Account2,0112,3222,5073,3124,136
On-course Development Account‡1,8053,028

Totalisator turnover for the year ended 31 July 1982 rose by 11.1 percent, from $543.3 million in the previous year to $605.6 million.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on public account taxation will be found in the following publications:

The Public Accounts (Parl. paper B. 1 [Pt. I and II])

Financial Statement (“Budget”) (Parl. paper B. 6)

Report of the Inland Revenue Department (Parl. paper B. 23)

The Information Service of the Inland Revenue Department has available a range of tax guides, pamphlets, leaflets, etc., giving up-to-date information on the rights and obligations of taxpayers.

26 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

The principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the Public Finance Act 1977. The money comprising the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged for either principal or interest.

At 31 March 1982, 38.6 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, and 27.5 percent was held by Government departments or institutions such as the Post Office, the Government Superannuation Board, and the Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

Most of the present public debt was borrowed for national development. A National Development Loans Account, into which money for national development was to be paid, was established within the Public Account as from 1 April 1942. Money from this account, now renamed the Loans Account, is transferred as required to the Consolidated Fund or to accounts now outside the Public Account such as Electricity Supply or the Housing Corporation. Transfers and appropriations during the latest 3 years are given in section 26A.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—The total public debt outstanding at 31 March of the two latest available years is shown in the following table. A 50-year summary of the public debt is included in the Statistical Summary section.

Type and CurrencyOutstanding 31 MarchIncrease or Decrease
19811982
 * Treasury bills. 
External debt—$(thousand)
    Pounds sterling163,128872,597+709,469
    Deutschemarks838,110984,187+146,077
    Netherlands guilders231,396171,577—59,819
    Japanese yen586,286793,162+206,876
    Swiss francs1,109,4581,600,421+490,963
    French francs13,80711,347—2,460
    Canadian dollars31,92232,245+323
    Australian dollars28,90327,595—1,308
    United States dollars1,207,2141,029,922—177,292
    IBRD18,55815,861—2,697
    Other7,33810,453+3,115
Internal debt—   
    Long-term7,005,4568,294,347+1,288,891
    Floating debt*375,505537,665+162,160
    Total11,617,08114,381,379+2,764,298

The net increase of $2,764.3 million in the public debt during the year ended 31 March 1982 represented a 23.8 percent rise. The external debt rose by 31.0 percent and the internal debt by 19.7 percent.

The following table shows the external and internal public debt as at 31 March over a 10-year period. A significant feature is the growth of external debt as a percentage of the total public debt.

Outstanding 31 MarchExternal DebtInternal DebtTotal Debt
AmountPercent of Total DebtAmountPercent of Total DebtAmountPercent Increase on Previous Year
 $(million)%$(million)%$(million)%
1973564.016.12,939.183.93,503.19.9
1974465.212.53,269.387.53,734.56.6
1975852.820.53,336.979.54,199.712.5
19761,463.226.34,094.773.75,557.932.3
19771,826.629.04,462.671.06,289.213.2
19782,446.732.75,037.167.37,483.819.0
19792,920.133.15,899.466.98,819.517.8
19803,567.534.56,778.965.510,346.417.3
19814,236.136.57,381.063.511,617.112.3
19825,549.438.68,832.061.414,381.423.8

Transactions in connection with the public debt in the year ended 31 March 1982 are shown in the following table.

Public Debt TransactionsNew Zealand (Internal Debt)External Debt
Pounds SterlingDeutsche-marksNetherlands Guilders
* Includes Treasury bills.   
 NZ$(million)
Loans raised (gross)—
    For general purposes1,883.21,035.1113.3
    Capital equipment credit arrangements30.9
    For repayment of loans2,534.0*
    Total loans raised4,417.21,065.9113.3
Loans repaid—
    For general repayments2,963.7*347.118.669.4
    Capital equipment credit arrangements2.420.1
    IBRD
    Total loans repaid2,966.2367.218.669.4
Increase or decrease in debt due to changes in currency values10.751.49.6
Net increase or decrease during the year1,451.1709.5146.1—59.8
Public debt at 1 April 19817,381.0163.1838.1231.4
Public debt at March 19828,832.0872.6984.2171.6

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the Central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

As at 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(m)$
19776,2892,002.69
19787,4842,378.91
19798,8202,804.57
198010,3463,286.14
198111,6173,663.65x
198214,3814,508.13

INTEREST—The following table shows the payments of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchInterestInterest on Overseas Debt as Percentage of Export IncomeRecovery of Interest from Government Enterprises and InvestmentsNet Interest CostNet Cost as a Percentage of Total Taxation
OverseasNew ZealandTotal  
 $(thousand)
1978133,204331,320464,5243.9364,57799,9472.2
1979174,243415,868590,1114.5450,295139,8162.8
1980220,149537,644757,7934.5539,049218,7443.6
1981256,345635,152891,4974.4597,842293,6554.2
1982416,265786,6631,202,9286.2664,394538,5346.1
External Debt
Japanese YenU.S. DollarsSwiss FrancsFrench FrancsI.B.R.D.Australian DollarsCanadian DollarsMiscTotal External DebtTotal Public Debt
NZ$(million)
188.2527.0237.3-----2,100.93,984.1
1.42.5---2.5-3.841.141.1
---------2,534.0
189.6529.5237.3--2.5-3.82,142.06,559.2
5.2822.29.10.9----1,272.54,236.3
9.523.00.91.2-6.04.31.366.268.7
----4.1---4.14.1
14.7845.110.02.14.16.04.31.31,342.94,309.1
32.0138.3263.7—0.41.52.24.60.6514.2514.2
206.9—177.3491.0—2.5—2.7—1.30.33.11,313.22,764.3
586.31,207.21,109.513.818.628.931.97.34,236.111,617.1
793.21,029.91,600.411.315.727.632.210.55,549.414,381.4

A detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1982 is shown in the following table.

AllocationLoan CapitalEquity CapitalTotal Allocations
(a) Loans and investments in corporation and Government agencies—$(thousand)
        Air New Zealand Ltd.60,00070,000130,000
        Alliance Textiles Ltd.1,000 1,000
        Bahrain New Zealand Trading and Storage Company6,2771,5127,789
        Bank of New Zealand 12,65612,656
        Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand 38,90038,900
        Cook Islands Hotels Ltd.5,645 5,645
        Development Finance Corporation of N.Z.29,16725,82554,992
        Energy: Electricity Division2,202,066  
        IBRD projects9,334  
        Capital equipment credit arrangements156,836 2,368,236
        Energy: Geothermal2,730 2,730
        Energy: Mines Division176,404  
        Capital equipment credit arrangements564 176,968
        Housing Corporation1,672,328 1,672,328
        Housing Account (Housing Corporation)782,919 782,919
        IBRD Harbour projects3,617 3,617
        Natural Gas Corporation of N.Z. Ltd.8,881 8,881
        New Zealand Export-Import Corporation3202,0002,320
        New Zealand Steel Ltd.6,000 6,000
        New Zealand Steel Development Ltd. 2,4902,490
        Petroleum Corporation of N.Z. Ltd.22,860107,663130,523
        Post Office562,953  
        Capital equipment credit arrangements3,088 566,041
        Railways398,793206,283 
        IBRD projects2,910  
        Capital equipment credit arrangements86,470 694,456
        Rural Banking and Finance Corporation1,638,300 1,638,300
        Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Ltd. 37,21037,210
        Tourist Hotel Corporation of New Zealand9,25411,94821,202
        Winstone-Samsung Industries Ltd.5,00010,00015,000
   8,380,203
(b) Other debt formerly allocated to Works and Trading Account—   
        Airport development45,435
        Forest (State)233,943
        General public works627,990
        Land settlement284,258
(c) Non-productive debt— 
        Capital liability remitted14,578
        Consolidated Account— 
            Transfer from Loans Account3,645,000
            Capital equipment credit arrangements— 
                Defence14,504
                Foreign Affairs4,632
                Health2,864
                State Services Commission1,299
                Transport3,399
        Currency adjustments530,330
        Subscriptions, etc. to international finance organisations97,710
        Loans Account65,094
        Loans Redemption Account430,140
                Total public debt14,381,379

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1982 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between overseas and internal debt.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*Due
OverseasNew ZealandTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
PublicDepartmental and Other
* In respect of many of the loans the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date
 $(million)
1983772.2536.5157.01,465.7
1984437.2512.3198.21,147.7
1985998.7674.5259.61,932.8
1986424.6550.8680.71,656.1
1987585.0383.0632.11,600.2
1988851.1376.21,180.92,408.2
1989250.9110.4268.7629.9
1990248.392.858.3399.4
1991164.2167.290.2421.6
1992318.4153.2141.4613.1
1993144.724.9150.2319.8
199481.727.178.4187.2
1995272.3272.3
Treasury Bills493.943.7537.7
Inflation adjusted savings bonds599.2599.2
Premium stock171.818.8190.5
    Total5,549.44,873.83,958.214,381.4

PUBLIC DEBT HELD BY GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—As shown in the preceding table, a substantial proportion of the public debt is held by various Government departments and other official bodies. A summary of these holdings as at 31 March of the latest 3 years is as follows:

 At 31 March
198019811982
 $(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account5,7715,9675,966
Earthquake and War Damage Commission372,090438,990519,607
Government Life Insurance106,450114,544124,373
Government Superannuation Fund588,688686,188803,632
Maori Trustee1,9711,7471,742
National Provident Fund42,70073,20083,450
Post Office1,246,9281,311,9281,387,928
Public Trustee3,6133,8632,920
Reserve Bank330,168320,658875,153
Housing Corporation78,829113,67486,829
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation50,38261,38266,382
State Insurance Office250250250
                Total2,827,8403,132,3913,958,232

Chapter 27. Section 27; LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major local authorities are territorial, city, borough, district, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and a wide range of other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to hospital boards will be found in Section 5b.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards where the year ends on the preceding 30 September and United Councils where the year ends on the last day of February.

INCOME—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities.

Rating—Rating provides a financial base which is independent of central government, is relatively cheap to administer and can be adapted to suit local circumstances. There are three main systems of rating:

  1. land value;

  2. capital value (i.e., land plus improvements);

  3. annual (rental) value.

Most territorial authorities in New Zealand (188 of a total of 232) rate on the land value system; 34 rate on the capital value and 10 on the annual value.

For rating on either the capital value or the land value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the territorial authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a territorial authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

The Rating Act 1967 contains the machinery provisions for the making and levying of rates which are applicable to all local authorities empowered to levy rates. The individual empowering Acts for each class of local authority contain their specific rating powers. For example the Local Government Act 1974 contains the rating powers of territorial authorities.

Three broad classes of territorial authority rates are distinguished:

  1. general—for general purposes;

  2. separate rates—levied for a variety of purposes including works and services, fire protection, sewerage and storm water drainage and lighting;

  3. special rates—may be imposed to secure the repayment of loan money.

A territorial authority may levy each year on each separately rateable property a uniform annual charge not exceeding $150 or a lesser amount in the case of any rating area where the levying of such a charge would exceed the maximum authorised general rate. In addition there are a wide range of services for which uniform charges may be levied instead of separate rates.

The Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1980 empowers the council to reintroduce land rating in the Chatham Islands in association with the existing system of import and export dues. The council has been authorised to levy land rates since 1 April 1981 provided that the income from the combination of rates and import and export dues does not exceed the maximum permissible under a land rating system only.

GRANTS FROM CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—A substantial portion of local authority revenue is derived from grants and subsidies. In 1981—82 grants and subsidies amounted to $252.34 million. These grants and subsidies include:

Civil Defence—A dollar for dollar subsidy up to a maximum based on population figures is paid by the Ministry of Civil Defence towards civil defence expenditure such as communications and rescue equipment, alteration and construction of buildings and salaries of civil defence staff.

Community Welfare, Cultural and Recreational Facilities—Much of the $3.78 million provided by the Department of Internal Affairs in 1981—82 for recreation and sport, community and regional service projects and art galleries and museums was used or distributed by territorial authorities. In addition the Department of Social Welfare has funds available for any territorial authority which may wish to establish child-care schemes, rehabilitation or day-care for disabled persons, or other appropriate social welfare programmes.

Electricity—Assistance to local authorities for small hydro schemes is provided through the Committee on Local Hydro Development, while the Rural Electrical Reticulation Council provides subsidies towards the cost of rural distribution lines for power boards and territorial authorities.

Employment—A wide range of training and employment schemes are administered by the Department of Labour. These range from full subsidies for work under the Project Employment and Winter Employment Programmes to subsidies of $40 a week for additional first year apprentices and $75 a week for young people training in employment under the Young Persons Training Programme.

Forestry—The New Zealand Forest Service makes grants to local authorities undertaking commercial afforestation on land in which the authority holds an interest and may contribute towards the costs of road construction and upgrading where these are used mostly by forest generated traffic.

Historic Places—Local authorities which own or are responsible for looking after a historic place or site can apply to the Historic Places Trust for a loan or grant from that fund.

Housing—The Housing Corporation of New Zealand administers a number of schemes relating to housing and urban renewal. These include a combination of loans and subsidies to meet up to the total cost of building flats for the elderly and disabled, subsidies and loans for the building of relocatable granny flats, assistance to modernise older flats and provide emergency housing, loans to build doctor's surgeries in areas where they are needed and loans for community housing. Loans and grants are also available for land redevelopment, land development, neighbourhood improvement and urban renewal. In 1981—82 total payments were $3.38 million.

National Roads Board—The finance available from the National Roads Board in 1981—82 was $99.06 million and represents an important source of revenue for territorial authorities. (See Section 13d).

Noxious Pests and Plants—The Minister of Agriculture may approve grants to pest destruction boards to carry out the control of pests within their districts. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries also operates a dollar for dollar subsidy scheme on the cost of noxious plant control activities.

Urban Passenger Transport—The Urban Transport Council was formed in 1981 and is now the funding body for all urban transport subsidy programmes. In 1981—82 $10.017 million was expended and the budget was increased to $68.7 million for 1982—83 as a result of the inclusion of the urban services budget of the New Zealand Railways Corporation. All municipal and private operators and Railways urban services are now funded through the Urban Transport Council.

Water Supply, Sewage Disposal and Wastes Recycling—A comprehensive water and sewerage subsidy scheme is administered by the Department of Health and provides assistance towards certain loan repayments on existing works and towards the capital costs of new works. Water and sewerage subsidies reached $21 million in 1981—82. In addition the Ministry of Works and Development provides subsidies towards the cost of piped water supply to rural areas and together with the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation provide for a combination of loans and grants for approved community irrigation schemes. Some finance is available from the Department of Trade and Industry for long term waste conversion and recycling programmes.

Petroleum Tax—The Local Government Act 1974 provides for territorial authorities and united and regional councils, to receive the proceeds of a tax of 0.33 cents per litre on diesel fuel and 0.66 cents per litre on petrol. In 1981—82, $17.89 million in petroleum tax was paid to local authorities. The figure for 1980—81 was $17.78 million.

Sales of Commodities and Services—Income from the sale of commodities and services includes, for example, the sale of electricity and gas, public transport fares, and other user charges for council facilities such as libraries, swimming pools and car parking spaces. Income from licences includes dog registration fees and inspection fees.

EXPENDITURE—The purchase of commodities and services makes up over half of the expenditure of local authorities. Other substantial areas of expenditure are labour costs which are one-third of the total and interest payments. Traditional areas of local authority expenditure are roading, water supply, sewerage, drainage and refuse collection while local authority responsibilities have tended to increase in areas such as land use planning and the provision of recreation and welfare services.

The sources of revenue of all local authorities, including electric power boards, are shown by broad classes in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates, Levies, Fines, etc.*Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and Services incl. Water RatesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
Includes rates other than water rates, $386,310,000, and other taxes, fines, etc., $36,339,000 in 1980; and rates other than water rates, $461,698,487 and other taxes, fines, etc., $40,409,352 in 1981.
 $(thousand)
1977272,54597,322627,03749,2331,046,139
1978313,288116,652798,61857,2861,285,848
1979371,522145,591892,57169,5271,479,210
1980422,649155,7891,144,72990,5841,813,752
1981502,108200,1111,336,500108,7382,147,457

Rates were equivalent to $98.92 per head of population during 1977—78, $117.98 per head during 1978—79, $133.95 during 1979—80, and $158.33 during 1980—81.

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric power and gas, and fares collected for public transport.

The payments of all local authorities during each of the latest available 5 years has been as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchLabour and Related CostsPurchases of Commodities and ServicesAll InterestOther PaymentsTotal Payments
 $(thousand)
1977295,983513,95659,21066,325935,475
1978346,571664,07871,00884,6541,166,710
1979433,098764,25485,160100,2831,382,795
1980515,908933,48498,994114,1911,662,577
1981619,6081,116,474120,583130,7291,987,395

Receipts and payments of various classes of local authorities for the year ended 31 March 1981 are shown below.

Receipts
Local AuthorityRates Levies, Fines, etc.Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and ServicesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
 $(thousand)
City and borough councils337,24960,763369,04650,047817,105
County councils100,50265,51134,9609,434210,408
District councils24,38012,49712,0422,18451,103
Electric power boards281,308592,72412,102606,162
Harbour boards860286142,12216,061159,328
Regional authorities2,04830,53549,93911,84294,364
Urban drainage boards14,9853,7869771,06120,809
Catchment boards12,66611,6706,6622,98933,986
Pest destruction boards3,6536,81717639611,042
Urban transport board4,0163034,5772679,162
Other local authorities1,7216,636123,2772,354133,988
            Total502,108200,1111,336,500108,7382,147,457
Payments
Local AuthorityLabour and Related CostsInterestPurchases of Commodities and ServicesOther PaymentsTotal Payments
 $(thousand)
City and borough councils266,16944,664375,10951,178737,119
County councils72,9039,561109,42110,048201,933
District councils15,2402,45026,0961,85645,642
Electric power boards96,08719,413436,69331,245583,438
Harbour boards65,64119,59543,48017,425146,142
Regional authorities39,89613,92523,5094,67182,000
Urban drainage boards6,7734,7284,44125016,192
Catchment boards15,2428208,2431,35525,660
Pest destruction boards5,8711053,71734810,040
Urban transport board6,4122911,9721,36810,042
Other local authorities29,3765,03083,79510,984129,187
    Total619,608120,5831,116,474130,7291,987,395

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows total receipts and payments of territorial local authorities for the years ended 31 March 1979, 1980, and 1981. The local authorities petroleum tax introduced in February 1971 produced $17.9 million in 1979—80 and $17.7 million in 1980—81 for the general purposes of territorial authorities.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197919801981
Receipts$(million)
Rates and grants in lieu310.8354.7425.1
Other taxes and fines34.735.739.4
Grants and contributions from Central Government88.4103.5134.9
Grants and contributions from local authorities25.929.735.7
Sales of main product192.1238.3279.6
Other commodities and services133.3153.1186.6
Interest16.824.430.1
Miscellaneous current receipts32.038.043.4
                Total834.0977.51,174.8
Payments$(million)
Labour and related costs272.7329.3395.1
Interest paid49.758.470.7
Levies and grants to Central Government and local authorities30.734.839.0
Bulk purchase for resale95.6122.8150.0
Other commodities and services280.8307.8384.7
Other current payments20.424.128.8
                    Subtotal749.8877.21,068.3
                    Less capitalised payments40.237.038.0
                    Total709.6840.21,030.3

A wide variety of public utilities and amenities are provided by territorial local government, the main activities being electricity supply, water supply, reading, sewerage, drainage, and refuse collection. The table below shows the current receipts and payments for a number of selected activities for the years ended 31 March 1979, 1980 and 1981.

Excluded from the figures are sales and purchases of fixed assets and repayments of loan moneys.

Activity1978—791979—801980—81
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
 $(million)
Electricity supply122.2108.4x160.3136.0x185.8167.5
Passenger transport38.737.8x47.142.7x50.851.4
Water supply67.760.6x72.667.991.481.6
Road construction and maintenance148.1144.7x159.3160.2x195.6194.3
Refuse, sewerage, and drainage72.170.582.980.0102.399.9
Abattoirs12.411.513.212.615.715.1
Libraries18.317.421.721.128.025.9
Parks and domains47.844.560.956.867.764.4

Many of the services provided are also trading undertakings. Generally speaking, territorial local authorities are restrained from operating trading undertakings that are particularly profitable. Public transport undertakings, which are usually a substantial burden upon ratepayers, are particularly unprofitable. The only major exception is electricity distribution, from which a few territorial local authorities make surpluses.

Grants and Subsidies—A substantial portion of local authority revenues is derived from grants and subsidies, especially those from the National Roads Board. Notes on some of these grants and subsidies are given below.

National Roads Board—The finance available from the National Roads Fund represents an important source of revenue for territorial local authorities (See section 13D).

Forest Service Fifths—The New Zealand Forest Service distributes to territorial local authorities grants equal to one-fifth of net revenue received from the sale of timber, and in the case of national endowment land, one-tenth of net revenue from the sale of timber.

Water and Sewerage Subsidies—From 1960 until 1969 a sewage treatment subsidy was available to local authorities with populations of less than 20 000. In 1969 this scheme was replaced by a more comprehensive water and sewerage subsidy scheme administered by the Department of Health, which provided assistance towards certain loan repayments on existing works and towards the capital costs of new works. There was a subsidy limit of $100,000 for any one project. Up to 31 March 1972 $5.9 million had been approved in respect of this and the earlier scheme. In 1972 the subsidy limit was abolished. In 1981—82 water and sewerage subsidies totalled $21.0 million compared with $16.1 million the previous year.

Rural Water Supply Scheme—The Rural Water Supply Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development and provides for subsidies towards the cost of piped water supply to rural areas. As from December 1974 the Government subsidy rate has been $1 for $1.

Housing for the Elderly—Since 1950 this form of housing has been recognised as being, in the main, the responsibility of local authorities, with the Government providing the necessary finance through subsidies and long-term concessional loans. The cost of flats for the elderly is met by a minimum loan or cash contribution of $3,500 per unit with the balance of the approved cost provided by subsidy. During the year ended 31 March 1982 some 408 flats were completed and the subsidy totalled $2.79 million. During the 5 years 1978 to 1982 the total subsidy was $28.0 million.

Urban Renewal—Grants for urban renewal have been available for local authorities since 1945. Expenditure on these schemes was fixed at $7.5 million per annum for 3 years from 1 April 1979. For the year ended 31 March 1982 payments totalled $2.85 million, $1.95 million less than for the previous year.

Civil Defence—A dollar-for-dollar subsidy towards some items of civil defence costs is paid by the Ministry of Civil Defence.

Rural Electricity Distribution—The Rural Electricity Reticulation Council has since 1947 provided subsidies towards the cost of rural electricity distribution lines. The chief beneficiaries have been power boards, but small amounts have been paid to territorial local authorities.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates the subsidy scheme on the cost of noxious weeds eradication.

Local Authorities Petroleum Tax—Territorial authorities and united and regional councils receive the proceeds of a tax of 0.33 cents a litre on diesel fuel and 0.66 cents a litre on petrol. For 1980—81 this tax produced $17.7 million compared with $17.9 million in 1979—80 and $18.6 million in 1978—79.

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule, local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. the Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. the local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates of interest in the hands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate.

The interest rates current on and from 26 September 1980 are as follows: 1 and 2 years, 12.0 percent; 3, 4, and 5 years, 12.5 percent 6, 7, and 8 years, 13.5 percent; 9 years and over, 13.0 percent.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during 5 recent years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards and the Fire Service Commission are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchValue of Total ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
 $(million)
1978308.2213.317.5
1979391.1279.124.7
1980298.9229.821.0
1981410.5351.417.9
1982400.6311.350.4

The following table shows loans authorised during year ended March 1982, with amounts raised and uplifted to 31 March 1982 on these authorisations.

AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1982Amounts Raised to 31 March 1982Balance Not Raised at 31 March 1982Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1982
 $(thousand)
Territorial Local Authority
    Cities and boroughs114,46629,89884,56828,134
    County councils25,64311,50914,1348,908
    District councils2,6691,3111,3581,234
    Regional authority17,4612,00815,4532,008
    Town Districts7265765
Other Local Authority
    Catchment districts2,5645841,980520
    Electric power and gas boards47,47716,72830,74916,630
    Harbour boards72,12713,25158,87612,612
    Pest destruction boards2346417064
    Urban drainage boards2,7889871,801987
Central Government
    Fire Service Commission3,0231,7501,2731,750
    Hospital boards48,16014,45633,70413,802
    Total336,68492,611244,07386,714

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorities, and the annual charge thereon for the latest 5 years. This does not include hospital board debt or the Fire Service Commission debt.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate Per HeadAmountRate Per Head
 $(000)$$(000)$
19771,053,974335.9108,00734.4
19781,138,550356.4127,90640.0
19791,270,957404.5142,78245.4
19801,385,349440.4164,11252.5
19811,546,220487.6185,36458.4

In the following table gross public debt is classified by types of local authority. It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

Year Ended 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCountiesElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictOther DistrictsTotal
 $(thousand) 
1977435,20184,934134,189189,87542,8923,398163,4851,053,974
1978459,65993,275151,982201,09846,2513,642182,6431,138,550
1979510,038102,449178,570232,14850,9243,405193,4241,270,958
1980552,835x107,437205,166243,73953,8563,208219,108x1,385,349
1981614,271121,031240,925251,05554,3523,050261,5361,546,220

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on local government, especially the financial aspects, will be found in the following publications.

Local Authority Statistics—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Local Authorities Loans Board—(Parl, paper B. 17).

Report of the Local Government Commission (Parl. paper G. 9).

Report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26).

Local Authority Finance in New Zealand—Report of the Local Authority Finance Committee (1973).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Forms of Financial Assistance Available to Local Authorities—Department of Internal Affairs (1980).

Chapter 28. Section 28; INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

Particularly in times of relatively rapid inflation, comparisons between money incomes in different years should be made with caution. To be meaningful, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e., money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person.

The elements of individual and company income and the taxation requirements of a modern welfare state are closely related. Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

INCOME TRENDS: Persons—The data required for the statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means a long time lag before final results of the compilation are available.

In the following table average and median incomes of self-employed persons in selected industries and professions have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basis. The averages and medians are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from self employment alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include an element of return on capital invested as well as a reward for personal work effort.

Activity of Self-Employed Income EarnerIncome YearIncome Year
1979—801980—811981—821979—801980—811981—82
* Arithmetic mean.
 Averages * $Medians $
Agriculture and livestock production—
    Dairy farming9,01010,10012,2007,7608,55010,350
    Sheep farming13,13012,40013,40011,54010,74011,500
    Other farming7,97010,12011,0006,7908,4509,700
Manufacturing8,4308,47011,4506,2806,1307,700
Building and construction9,05010,52013,6508,3709,55012,250
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels8,3109,08010,5006,2106,8307,900
Transport and storage9,68010,19012,1008,2808,36010,660
Business, community, social, and personal services—      
    Legal practitioners28,11031,93040,55024,05029,21036,300
    Chartered accountants24,91025,47029,70024,75023,09028,900
    Medical practitioners (including surgeons, specialists, and physicians)30,69034,53037,6507,81028,75032,500
    Dental practitioners26,04029,91035,70026,48031,33037,550
Other services9,66011,28013,6007,3908,74011,100

COMPANIES—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The effect of the new package of export incentive schemes, announced in the 1979 Budget, and effective from 1 April 1980, is now reflected in the assessable income for 1980—81 and subsequent years.

The incentive, which prior to 1980—81 was a deduction against assessable income, has been replaced by a scheme which gives tax credit for qualifying expenditure. The two schemes were run in parallel until 31 March 1983 in order to smooth the transition to the new scheme.

Caution must therefore be exercised when comparing the assessable income for 1980—81 and subsequent years with earlier statistics.

Industry Division1979—801980—811981—82
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing7 35627.07 40024.57 45022.6
Mining and quarrying29321.530040.230032.0
Manufacturing10 343491.610 400585.710 500763.9
Electricity, gas, and water162.1152.2152.9
Building and construction7 39228.47 10039.37 00039.0
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels23 811415.724 000543.524 100578.9
Transport, storage, and communication2 82134.32 85036.72 85037.6
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services23 858416.823 800473.824 000585.0
Community, social, and personal services4 94327.45 10030.65 15030.6
    Total80 8331,464.880 9651,776.381 3652,092.5

FINAL DATA ON INCOMES—As stated at the beginning of this section, final data on incomes do not become available until a considerable time after the end of the income year. The previous tables in this section are provisional estimates based on restricted samples of tax returns. The summary tables following show final figures, with 1980—81 as the latest year. Final figures are published in detail in the annual report Incomes and Income Tax, published by the Department of Statistics.

The 1977—78 and 1978—79 statistics are based substantially on a 5 percent sample for all incomes of less than $20,000; there is a complete coverage of all incomes of $20,000 and over. For 1979—80 the sample is 4 percent with complete coverage of incomes over $30,000, increased to $40,000 for 1980—81.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems after the deduction of special taxation incentive allowances. Before the deduction of these allowances it is, on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

Classes of Taxpayers—“Persons” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but most local and public authorities are not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Summary—The following tables summarise the main items of information for income years.

PERSONS
YearNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeExemptionsRebatesTaxable IncomeIncome Tax Assessed
 $(thousand)
1977—781 649 02010,232,790483,120444,7609,751,0102,582,750
1978—791 685 52011,831,820504,520361,00011,328,5702,949,310
1979—801 715 96013,788,410569,180232,24013,221,0303,483,330
1980—811 664 25015,859,230617,130218,31015,244,1504,165,350
COMPANIES
YearNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income*Ordinary Dividends ReceivedIncome Tax Assessed

* In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.

† Ordinary dividends received are exempt from tax in the hands of the receiving company and are therefore not included in “assessable income”.

‡ Includes non-resident withholding tax.

 $(thousand)
1975—7678 9521,032,277100,068418,639
1976—7780 7121,233,410130,952511,501‡
1977—7880 4301,036,694221,476452,152‡
1978—7981 3651,330,183272,304577,758‡
1979—8080 8331,464,756280,793630,492‡

A strict comparison of the figures for any year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies, relating to the income year 1979—80.

Industry DivisionStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditure
Sales and ServicesInterest and RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterest and RentsDepreciationGross Profit
 $(million)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing155.3887.315.1192.3207.968.346.7526.5
Mining and quarrying16.3292.75.239.349.625.0
Manufacturing2,694.014,692.583.48,214.12,705.0418.6327.03,991.9
Electricity, gas, and water3.454.90.239.65.40.81.815.6
Building and construction220.61,978.921.2980.1433.062.536.5511.6
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels3,012.521,042.7130.416,814.41,752.9469.1146.53,664.6
Transport, storage, and communication11.11,798.816.048.7465.491.2108.7
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services72.62,010.02,057.492.9642.61,325.079.5
Community, social, and personal services36.9717.713.2187.5273.932.221.0162.0
          Total 1979—806,222.843,475.62,342.226,569.66,525.32,517.4792.68,872.1
                    1978—795,162.936,663.81,892.621,624.95,509.21,882.5781.07,351.7
                    1977—784,848.832,439.01,452.519,031.04,841.71,512.2633.76,108.9

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures for the Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry, and Fishing Industry Division and the Mining and Quarrying Industry Division do not include purchases for forestry companies or for mining and quarrying companies. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for that type of company. This was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from “Mining and quarrying”, and “Transport, storage, and communication”, there are a number of industries included in “Community, social, and personal services” which do not show a gross profit.

Companies with Overseas Affiliations—Two types of companies operating in New Zealand but subject to some degree of overseas control have been identified. The 2 types are:

  1. branches of overseas organisations operating in New Zealand;

  2. New Zealand-registered companies with 25 percent or more of their equity shareholding subject to overseas control.

The second category includes not only companies in which overseas residents have a 25 percent or greater shareholding, but also companies which are subject to this degree of control without themselves having any overseas owners. For instance, if a New Zealand company was 50 percent owned by another New Zealand company, which itself was 50 percent overseas owned, the company would qualify as having 25 percent overseas control. These are generally termed “second generation” companies.

Overseas companies whose only New Zealand income is from investments, patent rights, royalties, copyrights, and the like, are not included in the 1537 companies selected, as they are not considered to be active in the New Zealand economy. Also excluded are those overseas companies such as air and shipping lines, which enjoy exemption from New Zealand income tax under the terms of double taxation agreements with their own countries.

The 25 percent minimum equity criterion used to classify a New Zealand company as subject to some degree of overseas control, approximates the definition of international private direct investment used by such organisations as the International Monetary Fund. Although the measure of overseas control of New Zealand firms varies according to a great number of circumstances, a minimum holding of 25 percent does provide a consistent and practical criterion for determining its presence.

In the following table, 4 significant values for the 1537 overseas controlled companies are shown in industry groups both as absolute values, and as percentages of the totals for all companies assessed for income tax in the 1979—80 income year. The figures for assessable income indicate that overseas-affiliated companies are, on average, larger units than are wholly New Zealand controlled companies. On the other hand it must be remembered that the New Zealand companies include Government trading departments which may follow profit policies different from private sector companies and for which capital values are not included in shareholders' funds. The figures also suggest that there is some concentration of branches and subsidiaries of overseas companies in the nine manufacturing groups and mining and quarrying; these industries offer scope to large concerns with access to capital and technical expertise.

Industry Group Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeIncome Tax AssessedSalaries and WagesDividends Paid

* Companies with overseas affiliations.

† All New Zealand companies including those with overseas affiliations.

‡ Percentage of companies with overseas affiliations to all New Zealand companies.

 $(thousand)
 Overseas*313,4741,5631,33196
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishingAll N.Z.†7,35627,04012,147207,8663,792
 Percent‡0.412.812.90.62.5
Mining and quarryingOverseas*373,1031,2793,7458,338
 All N.Z.†29321,5458,48239,3308,862
 Percent‡12.614.415.19.594.1
Manufacturing—      
    Food, beverages, and tobaccoOverseas*5333,53815,180168,0929,084
 All N.Z.†986123,30955,573759,80040,421
 Percent‡5.427.227.322.122.5
 Overseas*322,8611,28723,1832,027
Textile, wearing apparel and leather goodsAll N.Z.†1,28436,94516,608331,51621,011
 Percent‡2.57.77.77.09.6
 Overseas*61,6697519,541931
Wood and wood products including furnitureAll N.Z.†1,22523,52110,584207,11314,077
 Percent‡0.57.17.14.66.6
Paper and paper productsOverseas*469,6113,86919,0871,771
 All N.Z.†1,11148,72821,921299,67922,344
 Percent‡4.117.717.66.47.9
 Overseas*12569,48631,313129,15220,520
Chemicals and chemical petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic productsAll N.Z.†72892,04041,464241,24827,682
 Percent‡17.275.575.553.574.1
 Overseas*1815,1376,81229,7435,326
Non-metallic mineral products, except products of petroleum and coalAll N.Z.†44623,49410,57281,8657,947
 Percent‡4.064.464.436.367.0
Basic metal industriesOverseas*1037616927,767889
 All N.Z.†1092,8441,28066,9585,342
 Percent‡9.213.213.241.516.6
 Overseas*18873,19732,980210,14721,876
Fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipmentAll N.Z.†3,972135,10760,844687,48740,190
 Percent‡4.754.254.230.654.4
Other manufacturing industriesOverseas*121,8668413,453311
 All N.Z.†4825,5992,52129,370750
 Percent‡2.533.333.411.841.5
Electricity, gas, and water
Construction
Overseas*321,93787116,948497
All N.Z.†7,40830,50913,753438,34712,060
Percent‡0.46.36.33.94.1
 Overseas*40597,12243,526231,86715,873
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotelsAll N.Z.†23,811415,705187,0171,752,93168,064
 Percent‡1.723.423.313.223.3
 Overseas*474,4582,04156,0403,397
Transport, storage, and communicationAll N.Z.†2,82134,26415,464465,35110,502
 Percent‡1.713.013.212.032.3
 Overseas*468173,18864,547225,08439,396
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business servicesAll N.Z.†23,858416,754159,956642,579151,117
 Percent‡2.041.640.435.026.1
 Overseas*277,4123,35212,9361,763
Community, social, and personal servicesAll N.Z.†4,94327,35112,307273,8695,306
 Percent‡0.527.127.24.733.2
All industriesOverseas*1,537497,435210,3811,168,117132,096
 All N.Z.†80,8331,464,756630,4926,525,310439,467
 Percent‡1.934.033.417.930.1

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1981: Incomes of Individuals—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from the Census of Population and Dwellings taken on 24 March 1981.

Final data on incomes from the 1981 Census have been random rounded, and all cell values including row and column totals have been rounded, using simple random rounding, to base three. In some cases, it has been necessary to add rounded figures in order to obtain the required figure. Thus individual figures may not necessarily sum to give the stated total.

The question on incomes in the 1981 Census questionnaire asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1981 from all sources except social security benefits and war pensions (these were the subject of a separate question).

The following table shows, by income group, usually-resident persons in the full-time labour force and also the total usually-resident population aged 15 years and above. Persons in the labour force but with relatively small incomes for the year ended March 1981 would include considerable numbers of school leavers who began work late in 1980 or early in 1981 as well as persons unemployed but seeking work and those assisting relatives without pay.

Over half (52 percent) of the male full-time labour force had incomes between $8,000 and $15,999, while only 41.2 percent of the female labour force had incomes in this range. The median income for males in the labour force was $11,816 and for females $7,693.

The fewer hours worked weekly by women appears to be partly responsible for the income differential. Women made up the majority (81.6 percent) of all persons working less than 35 hours per week, and only constituted 34.2 percent of the full-time labour force.

Income GroupPersons in Full-time Labour ForceTotal Population Aged 15 Years and Over
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
$      
Nil or loss20 04016 69836 738110 835345 225456 060
1—1,99925 45833 76859 22994 674213 645308 319
2,000—4,99942 77171 487114 25575 114144 708219 822
5,000—9,999209 604178 830388 437230 637209 466440 106
10,000—13,999239 71889 466329 184246 19296 975343 170
14,000—19,999176 58326 160202 740179 98229 250209 238
20,000—24,99955 4194 50659 92856 6045 54462 148
25,000—29,99920 4511 34721 79520 9431 76422 707
30,000—39,99916 5391 07417 61317 0191 52118 543
40,000—59,9999 60059410 1979 85584310 698
60,000 and over6 2163516 5676 3574836 840
Not specified54 20131 44985 65382 134116 925199 056
            Total876 606455 7331 332 3421 130 3401 166 3642 296 704

The two following tables show 1981 Census incomes data by the sex and employment status of the recipients. They refer to persons 15 years of age and over who are usually resident in New Zealand. Income from social security benefits and war pensions is excluded.

Income GroupEmployment StatusTotal Full-time Labour Force
Self Employed Has EmployeesSelf Employed No EmployeesWage or Salary EarnerRelative Assisting (Unpaid)Unemployed Seeking WorkNot Specified (20 or More Hours Worked)
$Males
Nil or loss9421 44331517 19314420 040
1—1,9996061 96518 7142613 8378725 458
2,000—4,9992 3886 30630 0932703 6099942 771
5,000—9,99910 83021 243173 2292673 771270209 604
10,000—13,99912 69617 886207 6121111 215204239 718
14,000—19,99911 01610 842154 16448408105176 583
20,000—24,9996 5674 64144 05830933355 419
25,000—29,9993 7712 36714 24112422120 451
30,000—39,9995 1902 7128 5899271216 539
40,000—59,9994 1792 0103 378615159 600
60,000 and over3 6481 0411 50636126 216
Not specified2 4903 38441 3011624 2782 58654 201
            Total64 32975 843696 8941 48834 4793 573876 606
 Females
Nil or loss5137381 77013 51216516 698
1—1,9996991 74626 6881 0233 5318133 768
2,000—4,9992 0343 82262 2716392 62210271 487
5,000—9,9994 3475 028166 7494502 148117178 830
10,000—13,9992 4242 15184 2761294473989 466
14,000—19,9991 2841 26323 400120721826 160
20,000—24,9996516003 19848694 506
25,000—29,9993093306782731 347
30,000—39,99937229436333661 074
40,000—59,9992371801323333594
60,000 and over207666612351
Not specified9691 07124 4206603 40293631 449
            Total14 05217 289392 2354 94125 7731 446455 733
Income GroupNot in Full-time Labour ForceTotal Population Aged 15 Years and Over
RetiredFull-time StudentHousehold Duties (Unpaid)OtherTotal
$Males
Nil or loss44 00135 2141 8759 70590 795110 835
1—1,99942 76823 0766572 70369 21694 674
2,000—4,99921 7358 5233541 73132 34375 114
5,000—9,99917 0821 8543241 77321 033230 637
10,000—13,9995 3703241146666 474246 192
14,000—19,9992 94693543003 399179 982
20,000—24,9991 0531815991 18556 604
25,000—29,99944763349220 943
30,000—39,99942365148017 019
40,000—59,999222272559 855
60,000 and over11433211416 357
Not specified13 9478 4514865 04927 93382 134
            Total150 11177 5773 88822 155253 7341 130 340
$Females
Nil or loss50 20237 236232 7738 316328 527345 225
1—1,99943 86919 062112 4254 524179 877213 645
2,000—4,99914 9074 95350 8952 47273 221144 708
5,000—9,9996 93398721 4381 28130 636209 466
10,000—13,9991 7161775 3223007 50996 975
14,000—19,999789692 1421023 09029 250
20,000—24,9992556753211 0385 544
25,000—29,99999303124171 764
30,000—39,999108332494471 521
40,000—59,9996631746249843
60,000 and over30993132483
Not specified17 7939 09353 6794 90885 476116 925
            Total136 77071 574480 32121 963710 6311 166 364

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made from the information collected at the Census of Population in 1981. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $1000 or more a year, excluding social welfare benefits and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of Household MembersNumber of Private Households WithTotal Households*
No Income Earners1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or More Income Earners
* Includes a number of households where income of members was not specified.
161 494106 692----184 992
256 02889 010137 298---293 004
316 47958 93855 08630 141--164 640
410 83670 51566 77120 28310 464-181 707
55 47839 80437 79412 8016 3632 181105 945
62 61915 30014 3616 4173 1951 50344 019
71 1465 0614 7282 6971 39281916 119
85461 9591 8631 1406454446 711
9 or more5821 4791 5001 0746456035 970
            Total155 208388 758319 40174 55622 7075 5501 003 113

Social Security Income—Some 43.2 percent (988 404 persons) of the resident population aged 15 years and over were receiving a social security benefit for all or part of the year ended March 1981.

Nearly three quarters of these people (73.9 percent) were females of whom 53 percent were receiving family benefit only. The family benefit is the smallest regular cash benefit and the following table shows that females dominate the lower end of social security income distribution.

The most common group for males was $3,000-$3,999 and for females $500-$999 per year. The median social security income for males was $3,188 and for females $959.

Social Security Income for Year Ended 31 March 1981MalesDistribution*FemalesDistribution*
* Excluding nil income.
$No.PercentNo.Percent
Nil867 318429 222
1—49925 51210.4170 96124.5
500—99913 9535.7193 00827.7
1,000—1,99913 5965.647 3676.8
2,000—2,99949 62620.360 9728.8
3,000—3,999104 24442.6140 15720.1
4,000—4,99929 24412.066 7029.6
5,000—5,9995 8412.413 7012.0
6,000 and over2 5651.03 6780.5
Not specified18 44140 602
    Total1 130 3401 166 364

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on income tax will be found in Section 26B Public Account Taxation. Other publications containing information and data on incomes and income tax include the following:

Incomes and Income Tax—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Inland Revenue Department (Parl. paper B. 23).

Census of Population and Dwellings 1976

Vol. 5 Incomes and Social Security Benefits.

Census of Population and Dwellings 1981—Bulletin II National Summary.

Census of Population and Dwellings 1981

Vol. 5 Incomes and Social Security Benefits.

Chapter 29. Section 29; BANKING AND CURRENCY,

The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and 4 commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has a private savings bank subsidiary. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call. Particularly during the 1960s, an expansion in the size and scope of near-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) was a feature in New Zealand as in many other countries. The Reserve Bank's publication Monetary Policy and the New Zealand Financial System (Second edition 1983) provides a general oversight of the financial system and the implementation of monetary policy in New Zealand.

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND—The Reserve Bank of New Zealand, the central bank, was originally established in 1933 as a privately-owned institution, but became a fully State-owned institution in 1936. A brief survey of its historical development was included in this section in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks. The 1933 Act establishing the bank was the culmination of proposals ranging back to 1886 that a central bank or a State trading bank should be set up in New Zealand. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 and amendments provided the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provided the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action as might be appropriate to the times with respect to any financial institution.

Functions of the Bank—Section 8 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, as amended in 1973, states the primary functions of the bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  1. The primary functions of the bank shall be—

    1. To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    2. To ensure that the availability and conditions of credit provided by financial institutions are not inconsistent with the sovereign right of the Crown to control money and credit in the public interest; and

    3. To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, credit, and overseas exchange; and

    4. Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

  2. For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand, having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest level of production and trade and full employment, and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  3. The bank shall, as directed by the Minister, regulate and control on behalf of the Government—

    1. Money, banking, banking transactions, any class of transactions of financial institutions, credit, currency and the borrowing and lending of money;

    2. Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    3. Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.

  4. The bank shall make such loans to the Government and on such conditions as the Minister decides from time to time, in order to ensure the continuing full employment of labour and other resources of any kind.

    The bank also has a number of subsidiary functions including:

    1. Banking functions for the Government, Government trading organisations, and the primary produce marketing authorities as well as for the trading banks.

    2. Management of the note and coin issue.

    3. Management of public and local authority debt.

    4. Management of foreign exchange reserves.

    5. The administration of various acts including the Overseas Investment Act 1973, the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948, and the Private Savings Bank Act 1964.

    6. The administration of various regulations including the Financial Services Regulations 1979 (surveillance of prices) as well as regulations concerning the trustee and private savings banks and the public sector securities requirements of other financial institutions.

    7. Maintaining relations with international organisations such as IMF, IBRD and OECD.

    8. Economic research.

Whilst the bank must give effect to Government monetary policy, or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the management of the bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the bank, and the bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rates of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. These rates are fixed by the bank in accordance with directives given to the bank by the Minister of Finance. The Governor, with the prior consent of the Minister, may temporarily suspend dealings in foreign exchange.

Since the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, the bank's duty is described as “to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves”. The bank keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, the bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in Part IV of the Act, as are provisions for regulations covering dealings in gold. This part of the Act also provides for an indemnity under which changes in the New Zealand currency value of the bank's overseas assets (less offsetting changes in the New Zealand currency value of its overseas liabilities) are settled between the bank and the Government.

Regulation of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

This section authorises the application of reserve ratios. Subject to the approval of the Minister, the trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of specified kinds, including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets, or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1973 extended the controls previously exercised over the trading banks to include all financial institutions. The Amendment Act provided the monetary authorities with forms of control over non-bank financial institutions including the power to make recommendations or give directives, to specify rates of interest, to require the holding of specified assets, and to inspect books and request information. Apart from these direct controls over financial institutions, the Reserve Bank may influence the financial system by buying and selling Government securities. Fuller information on instruments of monetary control and their operation is given later in this section.

Statistics collected from trading banks, finance companies, building societies, the short-term money market, the commercial bill market, life assurance companies, stock and station agents, and all savings banks appear regularly in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest 3 years, and weekly averages for calendar (December) years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK
YearBank NotesDepositsOverseas LiabilitiesOther LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
StateMarketingOtherShort-termLong-termAllocation of Special Drawing Rights
 $(million)
 Monthly Average for Calendar Year
1980527.2237.5113.4141.3215.8436.6157.4107.41,936.5
1981588.6226.079.660.3187.5530.4191.4146.82,010.5
1982625.8347.295.145.6149.91,261.8207.7219.92,953.0
 At End of June
1980513.8229.1111.0149.2211.3436.0157.7107.61,915.7
1981567.8210.976.023.9113.8511.0188.4143.31,835.0
1982627.7238.183.539.1340.11,125.8207.2171.72,833.2
ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK
YearGoldOverseas AssetsInvestments in New ZealandAdvances and DiscountsOtherOther Assets
Short-termLong-termSpecial Drawing RightsStateMarketingTrading Banks  
 $(million)
 Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19800.7159.227.229.9579.4281.4652.0128.10.278.3
19810.7160.727.232.6592.5286.3636.9121.62.6149.4
19820.7190.***19.111.21,227.080.6885.5165.93.6368.7
 At End of June
19800.767.227.223.9493.7486.2726.732.1-58.2
19810.7104.927.534.7504.4368.9696.621.80.575.1
19820.729.317.33.91,334.542.5956.145.51.3402.0

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders. New Zealand has a branch banking system with over 1000 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1982. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the laws relating to cheques drawn on a bank. The trading banks must also comply with the Credit Contracts Act 1981, which came into effect in June 1982.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on an “on demand” basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient and widely used instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. Since 1979 cheques have been complemented by the introduction of bank credit cards which combine facilities for settlement of private debts and provision of credit. In general, banks concentrates their advances in such short-term areas as financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements. The major form of bank lending to customers is still by way of overdraft but term lending, mainly for medium terms of from 2—5 years, has grown rapidly from approximately 3 percent of total bank lending in December 1971 to 40 percent in December 1982.

With the enactment of the Private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964, offering ordinary, investment, thrift club, home ownership, and special purpose accounts.

There are 4 trading banks in New Zealand, following the merger during 1982 of the Commercial Bank of Australia Limited and the Bank of New South Wales to form Westpac Banking Corporation, which is incorporated in Australia. The other three banks—the Bank of New Zealand, the ANZ Banking Group (New Zealand) Limited, and the National Bank of New Zealand Limited—were incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand. The New Zealand activities of the ANZ Banking Group were incorporated as a subsidiary in 1979, and an offer of shares was made to the public in 1980. The four trading banks jointly own a computer company, Databank Systems Limited. Databank has had a national network of computer centres operating since 1969. This network handles the daily operations of the banks, including the clearing of cheques.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1982 it had 236 branches and 153 agencies in New Zealand, a branch and a sub-branch in London, 9 branches in Australia, and 23 branches and agencies in Fiji. It also has a branch in Singapore, one in New York, a representative office in Japan, and an agency in Los Angeles. The bank owns 50 percent of the shareholding of the Bank of Western Samoa and 20 percent of the capital of the Bank of Tonga.

In common with other trading banks, the Bank of New Zealand operates a savings bank in New Zealand. In addition, it has a 64 percent shareholding in BNZ finance Company Limited and a 50 percent interest in the Sydney-based finance company, Hunter BNZ Finance Ltd. It holds a 30 percent interest in a joint venture with Bradbury, Wilkinson and Company Ltd. of the United Kingdom to establish and operate a security printing plant at Whangarei.

Trading income (including income from investments) of the Bank of New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1982 was $251.3 million compared with $186.1 million the previous year and $138.0 million in 1979—80. Of the 1981—82 total of $251.3 million, operating expenses took $181.3 million and provision for taxation $35.3 million, leaving a net profit of $34.6 million compared with $23.1 million in the previous year and $13.2 million in 1979—80.

The total assets of the bank and its subsidiaries as at 31 March 1982 amounted to $5,298.7 million. Among the main items were advances, bills discounted, lease receivables, and sundry debts ($3,513.0 million), Government and local body securities ($900.5 million), and cash on hand, items in transit, and deposits with bankers ($746.6 million). Bank properties and equipment were valued at $131.8 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits at $4,408.9 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest 5 calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*
YearLiabilities in New ZealandLiabilities Outside New ZealandTotal LiabilitiesTotal Deposits Per Head of Mean Population
DepositsOther Liabilities
DemandTime

* Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.

† Compensatory deposits included.

 $(million)
 Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19781,471.52,360.073.1112.94,017,51,218.8x
19791,652.02,966.978.0129.64,826.51,469.5x
19801,787.43,626.885.8146.75,646.71,725.4x
19812,040.24,235.2108.2173.76,557.31,994.3x
19822,214.04,895.0143.3242.17,494.42,248.2
 At End of June
19781,451.82,278.444.7118.43,893.31,186.6x
19791,667.22,737.695.5122.44,622.71,401.4x
19801,813.63,462.078.8129.65,484.01,681.2x
19812,088.54,124.575.3208.36,496.61,974.4x
19822,376.74,756.1188.3208.17,529.12,255.7
SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS
YearCoinReserve Bank NotesDemand Deposits Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsInvestmentsLoans*Other AssetsTotal Selected AssetsRatio of Loans to Total Deposits

* Includes advances, discounts and terra lending but excludes interbank lending.

† Includes interbank lending, land and buildings.

 $(million)
 Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19786.568.44.3272.21,091.82,631.5162.74,237.468.7
19797.066.90.2326.41,180.53,321.8180.35,082.971.9
19807.568.70.3416.11,441.13,820.9179.85,934.470.6
19817.973.81.0489.11,425.74,749.5221.26,968.275.7
19828.068.41.5560.31,333.35,793.2246.48,011.181.5
 At End of June
19785.762.110.4284.41,025.62,528.7166.84,083.767.8
19796.463.0390.8995.43,288.7159.94,904.274.7
19807.266.6440.61,436.63,714.4180.75,846.170.4
19817.168.6542.41,498.74,596.1179.46,892.374.0
19827.561.9619.11,246.05,867.8254.58,056.982.3

Interest rates on trading banks overdrafts are given in the following table.

Rate Charged, PercentPercentage of Total Overdrafts at Each Rate as at End of March
1979198019811982
Less than 64.23.73.73.8
6 and less than 84.50.60.20.3
8 and less than 1046.73.20.10.2
10 and less than 1224.742.97.310.2
12 and less than 1416.829.748.542.6
14 and less than 163.113.524.423.9
16 and less than 184.910.513.1
18 and less than 201.24.85.5
20 and over0.10.50.5
100.0100.0100.0100.0 

The following table gives interest rates on trading bank term loans.

Rate Charged, PercentPercentage of Total Term Loans at Each Rate as at End of March
19781979198019811982
Less than 6-0.10.10.10.1
6 and less than 810.42.40.40.20.2
8 and less than 1028.816.91.00.40.1
10 and less than 1219.219.617.09.04.2
12 and less than 1441.561.035.97.77.3
14 and less than 1637.248.729.6
16 and less than 188.031.151.0
18 and less than 200.32.77.4
20 and over0.10.10.2
 100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

An analysis of overdrafts and term lending by the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group14 March 197912 March 198011 March 198110 March 19829 March 1983
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—$(million)
    (a) Mainly dairy farming70.787.4108.6154.0158.9
    (b) Mainly sheep farming96.9114.5168.1225.7219.6
    (c) Other farming124.1146.4190.1277.9295.8
    (d) Farm services24.631.645.349.849.8
    (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing25.630.638.359.554.5
    Subtotal341.8410.5550.4766.9778.6
2. Mining and quarrying11.08.99.126.718.3
3. Manufacturing—     
    (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.38.750.051.460.524.6
    (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.367.7392.7402.2402.2366.5
    (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco74.095.4115.0159.3142.8
    (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing76.992.885.299.7110.4
    (e) Pulp and paper and paper products50.559.356.891.686.3
    (f) Metal products, machinery, and engineering169.6199.4211.9246.9266.6
    (g) Transport equipment37.257.888.690.676.5
    (h) Other manufacturing179.7229.0275.1325.8373.1
    Subtotal994.31,176.21,286.01,476.51,446.7
4. Construction142.9153.1167.2191.9174.8
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services4.06.022.827.717.1
6. Transport, storage, and communication86.789.6133.5160.0205.1
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—     
    (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers103.5154.6195.3200.6204.7
    (b) Wholesalers, other65.580880.3109.8116.4
    (c) Retailers174.3217.2225.8306.8304.1
    (d) Woolbuyers122.2180.4159.3174.1150.7
    (e) Stock and station agents58.882.987.0119.797.5
    (f) Finance companies (mainly merchant banks/stand-bys)16.321.622.335.120.9
    (g) Other financial institutions80.587.4105.0136.4117.0
    Subtotal621.0824.7875.01,082.51,011.3
8. Local bodies, n.e.i.13.17.713.812.614.0
9. Services214.2235.5286.4408.3464.2
10. Personal—     
    (a) For housing purposes324.1349.5400.7596.1697.8
    (b) Other279.0322.2496.8675.3660.5
    Subtotal603.1671.6897.51,271.41,358.3
    Total3,032.33,583.94,241.55,424.55,488.5

Trading Bank Credit Authorities—The following table shows calendar-year averages and end of June figures for unexercised overdraft and term-loan authorities, total credit limits, and the percentage utilisation of credit limits.

YearUnexercised Overdraft and Term Loan AuthoritiesTotal Credit LimitsUtilisation of Credit Limits
 $(m)$(m)%
Average for Calendar Year   
19781,016.23,647.772.1
19791,177.24,499.173.8
19801,372.65,193.573.6
19811,858.26,607.771.9
19822,057.77,843.673.9
At End of June   
19781,020.33,549.071.3
19791,187.44,476.173.5
19801,300.15,087.374.4x
19811,860.16,456.171.2
19821,974.87,854.274.9

MONEY AND CREDIT AGGREGATES—The money supply and selected liquid assets of the public, and claims of monetary institutions by sector, as at 31 March of each of the latest 4 years are shown in the following tables. The table showing the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public sets out the deposit liabilities of the major financial institutions accepting deposits from the public. Institutions included in the table are the trading banks, the Reserve Bank (currency in circulation), the private and trustee savings banks, the P.O.S.B., finance companies, stock and station agents, and the official money market dealers. The table showing the claims of monetary institutions by sector deals with the asset side of those institutions' balance sheets. The domestic breakdown of assets is according to investments with the Government (predominantly holdings of Government securities), and with the private sector (including local authority securities, loans, etc.), plus the Reserve Bank's net advances to the marketing and stabilisation sector. The sum of these 3 classifications provides a “domestic credit” aggregate which, when adjusted for institutions' net overseas assets and a residual item, can be reconciled to the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public aggregate.

Over the last four years the annual growth rate of the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public (M3) has fluctuated around an average rate of 17 percent. In December 1978 the annual growth rate of M3 was 21.3 percent and at the end of 1980 this growth rate had dropped back to 12.5 percent. During 1981, M3 steadily increased again, reflecting the buoyant monetary conditions which prevailed, and reached a high of 17.9 percent in September 1981. As the balance of payments deteriorated the expansion of M3 contracted markedly during 1982, to a level substantially below the rate of inflation.

The annual growth rate of domestic credit followed much the same pattern, although at a higher level. Although domestic credit growth continued rising after the downturn in M3 growth, reaching a peak of 22.9 percent in March 1982, the annual growth rates since this date have fallen away, in line with the movements in M3.

Private sector credit growth, a major component of domestic credit growth, was particularly strong during 1981, reaching a peak of 33.8 percent per annum in September. The very high growth rate recorded in September 1981 was partly due to the unseasonal impact of trading bank overdraft interest charges. Even without this effect, however, it has been estimated that the annual growth rate would have been approximately 30 percent. During 1982 private sector credit contracted very sharply as lending institutions adjusted loan portfolios to better match a lower deposit growth rate, and as the demand for credit eased because of weakening activity and reduced inflation.

Money Supply and Selected Liquid Assets of the PublicAs at 31 March
1979198019811982

* Notes and coin on issue from Reserve Bank minus till money of trading banks.

† Trading bank demand deposits minus Government deposits and trading bank deposits held by financial institutions included in table.

‡ Net of deposits of included institutions with each other.

 $(million)
Money supply (M1)—
    Notes and coins*454.8491.3535.1592.6
    Demand deposits†1,539.71,602.31,844.72,189.3
    Savings bank cheque accounts40.953.071.796.3
    Total2,035.42,146.62,451.52,878.2
    Annual rate of increase18.3%5.5%14.2%17.4%
Other demand deposits‡—
    Private savings banks536.2517.8547.5551.1
    Trustee savings banks778.4783.6828.6868.2
    P.O. savings bank970.1980.51,029.31,065.4
    Stock and station agents69.676.363.285.5
    Finance companies96.2120.8167.2256.9
    Money market31.835.035.758.2
    Total2,482.32,514.02,671.52,885.3
Total demand deposits and money supply (M2)4,517.74,660.65,123.05,763.5
Annual rate of increase16.4%3.2%9.9%12.5%
Time and fixed deposits†—
    Trading banks2,395.83,061.03,461.34,104.8
    Private savings banks317.0430.7480.8505.9
    Trustee savings banks593.8777.31,047.61,327.8
    POSB637.8708.9787.0864.5
    Stock and station agents46.455.065.568.3
    Finance companies826.71,102.31,363.01,762.7
    Money market1.24.28.15.4
    Total4,818.76,139.47,213.38,639.4
Money supply and selected liquid assets of the public (M3)9,336.410,800.012,336.314,402.9
Annual rate of increase22.5%15.7%14.2%16.8%
Claims of Monetary Institutions by SectorAs at 31 March
1979198019811982
 $(million) (annual % changes in parentheses)
Government3,841.6 (15.4)4,065.7 (5.8)4,377.0 (7.7)4,849.8 (10.8)
Marketing and stabilisation536.4 (24.4)529.7 (—1.2)600.1 (13.3)704.8 (17.4)
Private sector5,441.1 (25.0)6,611.6 (21.5)7,958.2 (20.4)10,344.3 (30.0)
Domestic credit9,819.1 (21.0)11,207.0 (14.1)12,935.3 (15.4)15,898.9 (22.9)
Overseas—181.9—208.0—68.4—864.3
Residual—300.8—199.0—530.6—631.7
    Total9,336.4 (22.5)10,800.0 (15.7)12,336.3 (14.2)14,402.9 (16.8)

RECENT MONETARY CONDITIONS AND POLICY—The period since the mid-1970s has been characterised by several intervals of rapid monetary expansion. Consequently emphasis has been placed in recent times, on developing a more active and flexible Government debt policy both to offset fluctuations in the money supply and credit, and to finance the Government deficit in a non-inflationary manner. A general slackening in economic activity through mid-1980 meant that, even with a neutral monetary policy stance, growth rates of monetary and credit aggregates continued to slow through the year. By mid-year all the major aggregates were growing at rates slower than the rate of inflation. The only major exception to this was finance company lending which had continued to expand through 1980 at almost twice the rate of inflation. In response to this development, finance company ratio requirements were increased from 22½12; percent to 25 percent, at a time when little pressure was being placed by the authorities on other financial institutions.

In September 1980 a new method of marketing New Zealand Government securities was announced. Government stock in future would be issued on a tap basis rather than as cash loans. A tap issue is a stock issue which is continuously available rather than one that is sold for a limited period. It has the advantage that the issue can be withdrawn when the desired level of sales has been reached. The coupon rate on the tap issue securities is fixed at the commencement of each issue, but the price, and therefore the yield, are variable during the currency of the issue. This means that the yield curve can be changed by small amounts during the currency of the issue in line with Government policy. In September 1980 the Government lowered the yield curve on its securities, on average by ½12; percent.

An expansion in trading bank credit limits in October 1980 resulted in a return to higher rates in the growth of credit.

Monetary conditions continued to ease during 1981, initially in line with Government's policy of supporting the emerging recovery of economic activity. However, the renewed demand for credit quickly gathered momentum and it became apparent later in the year that the financial institutions were rapidly expanding their loan portfolios to accommodate this demand. Deposits of many of these institutions on the other hand were growing less rapidly. The annual growth rate of trading bank deposits was around 20 percent for the September year 1981, whereas lending grew by around 30 percent over the same period. In response to these rapid growth rates, the financial institutions were told to moderate their lending activity. To reinforce this request, the Government increased its efforts to market government securities to the general public thus helping to finance the Government's deficit in a non-inflationary manner and to reduce the growth rates of the money and credit aggregates.

New Zealand Government Premium Stock—In October 1981, there were 2 developments which significantly affected the level of sales of government securities. Firstly an issue of New Zealand Government Premium Stock was announced which carried a coupon rate of 12 percent, plus premium payments of 4 percent after 2 years, and a further 10 percent after 4 years. The maximum subscription per investor was $250,000 and the stock could be redeemed after 6 weeks on 2 weeks' notice. The Premium Stock issue was moderately successful with total subscriptions to the end of December 1982 of $270 million, by which time the sales had slowed significantly. This compared with total subscriptions for the 1979—80 issue of Savings Stock of $361 million. The New Zealand Government Premium Stock was withdrawn on 18 March 1983.

Lower growth rate in deposits, coupled with the Government's withdrawal of funds from the financial system, meant that competition for deposits between the financial institutions became intense with resultant increases in interest rates. Around this time the Government became concerned that interest rates were rising to levels inconsistent with the goal of reducing inflation. Consequently the institutions were requested to hold interest rates down.

However interest rate pressures did not abate and in November 1981 the Government gazetted regulations designed to limit increases in lending interest rates. Details of the regulations are on page 766.

During the first 9 months of 1982, the Government maintained a relatively steady fiscal stance, which combined with the deterioration in the current account external deficit, produced a substantial tightening of monetary conditions.

By mid-October trading bank reserves assets had fallen to $750 million, and the annual growth rates of M3 and private sector credit had declined to 9 percent and 14 percent respectively (compared with 18 percent and 30 percent a year earlier).

Wage-Price Freeze—In June 1982 the Government introduced a freeze on wages, prices, interest rates and other fees, designed to bring down the rate of inflation. As part of this programme, the Government imposed a schedule of ceiling interest rates on deposits, and extended controls on lending rates introduced in November 1981.

Since October 1982 there has been an easing in monetary conditions due to the October tax cuts, which signalled a shift to a more expansionary fiscal policy, a flattening in the current account external deficit, and a substantial inflow of private capital from overseas. As a result trading bank reserve assets have increased, reaching $2,000 million by January 1982; but demand for loans has remained weak. The main effects of the increased liquidity has been some easing of nominal interest rates, and a rapid reduction of lending to deposit ratios to more normal levels.

Inflation Adjusted Savings Bonds—A second series of Inflation Adjusted Savings Bonds was announced and the main features of the new series were an increase in the maximum permitted holding of bonds per individual from $10,000 to $20,000, and some relaxation of the early redemption facilities associated with these bonds. The new series of bonds proved to be very successful, with total subscriptions for the year ended December 1982 totalling $535 million.

Kiwi Savings Stock—Between 21 March-16 June 1983 a new Government Savings Stock instrument, Kiwi Savings Stock, was introduced and replaced New Zealand Government Premium Stock. The stock attracted 15 percent interest per annum and is redeemable (subject to the interest rate being adjusted to 13 percent per annum on any stock redeemed within 12 months of purchase date). There was no maximum on the amount which is held by eligible investors.

The total amount of subscriptions received by the Reserve Bank up to 14 June was $1,175 million, and it was estimated that a further $70 million was in the ‘pipeline’. Repayments made or requested totalled $177 million.

MONETARY INSTRUMENTS: Trading Banks—In June 1973, a new system of controlling trading bank operations was introduced. The reserve assets ratio scheme consists of a conventional liquidity requirement with the minimum ratios expressed as a percentage of total trading bank deposits. When setting the ratio an allowance is made for a policy margin of free reserves. This margin is a “buffer” between the liquidity requirement and actual reserve holdings. It is included to allow for unforeseen shocks to the banking system and to give the banks some flexibility in managing their portfolios. The margin can be reduced or increased depending upon the prevailing monetary policy. The ratio is varied to take account of seasonal and random influences on bank liquidity, and to put into effect a change in credit policy. A bank unable to meet its reserve requirement has to borrow the shortfall from the Reserve Bank on conditions determined by the Reserve Bank. In July 1980 these conditions changed so that, rather than having to hold penal borrowings as non-interest-bearing deposits, banks will now hold these borrowings as deposits which will bear interest at rates which may be varied by the authorities. The interest rate on these deposits will decline as the level of borrowing rises, providing a flexible and progressive extension to the penal borrowing arrangements. Prior to August 1980, the percentage reserve requirements were normally less for time deposits than for demand deposits, in order to give the banks an incentive to compete for term deposits. However, by August 1980 time deposits had grown sufficiently for this distinction to be removed. Reserve assets consist of trading banks' holdings of notes and coin and Government securities and of the time and demand balances of the trading banks at the Reserve Bank. Details of the reserve ratios are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Savings Banks—All Post Office Savings Bank deposits are invested in Government and public corporation securities apart from cash requirements and loans to the private sector (introduced in 1973 and subsequently extended).

The trustee and private savings banks have been required to invest a proportion of their deposits, after allowing for statutory cash requirements, in Government securities. The savings banks ratios have been high compared with other financial institutions. Since March 1968 the ratios have been reduced in stages, primarily to increase investment in housing mortgages, but also to rationalise ratio controls across various institutions.

Finance Companies—Capital issues control on finance companies was abolished in 1962 and “voluntary” agreements on investments existed until capital issues control was reintroduced in February 1967. These controls were abolished again in June 1969. The finance companies were then required to invest a prescribed percentage of their “borrowings” in Government securities. The initial ratio of 10 percent which was to be attained by July 1970 was phased in over 4 quarters. This ratio has been varied since as a tool of monetary policy. In October 1975 it was increased from 10 percent to 15 percent; in February 1978 it was reduced to 12½12; percent; in October 1978 it was raised to 15 percent; in April 1979 it was increased to 20 percent; in October 1979 it was increased to 22½12; percent; and in July 1980 to 25 percent.

Life Insurance Companies—Between 1965 and 1969 there were several “voluntary” agreements with the insurance companies regarding investment in Government securities. In October 1969 the bases of the present controls were introduced. The insurance companies “voluntarily” agreed to invest 30 percent of their “assets” in public sector (Government and local authority) securities with a minimum of 22½12; percent in Government securities. By October 1973, when this arrangement was formalised, the minimum Government securities ratio had been reduced to 22 percent and it was later reduced to 19 percent with an overall ratio of 29 percent. However, in July 1980 the minimum ratio in Government securities was raised to 20 percent and the overall ratio in public sector securities to 30 percent.

In July 1982 the security requirement was increased to 31 percent. The compulsory minimum Government security requirement remained at 20 percent, and the local authority investment option increased by 1 percent to 11 percent.

Building Societies—From November 1970 the building societies were required over a 5-year transitional period to reach and maintain 5 percent of their “assets” in public sector securities (with a minimum of 3 percent in Government securities). The 1976 Budget announced the phasing-in, over a 10 year period, of a 15 percent public sector securities requirement, with a minimum of 11 percent in Government securities. The savings banks operations of authorised building societies are also required to invest a proportion of their deposits in Government securities. In July 1982 the public securities investment requirement was increased to 16 percent. The compulsory minimum Government security requirement remained at 11 percent and the local authority security option increased by 1 percent to 5 percent.

Private Superannuation Funds—In June 1970 the private superannuation funds were given a 5-year transitional period in which to place 30 percent of their assets in public sector securities in order to qualify for tax exemptions. This agreement was formalised in August 1975 and provision was made for the ratio to increase by 2 percent annually to 40 percent by April 1980. Up to 10 percent of the increased requirements could be met by authorised “housing” investments. In July 1982 the overall public security requirement was increased to 31 percent. The Government security requirement remained at 20 percent and the local authority security option increased by 1 percent to 11 percent.

Official Money Market Dealers—From the time of their official recognition late in 1962, dealers have been subject to deposit limits and controls on assets they can hold. Currently, dealers must hold at least 60 percent of their funds in Government Securities.

Reserve Bank Lending Rate—In effect, the Reserve Bank's lending rate is the rate at which trading banks may borrow from the bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum ratio requirements. The lending rate does not apply to advances to the State or marketing organisations, but it does apply to the official money market dealers who are accorded lender-of-last-resort facilities by the bank.

The rate was increased from 10 percent to 12 percent from 1 May to 10 November 1977, but then reverted to 10 percent in order to reduce trading bank competition for short-term deposits and thus put downward pressure on interest rates in line with general economic policy at the time. In November 1978 the discount rate was raised to 12 percent and in January 1979 to 13 percent in order to maintain relationship with market rates, which had risen, and to reinforce the restraints on credit growth. In July 1980 it was raised to 14 percent in connection with the changes to the penal borrowing arrangements outlined above. In July 1981 the penal borrowing rate was reduced to 13 percent as part of the Government's policy to ease interest rate pressures.

Interest Rate Controls—As part of its stabilisation policy, the Government introduced the Interest on Deposits Regulations in March 1972. These regulations prescribed maximum rates of interest payable by non-bank financial institutions. After being amended in 1974 and 1975, the regulations were revoked in March 1976.

Until March 1976, when the fixed rates were changed to maximum rates, the interest payable on deposits at trustee and private savings banks was, like the POSB, absolutely controlled. While there have been no changes in the rate of interest on “other” accounts, the interest rates on investment accounts had increased several times making them more competitive with other deposit instruments. In 1977 the restrictions on savings bank investment accounts were largely removed.

As a result of interest rate pressure late in 1981 the Government in November amended the Financial Services Regulations 1979, in order to limit increases in lending interest rates. The regulations require all lenders employing funds of more than $2 million to give the Reserve Bank fourteen days' notice of any proposed increases in lending interest rates. A rate increase can be implemented at the end of fourteen days if the Bank took no action, but if the Bank raises an objection the increase can be implemented only to the extent authorised. In deciding particular cases the Bank was required to have regard to the Government's economic policies and was permitted to take into account the profitability of the lender's operations. Decisions by the Bank are subject to appeal to the Commerce Commission.

In June 1982, the Government broadened the coverage of interest rate controls when it introduced a freeze on wage, prices, interest rates and other fees. Under the Financial Services Regulations 1982 any lender with loans outstanding of more than $100,000 now must charge an interest rate no greater than would have been charged on 22 June 1982. The Financial Services Regulations were subsequently amended in August 1982 to cover all lenders with loans outstanding of $10,000 or more. Similarly deposit interest rates have been controlled through the Interest on Deposits Order 1982 (subsequently replaced by the Interest on Deposits Order No. 2, 1982).

Deposit interest rates are restricted to the maximum levels set out in the schedules prepared by the Reserve Bank (refer to the following table). Maximum rates vary according to the type of financial institution, and the size and term of the deposit. Both the above sets of regulations are due to expire in June 1983.

INTEREST ON DEPOSITS SCHEDULE
MAXIMUM INTEREST RATES PAYABLE
Period of DepositTrading Banks and Savings BanksBuilding SocietiesFinance Companies and Other Financial Institutions
* Not applicable to trading banks as they cannot offer deposits of less than 30 days.
Maximum rate of interest % per annum
Rates for deposits not exceeding $20,000
    Repayable at call8.5*9.011.0
    Not less than 7 days but less than 30 days9.5*10.011.0
    Not less than 30 days but less than 60 days10.010.511.5
    Not less than 60 days but less than 90 days11.011.512.5
    Not less than 90 days but less than 180 days11.512.013.0
    Not less than 180 days but less than 1 year12.513.014.0
    Not less than 1 year but less than 2 years13.514.015.0
    Not less than 2 years but less than 3 years14.014.515.5
    Not less than 3 years14.515.016.0
Rates for deposits exceeding $20,000 but not exceeding $100,000
    Repayable at call9.510.012.0
    Not less than 7 days but less than 30 days10.511.012.0
    Not less than 30 days but less than 60 days11.011.512.5
    Not less than 60 days but less than 90 days12.012.513.5
    Not less than 90 days but less than 180 days12.513.014.0
    Not less than 180 days but less than 1 year13.514.015.0
    Not less than 1 year but less than 2 years14.515.016.0
    Not less than 2 years but less than 3 years15.015.516.5
    Not less than 3 years15.516.017.0
Rates for deposits exceeding $100,000
    Repayable at call10.511.013.0
    Not less than 7 days but less than 30 days11.512.013.5
    Not less than 30 days but less than 60 days12.513.014.0
    Not less than 60 days but less than 90 days14.014.515.0
    Not less than 90 days in the case of a savings bank16.5percent per annum
    Not less than 90 days in the case of a building society17.0percent per annum
    Not less than 90 days in the case of a finance company or other person17.5percent per annum

In addition to the above interest rate controls, the deposit interest rates of various institutions are controlled in other ways. The interest rate paid on ordinary, thrift club, special purpose, and home lay-by accounts at the Post Office, trustee savings banks, and private savings banks has been controlled since the 1930s. It is currently set at 3 percent. The Post Office Savings Bank (POSB) and trustee savings banks also offer school, home ownership, fishing vessel ownership, and farm ownership accounts with the same rate of interest.

No interest is paid on cheque accounts but non-profit institutions may receive 3 percent interest on accounts with cheque facilities. No interest is payable on deposits of less than 30 days with trading banks.

In June 1982 the Credit Contracts Act came into effect. This replaced the Moneylenders Act 1908, which had restricted lending rates for non-licensed moneylenders to 15 percent. The 1982 Act requires greater disclosure of the terms of credit contracts, and assists consumers in comparing the contracts offered by different lenders.

Directives—The Reserve Bank can also issue directives to supplement the other instruments. For instance, for many years the trading banks have been subject to qualitative lending directives which specify high and low priority lending categories. At present, farming, exporting, and housing are high priority sectors while personal (excluding housing), importing, and lending to financial institutions are low priority. The savings banks have also been issued with directives concerning the investment of funds released by reductions in the Government securities ratios in housing mortgages.

Interest Rates on Deposits: Savings Banks—Restrictions on savings banks are mentioned above. In addition to the 3 percent interest rate paid by the POSB and the trustee savings banks on home ownership and farm ownership accounts, account-holders are eligible for a range of grants and subsidies aimed at encouraging saving for home and farm ownership. Private savings banks also offer home, farm, and fishing vessel ownership accounts.

Deposits can earn 3½12; percent interest in National Savings Accounts with the POSB and some trustee savings banks after a qualifying period.

Other Deposit and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26C (State Indebtedness), and interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance).

SAVINGS BANKS—Savings banks include the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks. In recent decades there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the 5 trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by 8 new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. In 1972, 2 of these banks merged and there are now 12 trustee savings banks. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the 5 trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964. There are now 4 trading banks following the amalgamation in October 1982 of the Bank of New South Wales and the Commercial Bank, to form the Westpac Banking Corporation.

As from April 1973 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been able to advance personal loans. In March 1973 the responsibilities for the administration of the trustee savings banks and the private savings banks was transferred from the Treasury to the Reserve Bank. Trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been allowed to offer cheque facilities since 1974.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in savings bank accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, National Savings accounts, and school savings bank accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March
* Includes interest paid out on investment accounts.
 $(million)
19785,712.9104.75,502.7314.83,231.9
19797,561.4150.77,070.0642.13,874.0
198010,011.2202.59,836.0377.74,251.7
198112,819.5257.312,535.9540.94,792.6
198217,251.6309.617,074.5486.75,279.3

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. At 31 March 1982 there were 1156 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches.

Total savings with the Post Office Savings Bank stood at $1,955.4 million at 31 March 1982, $121.1 million higher than at 31 March 1981.

Net holdings in Bonus Bonds have continued to grow and at 31 March 1982 savings held in this way totalled $287.6 million. During the 1981—82 financial year 287 488 prizes to the value of $16.4 million were distributed to prize winning bondholders.

The popularity of bonus bonds has been enhanced by increases in the value of the first prize from $50,000 to $100,000 on 10 June 1980 and to $200,000 on 12 January 1982. The weekly prize increased from $10,000 to $11,000 on 6 December 1980 and to $25,000 on 2 January 1982, and a number of $5,000 prizes were also introduced.

Savings bank lending for housing loans continued to grow, with $107.0 million being advanced during the 1981—82 financial year as second and subsequent mortgage loans. Repayments of principal and interest made in the same period amounted to $44.9 million. The amount outstanding as at 31 March 1982 was $205.9 million.

The level of lending as personal loans to depositors (apart from second or subsequent mortgage loans for housing purposes) also increased during the 1981—82 financial year. The amount advanced during the year totalled $19.2 million. Repayments of principal and interest made in the same period amounted to $30.9 million. The amount outstanding as at 31 March 1982 was $33.6 million.

The following table covers the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of March*Total Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of WithdrawalsExcess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

* Includes Ordinary National Savings and School Saving Accounts.

† Includes interest paid on investment accounts.

‡ Excludes National Savings Bonds and coupons.

 (000)  $(thousand)  
19783 1571,558,73945,8741,495,343109,2701,445,134
19793 0161,977,44853,9061,858,667172,6871,617,821
19803 0992,543,23464,5922,522,78385,0431,702,864
19813 1043,217,81975,2763,161,843131,2521,834,116
19823 1784,066,24285,9244,031,067121,0991,955,215

The Post Office Savings Bank assets as at 31 March included investments in the name of the Postmaster-General totalling $1,817.6 million in 1981 and $1,921.5 million in 1982, made up as follows:

Asset198019811982
 $(thousand)
Government Stock1,246,9281,311,9281,387,928
Housing Corporation of New Zealand Stock217,408217,408184,408
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand Stock122,700122,700109,700
Personal and housing loans92,303165,565239,491
    Total1,679,3391,817,6011,921,527

Depositors and bondholders balances held at 31 March are set out in the following table.

Accounts198019811982
  $(thousand) 
Ordinary900,506942,306972,627
6 months investment12,42023,31027,455
1 year investment96,857117,085144,127
2 year investment83,24080,42076,073
3 year investment206,402202,315184,452
Term deposits9,52331,82739,656
National Savings11,0089,9579,019
Thrift club37,64938,87840,030
Home ownership11,74313,26118,511
School11,44412,65813,924
Home lay-by213179173
Farm ownership650877956
Fishing vessel ownership1
Cheque43,17151,61760,995
Budget service149177195
Money transfer statement573
Bonus bonds215,710239,800287,661
National Development Bonds16,23211,6967,632
New Zealand Savings Certificates16,44619,75024,821
Housing Bonds7,4626,9883,116
Special farm ownership6,96811,00013,495
Special home ownership13,65118,10326,901
Special fishing vessel ownership355388
New Zealand Savings Bonds and coupons205202202
Balance in transit1,3801,8523,303
    Total1,703,0691,834,3181,955,416

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the 5 trading banks all formed private savings banks. These banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

The following table relates to private savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 (000)  $(thousand)  
19781 3171,394,93521,4871,365,55850,863672,858
19791 3351,805,62942,5651,667,813180,381853,238
19801 4742,362,16862,8952,329,78195,282948,520
19811 5202,622,49678,8582,621,52679,8281,028,348
19821 5173,446,31574,0003,491,68928,6261,056,974

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1982 included $496.0 million invested in Government securities, $18.0 million in local authority securities, and $582.5 million in mortgages and other loans. Government securities must be held for amounts equal to 54 percent of deposits in ordinary and investment accounts.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence but four, namely Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson, did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks, Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866), grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 12. The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. In February 1980 the Government Stock requirement of the trustee savings banks was reduced from 39 percent to 38 percent of investments in order to provide greater funds for new housing. A proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 2½12; percent of the amount in excess of $20 million Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Investment accounts.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 (000)  $(thousand)  
19782 1262,759,21337,3452,641,863154,6951,113,910
19792 3003,778,30754,7313,544,013289,0251,402,935
19802 4705,105,83274,9944,983,437197,3891,600,324
19812 6646,979,186103,7786,753,179329,7851,930,109
19822 8569,739,069150,1829,552,450336,8012,266,910
Note—This statement includes national savings accounts.

The following table shows the results of the transactions, inclusive of National Savings accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1982.

BankNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.  $(thousand)  
Auckland1,077,5433,314,16747,8293,286,27675,720781,447
Waikato210,866964,38012,176942,05534,501173,870
Bay of Plenty135,101735,8907,602723,24820,244118,129
Taranaki124,708492,9117,329478,22322,017110,216
Eastern and Central169,821724,8187,808707,50225,124125,450
Wanganui77,528346,7523,558342,2418,06951,871
Wellington District132,572345,2655,493335,31715,44184,740
Westland32,564176,0332,162173,6344,56132,119
Canterbury526,6211,605,10033,1211,553,26684,955443,117
South Canterbury59,596173,7143,307170,0077,01447,413
Otago195,420407,01311,868402,84516,036163,318
Southland113,863453,0267,929437,83623,119135,220
    Total2,856,2039,739,069150,1829,552,450336,8012,266,910

The following table shows a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1982. The total assets include an amount of $231,000 securing National Savings deposits, all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets* (Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits
* Total assets include $96 million in fixed deposits.
 $(thousand)
Auckland386,962286,12240,22412,409810,456158810,614
Waikato86,32763,19090211,006178,386178,386
Bay of Plenty67,04142,6989681,997121,723121,723
Taranaki55,78540,8453591,921111,94510111,955
Eastern and Central69,02346,2191492,750129,483129,483
Wanganui28,08718,58275052,39952,399
Wellington District41,22831,4023891,44183,45383,453
Westland15,80311,6802671,75631,69231,692
Canterbury229,212164,33018,8102,578445,119445,119
South Canterbury24,26516,8662,2803,96749,09349,093
Otago87,26058,1087,1708,199167,34850167,398
Southland65,91350,1047,6462,121139,23113139,244
    Total1,156,906830,14679,16450,8952,320,3282312,320,559

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the fanning community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits, and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. Stock and station agents have top-tier borrowing priority with the trading banks in order to obtain additional funds to lend for seasonal and farming development needs.

Financial data as at 30 June are given for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of 25 stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates, is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
19781979198019811982

* Included in “other investments”.

† Includes 12 percent and over.

 $(thousand)
Deposits held40,12952,76964,14872,03981,845
Customers' credit balances on current account69,11888,73292,86986,06695,966
Advances to customers—
    (a) On current account (unsecured)107,319129,232152,906183,930188,473
    (b) Other advances (secured)53,07152,00954,59565,14066,379
Investments—
    (a) Government securities1,1181,1231,0941,2231,152
    (b) Fixed deposits6,6639,470948**
    (c) Other investments36,79036,89233,59836,27515,603
    Cash balances (in hand and at bank)5,0947,5628,2689,1871,528
    Bank overdrafts outstanding49,35642,96462,08668,72384,329
    Merchandise and commodity stocks100,101108,755126,705133,503155,370
Interest rates paid on deposit—Percentage of Deposits
    Under 7 percent27.421.712.26.04.0
    7 percent and under 8 percent13.110.74.81.81.8
    8 percent and under 9 percent14.98.04.44.54.5
    9 percent and under 10 percent7.19.78.58.54.3
    10 percent and under 11 percent19.921.114.112.34.7
    11 percent and under 12 percent7.112.612.29.66.5
    12 percent and under 13 percent10.5†16.028.330.124.5
    13 percent and under 14 percent0.211.821.025.9
    14 percent and over3.76.223.8

FINANCE COMPANIES—In 1971 there were 27 finance companies designated “large” by the Reserve Bank for statistical purposes. Their assets amounted to 90 percent of the total assets of 526 surveyed finance companies. There has been rapid growth of these large companies in recent years as people have responded to higher interest rates on deposits and debentures and to the improved services offered. The large finance companies have developed simple and easily operated means of accepting money. Furthermore, many companies offer flexible deposit plans to depositors with large sums. In April 1977, the statistical coverage was expanded and since then 30 “large” finance companies (i.e. those with outstanding advances at that time in excess of $1 million) have been providing regular data. Between 1977 and 1980, considerable changes have occurred in the finance company sector including several takeovers and mergers. The coverage of the survey was revised again in January 1981 to include only those companies with outstanding advances in excess of $5 million. Because of these changes, there are now only 24 companies included in the large finance companies survey.

Although the finance companies have faced increasing competition from trading banks, savings banks, and other financial institutions for deposits over the last few years., total deposits (including debentures and notes) of large finance companies have continued to grow steadily, increasing by 31.4 percent during the year ended 31 March 1982 to reach a total of $1,785.6 million.

Net outstanding loans and advances, including leasing, and factoring rose by $489.6 million or 36.2 percent in 1981—82, showing a slightly lower rate of increase than in the previous year.

Finance companies' interest rates paid on secured deposits were fairly stable during 1981 with maximum advertised rates remaining at 16.5 percent throughout most of the year, then rising slightly to 18.0 percent by March 1982.

The public sector security ratio for finance companies was increased from 15 percent to 20 percent with effect from 1 April 1979. As the rate of growth in finance company lending continued to rise, and remained in excess of Government credit guidelines, the ratio was further increased to 22.5 percent from 1 October 1979, and again to 25 percent from 1 July 1980.

Statistics of deposits, debentures, and notes held by the large companies for which the Reserve Bank collects statistics are shown in the following table.

TermAt 31 March
19781979198019811982
 $(million)
At call30.770.171.3102.3159.0
Under 3 months72.896.0150.0205.9269.9
3—5 months65.680.6102.5158.7230.9
6—11 months125.8146.6203.8289.3298.9
12—23 months150.8190.6289.4369.6378.4
2 years and over212.5255.8253.6233.3448.5
    Total658.2839.71,070.61,359.11,785.6
Note: Owing to changes in coverage, figures are not directly comparable with those for previous years.

Gross loans and advances of these finance companies outstanding at 31 March 1981 and 1982 are shown in the following table.

Sectoral Analysis19811982
* Includes advances to dairy and meat processing companies.
Agricultural—$(million)
    Farming/fishing113.4156.1
    Forestry29.932.6
    Subtotal143.3188.7
Industrial—
    Manufacturing*93.1111.1
    Heavy construction, engineering, mining, and quarrying86.6104.9
    Residential construction, property development60.794.7
    Subtotal240.4310.7
Distribution/Transport—
    Transport, storage178.7233.0
    Motorcars—retail, H.P.167.7290.6
    Motorcars—wholesale, floor-plan74.3114.3
    Subtotal420.7637.9
Mercantile—$(million)
    Wholesalers, importers22.638.5
    Exporters16.717.0
    Retailers96.3120.2
    Subtotal135.6175.7
    Service industries n.e.i.73.7139.4
Personal—
    Housing—
    New houses and flats53.781.4
    Existing houses and flats68.966.1
    Other personal282.3320.3
    Subtotal404.9467.8
    Other, n.e.i.23.912.9
    Total1,442.51,933.1

A common feature of finance company lending is the regular repayment required on most loans and the short turnover period of assets, often averaging less than a year. This enables finance companies to switch their lending rapidly from one purpose to another. Interest rates in March 1982 ranged from 24 percent to 31 percent for personal loans, and from 20 percent to 24 percent for commercial loans.

MERCHANT BANKS—The major expansion of merchant banking in New Zealand occurred in 1971, when the Government allowed overseas companies to participate in their establishment. The merchant banks offer a wide range of financial services to industrial clients and also manage investment portfolios and deal in and accept commercial bills. The merchant banks engage in underwriting new share issues by companies, advise on and finance mergers and takeovers, and lend money for expansion to growing companies. The merchant banks played an important role in the expansion of the commercial bill market.

STRUCTURE OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM—The changing structure of the New Zealand financial system is shown by movements in the money supply and other major liquid assets of the public; a comparative table of selected liquid assets is now given. (Source: Reserve Bank Bulletin.)

Deposits, etc.At 31 MarchPercentage at 31 March
198019811982198019811982
    (a) On an institutional basis$(million)
Trading banks4,663.35,306.06,294.143.243.043.7
Private savings banks948.51,028.31,057.08.88.37.3
    Subtotal5,611.86,334.37,351.152.051.351.0
Post Office Savings Bank1,703.01,834.31,955.415.814.913.6
Trustee savings banks1,600.31,929.92,266.814.815.615.7
Stock and station agents131.3128.7153.81.21.01.1
Finance companies1,223.11,530.22,019.611.312.414.0
Official money market39.243.863.60.40.40.4
Notes and coins491.3535.1592.64.54.34.1
    Total selected liquid assets10,800.012,336.314,402.9100.0100.0100.0
    (b) On a functional basis
Money supply2,146.62,451.52,878.219.919.920.0
Other demand deposits2,514.02,671.52,885.323.321.720.0
    Subtotal4,660.65,123.05,763.543.241.540.0
Time and fixed deposits6,139.47,213.38,639.456.858.560.0
    Total selected liquid assets10,800.012,336.314,402.9100.0100.0100.0

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10 shillings. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10c. There are coins for $1 (not in general circulation), 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro-nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs.

Issue of Notes and Coin—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand. Coin is the responsibility of the Treasury but is distributed by the Reserve Bank. Notes and coin are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Legal Tender—Under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 notes issued by the Reserve Bank are constituted legal tender for any amount. In terms of the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50c for any amount not exceeding five dollars, and coins of 1 and 2c for any amount not exceeding 20c.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1978 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Reserve Bank. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978 (Amendment No. 1) permits travellers to take out up to $100 of New Zealand money in notes or coin of any denomination. The export of any other New Zealand notes or coin or the currency of any other country requires specific consent.

NEW ZEALAND EXCHANGE RATES—The relationship between the New Zealand pound and sterling in the 1960s and earlier years was described in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

During 1971 the value of the United States dollar underwent severe pressure on overseas currency markets. The United States Government reacted by suspending the gold convertibility of the dollar in August 1971. The U.S. dollar was then floated against all other currencies, against which it rapidly depreciated.

The consequent breakdown of the Bretton Woods international monetary system and the introduction of widespread floating necessitated a re-establishment by the International Monetary Fund of a system which, while being more flexible, would promote an orderly basis for conducting foreign exchange transactions. The Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 introduced a temporary regime intended to facilitate the resumption of fixed par values and stable exchange rates on a more liberal basis. The United States dollar was devalued at this time by a change in the official price for fine gold from US$35 to US$38 per troy ounce and, at the same time, there was a general realignment of several other important currencies.

As part of the arrangements, member countries had the choice of maintaining their existing par values against gold as the basis for their exchange rates, or of establishing a “central rate” against another currency as its “official” exchange rate. To retain an existing par value resulted in a currency revaluation against the United States dollar (after the change in gold price to US$38 per ounce); New Zealand along with the United Kingdom and Australia opted for this arrangement. At the same time New Zealand, like Australia, nominated the United States dollar as its intervention currency instead of sterling as previously. This enabled New Zealand to quote fixed rates upon the United States dollar while the rates for sterling fluctuated from time to time according to the relationship between the U.S. dollar and sterling in free overseas currency markets.

In addition, the Smithsonian arrangements established wider margins within which spot exchange rates were permitted to move and New Zealand availed itself of this facility. The revised margins were 2½14; percent either side of parity or central rate (previously 1 percent) and, where an intervention currency was used to establish rates for other currencies, twice this margin for currencies other than the intervention currency. New Zealand established its fixed United States dollar selling rate (US$1.1887) at the maximum permissible level below the United States dollar (US$1.2160).

It was evident soon after the Smithsonian Agreement was introduced that the arrangements made to promote exchange stability were not flexible enough to accommodate the rapidly changing economic circumstances between nations. A further breakdown occurred in 1972 when 18 currencies including sterling were floated, and the United States dollar again came under severe pressure. In February 1973 the United States dollar was devalued by 10 percent to US$42.222 per fine ounce of gold (from US$38). New Zealand maintained its gold parity, thus appreciating against the United States dollar to an equivalent par value of US$1.35111 = NZ$1. The fixed telegraphic selling and buying rates NZ/USA became US$1.3207 and US$1.3337, respectively.

New Zealand's Currency Basket and Recent Exchange Changes—With the continuation of widespread floating through 1973, the New Zealand dollar, tied to the United States dollar, was experiencing a gradual depreciation against most other currencies, since most were strengthening against the United States dollar on the overseas currency markets. This depreciation was not warranted as far as New Zealand's balance of payments was concerned, and as it was inducing inflationary pressures, it was decided to terminate the fixed relationship between the New Zealand and the United States dollar.

On 9 July 1973, the New Zealand dollar was adjusted upwards by 3.24 percent relative to the United States dollar, the amount needed to restore the relationship existing in mid-February, immediately following the devaluation of the United States dollar. From that date, New Zealand's exchange rates have been calculated daily in a manner which preserves unchanged the average value of the New Zealand dollar against a “basket” comprising the currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners. Thus, from 9 July 1973 until the revaluation in September 1973, the average value of the New Zealand dollar was held at the level that existed on 15 February 1973. The average is a trade-weighted one, and thus movements in the overseas value of the currencies in the basket are reflected in alterations in their value against the New Zealand dollar according to their relative importance in New Zealand's international trade and other current overseas payments. This method of calculating New Zealand's exchange rates obviates some of the fluctuations that would occur in some rates if its currency were pegged to one particular currency. At that time New Zealand advised the IMF that it would no longer maintain a fixed relationship relative to the United States dollar.

On 9 September 1973, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by a further 10 percent against the basket of currencies in view of a very strong balance of payments and in an effort to reduce domestic inflation.

A devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by approximately 6.2 percent against the basket of currencies was made on 24 September 1974. At the same time the Australian dollar was devalued by 12 percent. This was a time of reversal in New Zealand's terms of trade and a heavy drain on overseas reserves following rapid domestic expansion.

In view of a continuing deterioration in the terms of trade and weaknesses in the balance of payments, the New Zealand dollar was again devalued on 14 August 1975, this time by 15 percent against the basket of currencies. It had become evident that the anticipated increase in export receipts expected to follow from a recovery from the world recession of 1974 was not eventuating. The objective of the devaluation was to restore the income of farmers and to stem New Zealand's rising import bill.

Following the devaluation of the Australian dollar by 17.5 percent on 29 November 1976 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 2.73 percent against the basket of currencies, with effect from 30 November 1976. After a number of minor revaluations of the Australian dollar during December 1976, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by 2 percent on 20 December 1976.

On 21 June 1979 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 5 percent against the basket of currencies to assist exporters to retain their profitability overseas. Following the devaluation of the Australian dollar by 10 percent, the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 6 percent against all currencies on 8 March 1983.

From this time onward, it was decided to make small adjustments to the exchange rate reflecting the rate of cost increases in New Zealand relative to the increases in the costs of its trading partners, but these adjustments were suspended in June 1982 as part of the wage and price freeze introduced at that time.

Exchange Rate Index—Following on from the devaluation of 21 June 1979, an Exchange Rate Index was introduced. This index, which measures the value of the New Zealand dollar against the basket of currencies, stood at 83.4 at the end of January 1983 and remained unchanged from the end of June 1982. The index has a base of 100.0 at the end of June 1979.

New Zealand's exchange rates are still calculated daily employing the basket of currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners as discussed in the previous paragraphs. The currency composition of the basket is updated regularly in accordance with changing trade patterns.

A New International Exchange Rates System—During the period since the Smithsonian Agreement, extensive international discussions have taken place on aspects of international monetary reform, including the question of an agreed set of principles to replace that Agreement. These discussions resulted, inter alia, in a quite wide-ranging amendment to the International Monetary Fund's Articles of Agreement. The amendment was formally implemented on 1 April 1978. The amended Articles introduced a revised code of conduct for exchange rate policies and practices of member countries, intended as a permanent international frame-work. Although the amended Articles allow for the reintroduction of a par value system (i.e., a fixed rate system) along the lines of the one in existence prior to 1971, it is now understood and widely accepted that a more flexible framework is required in present circumstances. Under the amended Articles, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has adopted a set of principles for the guidance of members, which call for countries to collaborate with the IMF and with each other in order to assure orderly exchange arrangements and to promote a stable system of exchange rates. These objectives are similar to those sought in the past, but attention is now focused more on surveillance of economic policies which have a bearing on exchange rates, rather than on the rates themselves. Thus, members are now permitted greater flexibility in altering their exchange rates consistent with the Articles, and have greater freedom to alter their exchange rate practices than existed formerly. IMF surveillance of exchange rate policies in the current international environment will be largely a judgmental matter, in which due consideration is to be paid to the social and economic circumstances of the individual countries.

The “currency basket” method used in New Zealand to determine exchange rates is in line with the amended IMF framework, and thus the introduction of the amended Articles had no implications for New Zealand's exchange rate practices.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business.

Statistics of New Zealand's official overseas reserves are shown in the following table and, over a longer period, in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook. The figures are as at the last Wednesday of the month. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand).

As atAssets of N.Z. Banking System*Treasury-held Overseas SecuritiesOther Government-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldReserve Position at I.M.F.Special Drawing Rights§Total

* Comprises foreign exchange and overseas investment of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks in respect of New Zealand business. A small item “Liabilities in Other Currencies” has been deducted from the Reserve Bank's overseas assets while gross foreign liabilities on account of New Zealand business have been deducted from the trading banks' overseas foreign assets.

† Gold holdings of the Reserve Bank at cost.

‡ Equal to the gold subscription less any drawings of the gold tranche.

§ Allocations less exchange transactions.

NZ$(million)
End of June
1978554.4287.323.90.713.954.7934.8
1979386.1428.933.20.743.539.8932.2
1980367.3273.146.50.723.9711.6
1981358.8256.848.00.736.721.9722.9
1982147.8491.557.70.73.4701.1
End of December 
1978292.3175.230.82.527.856.2584.7
1979394.5371.438.60.713.1818.4
1980201.8248.249.80.70.2500.5
1981577.9270.549.80.738.627.7965.2
1982507.0596.763.50.72.51,170.4

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—For the year ended December 1982 a current account deficit of $1,845 million was recorded, an increase of $891 million on the deficit recorded in the previous year. The deficit for the December year comprised a surplus on trade transactions of $263 million and a deficit of $2,108 million on “invisible” (non-merchandise) transactions.

Export receipts, at $6,856 million, were 5 percent higher than the $6,519 million recorded in 1981. Receipts for meat and wool declined by 6 and 3 percent respectively, but all other categories of exports recorded increases in receipts.

Total import payments, at $6,593 million for the 1982 calendar year, increased by 19 percent from the level of $5,707 million recorded in 1981.

As in previous years the “invisibles” transactions balance deteriorated during 1982, the deficit increasing from $1,765 million in 1981 to $2,108 million in 1982. Payments increased by $619 million to $3,863 million. Of this increase, $556 million was due to increases in Government interest payments, transport and expenses of business firms. Receipts increased by $276 million to $1,755 million with the biggest contributions coming from expenses of overseas firms, interest, personal receipts and transport.

Capital transactions for the year resulted in a net capital inflow of $1,851 million. This inflow comprised net official receipts of $983 million and a net private capital inflow of $868 million. In 1981 the net official receipts were $1,568 million and the net private capital receipts $38 million. The totals given for these loans are the New Zealand dollar equivalents received at various times during the year by the New Zealand banking system, and do not take into account exchange rate changes since the date of receipt, which will affect the amount repayable in New Zealand currency terms when the loans fall due.

At the end of December 1982 official overseas reserves amounted to $1,170 million, compared with $965 million at the end of December 1981.

A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the 5 latest December years is given in the following table.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS: YEARS ENDED DECEMBER
Item19781979198019811982
 NZ$(million)
Exports—Receipts
    Meat977.11,295.51,481.41,713.21,610.9
    Wool667.4850.6995.7979.5951.1
    Butter241.5230.6374.1502.6428.0
    Cheese87.777.2102.7160.1153.8
    Other dairy products299.2325.3545.4653.0872.7
    Other animal products321.7402.2401.3397.9440.5
    Forest products292.5389.2588.6590.3599.3
    Other primary products178.9219.9313.4353.0438.0
    Manufactured exports582.4715.6965.41,124.31,312.6
    Miscellaneous22.644.752.044.648.8
    Total export receipts3,671.14,550.85,819.86,518.66,855.7
Other current receipts—
    Cook Islands exports1.40.80.52.60.8
    Transport235.4291.3353.0435.9495.8
    Insurance23.828.160.849.968.6
    Travel (excluding fares)161.8186.4219.4290.3299.2
    International investment income—
    Interest and dividends47.145.849.757.4107.6
    Other investment income12.415.722.859.845.9
    New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand39.745.355.664.573.9
    Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties22.429.636.047.956.8
    Expenses of business firms27.435.939.176.0128.8
    Personal receipts, legacies, and immigrants transfers166.4200.6284.8325.3393.4
    Other current transactions35.044.059.369.084.6
    Total current receipts4,443.85,474.17,000.77,997.38,611.1
Capital transfers—
    Government borrowing644.7926.3833.71,789.01,115.8
    Other official receipts95.852.0282.7144.7862.5
    Private392.6372.2475.7564.71,509.7
    Total capital receipts1,133.11,350.51,592.12,498.43,488.0
IMF—
    Allocations of SDRs29.432.431.2
    Total receipts5,577.06,854.0x8,625.310,526.912,099.1
 Payments
Imports—
    Private2,876.53,652.14,729.05,451.36,277.3
    Government188.1188.1206.2255.7315.7
    Total import payments3,064.63,840.24,935.25,707.06,593.0
    Cook Islands imports0.40.1
    Transport420.3535.3713.3897.01,046.8
    Insurance—
    Premiums18.227.333.442.761.7
    Claims3.04.04.84.75.3
    Other transfers21.414.113.740.625.2
    Travel (excluding fares)365.3488.0555.5633.3666.8
    International investment income—
    Private222.2200.1216.6305.1362.7
    Government interest217.8268.9332.8430.9629.0
    Government expenditure overseas134.9189.3215.6170.6202.8
    Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties, and rebates56.862.572.390.3118.7
    Expenses of business firms128.6150.5217.4293.9501.9
    Film hire and entertainment6.98.89.26.37.0
    Religious and charitable16.720.417.121.625.2
    Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants transfers112.8142.8156.6224.5159.9
    Transfers by temporary residents9.87.38.510.310.8
    Other current transactions36.450.847.972.139.3
    Total current payments4,836.26,010.97,550.18,951.010,456.1
Capital transfers—
    Government debt repayments283.4332.7365.4203.2743.7
    Other official payments24.270.7285.058.3206.5
    Private366.3287.8421.5526.5641.8
    Total capital673.9691.21,071.9788.01,592.0
    IMF repurchases34.9116.9181.8135.745.0
    Total payments5,545.06,819.08,803.89,874.712,093.1
    Surplus of receipts over payments+31.9x+35.0x—178.5+652.2+6.0
NOTE—Minus sign (—) denotes a deficit.

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do December years.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
19781979198019811982
 NZ$(million)
Exports—Receipts
    Meat896.81,196.41,326.01,660.81,651.0
    Wool619.2729.5967.6984.5947.5
    Butter233.0208.1299.0431.1511.1
    Milk powders157.8154.9222.8359.9471.5
    Other dairy products228.9236.6288.8382.8458.7
    Forest products288.2320.6501.2587.7612.9
    Manufactured exports511.6652.8824.21,024.11,202.0
    Other488.1604.6715.3755.6875.8
    Total exports3,418.74,103.55,144.86,186.56,730.5
Other current receipts752.3836.21,036.11,311.21,640.1
    Total current receipts4,171.04,939.76,180.97,497.78,370.6
Capital receipts—
    Government borrowing761.7760.0441.71,030.01,554.7
    Other official receipts55.596.4252.5223.6622.3
    Private509.8236.1482.2516.2970.2
    Total capital receipts1,327.01,092.51,176.41,769.93,147.2
IMF—
    Drawings
    Allocation of SDRs29.432.431.2
    Total receipts5,498.06,061.67,389.89,298.811,517.8
 Payments
Imports—
    Government172.9193.0199.6211.0305.0
    Private2,823.63,203.54,190.15,099.06,030.9
    Total imports2,996.53,396.54,389.75,310.06,335.9
Other current payments—
    Government339.9439.6523.8560.6715.9
    Private1,323.61,557.01,799.42,351.62,805.3
    Total current payments4,660.05,393.06,712.98,222.29,857.1
Capital payments—
    Government debt repayments394.4200.9449.7163.2782.7
    Other official repayments94.999.3243.8135.3
    Private227.3383.7364.6415.7616.0
    Total capital payments621.8679.5913.6822.71,534.0
IMF repurchases14.667.2160.1168.185.0
    Total payments5,296.46,139.77,786.79,213.011,476.1
Balance on trade transactions+422.2+707.1+755.1+876.5+394.5
Balance on current account “Invisible” transactions—911.1—1,160.4—1,287.1—1,601.1—1,881.1
Balance on current account—488.9—453.3—532.0—724.5—1,486.6
Balance on capital account+705.2+413.0+262.8+947.1+1,613.2
IMF transactions (incl. SDRs)—14.6—37.8—127.7—136.8—85.0
Change in official overseas reserves+197.0—2.6—220.7+11.4x—21.9

Overseas Travel Allowances—Since 1938, there have been restrictions on the amount of overseas travel funds made available. From June 1973 trading banks have been able to sell overseas exchange to travellers up to $1,000 a month with a maximum of $4,000 a year. Requests for higher amounts need to be referred to the Reserve Bank, which is prepared to approve all reasonable requests.

Exchange Control—Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1978, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964. An exemption in respect of dealings in foreign currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents is contained in the Ex-change Control Exemption Notice 1978.

Certain measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966, and are set out in paragraphs (a) to (d).

  1. Overseas Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities could then be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident sought cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law was to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

    This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market was reopened in October 1966 (see (f) below).

    In June 1972 the United Kingdom made changes in its exchange control system. As a result the sterling area and the non-sterling area were redefined. For New Zealand exchange control purposes the sterling area incorporated the United Kingdom (including the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and Gibraltar) and the Republic of Ireland. The non-sterling area covered all other countries outside New Zealand except Rhodesia. Exchange control transactions with Rhodesia were strictly limited because of the United Nations sanctions against that country. In 1979 the Bank of England abandoned all exchange controls but retained the concept of a sterling area as defined above. Also, in December 1979 the former sanctions against Rhodesia were revoked. The result of these 2 changes is that all currencies and securities domiciled outside New Zealand may now be dealt with freely, i.e., in the same manner as sterling area currencies and securities were previously (see also paragraph (f)).

  2. Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

    The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes.

    From June 1971 travellers from New Zealand were able to take out up to $50 (of which not more than $4 could be in coin and the denominations of the notes could not exceed $5). For travellers to New Zealand there was no restriction on bringing in notes of $1 or $2 or $5 or coin of any denomination.

    In October 1979 an amendment to the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978 permitted travellers from New Zealand to take up to $100 in New Zealand currency which may comprise banknotes or coin of any denomination. A traveller may now bring into the country New Zealand banknotes or coin of any denomination.

  3. Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere.

    The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

    1. Those of non-resident banks;

    2. Those of non-resident travel agents;

    3. A group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

    A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

  4. London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: In 1920 provision was made for New Zealand residents to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions in subsequent years became excessive, and the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register on 16 June 1966:

    1. Stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least 6 months;

    2. After stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for 6 months.

    Since 5 September 1969 the transfer to the New Zealand register has been limited to stock held on or prior to that date. Accordingly very few transfers are now being made under this provision.

  5. Overseas Investment in New Zealand: In 1973 the Overseas Investment Act was passed to make better provision for the supervision and control of overseas investment in New Zealand. The Overseas Investment Commission established under that Act administers the Overseas Investment Regulations 1974, which came into force on 28 May 1974, to give administrative effect to the Act. The regulations were subsequently amended on 28 March 1978 and 17 December 1979. The Secretariat for the Overseas Investment Commission is provided by the Reserve Bank.

    The new legislation consolidated and repeated the provisions of the Capital Issues (Overseas) Regulations 1965 and the Overseas Takeovers Regulations 1964, which formerly governed overseas investment in New Zealand.

    The Overseas Investment Regulations 1974 define an “overseas person” to include an overseas resident individual, a company incorporated outside New Zealand, and a company incorporated in New Zealand, in which a total of 25 percent or more of any class of share is held by overseas persons.

    Consent is required under the Overseas Investment Regulations 1974 for:

    1. a company incorporated in New Zealand to issue or allot shares to overseas persons if the effect is that the company becomes an overseas person;

    2. an overseas person to acquire 25 percent or more of any class of share in a New Zealand incorporated company;

    3. an overseas person to acquire all or substantially all of the assets used in carrying on a business in New Zealand where the consideration exceeds $100,000;

    4. an overseas person to carry on business in New Zealand;

    5. an overseas person (together with all interconnected companies) to borrow more than $300,000 in New Zealand;

    6. all companies incorporated in New Zealand (overseas and New Zealand-owned) to borrow overseas.

    Any New Zealand incorporated company also requires prior consent from the Reserve Bank under the Exchange Control Regulations 1978 to borrow overseas or to issue or transfer shares to overseas residents.

  6. Market in Overseas Securities: Trading in overseas securities in exchange for New Zealand currency is confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966 or which devolve from such securities. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an approved depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within three months. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. Their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership were set out in parliamentary paper A.12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. The bulk of a member's subscription, or quota, is paid in its own currency. The balance is paid in gold, foreign exchange, or Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) and constitutes the member's reserve tranche which may be drawn against automatically. Increasing conditionally applies to successive drawings under the 4 credit tranches, each equal to 25 percent of quota. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory financing facility and the various special funding arrangements which are set up from time to time, such as the supplementary financing (Witteveen) facility which came into operation during 1979. The level of quotas is periodically reviewed as the value of world trade increases. The seventh review in 1978 agreed upon an increase of 50 percent which was paid on 29 December 1980, and the eighth review is currently in progress. To supplement international reserve assets, SDRs are allocated to members from lime to time in proportion to their quotas. New Zealand has recently been allocated SDR 24.1 million ($29.4 million) at the beginning of each of the years 1979 and 1980, and SDR 23.664 million at the beginning of 1981.

New Zealand's position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as at the end of a number of recent years is shown in the following table.

As at End of YearQuotaDr*** Outstanding*General Account Position*Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)SDR Value
Gold, Foreign Currencies and SDRsN.Z. Currency SubscriptionReserve TrancheCredit TranchesOil FacilitiesCompensatory FinancingIMF Holdings of N.Z. CurrencyHoldings as % of QuotaN.Z.'s AllocationHoldings by N.Z.

* Drawings are made by obtaining usable foreign exchange from the Fund in return for New Zealand currency which the Fund then holds in its General Account until drawings are repaid.

† From time to time the IMF allocates SDRs to members with the objective of increasing international liquidity and promoting world trade. Holdings alter when SDRs are sold or purchased in exchange for foreign currency, or when payments in SDRs are made to the IMF in settlement of interest or other charges.

‡ From 1 July 1974 the previous exchange rate of SDRs 1.12 = NZ$1 was replaced by a system of fluctuating rates determined by the IMF in consultation with participating nations.

 SDR(million)‡NZ$
197850.5181.527.5209.7151.5570.224669.446.10.8187
197950.5181.550.5x153.0115.5502.021693.58.90.7481
198079.5268.550.593.339.0452.8130117.70.7545x
198179.5268.552.033.7354.1102141.319.60.7083x
198279.5268.579.52.9350.9101141.31.70.6623

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION—The purpose of the International Development Association (IDA) is to promote economic development in developing countries too poor to meet the costs of IBRD or other loans. Its highly concessional credits are financed by contributions from its developed country members. The IDA shares the same staff as the IBRD (and to some extent the IFC) and the three organisations are collectively known as the World Bank.

New Zealand joined the IDA in 1975, having earlier made a voluntary contribution of $5 million payable in instalments from 1970—71. As a member of the IDA, New Zealand has contributed to the fourth replenishment of its funds ($7.9 million in instalments from 1974—75), the fifth replenishment ($8.0 million from 1977—78), and the sixth replenishment ($10 0 million from 1980—82).

The principal purpose of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is to promote the economic development of its member countries, by providing loans to governments (or loans guaranteed by governments) for development projects, and related technical assistance. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) promotes the growth of the private sector by lending or investing in business enterprises that are not guaranteed by governments. Both organisations now concentrate their efforts in the developing countries.

New Zealand has subscribed to 2725 shares in the IBRD, with a par value of US$300.99 million. Of this sum, 91.5 percent has not been called up, but, together with the uncalled subscriptions of other member countries, acts as a guarantee for the IBRD's major source of funds, namely borrowing in the financial markets. The balance has been paid in US dollars ($2.6 million) and New Zealand currency and promissory notes ($23.1 million). In 1980 New Zealand agreed to subscribe to a general capital increase of 1766 shares with a par value of US$213.0 million over the period 1981—86. New Zealand has subscribed to 923 shares in the IFC, with a fully paid-up value of $0.9 million.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank, whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the ESCAP region. New Zealand's initial contribution to the capital stock of the bank was US$22.56 million, half of which is callable. Of the paid-in portion, 50 percent is paid in convertible currency, a total of US$5.64 million, while the balance is paid in New Zealand currency. In 1971 the capital subscription was increased 150 percent, increasing New Zealand's contribution from US$22.56 million to US$56.4 million. Of the increase, 20 percent is paid in and 80 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.24 million to be paid in convertible currency. In 1977 the bank's capital was increased by a further 135 percent. New Zealand's shareholding increased to 13 245 shares which have a value of US$154.3 million. Of this second capital increase, 10 percent is paid in and 90 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.7 million to be paid in convertible currency. New Zealand's fourth instalment and last of the second general capital increase was made in August 1981 in the form of a promissory note for NZ$1.5 million and a cash payment of NZ$1.1 million (US$0.9 million).

New Zealand also makes contributions to two special funds—the Technical Assistance Special Fund, to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$900,000 and the Asian Development Fund (ADF), to which New Zealand contributed US$6 million in 1974—1976, NZ$4.1 million in 1977—1980 and NZ$4.1 million for 1981—82. New Zealand contributed a further NZ$75,000 to the Technical Assistance Special Fund in March 1981, and followed this with another NZ$75,000 in December 1981, and will be contributing a further NZ$75,000 before April 1983.

Two-thirds of the contributions to ADF I were tied to the procurement of goods and services from New Zealand, but all of the contributions to ADF II and ADF III are fully convertible. The multipurpose Special Fund, to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$822,370, has been consolidated with the Asian Development Fund. All New Zealand's contributions to the Technical Assistance Special Fund, along with the New Zealand currency portion of the equity capital of the bank, have been non-convertible.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND (DFC)—This corporation is a development bank established by Act of Parliament for the purpose of encouraging investment in industry, and providing financial assistance and advisory services to industry. The share capital of the Development Finance Corporation is owned by the Crown and is vested in the Minister of Trade and Industry, who appoints a board of directors to control the corporation's business. The board consists of 6 people drawn from the private sector, together with 2 Government officials.

The corporation's principal activity is the provision of term loan finance to manufacturing, processing, technological, and service industries for the purchase of plant and equipment. Development of industries based on natural resources is increasingly receiving DFC assistance. Energy resources, forestry and wood products, horticulture, and tourism are becoming major DFC investment sectors. Other forms of financial assistance are export and regional development suspensory loans, equity participation, hire purchase and leasing, small business venture capital, commercial bill and mortgage money, underwriting, contract bonding, and foreign exchange and money market dealing. In addition, DFC's Small Business Agency offers a loan guarantee scheme to other institutions for small businesses. The Development Finance Corporation administers the Applied Technology Programme which supports industrial research and development and commercialisation of new technology. Corporate finance activities include the packaging and managing of larger scale facilities, such as syndicated loans.

In November 1977 an Act of Parliament established the Small Business Agency, which is operated as a division of the Development Finance Corporation. The Small Business Agency provides a nationwide advisory and referral service for small businesses, and limited financial support by way of guarantees.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on banking and currency will be found in the books listed in the New Zealand Books section near the back of this Yearbook and also in the following publications.

Reserve Bank of New Zealand Annual Report (Parl. paper B. 16).

Report of the Bank of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 15).

Report of the Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 26).

Annual Report of the Small Business Agency (Parl. paper B. 26a).

Financial Statement ("Budget", Parl, paper B. 6).

Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bulletin—Reserve Bank (monthly).

Monetary Policy and the New Zealand Financial System—Reserve Bank (1979).

Economic Trends and Policies—Economic Monitoring Group to Planning Council (periodically).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Inflation—N.Z. Monetary and Economic Council (1977).

Report of the Post Office (Parl. paper F. 1).

New Zealand News Review—Reserve Bank (four-weekly).

Daily News Summary—Reserve Bank (daily).

External Economic Structure and Policy—Reserve Bank (1981)

Chapter 30. Section 30; INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

30 A—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

  1. The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

  2. The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

  3. The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable, or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

  4. The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

  5. Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 11e. the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED—The following table shows the number of mortgages registered and amounts involved during recent years. A long-term time series showing the aggregate amount involved each year and the average rate of interest is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgage RegistrationsTotal AreaAmount Secured
Under 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotalUnder 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotal
  No. ha(000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
1978121 04822 501143 5493 1231,263.6546.11,809.7
1979141 81027 539169 3494 4491,500.7663.42,164.1
1980135 22429 772164 9965 1861,618.6848.92,467.5
1981139 36528 212167 5775 2201,745.8909.42,655.2
1982167 25633 162200 4185 6132,289.11,256.73,545.8
Note—These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but may include minor duplications.

The 200 418 mortgages in 1981—82 were in the following categories: first table, 62 388; first flat, 55 103; subsequent table, 39 348; subsequent flat, 31 454; increases in amount, 12 125.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered under the Land Transfer Act, together with the number of mortgages and the area of properties involved, is shown by registration districts in the following table.

Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration District1980—811981—82
NumberAmountAreaNumberAmountArea
  $(m)hectares $(m)hectares
   (000)  (000)
North Auckland56 294844.735370 7581,192.9528
South Auckland24 611440.259930 424631.7677
Gisborne2 53353.13893 07273.6556
Hawke's Bay7 123132.53218 286176.1350
Taranaki4 95786.42435 992120.6265
Wellington28 926407.696331 361463.2624
Marlborough1 83332.92472 09436.6273
Nelson4 27755.31894 68676.4246
Westland1 00615.5651 11915.4102
Canterbury20 824333.384125 139445.4865
Otago9 704149.764910 420174.2638
Southland5 489104.03617 067139.7489
    Total167 5772,655.25 220200 4183,545.85 613

Classification by Amounts—The following table shows mortgages by amount groups for 1980—81 and 1981—82.

Amount Group1980—811981—82
NumberAmountPercentage of TotalNumberAmountPercentage of Total
$ $(000)% $(000)%
Under 6,00028 057100,8703.825 52595,0442.7
6,000—9,99918 263137,4615.217 620132,4443.7
10,000—14,99920 207234,541S.822 110256,0767.2
15,000—19,99920 833352,63413.322 858383,64210.8
20,000—24,99917 618383,61614.416 858364,25710.4
25,000—34,99912 185336,72012.719 744547,32415.4
35,000—49,9994 924195,8997.47 904313,2388.8
50,000—99,9995 534366,34113.87 835512,03814.5
100,000—199,9992 226284,16310.73 598458,51712.9
200,000 and over761262,9509.91 405438,23913.6
Unspecified36 96954 961

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for 1981—82 was 14.30 percent. The comparable rate for 1980—81 was 12.89 percent.

An analysis showing numbers and amounts of mortgages classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, principally those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Mortgage Interest Rate1980—811981—82
NumberPercentageAmountPercentageNumberPercentageAmountPercentage
% %$(m)% %$(m)%
Under 95 0424.4124.95.53 7163.0103.43.4
9—1021 44418.8483.521.118 73315.0512.217.1
10—1328 92325.4452.719.821 87917.6346.211.5
13—1525 23122.2494.921.621 52417.3472.215.7
15—1610 35714.4362.915.817 91414.4460.115.3
16—176 3805.6142.96.217 32113.9471.315.7
Handover10 5029.2226.810.023 42718.9639.321.3
    Total113 879100.02,288.6100.0124 514100.03,004.7100.0
    Unspecified53 698366.575 904541.1
    Grand Total167 5772,655.1200 4183,545.8

Mortgages by Class—In this section mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages. The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1981 Census, out of a total of 1 003 113 occupied permanent private dwellings, 423 462 were owned with mortgage, 287 343 dwellings were owned without mortgage, 253 389 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified.

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of Mortgage
First FlatSubsequent FlatFirst TableSubsequent TableIncrease of MortgageTotal
 Amount Advanced $(million)
1978667.3273.2630.7172.665.91,809.7
1979672.8287.1883.5223.896.92,164.1
1980768.1328.7986.3275.3109.02,467.4
1981795.2322.31,072.1334.4131.22,655.2
19821,149.3433.71,291.8448.7222.33.545.8
 Average Interest Rate (percent)
1978..........10.30
197911.8611.789.8511.189.7610.86
198012.4412.3410.3411.6610.2211.38
198114.2213.8211.8213.0510.7912.89
198215.5714.9613.3414.2511.6314.30

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered. Of the new mortgages registered in 1981—82, 22.79 percent of the aggregate advances were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the Housing Corporation) compared with 26.87 percent in 1980—81.

Year Ended 31 MarchProducer EnterprisesCentral Govt.Local Govt.Trading Banks*Trustee Savings Bank:Building SocietiesInsurance and Pension FundsHouseholdsOtherTotal

* Includes related savings banks.

† Includes solicitors nominee companies.

 $(million)
 Under 2 Hectares
1978264.0209.62.128.6109.9104.2105.7253.0186.61,263.6
1979306.7322.42.261.5209.9113.0127.9219.2137.91,500.7
1980330.9383.32.250.6191.9129.9126.7225.7177.41,618.6
1981338.3412.52.154.3229.3158.3135.8230.1185.11,745.8
1982522.1402.73.872.3313.9233.2170.5290.4280.22,289.1
 2 Hectares and Over
197867.5162.20.42.78.98.138.0211.446.9546.1
197990.8229.30.66.229.710.638.6214.343.4663.4
1980129.1296.00.38.128.515.269.0256.546.2848.9
1981155.1301.00.35.532.318.983.0247.166.2909.4
1982201.9405.30.18.457.826.0117.9315.4123.91,256.7

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that, from 1976, the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office have been included among Insurance and Pension Funds.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Monthly statistics of mortgages and an annual appendix are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

30 B—STATE FINANCE FOR FARMS AND OTHER PRIMARY INDUSTRY

The Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans for the erection and purchase of houses and loans to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934—35—the share capital of $2,000,000 being subscribed equally by Government and public. In terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned share of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions, and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. Under the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974 the rural lending activities of the State Advances Corporation passed to the newly-established Rural Banking and Finance Corporation from 1 April 1974.

RURAL BANKING AND FINANCE CORPORATION—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation provides loans to individuals or organisations engaged in any type of fanning, to the fishing industry, or to support industries in these areas. The corporation consists of a chairman and 4 other directors appointed by the Minister of Finance. Two of the directors are appointed after consultation with the Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc).

The principal functions of the Rural Bank are to carry on the business of making loans and providing other assistance in its discretion for farming, other primary industries, and related service industries. Its powers include the acquisition of land and other property by purchase or lease and the management, development, sale, or lease of such property. The Rural Bank also has powers to give guarantees and indemnities to other lenders. In the execution of its functions and powers it is required to give effect to Government policy.

Farm Purchase—Loan finance is granted by the Rural Bank for the purchase of farm properties. Present policy is directed toward assisting young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the Rural Bank, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and for stock and plant.

There is also a special settlement scheme under which a limited number of above-average farmers can be settled each year with loans of up to 85 percent of the available security.

Farm Vendor Finance Scheme—The purpose of this scheme is to assist suitably qualified and experienced farmers to purchase their first farm by encouraging retiring farmers to invest in their industry.

Retiring farmers who leave money in farms sold to approved purchasers will be exempt from taxation on half the interest earned by that money.

Vendors have the option of a Farm Vendor Finance Bond, or a Farm Vendor Mortgage Guarantee. During 1982—83 some 22 farmers were settled under the Farm Vendor Bond scheme and bonds amounting to $3.23 million were issued. Under the Mortgage Guarantee scheme 128 mortgages were guaranteed for a total of $16.32 million.

Farm Workers Holding—This provides a bona fide farm worker with the opportunity to purchase a “stepping stone” unit which can be operated part time in conjunction with his farm employment. The farm worker is therefore assisted to accumulate assets towards future farm ownership.

Farm Development—Loan policy in the area of farm development is to stimulate increased production and the intensification of small holdings, strengthen marginal farms, and provide buildings and other essential improvements. In appropriate cases, loans may be advanced on second or subsequent mortgages.

Irrigation and Rural Water Supply Works—During the year the Government announced changes to its irrigation and rural water supply policies. These came into effect on 1 November 1982.

Loans are available from the Rural Bank for on-farm works associated with community schemes, new private irrigation schemes or the extension of existing schemes.

Normal development lending criteria must be met and the loans are available on a repayment term of normally up to 10 years with interest at 9 percent. No principal repayments are required during the first 3 years and interest charges are also deferred for the initial 3-year period and then added to the principal sum repayable.

The total amount channelled into irrigation development exceeded $25 million involving 865 approvals and a substantial portion of this was approved under the new policy provisions.

Suspensory loans of up to 50 percent of eligible expenditure may be provided for approved West Coast drainage schemes.

Refinance—The Rural Bank has limited funds for refinancing onerous farm debts but will normally not provide assistance to repay existing mortgages unless the mortgagor is facing serious hardship through inability to obtain a renewal.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans which are essentially for the purchase of stock and plant, e.g., sharemilking propositions, are available on the security of the stock and chattels being purchased.

Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loans—Sharemilkers or other short-term lessees, purchasing their first farm, facing a tax liability through having to reduce stock may qualify for a suspensory loan if the carrying capacity of the farm they are purchasing is less than that of the property they have been farming and the stock reduction is more than 20 head. The loan is calculated on $30 per cow reduction with a maximum of $7,000 and is interest free. Subject to the borrower owning and farming the property for 10 years the suspensory loan may be written off.

Rural Resource Development Zones—This policy was introduced to assist with the intensification of agriculture, horticulture, and the further development of the fishing industry and farm services in designated zones which have scope for growth but, because of particular features, have not attained the maturity of development of more established regions. The designated zones comprise parts of Northland, the East Coast of the North Island, the King Country, and the West Coast of the South Island.

The bank will consider extended financial assistance under the various forms of Rural Bank loans to eligible applicants with the aim of furthering development within the designated zones.

Co-operative Rural Intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the Rural Bank to cooperative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. At 31 March 1983, there were 4 co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation.

Farm Mortgage Guarantees—In recognition of the need for farmers to have access to more capital for future reorganisation and reconstruction than the Rural Bank can make available by direct loans, the Rural Bank operates a Farm Mortgage Guarantee Scheme. Under this scheme the Rural Bank protects prudent lenders with soundly administered mortgage against loss of capital.

Forestry—Where it is considered that tree planting is the best use of the land, the Rural Bank will lend to farmers for forestry projects and associated development works.

Climatic Relief—This on-going financial facility is available to farmers as a relief measure following severe losses or damage due to adverse climatic or other conditions.

The loans can be used for purposes such as the purchase of grazing, grain, hay, and other stock feed, fertiliser, replanting or resowing of crops, orchards, etc. This can also include living expenses and normal maintenance where there has been a serious loss of income. Repayment terms are flexible and are tailored to meet the particular circumstances of the applicant.

Sheep Farmers Consolidation Loans—This policy was announced on 16 June 1982 and provided additional funding to the Rural Bank to enable maintenance and consolidation of development to be carried out on hill country farms and for sheep farms particularly those affected by drought or facial eczema.

The objective of this assistance was to ensure that sheep farmers who were experiencing liquidity problems had sufficient finance to meet normal seasonal requirements including maintenance expenditure, particularly in regard to the application of fertiliser. It is also intended to assist with maintaining planned stocking programmes and restocking, where necessary.

Development Consolidation Loans—This special assistance was announced on 5 March 1981 and provided additional funding of $30 million to the Rural Bank to help refinance accumulated seasonal and short term debts, and provide limited seasonal finance for sheep and cattle farmers who were facing serious liquidity problems caused by past development.

Farm Ownership Savings—The Farm Ownership Savings Scheme, administered by the Rural Bank, allows farm workers, sharemilkers, others associated with farming, and also students the opportunity of opening savings accounts for the purpose of buying a first farm or for the purchase of stock and plant to go sharemilking or share farming for the first time. These accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, and some building societies. Depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Fishing Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free purchase grants; or,

  2. Special Fishing Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings—This scheme is administered by the Rural Bank and is similar to the Farm Ownership Savings Scheme. It gives fishermen, students, and other persons connected with fishing, the opportunity of opening savings accounts to purchase their first vessel of 9 m or more, or to acquire an interest in a vessel of this size.

The accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, and some building societies. As with Farm Ownership Accounts, depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Fishing Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free grants.

  2. Special Fishing Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Industrial Lending—Loans are available to those industries in the rural sector which have export potential, which will assist regional development, or which service the primary industries. Examples include veterinary clinics, packing sheds, cool stores, grain dryers, and milk treatment plants as well as agricultural contractors. The bank assists farmers and agricultural contractors with loans for the purchase of plant and machinery.

Export Suspensory Loans—To promote the export of non-traditional agricultural, horticultural and fish products, the Rural Bank will grant to exporters suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of qualifying expenditure on plant and equipment, including fishing vessels. Upon achievement of an export target, each loan is converted to a grant and written off.

Fishing Industry—It is the policy of the Rural Bank to encourage the development of the fishing industry on a sound basis, and, to this end, it will provide loans for the purchase, building, or refinance of larger or more efficient vessels. Loans are also available for carrying out improvements, including re-engining, to already owned vessels. Similar loans are offered for the acquisition of replacements or additional fishing gear. The Rural Bank also helps with the purchase of modern equipment and buildings for the handling, storage, freezing, and discharge of fish. Rock oyster and mussel farmers are eligible for loans assistance for development work provided they hold a lease or licence and themselves contribute a minimum of 50 percent of the risk capital. Loans are also now available to crayfishermen operating in a controlled fishery and holding a controlled continuous licence.

Special Fishing Boat Loans—These are available to experienced fishermen of proven ability and who only have modest means to obtain a loan of up to 80 percent for the purchase of a new or used vessel including gear and equipment.

Fishing Vessel Construction Suspensory Loans—These are intended to encourage the building of larger fishing vessels in New Zealand shipyards for the development of fishing for less traditional fish species. Suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of the total cost of the vessel are provided by the bank and will be written off if the catch targets set by the bank are met.

The bank also provides special suspensory loans for fishermen excluded from controlled fisheries to assist them to diversify into alternative forms of fishing.

LOAN AUTHORISATIONS—A summary of loans authorised by the Rural Bank during the years ended 31 March 1982 and 1983 is given in the following table.

Loans1981—821982—83
NumberAmountNumberAmount
* This policy has ceased.
  $(m) $(m)
Farm settlement936111.37895118.80
Workers holding (“stepping stone” units)33316.6227214.90
Additional land (strengthening existing farms)25614.7521013.30
Sharemilkers' suspensory (farm purchase)1470.451530.47
Development6 287140.356 630171.85
Development consolidation*1 71730.03
Stock and plant loans (sharefarmers)1 22330.141 16732.68
Advances to Rural Intermediate Credit Associations751.31471.04
Refinance3047.38631.33
Climatic relief3123.993695.75
Estate duty461.99341.30
Department of Lands and Survey settlement100.77353.16
Livestock Incentive Scheme (loan option)1 62016.751 20416.59
Land development encouragement1 48342.7610.74
Sheep farmers Consolidation Loan1 83039.61
Fishing industry17813.381097.72
Rural industrial lending61332.5833214.37
 15 540464.6213 351443.61
Livestock Incentive Scheme (tax option)591.55400.86

A breakdown of the items, rural industrial lending and fishing industry in the above table is given below.

Item1981—821982—83
NumberAmountNumberAmount
* No export suspensory loans were approved during 1982—83.
Rural Industrial Lending $(m) $(m)
Rural industries1306.07683.84
Producer boards110.00
Coolstores and packhouses596.75324.72
Agricultural plant and machinery (including special plant)2775.891462.95
Agricultural contractors691.97632.07
Rural export suspensory loans771.90230.78
Total61332.5833214.36
Fishing Industry    
Loans for catching16010.451004.77
Loans for processing142.6092.95
Rural export suspensory loans*40.33
Total17813.381097.72

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Additional information will be found in the following official publications:

Report of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B.25).

Report of the New Zealand Fishing Industry Board (Parl. paper C.6).

30 C—STATE FINANCE FOR HOUSING

HOUSING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—Under the Housing Corporation Act 1974 the functions of the State Advances Corporation in housing were amalgamated with those previously performed by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development to constitute the Housing Corporation of New Zealand, responsible to the Minister of Housing.

Housing Loans—Up to 1 April 1979 the Housing Corporation continued to concentrate the bulk of its residential lending on the provision of loans to build or to acquire houses not previously occupied. Loans to assist home seekers purchase previously occupied houses (reinstated in 1964) were available to the extent of available funds and to applicants within strictly defined priority categories. Traditionally, successive Governments supported the building industry by encouraging loans for home building and thus recognising the strong demand for new houses, the need to add to the building stock, and the importance of the building industry as a major employer.

From 1 April 1979 onwards, major factors influencing a decline in new house building were a high net emigration rate, a static population, increasing unemployment, rapidly increasing building costs, and rising interest rates. The price differential favouring existing over new housing grew to as high as $12,000 and more.

As a result of this, the Government, in formulating policies, was conscious of the need to continue to give a measure of support to the building industry but at the same time to allow home seekers on lower incomes a greater degree of choice between building a new home or buying an existing one. The Government also considered that the private lending institutions should assume a greater responsibility for residential lending.

On 1 April 1979 a change of policy was implemented For the first time in many years, applicants seeking a first home (whether married or single, with or without dependants) had the choice of building a new home or buying an existing property, provided the principal income earner's income was within the eligibility criteria and a personal deposit of at least 20 percent of the total ingoing (12½12; percent for married couples or sole persons with dependants who build) was contributed in cash, by Family Benefit capitalisation, or from sources such as a Post Office Home Ownership Savings Account, or any amount available to corporation tenants who qualify for a tenants suspensory loan.

In addition, the corporation specified that to qualify for a loan the total housing commitment including rates and fire insurance could not be more than 30 percent of gross income for a one-income family or 35 percent of joint incomes.

A measure of support was given to the building industry with the introduction of an interest-free suspensory loan of $2,500 available to applicants building a first home (whether or not loan finance was obtained from the corporation) provided the cost of the house and site was not more than $50,000. From 1 July 1980 the building suspensory loan was increased to $4,000, but was only available to first home seekers who obtained loan finance from private lending institutions and as a guideline where the total cost of the house and land was not in excess of $70,000. For the year ended 31 March 1982, 1301 building suspensory loans were approved at $4,000 each for $5.20 million. Up to 1 July 1980, applicants offered loans were required to contribute 2 percent of the amount of the loan to the corporation's general reserve fund. From that date this long-standing requirement was waived.

All Housing Corporation loans are made on the security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits, taking into account the financial position of the applicants and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make the maximum possible contribution from available resources.

Before 1 July 1980 the maximum loan for a new house was $20,000, all interest-bearing, and for existing houses, $17,500 or 80 percent of the corporation's valuation of the property, whichever was the less. These loan limits have been increased since that date as follows.

Date of IncreaseNew HouseExisting House
* or 80 percent of the corporation's valuation, whichever is the less.
1 July 1980$24,000$17,500*
24 June 1981$25,000$18,500*

To keep the total of loans within the funds allocated, loans for existing houses before 1 July 1980 were restricted to applicants qualifying for interest concessions, that is, the principal earner's income at the time of application, or the weekly average over the previous 12 months, did not exceed $180 plus $10 per week for each dependent child.

On 24 June 1981, along with the increased maximum loan for new houses, the income maximum for loans was increased to $250 per week, plus $10 per week for each dependent child was introduced.

A choice between building a new house or buying an existing house was available to applicants whose income was within these limits:

Single person without dependents$200 per week gross.
Single income families or solo parents with dependents$250 per week gross, plus
 $10 per week for each dependent child.

The income limit for applicants building a new home was $250 per week plus $10 per week for each dependent child.

The prime interest rate since 15 March 1979 has been 9 percent, subject to review at 3-yearly intervals. Rebated interest rates of 3 percent, 5 percent, and 6½12; percent have also been available. To qualify for a rebated-interest loan, borrowers must not have owned a property within 5 years prior to the date of the loan application and the principal income earner's gross income (including overtime, bonus payments, and secondary employment) must not exceed certain limits: for 3 percent, $85 per week increased by $10 for each dependent child; for 5 percent, between $85 and $120; and for 6½12; percent, between $120 and $160, with both similarly increased by $10 for each dependent child. Loans provide for an automatic increase to the next higher rate at 3-yearly intervals.

Since February 1978, low-start mortgages have been also available to borrowers required to pay the prime interest rate to help ease the heavy burden in the early years of home ownership, particularly when secondary borrowing was necessary. Anyone granted a loan at the prime interest rate has been able to choose between:

  1. A standard table mortgage for 30 years;

  2. Interest payments for 3 years, then a standard table mortgage for 30 years; or

  3. If the loan exceeds $15,000, reduced repayments at varying rates for a term of 3 years, then a 27-year table mortgage.

Of the 11 302 housing loans to build or buy homes approved during the year ended 31 March 1982 (involving $221.80 million) 957 loans (involving $16.95 million) carried interest rebates.

Loans to refinance existing mortgages on a residential property where family income is under undue strain caused by high interest rates and/or onerous terms of repayment were introduced in the 1973 Budget. This policy was extended on August 1977 to provide for refinance where a mortgage had fallen due and could not be renewed or replaced within the private sector. For the year ended 31 March 1982 a total of 150 loans for $1.59 million were advanced. Security may be on first and subsequent mortgage.

Home Improvement and Urban Renewal Schemes—The housing improvement loan scheme originally introduced in 1972 and limited to improvement of inner city areas in the 4 main centres was extended to all localities in 1975. Loans were entertained for owner-occupier or tenanted properties on subsequent mortgage. The aim was to upgrade older houses in inner city areas and help corporation mortgagors provide essential alterations and extensions to their homes, to house a dependent elderly relative, or to provide extra bedroom space for a growing family. The loan approved, plus any prior mortgage debt, had to be within 90 percent of the corporation's value of the completed property.

On 1 September 1979, alongside this scheme, the Community and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP) came into operation.

The 2 major objectives were:

  1. To improve the condition and utilisation of existing housing stock and urban facilities.

  2. To ensure that residential renewal activity was fully integrated into urban development and management strategies at local, regional, and national levels.

The Community Housing Improvement Programme provides financial assistance to local authorities, builders, developers, and home owners for a much wider range of urban renewal activities, particularly within Neighbourhood Improvement Areas (NIA). The Neighbourhood Improvement Areas (NIA) replaced the Comprehensive Urban Renewal Areas (CURA) and Reclamation Areas of the former policy as areas where private and local urban renewal activities receive the maximum Government assistance and support.

During 1981—82 a total of 3086 loans for $23.35 million were approved for home improvements and in terms of the CHIP programme. The loan limits were $10,000 and $12,500 if the property was in a NIA.

Armed Forces Housing and Furniture Loans—The Government announced a scheme in the 1978 Budget effective from 1 September 1978 to provide housing loans to service personnel with at least 12 years' regular service with the New Zealand Armed Forces. The housing loan interest rate is 3 percent for the first 5 years and 5 percent for the remainder of the loan term provided the servicemen or women remain in the Armed Forces, or have completed 20 years service, or reach retiring age for rank, or are medically discharged.

As well, furniture loans of $1,000 were made available to regular force personnel with 12 years' service and territorial personnel with 5 successive years' satisfactory service. The loans are interest-free provided the borrower remains in the services and maintains continuous and efficient service.

The number of loans approved for the year ended 31 March 1982 were:

 NumberAmount
  $(m)
Houses1943.82
Furniture440.42

Tied Housing Scheme—The scheme was introduced on 1 October 1977 to enable married employees required to live in employer-provided accommodation as a condition of employment to acquire a retirement home, even though they could not live in it immediately. The original scheme required the employee to be at least 45 years of age and within 10 years of retirement. In June 1978 the age was reduced to 40 years and the requirement that the applicant be within 10 years of retiring waived.

On 30 January 1981, as a result of pressure from the rural sector, the scheme was amended again. Age and marital status no longer had any bearing on eligibility. The major criteria were changed to:

  1. the necessity, as a condition of employment, to live in employer-provided accommodation for at least 10 years or, when occupation has not been continuous, for 10 years over the preceding 15-year period;

  2. a need to borrow;

  3. applicants to be first home seekers.

During the year ended 31 March 1982, 372 loans for $6.90 million were approved, compared with 166 loans for $2.84 million in the previous year.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—Applications for advances under the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Department of Social Welfare. In the 1978 Budget the capitalisation maximum was raised from $2,000 to $3,000 and the amount of benefit capitalised from $1.50 to $3 per week. For the year ended 31 March 1982, 1850 advances totalling $4.30 million were authorised by the corporation under this agency, compared with 1962 advances totalling $4.56 million in 1980—81.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for Housing—The corporation has statutory authority to guarantee mortgages and operates a scheme whereby an approved lender may be guaranteed repayment of a housing loan granted by the institution. In 1981—82 there were 9586 guarantees involving $135.43 million.

Loan Authorisations—A summary of loans authorised by the corporation for the latest 3 financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1979—801980—811981—82
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
Housing loans— $(m) $(m) $(m)
    Erection5 983122.313 97788.323 25381.00
    Purchase8 804149.578 636144.448 049140.80
    Home improvement2 16114.423 09521.483 08623.35
    Refinance1361.411201.241501.59
    Other purposes2832.111971.685585.76
        Total housing17 367289.8216 025257.1615 096252.50

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen for housing purposes. They do not include loans to local authorities.

As a measure of support to the building industry, interest-free building suspensory loans of $4,000 for 1301 borrowers for a total of $5.20 million. These borrowers were building new homes for personal occupation with loan finance provided from the private lending institutions and as a guideline the total ingoing cost of each individual house and site (excluding ancillaries) did not exceed $70,000. These loans will be written off after 7 years' personal occupation of the dwelling.

A summary of the number of housing loans under administration as at 31 March of the latest 3 years is as follows:

Loans on MortgagesAs at 31 March
198019811982
* These figures do not include loans administered by the Housing Corporation on an agency basis (e.g., hotel investment account, gas companies) or industrial loans.
Urban159 898161 310158 664
Local authority213184160
Urban housing1 2901 3711 453
Rural housing858924986
Approved securities1
    Total162 260163 789161 263

HOUSING ACT 1955—In addition to its lending activities the Housing Corporation has the function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  1. Letting and administration of corporation rental houses and flats.

  2. Sale of corporation rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  3. Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

Corporation Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken over by the corporation during the year ended 31 March 1982 totalled 414. The number of tenancies administered on 31 March 1982 was 59 582.

Rent accounts in arrears at 31 March 1982 were 1.91 percent of the total compared with 4.11 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies during 1981—82 amounted to $78,264,873 compared with $71,750,134 for 1980—81. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of rental houses. For the year ended 31 March 1982 this amounted to $39 million compared with $32.5 million for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1982 totalling $16,541,573 compared with the previous year's figure of $13,723,993.

References to corporation housing construction are contained in Section 19, Building Construction and Housing.

Sale of Rental Houses—Rental houses are available for sale to tenants on the following terms:

  1. Sale price to be the current market value of the property.

  2. The minimum deposit to be 10 percent of the purchase price in all areas except Otara, Mangere, and Porirua, where the minimum deposit is to be 5 percent.

  3. The balance of the purchase price together with interest payable over a term of up to 30 years on an instalment table mortgage basis.

  4. Interest at 7½12; percent reducible to 5 percent reviewable yearly while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for these rates for a corporation housing loan.

From the inception of the sale of rental houses up to 31 March 1983 the number of dwelling sales finalised amounted to 31 940 dwellings (excluding pensioner units transferred to local authorities) for a total consideration of approximately $310.64 million.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the annual publication, Report of the Housing Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 13). See also section 19, Building Construction and Housing.

30 D—BUILDING SOCIETIES

Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have 565 000 members. At 1 April 1982 there were 37 building societies with total assets of more than $950 million. They provided finance for home ownership to the extent of over $163 million in 1981. Building societies have assisted the national economy by attracting and encouraging savings. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965 and its amendments, the Building Societies Savings Bank Regulations 1966, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967.

The Building Societies investment Order 1977 requires building societies to hold 16 percent of their assets in qualifying public securities.

PERMANENT AND TERMINATING SOCIETIES—The Building Societies Amendment Act 1980 is expected to have a profound effect on the future development of building societies in New Zealand.

For some years concern had been expressed at some aspects of the operations of terminating societies, i.e., those societies that conducted ballots and tenders for loans within contractual savings groups. In particular, concern had been expressed about the amount that members forfeited through not maintaining their contractual obligations, and in general, about the cost of operating such institutions which resulted in low returns on members' savings.

Terminating societies had long since lost favour with the public and with the authorities in other countries, and reform in New Zealand was considered long overdue, a view reinforced by the declining membership of such societies in recent years. It was considered significant that virtually all terminating societies were actively promoting an allied permanent society.

Following critical comment by both Ministers and officials the terminating societies responded with a proposed new form of product which they felt was more in keeping with the needs of savers in the 1980s. While the Amendment Act prohibits the sale of terminating group shares from 1 April 1981, societies are permitted to conduct ballots for a minor portion of their operating profit—"bonus ballots". This type of share may be marketed by all societies, as well as all societies being able to market the usual products associated with permanent societies.

The shares that were issued in terminating groups involved the member in long term contractual savings. Generally the products offered by permanent societies are far more flexible and range from savings share accounts to fixed term shares and deposit accounts not dissimilar to those available from savings banks.

The Building Societies Act still refers to permanent and terminating societies for technical reasons but no longer restricts the activities of societies to one function or the other and so the merging of allied terminating and permanent societies was facilitated.

Largely as a consequence of the new legislation, a significant rationalisation of building societies has recently occurred, a fact indicated by the reduction in the number of societies from 53 at the beginning of 1980 to 37 on 1 April 1982.

Since all societies had from 1 April 1982 a common range of available products to market, it was logical that allied terminating and permanent societies should merge. This was effected by transferring the engagements of the permanent society to the parent terminating society. At the same time, a number of smaller societies transferred their engagements to larger and stronger units better equipped to operate on the new basis.

ACTIVITIES OF SOCIETIES—Societies do not have a common balance date. The following tables have been prepared from the annual returns of societies as at their various balance dates during the 1981 calendar year. The first of these tables gives a summary of results for the latest 3 available years.

Item 197919801981
* At beginning of year.
Number of societies*555341
Paid-up capital$(000)539,912595,148673,154
Number of shareholders490 237547 626565 810

A summary of receipts and payments of all societies during 1979, 1980, and 1981 is given in the following table.

Item197919801981
* Nine societies are authorised by the Act to accept deposits on conditions substantially similar to the conditions pertaining to the Post Office, trustee, and private savings banks.
Receipts $(thousand) 
Share subscriptions (excluding subscriptions on borrowing shares)252,239388,937466,916
Deposits received—
    Savings*7,9837,5189,005
    Other210,917245,138272,479
Interest and principal repaid—
    Advances on mortgage (including subscriptions on borrowing shares)139,288152,966160,795
    Advances on shares14,32914,81312,732
Investments realised179,378311,546432,926
Payments   
Share moneys withdrawn202,138335,706393,170
Deposits and interest withdrawn—
    Savings*7,6097,3728,165
    Other182,392230,985273,882
Advanced on mortgage133,003143,533163,093
Advanced on shares13,43215,86212,855
Investments made231,015346,126472,609

A summary of income and expenditure for the financial year ended in 1981 is given in the following table.

ItemAmount
* Mainly levies on members as provisions against losses on mortgage.
Income$(000)
Interest earned on—
    Advances62,368
    Investments23,660
Fees, commissions and fines2,105
Income from properties1,569
Net credit from shares forfeited or withdrawn at a discount3,398
Mortgagors' contributions to reserves481
Other*776
Total income94,357
        Expenditure
Interest incurred on borrowings24,205
Directors' emoluments489
Auditors' fees343
Salaries10,919
Other administrative expenses8,633
Selling and establishment expenses—written off3,886
Payments for ballot loan rights—written off5,311
Expenses on properties, including depreciation1,573
Discount on shares paid in advance—written off19
Other2,893
    Total expenditure58,271
    Excess of income over expenditure36,086

The purposes of advances on mortgage in the 3 latest available years are shown in the following table.

Purpose of Loan197919801981
 $(million)
Dwellings—
    Erections7.710.212.1
    Purchases63.675.9101.0
    Other purposes52.845.136.4
Business and other properties8.812.313.6
    Total133.0143.5163.1
Number of advances9 5389 5059 624

The following table summarises balance sheets for the financial year ended during 1981.

ItemValue or Amount
* For definition and analysis see Parliamentary paper B. 14 Report of the Registrar of Building Societies.
Assets$(000)
Land and buildings39,262
Other fixed assets9,346
Advances on security of mortgage (less credits on borrowing shares)644,843
Advances on security of shares20,216
Investments241,158
Cash and bank1,265
Income$(000)
Appropriations in trust debit balances27
Other2,647
    Total assets958,764
            Liabilities
Paid-up capital (excluding borrowing shares)673,154
Reserves63,385
Retained profits1,862
 738,401
    Less fictitious assets*4,445
 733,956
Deposits—
    Savings2,909
    Other197,221
Appropriations in trust credit balances1,537
Provisions3,396
Bank overdraft10,278
Other9,467
    Total liabilities958,764

30 E—COMPANIES

The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the smaller trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown.

Offers to the public require the issue of a prospectus, which must be registered with the Registrar of Companies. The Securities Act 1978 set up a Securities Commission (see below) whose responsibilities include recommending rules in this area.

Any number of persons from 2 to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least 7 members. A private company of not less than 7 members may, under certain conditions, be reregistered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

SECURITIES COMMISSION—The Securities Commission was established under the Securities Act 1978, and consists of 5 members and 5 alternate members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice. The Chairman is Mr C. I. Patterson, a barrister and solicitor.

The functions of the commission are to:

  1. exercise the jurisdiction granted under the Securities Act 1978 regarding public offers of securities;

  2. keep under review the law relating to incorporated bodies, securities, and unincorporated issuers of securities, and to recommend to the Minister of Justice any changes it considers necessary;

  3. keep under review practices relating to securities and to comment about them to any appropriate body; and

  4. promote public understanding of the law and practice relating to securities.

The main business of the commission is to perform a law reform function and in doing this it consults widely with interested parties. In June 1982 the commission made recommendations to the Government for legislation governing nominee shareholdings in public listed companies. In March 1983 the commission made recommendations to the Government for securities regulations to replace the existing law contained in the Companies Act 1955 relating to offers of securities to the public. These recommendations dealt largely with the content of prospectuses and the advertising of the offers of securities to the public.

Since its establishment, the commission has taken an active interest in a wide range of other topics including the law and practice relating to company takeovers and contributory mortgages. It has also established priorities for its future law reform programme which include reviews of the law and practice relating to the following:

  1. financial reporting;

  2. the duties and responsibilities of officers of entities who offer securities to the public, with particular reference to the use of information relevant to the value of shares and insider trading;

  3. secondary market operations, with particular reference to the Sharebrokers Act 1908.

COMPANY REGISTRATIONS—The following table shows, for the latest available years, the number of new companies registered, deleted from the company register, placed under receivership, and liquidated. In comparing company registration figures for one year with another, it should not be overlooked that registrations on account of reconstruction of companies, or for other reasons, are included.

YearNew Companies RegisteredCompanies Dissolved or Struck OffCompanies Placed Under ReceivershipCompany LiquidationsTotal Number of Companies
Court OrderVoluntary
19785 4734 298305239487110 484
19795 7784 254310485423112 224
19806 1162 957256399359115 226
19816 7533 027222323380117 957
19826 3705 735259351274118 594

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Almost all companies whose shares are listed on the Stock Exchange are included, together with a few others. Results of these analyses are published in an annual supplement to the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

In 1977 the coverage was extended to include non-listed and overseas companies. Overseas companies are those with 25 percent or more of their voting share capital controlled by overseas interests, and include any branch of an overseas incorporated company. Only companies operating in New Zealand whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources are included.

The 1980 survey covered the analysis of the annual accounts of 911 companies received during the calendar year 1980. Of these annual accounts, 66 percent related to balance dates in 1980, and the remaining 34 percent to dates in 1979. The 1980 survey also included for the first time a survey of current cost accounting data.

In 1981 the survey covered the analysis of 919 companies, comprising 158 listed public companies, 334 non-listed public companies, and 427 overseas companies. The 1981 survey also included a survey of current cost accounting data.

The percentage distribution of sources and use of funds for the latest 2 years are shown in the following table.

 19801981
 percent
Source of funds—
    Retained profits and depreciation29.733.0
    Other long-term sources30.835.9
    All long-term sources60.568.9
    Short-term sources39.531.1
    Total100.0100.0
Use of funds—
    Property and plant30.829.5
    Long-term investment8.116.3
    All long-term uses38.945.8
    Stocks31.317.8
    Debtors22.030.5
    Other short-term7.85.9
    Total100.0100.0

The aggregate appropriation of income for 919 New Zealand companies in the latest 2 years is shown in the following table.

Annual Accounts19801981
Income for year—$(million)
    Trading1,516.91,898.1
    Investment101.1124.1
    Other non-trading33.029.1
    Total income1,651.02,051.3
Less—
    Depreciation331.7366.4
    Interest on fixed liabilities276.1378.2
    Directors' fees7.18.2
    Tax on current year income328.3422.3
    Minority interests17.323.5
    Total deductions960.51 198.6
    Net profit after tax690.5852.7
Previous year's adjustments—
    Tax4.4—0.8
    Other15.70.7
    Available for appropriation710.5852.6
Appropriations—
    Goodwill, etc., written off7.513.1
    Ordinary dividends238.3293.5
    Preference dividends15.219.8
    Retained in reserves449.5526.2
    Total710.5852.6

Net Profits and Net Profit Ratios—Net profits (after tax) and net profit ratios are shown in the following table. This analysis includes annual accounts of companies balancing between June 1980 and October 1981, and mainly reflects trading conditions from January 1980 to August 1981. Of the 20 industries groups surveyed, 2 experienced a decrease in net profits and 18 experienced an increase. The decline occurred in the printing and publishing, and metal and machinery sectors, where net profits fell by 0.6 million and 0.3 million respectively. Overall net profits rose by 23.5 percent.

The return on shareholders' funds increased in 13 of the 20 sectors to stand at 12.6 percent, an increase of 1 percent on the previous year.

In 13 of the 20 sectors the return on shareholders' funds increased, the overall return rising from 0.2 percent to 5.1 percent.

Inflation and nominal interest rates continued at high levels during 1982. Those in business continued to express concern over the high rate of inflation, industrial relations and taxation.

High rates of inflation during the survey period, combined with conventional accounting procedures for profit calculation, means that recorded rates of increase or decrease in profits does not reflect real changes.

Type of Company*Number of CompaniesNet ProfitReturn
TotalChange From Previous YearOn Shareholders FundsOn Total Resources

* For note on balance dates see opening paragraphs of this subsection.

† The return on shareholders' funds is net tax-paid profit expressed as a percentage of shareholders' funds. This ratio demonstrates the earning power of the funds invested in the business by the shareholders.

‡ The return on total resources is an expression of the percentage of net tax-paid profit to total tangible assets. This ratio is an indicator of the earning power of the business.

Note—Totals may not add because of rounding.

 $(million)percent
Manufacturing
    Meat processing3037.9+8.39.14.2
    Beverages833.4+7.58.94.7
    Other food3549.6+11.613.58.6
    All food73120.8+27.310.45.5
    Woollen mills625.9+9.113.56.8
    Clothing manufactures207.0+3.313.67.4
    Forestry and wood18158.2+49.514.36.4
    Printing and publishing4617.1— 0.611.06.4
    Drugs and chemicals5388.1+16.614.25.9
    Non-metallic minerals2826.9+6.411.57.0
    Metals and machinery6670.5— 0.313.26.2
    Electric machinery and appliances4126.7+4.611.45.6
    Other manufacturing6148.9+1.513.67.4
    Manufacturing other than food339469.5+90.313.56.4
    All manufacturing412590.3+117.612.76.2
Other (excluding financial)
    Construction164.7+2.39.54.4
    Gas91.6+0.29.75.5
    Mainly wholesale14080.4+5.411.34.2
    Mainly retail9539.9+4.512.25.8
    Stock and station agents2527.0+2.711.14.2
    Transport4126.2+5.511.35.2
    Property investors8017.4+6.510.73.1
    Total other (excluding financial)406197.2+27.311.34.5
    Total (excluding financial)818787.5+144.912.35.6
Financial10165.2+17.317.82.4
    Grand Total919852.7+162.212.65.1

Chapter 31. Section 31; INSURANCE

31 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

The development of life assurance has gone beyond its original function of providing for old age and for dependants in case of death. In particular, it has become increasingly important as the basis of many private superannuation schemes, which provide a protection not previously available to the labour force. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance. Under this category there are policies with titles such as “family-income”, “education”, “mortgage-protection”, or “retirement”, and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving, and the investment of these funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Life assurance assets in 1981—82 totalled $4,186 million, of which 24.1 percent was invested in mortgages on property, 27.2 percent in Central Government and local authority securities, and 20.2 percent in company stocks, shares and debentures.

In the year 1981—82 there were 212 215 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $7,449.6 million, or approximately $2,331 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2 822 511 for a total life assurance of $34,066 million. (These totals exclude annuities.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—On the basis of the ratio of the value of life assurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fifth to Japan, Canada, the United States, and the Netherlands as shown in the following table of selected countries. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1982, and Department of Statistics.)

Country19751980
 percent
Canada150167
United States154151
Sweden127115
New Zealand146118
Japan206281
Australia103107
Netherlands111126
United Kingdom7576

In Sweden the introduction in 1963 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.) In other countries group life plans are negotiated by groups of workers and typically provide for a death benefit equal to once or twice the total of annual earnings.

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908, the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910, and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

There are 33 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, 15 are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, Capital Life Assurance Ltd., Cuna Mutual Insurance Society, New Zealand Insurance Life Ltd., Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., Superannuation and Mutual Savings Ltd., Primary Industries Insurance Co. Ltd., A. A. Mutual, Tasman Mutual Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Fidelity Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Marac Life Assurance Ltd., Equitable Life and General Insurance Co. Ltd., Invincible Life Assurance, Medical Life Assurance Society Ltd., and Greenwich Life Insurance Co. Ltd., whilst two, Provident Life Assurance Co., and Monarch Life Insurance Co. of New Zealand, are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between July and June of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics given here relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following tables are compiled from annual returns furnished by the insurance companies for the period up to 30 June 1982. Five offices transact industrial assurance. This is essentially the same as ordinary assurance except that the premiums are payable at shorter intervals than three months and are usually collected personally by agents. In the following tables data referring to ordinary assurance business and industrial assurance business have been amalgamated.

The first table shows revenue and expenditure during the latest 3 years.

Item1979—801980—811981—82
* The Life Insurance Act of 1908 requires the second schedule, the source of the information, to be completed net of re-insurance. This can result in premiums being reclassified from re-insurance to insurance when mergers of insurance companies occur.
 $(thousand)
 Revenue
New and renewal premiums*398,812445,662702,897
Interest, rents, etc.268,692322,798390,423
Transfers2205,8404,540
    Total (incl. other)714,059864,0251,221,685
 Expenditure
Claims138,425151,035179,305
Annuities2,7002,6933,530
Surrenders106,831135,175155,386
Commissions47,79154,20564,698
Other management expenses74,53288,276100,345
Rates and taxes32,79735,57845,878
Transfers2,9403,2473,809
    Total (incl. other)419,009485,922564,930

The following table gives a summary of life-assurance business during the latest available 5 years. Annuity policies are excluded. Of these, 642 were issued during 1981—82, and there were 3,367 annuities in force at the end of 1981—82.

YearNew Policies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force
NumberSum AssuredNumberSum AssuredNumberSum Assured
* Because of changes in the accounting procedures of some companies the value of policies existing at the end of the year will not balance.
 (000)$(m)(000)$(m)(000)$(m)
1977—782263,865.21931,428.92 75319,808.2
1978—792154,044.31831,508.52 78522,346.2
1979—80*2275,229.11902,025.12 82225,593.0
1980—812085,863.22082,471.22 82328,985.0
1981—82*2127,449.62152,594.42 82234,065.8

Annual premiums on existing policies during 1981—82 amounted to $533.0 million, compared with $460.3 million during 1980—81 and $405.9 million during 1979—80.

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

An analysis by cause of policies discontinued during the latest 3 years is shown in the following table. Ordinary and industrial policies have been combined.

Cause of Discontinuance1979—801980—811981—82
  $(million) 
Death47.551.559.1
Maturity82.288.7106.7
Surrender977.51,141.41,415.4
Lapse456.0546.3711.0
Other causes461.9643.3302.1
    Total2,025.12,471.22,594.3

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage Amount*
* Excludes annuities and Industrial policies.
 $
1976—7715,358
1977—7817,233
1978—7918,927
1979—8023,195
1980—8128,247
1981—8235,187

Reasons for the growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table include the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover (for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and “unit” policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover). A further reason is the relatively high rate of inflation in recent years.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the 3 latest years. As in the previous tables the figures relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Liabilities1979—801980—811981—82
  $(thousand) 
Paid-up share capital6,6387,8316,047
Life-assurance and annuity funds3,168,6913,355,6954,020,119
Depreciation, reserves, and other special funds43,12447,63465,539
Claims admitted, but not paid23,12519,53020,878
Other liabilities63,10570,78373,452
    Total3,304,6833,501,4704,186,032

The assets of companies conducting business in New Zealand at the end of each of the 3 latest years were as follows:

AssetsAmountPercentage of Total
1979—801980—811981—821979—801980—811981—82
 $(million)percent
Mortgages on houses, etc.883.0890.31,007.726.725.424.1
Loans on policies164.0165.7194.75.04.74.6
Central Government securities588.3623.7765.217.817.818.3
Local authority securities310.2321.1372.99.49.28.9
Real estate629.4675.1794.919.019.319.0
Company shares and debentures579.6658.4843.917.618.820.2
Outstanding premiums32.134.638.51.01.00.9
Interest accrued, etc.45.452.962.61.41.51.5
Cash39.540.657.21.21.21.4
Other assets31.137.148.40.91.11.1
    Total3,302.63,499.44,186.0100.0100.0100.0

The Government has made agreements with life-insurance companies regarding the proportion of their new funds invested in Government and local authority securities. The current ruling requires life offices to hold not less than 29 percent of gross selected assets in public sector investments, of which not less than 19 percent is to be in Government stock. In addition, life offices are required to hold 20 percent of their assets in housing and farming investments.

For 1981—82 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of insurance companies was $13.77 percent, compared with $11.97 percent during 1980—81 and $9.90 percent during 1979—80.

In composite-insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

31 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

Until 1974 there were three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These were: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) motor vehicle insurance. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, which became effective from 1 April 1974, provided continuous cover against accidents for all persons in regular employment, whether at work or not, through an earners' scheme financed by levies averaging 1 percent of incomes payable by employers on behalf of employees. The levies replaced employers' liability premiums under the Workers Compensation Act.

Previous to 1974 there were two classes of motor vehicle insurance—comprehensive coverage, and compulsory third-party risks cover. Owners of motor vehicles were compelled to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death or bodily injury of another person caused through the car-owners' negligence. However, this compulsory scheme was replaced from 1 July 1974 by a new scheme under the Accident Compensation Act 1972. This provides financial compensation for personal injuries suffered in motor vehicle accidents irrespective of blame. It is financed by levies similar to the previous insurance premiums paid by motor vehicle owners.

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1981—82 was 51. The head offices of the companies concerned were in the following countries: Great Britain, 7; Australia, 10; United States of America, 3; Hong Kong, 1; and New Zealand, 30.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*
* Excluding reserve provisions.
 $(million)
1977—7859164.913.7178.7119.211.617.720.7169.3
1978—7954176.914.1191.0123.312.919.522.8178.5
1979—8054197.816.6214.4130.014.323.524.9192.7
1980—8153227.018.4245.1163.816.427.323.5231.0
1981—8251299.023.0322.0221.021.236.434.2312.8

Premium receipts in 1981—82 were 31.7 percent above the 1980—81 figure, while claims had risen by 34.9 percent.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of 5 years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
 percent
1977—7872.37.010.712.630.4102.794.7
1978—7969.77.311.012.931.2100.993.5
1979—8065.77.211.912.631.797.489.9
1980—8172.27.212.010.429.6101.894.1
1981—8273.97.112.211.430.7104.697.2

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $54,928,000 in 1979—80, $64,328,000 in 1980—81, and $89,074,000 in 1981—82. The ratio of working expenses to premium income for each of the 3 years were respectively 27.8, 28.3 and 29.8 percent.

31 C—FIRE INSURANCE

Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage, but also against a wide range of other dangers including water damage, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, damage from aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1982 there were 38 fire-insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these, the head offices of 23 were in New Zealand, 7 were in Great Britain, 5 in Australia, 2 in the United States of America, and 1 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the latest financial year of each company. Most of these closely approximate to the calendar year 1981 but some extend up to the following June.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following summary relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account.

YearPolicies as at Balance DaleGross Cover as at Balance DatePremium IncomeGross LossPercentage of Claims to Premium Income
 No.$(m)$(000)$(000)percent
1977—782 313 98459,172.3121,84762,63251.4
1978—792 248 46660,317.4126,24870,35755.7
1979—802 233 49868,516.0192,41785,24844.3
1980—812 305 63478,936.3207,965x98,72447.5
1981—822 267 020103,505.4289,436134,81746.6

LIABILITIES—The following table shows whole-world liabilities of fire-insurance offices. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 38 fire offices, 2 also engage in life-assurance business in New Zealand.

Item1979—80 Total1980—81 Total1981—82
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
 $(million)
Paid-up capital447.0531.8504.781.0585.7
Reserves1,508.11,922.53,782.5237.64,020.1
Other liabilities4,191.95,269.57,311.31,035.48,346.7
    Total6,146.77,723.811,598.41,354.012,952.4
Life funds9,771.011,907.314,355.77.214,362.9
    Total liabilities15,917.719,631.225,954.21,361.227,315.4

ASSETS—The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the latest 5 years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments— accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1977—781978—791979—801980—811981—82
 $(million)
Real estate86.787.8109.5112.2125.2
Central Government securities36.531.435.736.433.3
Local authority securities32.128.929.830.129.4
Company shares and debentures157.7160.3176.0205.6234.0
Mortgages, etc.73.570.673.476.183.8
Outstanding premiums59.564.170.679.7104.3
Cash and other assets in New Zealand76.464.689.8108.3143.3
    Total, New Zealand assets522.4507.7585.0648.4753.4

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus reinsurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It should be noted that at the closing date of the accounts it is customary to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year. If the amount transferred to reserve in the latest year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year the net effect is equivalent to an increase in the latest year's expenditure and appears in the statement of net expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred in the latest year is less than in the previous year, the net effect appears in the statement of net revenue.

Item1980—811981—82
GrossNetGrossNet
Revenue$(thousand)
Change in reserve provisions7988
Amount of fire premiums received during year219,877160,074317,597228,623
Interest and dividends16,22324,098
Rents2,1513,106
Other revenue5,2205,470
    Total219,877184,465317,597261,304
            Expenditure
Change in reserve provisions13,0669,68049,58936,706
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage112,63983,449160,168118,556
Fire Service Commission levies22,81619,18927,52726,130
Central Government taxes1,5711,888883931
Rents2,4072,4063,2703,272
Depreciation2,3802,3853,1203,073
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others22,88612,31534,00517,097
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses27,15527,32040,04139,472
Other expenses of management13,30214,21223,97024,392
    Total218,222172,844342,573269,631

31 D—STATE INSURANCE

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government. A major change occurred in the management of the Government Life Insurance Office on 1 October 1983 when it became a corporation. The 1983 Government Life Insurance Corporation Bill provides for the appointment of a Minister in charge of corporation, a board of 6 directors appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister for a term of 3 years, and a managing director who will also act as deputy chairman. One of the appointed directors will act as chairman.

From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,005, issued during 1869—70, the business of the office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1981, policies numbered 453 738 and the total sum assured reached $3,710 million.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office for the latest 5 years are shown in the following table.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement Expenses and CommissionsTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
 $(thousand)percent
197743,22176,1139,28039,74212.1921.47
197852,12490,07110,87049,70412.0720.85
197951,83196,19012,15452,46512.6423.45
198056,468112,30913,92259,52212.4024.65
198164,503131,24016,49176,26812.5725.57

During the year ended December 1981, 8452 policies became claims by death of the life assured or by maturity. The amount paid in respect of these claims was $27,081,840. A further sum of $1,031,540 was paid to annuitants, and $23,047,808 was paid to policyholders who cashed bonuses or surrendered policies.

Figures showing the progress of the office during the latest 5 years are contained in the next table. Annuities are included, but bonuses are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual* PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
* Excludes single premiums.
  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
197727 723367.94.324 479135.52.5467 2032,346.834.6
197827 148398.74.328 288182.92.6466 0632,562.636.1
197930 934500.15.029 783201.02.6467 2142,861.746.5
198027 374578.38.631 407199.94.2463 1813,240.150.8
198126 734750.010.036 177279.85.8453 7383,710.355.3

The following table shows the progress of business of the Government Life Insurance Office from the date of establishment until 31 December 1981.

 PoliciesAnnuities
NumberSum AssuredReversionary BonusesAnnual Premiums
 $(million)$(000)
Total issued1 170 3795,818.0459.098,814.832,662.0
Total void716 6412,107.7163.843,467.024,034.5
Total in force at 31 Dec 1981453 7383,710.3295.255,347.98,627.4

The office's total assets at 31 December are shown by class of investment in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentage
197919801981197919801981
* Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.
 $(million)percent
Mortgages on property181.9177.9182.033.6429.5727.68
Loans on policies28.231.431.95.225.224.86
Government securities98.3112.8129.418.1818.7519.68
Local authority securities54.557.062.110.089.479.44
Real estate88.0109.3136.516.2818.1620.76
Company shares and debentures67.488.192.312.4614.6414.04
Miscellaneous assets*22.425.223.34.144.193.54
        Total540.7601.7657.5100.00100.00100.00

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—The State Insurance Office is empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life assurance. As the State Fire Office it commenced business in 1905. In 1925 accident business was transferred to it from the Government Life Insurance Office and since 1947 it has undertaken marine insurance.

Its growth in recent years is indicated in the following table.

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
* Includes taxation.
 $(thousand)
197765,78342,5527,054
197873,62147,6488,269
197980,31949,42616,703*
198089,38062,39512,238
1981113,08179,31715,229

As was the case with private accident insurance companies the main classes of accident insurance transacted by the State Insurance Office prior to 1974 were motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employer's liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass. With the implementation of the Accident Compensation Act on 1 April 1974, all classes of business involving the insurance of liability for personal injury by accident ceased to be risks insured by the office. The major classes of business affected were employer's liability insurance and Transport Act insurance.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1981 amounted to $159.4 million, which included $82.7 million in the form of investments ($8.2 million in Government securities, $14.1 million in local body securities), and $54.1 million in fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $78.3 million, unexpired risks to $50.8 million, and unadjusted claims to $14.8 million.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a Commission, of which the Minister of Finance is chairman. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2½ percent).

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. In 1950 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. In 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund.

Since 1 June 1967 the commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis.

The following is a comparative statement for the latest available 5 years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act.

Item1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82

* At end of each period.

†Includes adjustment of the cost price of investments to nominal value.

Income—$(thousand)
    Premiums—
    Earthquake and war damage23,17526,78630,56634,52344,512
        Disaster2,5752,9773,3973,8374,947
        Interest18,60023,380†29,74939,35848,234
                Total44,35053,14363,71277,71897,693
Expenditure—
    Increase in provision for unearned premium--2,2351,7566,004
    Other adjustments on overseas investments--1,098−9081,720
    Claims—
        Earthquake and war damage802112355954
        Disaster2662,8441,5017041,674
    Salaries and expenses of management105111125170227
    Discount to insurance offices6397468509581,222
                Total1,0903,7225,9323,23910,901
Surplus43,26049,42157,78074,48086,793
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*310,535360,157410,385480,786564,668
Disaster Fund*5,7066,1096,80010,27213,661

For the year ended 31 March 1982 a total of 1387 claims were received, compared with 3166 for the previous year. The breakdown of claims was as follows: earthquake, 415; extraordinary disaster, 857; landslip, 115. Respective figures for the previous year were 2320; 685; and 161.

Earthquake Claims—As a result of seismic activity during the year, 415 claims amounting to $53,511 were registered.

Disaster Claims—Claims during 1981–82 totalled 857, with payments amounting to $1,420,348.

Landslip Claims—A total of 115 claims for this year resulted in payments of $253,317.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on insurance statistics will be found in the following publications.

Insurance Statistics—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Annual Report of the Government Insurance Commissioner (Parl. paper B. 22).

Report of the State Insurance Office (Parl. paper B. 21).

Report of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission (Parl. paper B. 11).

Labour

Chapter 32. Section 32; EMPLOYMENT

LABOUR FORCE—Important factors affecting the proportional size of the labour force to population include the age structure of the population, the usual age of completion of full-time education, the percentage of married women engaged in full-time paid employment, and net migration flow. The fluctuations in the growth of the labour force follow those of births some 15 to 20 years earlier.

The estimated annual growth of the labour force during the latest available years is shown in the following table based on Department of Labour estimates.

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as a Percentage of Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase
* Labour force estimates now refer to February because of the change from a half-yearly to a quarterly employment survey.
 (000)percent(000)percent(000)percentpercent
1973807.82.6348.04.61 155.83.239.0
1974830.62.8373.77.41 204.34.239.7
1975843.21.5385.23.11 228.42.039.8
1976853.11.2397.43.21 250.51.840.0
1977857.60.5411.83.61 269.41.540.4
1978860.30.3418.51.61 278.80.740.6
1979863.30.3436.54.31 299.81.641.3
1980*863.1446.32.21 309.40.741.6
1981*867.50.5457.92.61 325.41.241.9

The following table shows the full-time labour force by age group as recorded at the two most recent censuses. A new departure at the 1981 Census was that overseas visitors who were in New Zealand on census night but who had not worked while in this country (and did not intend to) were asked to complete only the first 12 questions on the Personal Questionnaire. Consequently, statistics on the labour force, education, marital status, and a number of other subjects relate only to New Zealand residents. A limited selection of tables from the 1976 Census (including the following) were processed on the same basis for purposes of comparison.

Age Group (Years)1976 Census1981 Census*
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberPercent of Male Labour ForceNumberPercent of Female Labour ForceNumberPercent of Male Labour ForceNumberPercent of Female Labour Force
* Final data on employment from the 1981 Census have been subject to a process of random rounding. All cell values including totals have been rounded using simple random rounding, to base three. Individual figures therefore, will not necessarily sum to give the stated totals.
15–1985 78610.074 70018.588 79110.174 13916.3
20–24118 48413.874 07018.4125 07914.384 22818.5
25–29121 09814.243.95710.9114 54013.150 71511.1
30–3498 19311.534 7438.6115 95013.247 35810.4
35–3987 54010.238 6199.693 64510.746 97410.3
40–4475 8518.936 0288.983 0169.546 07710.1
45–4981 3219.536 3849.072 7268.338 3258.4
50–5474 0568.731 1987.775 3518.633 2437.3
55–5959 4896.920 1965.065 0347.423 1485.1
60 and over53 9016.313 4883.342 4714.811 5292.5
Total labour force855 719100.0403 383100.0876 606100.0455 736100.0
Percentage of labour force68.032.065.834.2

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE:—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and farming had increased, while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in secondary industry, and 11 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated with a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the Second World War. The broad changes in the economy as indicated at recent censuses are shown in the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes increasing use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Production Group1971 Census1976 Census1981 Census
Persons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour Force
Primary production134 15912.0133 95910.5148 91411.0
Secondary industry388 07134.7433 19034.1311 13023.3
Services596 60553.3705 18455.4826 34162.0

The following figures show the estimated size and distribution of the labour force in February 1981.

Industrial GroupFebruary 1981
MalesFemalesTotal
 (thousand)
Primary—
      Agriculture, hunting, and fishing105.227.3132.5
      Forestry and logging8.70.79.4
      Mining and quarrying4.50.34.8
    Total, primary118.428.3146.7
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal59.214.073.2
    Textiles, clothing, and leather14.928.042.9
    Wood and wood products20.72.823.5
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing25.59.535.0
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics18.97.426.3
    Non-metallic mineral products8.61.710.3
    Metal products and engineering24.44.128.5
    Machinery, excluding electrical19.63.222.8
    Electrical equipment9.15.014.1
    Transport equipment18.62.821.4
    Other manufacturing3.62.25.8
    Total, manufacturing223.180.7303.8
Electricity, gas, and water15.01.916.9
Construction81.45.987.3
Wholesale and retail trade, etc.—
    Wholesale trade44.015.659.6
    Retail trade68.762.8131.5
    Restaurants, hotels, etc.15.124.139.2
    Total, wholesale, retail, etc.127.8102.5230.3
Transport and communication—
    Transport and storage64.611.075.6
    Communications19.814.534.3
    Total, transport, etc.84.425.5109.9
Finance, insurance, etc.—
    Finance12.514.927.4
    Insurance8.95.814.7
    Real estate and business services27.220.447.6
    Total, finance, etc.48.641.189.7
Community and personal services—
    Public administration, etc.35.723.158.8
    Sanitary services, etc.4.23.37.5
    Education services27.740.768.4
    Research and scientific institutes3.41.54.9
    Health services19.353.773.0
    Other community services7.710.718.4
    Recreational services11.05.616.6
    Personal and household services21.611.533.1
    Total, community and personal services130.6150.1280.7
    Total in industry829.3436.01 265.3
Armed forces9.61.110.7
Registered unemployed28.620.849.4
    Estimated total labour force867.5457.91 325.4
Source: Department of Labour.

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—The latest available alternative labour force projections are those for the period 1979–2011. Since these are now outdated, they have not been published in this issue of the Yearbook. A new series of projections of the total New Zealand labour force is currently being derived using as a base data from the 1981 Census of Population and Dwellings. These will be included in the 1984 Yearbook.

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, almost no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook. Monthly average figures of registered unemployed from 1949 are given in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the population census as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1971 Census were 8757 males and 7411 females. Figures from the 1981 Census give a total of 34 482 males and 25 776 females. Of these, 10 242 males and 12 228 females were in the 15–19 years age group.

The following table gives census data on unemployment among wage earners during this century, Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

Census DateUnemployedTotal Wage Earners
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

* Figures do not include Maori wage earners and unemployed.

† Including men demobilised from Armed Forces not yet in employment.

‡ Includes Armed Forces.

1906*8 1891 372203 98755 491
1916*5 9201 156220 78374 302
1926*10 6942 434305 12096 425
1936*35 7741 862336 853120 610
19455 823†1 090359 931‡148 936
19565 5582 378476 637176 721
19665 1253 982610 732260 081
19718 7577 411651 499307 064
197614 39211 945699 327363 844
198134 48225 776696 891392 235

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16 222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work.

The total of those who recorded themselves at the 1981 Census as unemployed and seeking work was 60 255. These are shown by sex and age group in the following table. The 1976 Census totals, shown for purposes of comparison, include females but (like the 1981 figures) exclude visitors to New Zealand.

A significant feature of the total of unemployed at the 1981 Census is the high percentage of young people. Over 60 percent were below 25 years of age. Nearly half (47.5 percent) of the female unemployed were young women aged 15 to 19 years.

Age Group (Years)1976 Census1981 Census
TotalMalesFemalesTotal
No.PercentNo.PercentNo.PercentNo.Percent
15–1910 14839.710 24229.712 23447.522 47337.3
20–245 80122.77 93523.05 75122.313 68322.7
25–344 43317.47 77022.53 70214.411 47519.0
35–442 0818.23 51610.21 9417.55 4579.1
45 and over3 06712.05 01914.62 1488.37 16711.9
        Total25 530100.034 482100.025 776100.060 255100.0

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March of each of the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

As at 31 MarUnemployment Benefit
19773 651
197817 484
197917 894
198020 850
198135 666
198232 596

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6a, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Department of Social Welfare and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND UNEMPLOYED PERSONS—In addition to the annual employment survey in February and quarterly (sample) employment surveys in May, August, and November, the Department of Labour maintains a monthly record of registered unemployment, vacancies, placements, and job creation programmes. Data on unemployment given earlier in this section were derived from this record, as are the following tables.

The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and registered unemployed persons as recorded by the Department of Labour.

YearNotified Vacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthRegistered Unemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Monthly Average for December Years
19781 7514 3241 6846 00813 4988 83222 330
19791 6873 9531 9305 88315 5599 68025 239
19801 4763 3661 7085 07422 90413 59636 499
19813 7524 9832 6147 59729 18819 12548 313
19823 4385 2162 7848 00032 22621 63453 860

A breakdown of the monthly average numbers of registered unemployed persons is shown by occupation groups in the following table. Because of a change in the occupational classification of unemployed persons from March 1981 the monthly averages for 1981 apply to 10 months instead of the 12 months of the normal December year. Also, because of rounding, figures for individual occupations may not add exactly to the given total.

Occupations Sought by Registered Unemployed*1982
MalesFemales
* The occupational classification of unemployed according to usual occupations ceased from March 1981. From that month, classification has been according to the occupation sought by the person registered as unemployed, using a new occupation classification, the employment and vocational guidance service classification of occupations (ESCO).
Primary industries (rural, mining, etc.)3 5221 528
Professional and technical1 1561 054
Administrative and managerial265128
Clerical and sales2 7707 768
Personal and other service workers1 2073 859
Building and construction workers1 88878
Production and related workers—
    Metal and electrical2 566520
    Other industries13 7024 628
Transport and materials handling3 566594
Other occupations n.e.c.698496
            Total31 34020 653

The following table shows numbers of registered unemployed and also those employed on special work or under one of the private sector job-creation programmes set up by the Government in an attempt to alleviate unemployment.

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special WorkPrivate Sector Job Creation Programmes
MalesFemalesTotalWith Government DepartmentsSubsidised Work With Local Authorities
* Average of March to December 1978.
Monthly average for December year
197813 4988 83222 3309 9394 4225 430*
197915 5599 68025 2399 9947 1377 306
198022 90413 59636 4997 5547 0894 266
198129 18819 12548 3135 1939 0048 891
198232 22621 63453 8604 59812 54813 783
At end of month
1982—Jan29 01921 75450 7737 78317 97612 133
        Feb27 81922 34850 1677 33015 62412 763
        Mar26 04220 94246 9844 38510 73713 643
        Apr25 82720 24946 0764 08610 45313 812
        May25 79319 34745 1404 12710 94413 523
        Jun27 93619 06447 0004 53811 85713 924
        Jul30 06818 41948 4874 97112 43513 841
        Aug31 87718 59750 4744 87413 11414 156
        Sep33 10718 69051 7974 86313 33014 201
        Oct35 35320 07155 4244 94913 52313 574
        Nov38 94424 26163 2054 82913 66614 413
        Dec41 81927 83969 6584 60714 27015 414

The relatively large numbers of young people included among the registered unemployed is a matter of concern, and various programmes and measures described in the following subsection have been instituted to assist young people to obtain employment, to provide vocational guidance, and to increase their skills.

The following table shows unemployed persons by sex and age group as at the end of each quarter of 1982.

QuarterSchool Leavers*Age Group (In Years)
15–1920–2425–2930–3940 and OverTotal
* School leavers, shown separately, are not included under age groups.
Males
Mar1 7525 9366 7414 0363 6333 93826 042
Jun1 2606 3627 4784 5414 0954 20027 936
Sep1 1877 1618 7575 5315 2285 24333 107
Dec2 6778 51310 2835 9725 6265 20038 271
Females
Mar3 0647 3185 0831 9291 7291 81920 942
Jun2 2806 8354 7201 7341 7071 78819 064
Sep1 9846 7544 7021 7101 6731 86718 690
Dec3 7468 2756 0152 0651 8112 00623 918

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT—The functions and duties of the Department of Labour are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include the provision of a no-charge Employment and Vocational Guidance Service for the purpose of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training and providing vocational guidance and counselling; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and, in general, the promotion of full employment. The department also operates 3 worker hostels, and arranges for the selection of immigrants.

In order to execute its functions, the department currently operates a network of 23 district employment offices and 26 satellite offices, supplemented by 32 part-time offices. Modifications to the network are made in the light of local or national economic circumstances. Staffing of the District Employment and Vocational Guidance Service has been steadily strengthened and at the end of December 1982 totalled 529 in the employment group and 134 in the vocational guidance group.

The Employment Service of the Department of Labour was reviewed on two occasions during the 1970s following a major restructuring and strengthening exercise put into effect during the early 1970s. The restructured service was extended into all the district offices by 1976 and this was followed by the merger of the vocational guidance and employment services in 1978. Substantial improvements in the employment service were achieved and resident vocational guidance and counselling services will be available in all 23 districts early in 1983. This will complete the 5-year plan for the extension of vocational guidance and counselling services throughout the country, together with an improved careers advisory service in secondary schools, in consultation with school based guidance personnel.

A review of the Employment and Vocational Guidance Service in 1980 examined and revised the overriding goals and objectives of the service in order to make them more realistic in the light of the economic environment and more practicable so that operations could be geared to achieving the goals.

The review identified the goal of the Employment and Vocational Guidance Service as—

  1. to help job seekers obtain jobs and employers fill vacancies effectively and efficiently;

  2. to provide a full remedial and developmental vocational guidance service to persons of all ages who are making occupational decisions; and

  3. to promote and administer a range of measures designed to create additional employment opportunities or provide training for job seekers who have been unable to secure employment.

The priorities of the Employment Services Division of the Employment and Vocational Guidance Service are to meet employer needs by filling vacancies and seeking out more vacancies, to maintain a current register of job seekers and to meet the identified need of job seekers. A three tier service is offered to job seekers to help meet the needs of the labour market. “Job Self Service” ensures a more rapid and simplified method of filling employers' vacancies with people who are appropriate and interested in the employment offered by attracting a wider spectrum of job seekers to peruse the vacancy display boards. Associated with job self-service are career reference areas where written and audio visual careers information is available in a library-like atmosphere where members of the public may do their own research and investigation into careers that interest them.

For those job seekers who require more advice and help, the Employment and Vocational Guidance Service offers a placement service based on the establishment of personal contacts and knowledge of the job seekers and a continued liaison with employers and other organisations. The Employment and Vocational Guidance Service's knowledge of the local labour market and the job seekers' needs ensures a greater willingness of employers to notify a wide range of vacancies and more effective interviewing of clients and their subsequent placement in employment.

There are other job seekers who are less advantageously placed to compete in the labour market and for whom a counselling service is provided. The expertise of employment officers and vocational guidance counsellors with particular skills, training, and knowledge is brought together in order to help the disadvantaged overcome whatever bars exist to their obtaining and retaining employment. Wherever appropriate, there is extensive collaboration with the wide range of community organisations concerned with their problems.

Employment and Vocational Guidance Service Programmes—The Employment and Vocational Guidance Service operates a number of programmes designed to create additional employment, training and apprenticeship opportunities, and to help other disadvantaged workers obtain suitable employment. In the private sector the Additional Jobs Programme and the Farm Employment Service provide formerly unemployed persons with full time subsidised employment, while the Additional Apprentice Incentive Scheme and the Apprentice Instructor Wage Subsidy are intended to stimulate apprenticeship opportunities. The Young Persons Training Programme provides basic institute and work based training in occupational skills (Institute based training is jointly funded with the Department of Education); the Adult Retraining Programme provides institute and work-based retraining or skills improvement programmes for workers involuntarily displaced from their employment. The School-leavers Training and Employment Preparation Scheme (STEPS), to be introduced during 1983, will teach general pre-employment skills to 15 and 16 year old school leavers.

Disabled job seekers who require training over an extended period before they become fully competitive with other workers may be assisted by a subsidy paid to the employer by the Department of Labour. This reduces as achievement increases, but enables the worker to maintain a normal standard of living. Modification grants may also be paid to employers to adjust equipment or access within the workplace to enable them to employ specific disabled job seekers.

In the public sector the Work Skills Development Programme aims to develop work habits and basic work skills. The Work Rehabilitation Programme provides employment for those who have limited prospects of unsubsidised employment and require extended rehabilitation; the Project Employment Programme is aimed at providing short-term employment pending placement in regular employment and the Winter Employment Programme provides for seasonal workers who are unable to find unsubsidised work in their off-season. The two remaining job creation programmes relate to projects in voluntary welfare agencies and to community-based activities, the latter being financed by grants from the Community Employment Initiatives Fund. Each of the public sector schemes is designed to provide short-term employment for job seekers who cannot be placed in unsubsidised employment or subsidised private sector employment, and is targeted to meet the needs of particular groups of job seekers.

As an aid to employment, the department operates three hostels and assists with accommodation for all classes of workers, workers-in-training, and job seekers, especially for young people away from home for the first time.

The involvement of community interests in the development of the district employment service has been given new impetus by a review of the twelve existing Employment Advisory Committees.

As a result it is intended to reconstitute the existing committees in Auckland, Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, Palmerston North, New Plymouth, Nelson, Christchurch, Buller/Westland, South Canterbury, and to establish others in Northland, Wanganui, Wairarapa, Wellington, Dunedin, and Southland.

The terms of reference and scope of responsibilities have been expanded to encompass all aspects of the labour market including transition from school to working life, training for employment, and job creation.

Membership of the committees comprise representation of employer, union, education, and local body sectors, the Department of Labour and up to five other members to reflect the particular nature of the district and its concerns.

Their role is to act as a focal point for concerns and representations on Labour market issues, and to advise the Government and Department of Labour accordingly.

Small Co-operative Enterprises Scheme—The Department of Internal Affairs funds and operates the Small Co-operative Enterprises Scheme (SCOPE).

SCOPE provides advisory services and financial assistance for people who are unemployed and wish to set up small-scale co-operative business ventures.

Finance is available in the form of grants and loans for feasibility studies, working capital, equipment and specialist skills.

Advisory Officers are located at the Department of Internal Affairs five district offices and at the Head Office (Private Bag), Wellington.

The Work Development Scheme—The Department of Internal Affairs also takes an active role in other ways. This policy provides advice, support and finance to community-based projects which are working to improve the skills and employment opportunities of young people, who for a variety of reasons have difficulty finding work and who need long-term personal help.

Finance is available for the salaries of 25 co-ordinators of projects throughout the country and for some operating costs. Eligible projects must be committed to increasing the resourcefulness of the young people and to encouraging them to join in decision making. Salary grants are provided for up to three years subject to an annual evaluation of the project's operation.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING—Meeting the employment needs of industry and commerce in order to improve productivity growth rates and enhancing an individual's chances of contributing to his/her development and to the economy are vital functions of vocational training. The development and organisation of training within New Zealand on a national basis is the responsibility of the Vocational Training Council (VTC).

The council has the following membership, appointed jointly by the Ministers of Education and Labour: a chairman; the Director-General of Education; the Secretary of Labour; 2 members nominated by the N.Z. Employers' Federation; 2 members nominated by the N.Z. Federation of Labour; 1 member nominated by the N.Z. Manufacturers' Federation; 1 member nominated by the Technical Institutes Association; 1 member nominated by the Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards; and not more than 5 other members (3 appointments have so far been made under this provision).

In addition, the council has 3 associate (non-voting) members: an appointee of the State Services Coordinating Committee; an appointee of the Combined State Unions; and the chairman of the University Grants Committee.

Under the Vocational Training Council Act 1968 the council's functions are prescribed as advisory to Government, State departments, industry, commerce, agriculture, social welfare, and other interested organisations.

The objectives of the Vocational Training Council within the constraints of the Act are to:

  1. Encourage the implementation of systematic training and development schemes to ensure that New Zealand has the people at all levels of employment with the requisite knowledge and technical skills to perform their tasks efficiently.

  2. Ensure that people as individuals have the opportunity to continue to develop.

  3. Raise the standards of knowledge, skill and effectiveness.

  4. Encourage those directly responsible for achieving the foregoing objectives.

Recommendations may relate to improved training, the development of new or established facilities, the co-ordination of training schemes, levies or other methods for the financing or encouragement of training, the award of scholarships, the fostering of research, the carrying out of inquiries and investigations in any field of training, and maintenance of an adequate information service.

However, the activities of the council considerably exceed that of an advisory or recommendatory role. The council has been, and still is, deeply involved in the promotion of fully-integrated and meaningful training in the majority of industries and local authorities.

The Vocational Training Council encourages a systematic approach to training at all levels in ah sectors of the economy, linked to proper manpower development policies with in-built tangible recognition for proven efficiency. There is emphasis on industry self-help and on joining in company manpower schemes.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards have been established for 29 industries. Boards include members from employer, employee, educational, and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been an annual Government grant to encourage the appointment of executive training officers to work for industry training boards. There are now 61 of these positions established. Industry training boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of skills of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

Further, the council has concerned itself with “back-up” research and investigational studies and with promoting training programmes for particular groups within the community. This is done through a series of advisory committees. Specialists in areas such as women and employment, apprenticeship and trade training, management and supervisory training, and Polynesians in the work force meet to organise projects in these areas and to make recommendations to the council.

APPRENTICESHIPS—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Arbitration Court, which consists of a judge, a workers' member and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendation of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, most of which consist of 4 representatives of employers, 4 representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship (or the Commissioners' deputy) who chairs each committee ex officio. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy making committees. There are 36 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year. Committees covering larger industries, e.g., engineering, carpentry, motor, and printing, meet more often.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried out by the District Commissioners of Apprenticeship in conjunction with local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 240. They consist of 3 representatives of employers, 3 representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who ex officio chairs all committees for the district for which he or she is appointed. District Commissioners delegate the chair to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In most industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of 3 or 4 weeks' duration. In some cases courses are longer with the advent of extended institute training, as in the carpentry and joinery, engineering, and aircraft engineering industries.

The general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees in co-operation with the Department of Education. That department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A, Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical, radio, plumbing, and gasfitting trades (where registration is required), no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. A number of trades have internal assessment conducted by technical institutes in place of the 1st and 2nd qualifying examinations. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeship being a member of the board.

A new Apprenticeship Bill was introduced into the House of Representatives by the Minister of Labour in December 1982 and referred for recess study.

In general terms this Bill differs from the Apprentices Act 1948 in two major respects. On the one hand the questions of who an apprentice is and how one gets to be an apprentice are tightened up; on the other hand a greater degree of flexibility is provided for both in relation to the kinds of apprenticeship that can be arranged and in relation to the administration of apprenticeship contracts generally, and much greater emphasis is placed on the promotion of apprenticeship training and the creation of employment opportunities for apprentices.

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered and the number completed during the 2 latest March years, and in force at the end of each year are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
198119821981198219811982
Aircraft57249938462439
Baking811186254282325
Boilermaking63654042190200
Bricklaying26653729106135
Carpentry7451 2351 0928202 8313 149
Clothing3026313210697
Coachbuilding4324973622961 6711 762
Electrical5896604905272 1162 156
Engineering9111 0417357663 5443 719
Footwear repair and making24231716
Footwear manufacturing52324232193174
Furniture231307225186891975
Glazing29563537131145
Greenkeeping20199107173
Hairdressing (Ladies')5676243173461 7481 817
Hairdressing (Men's)2018874547
Heating and ventilating202924209399
Horticulture83955648324343
Industrial instrumentation152216216262
Jewellery45483234188195
Masonry59221318
Motor trades1 0431 1951 2021 0604 6394 563
Moulding1514864042
Painting and paperhanging223212153126655682
Photo-engraving42293917154153
Piano repairing and tuning22177
Plastering43413323116127
Plumbing and gasfitting243331371322986942
Printing219208202158781802
Radio9011810774301326
Refrigeration engineering44434131157159
Retail meat3393302642571 2171 213
Saddlery, leather, etc.4924221498101
Sheetmetal working821218383415430
Shipbuilding23432727134145
Signwriting29421422134149
Timber industry56512934122134
Woollen milling631711
Others271063135124192
            Total6 5927 9106 3455 64125 17126 124

In addition to the numbers of apprentices shown above, there were at 31 March 1982, 3075 apprenticeship contracts in force in Government departments, of which 564 were registered during the year ended 31 March 1982.

Training Courses for Maoris and Pacific Islanders—For information on vocational training courses for Maoris and Pacific Islanders, refer to Section 3B of this Yearbook.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Employment Surveys—Since February 1980 the Department of Labour has carried out an annual employment survey in February and quarterly sample surveys in May, August, and November. These surveys are carried out by means of inquiries to employers of labour and the results are published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which 2 or more persons are engaged on a full-time equivalent basis (2 part-time workers are regarded as equivalent to 1 full-time worker). Government and local authority employment is included. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service, and armed forces are not required to submit quarterly returns. The following tables are based on these surveys.

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Dale of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsPart-time Workers
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Provisional.
1981—Feb634 119322 720956 83932 108117 536149 644
        May631 719322 802954 52132 900121 539154 439
        Aug620 855323 340944 19532 883123 290156 173
        Nov629 262328 122957 38433 554127 302160 856
1982—Feb637 462324 737962 19932 039119 918151 957
        May635 234329 908965 14233 227126 136159 363
        Aug622 409328 765951 17433 750128 829162 579
        Nov624 394329 993954 38734 101131 249165 350
1983—Feb*626 335322 357948 69232 119124 588156 707

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric, and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 15 April of each of the latest 3 years inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors and under the Government Special Work Schemes.

Local Authorities*Employees at 15 April
197919801981

* For numbers see Section 2.

† At 28 February from 1981.

‡ Gas board employees are included with electric power board employees.

§ Total includes employees of licensing trusts (3310 employees in 1981) and hydatids districts (29 employees in 1981).

Catchment boards9871 0751 145
City and borough councils20 81520 87619 898
County councils5 7295 7845 446
Crematorium board122
District councils8091 4111 313
Electric power boards6 899‡6 792‡6 930‡
Harbour boards3 8713 8473 887
Harbour bridge authority131131129
Land drainage boards343636
Local railway board1199
Museum authority132141144
Nassella tussock boards524761
Plantation board131313
Pest destruction boards741679640
Regional authority2 7212 8022 929
River boards678
Town boards211819
Urban drainage boards505474489
Urban transport board477472467
Valley authority384747
Water supply boards141141128
        Total§47 12547 92247 079

PUBLIC SERVICE EMPLOYMENT—Permanent staff in the Public Service as at 31 March 1982 totalled 66 259, of whom 42 557 were males and 23 702 females. In addition, the Public Service gave employment to 1454 temporary staff and 18 332 wage workers, giving a total for all employees of 86 045 (56 746 males and 29 299 females) compared with 85 666 as at 31 March 1981. These figures do not include the staffs of the Post Office, the railway service, the Police (except civilian staff), education boards, hospital boards, or universities.

STATISTICS FROM CENSUSES OF POPULATION 1976 AND 1981—Final figures of the industrial and occupational distribution of the labour force by industry major divisions and occupation major groups at the 1981 Census of Population are given in the 2 following tables.

Final data on the industrial and occupation distribution of the labour force from the 1981 Census have been subject to a process of random rounding. All cell values, including row and column totals have been rounded, using simple random rounding, to base three. Individual figures, therefore, will not necessarily sum to give the stated totals.

The data refer to the usually resident population, i.e. they do not include overseas visitors who did not or would not work while in New Zealand. Data from the 1976 Census have been reprocessed on this basis.

Industry Major DivisionAge Group (Years)Total
15–2425–4950 and Over
 Number of Persons
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing35 36179 69529 196144 252
Mining and quarrying9902 5921 0774 659
Manufacturing86 817165 66358 650311 133
Electricity, gas, and water3 4868 1483 48615 123
Construction21 38748 98115 37285 737
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels59 328114 56744 541218 439
Transport, storage, and communication24 72361 53321 576107 826
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services30 48946 68314 46391 638
Community, social, and personal services85 905164 67356 997307 575
Activities not adequately defined23 74816 7975 41845 963
        Total372 237709 329250 7761 332 342
Occupation Major GroupAge Group (Years)Total
15–2425–4950 and Over
* Includes related workers.
 Number of Persons
Professional and technical*43 392110 03130 546183 966
Administrative and managerial1 40431 65912 93045 993
Clerical*74 634101 97638 154214 761
Sales workers26 55972 02428 521127 101
Service workers27 77457 66621 192106 629
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters36 02779 71630 549146 295
Production workers*, transport equipment operators, and labourers137 121238 18882 620457 935
New workers seeking employment8 358180278 559
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described2 2654 8542 0949 213
Workers not reporting any occupation14 70313 0384 14631 890
         Total372 234709 335250 7731 332 342

Employment Status—The following table shows the employment status of usually resident persons in the full-time labour force, and also persons not in the full-time labour force excluding children under 15 years, at the 2 latest censuses. Part-time workers, i.e., those working less than 20 hours per week, have been classified as “not in the full-time labour force”

Employment Status1976 Census1981 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* Equates to the status “Employer of labour” used in the 1976 and earlier censuses.

† Equates to the status “Own account worker” used in the 1976 and earlier censuses.

Self employed, employing labour*70 43112 38482 81564 32914 05278 381
Self employed, not employing labour†76 37014 67191 04175 84017 28993 132
Wages or salary earner692 257361 0121 053 269696 891392 2351 089 129
Unemployed, seeking work13 99111 53925 53034 48225 77660 255
Relative assisting, unpaid6603 1873 8471 4914 9416 429
Not specified (20 hours or more worked)2 0105902 6003 5731 4465 019
Total in the full-time labour force855 719403 3831 259 102876 609455 7361 332 342
Not in the full-time labour force219 456697 920917 376253 731710 628964 362
    Grand total1 075 1751 101 3032 176 4781 130 3401 166 3642 296 704

Industrial Distribution: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the usually resident labour force analysed by industrial major divisions and divisions as recorded at the 1981 Population Census is shown below. Totals for major divisions only are given from the 1976 Census.

Industrial Major Division and DivisionMalesFemalesTotalPercentage
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing—
    Agriculture and hunting99 28230 927130 2099.8
    Forestry and logging9 73568410 4190.8
    Fishing3 3812373 6180.3
        Total 1981112 40431 851144 25510.8
        Total 1976104 67222 924127 59610.1
Mining and quarrying—
    Coalmining1 500511 5510.1
    Crude petroleum and natural gas production6271117380.1
    Metal-ore mining35148399
    Other mining1 8511231 9740.1
        Total 19814 3293304 6590.3
        Total 19764 6162104 8260.4
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco61 05915 71776 7765.8
    Textile, wearing apparel, and leather industries15 90929 63745 5463.4
    Wood and wood products including furniture19 9292 91022 8391.7
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing24 6069 63934 2452.6
    Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products19 3357 90527 2402.0
    Non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal9 1861 88111 0670.8
    Basic metal industries6 3577477 1040.5
    Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment66 51615 28281 7986.1
    Other manufacturing industries2 6821 8334 5150.3
        Total 1981225 57985 551311 13023.4
        Total 1976222 79281 741304 53324.2
Electricity, gas, and water—
    Electricity, gas, and steam12 8371 26314 1001.1
    Waterworks and supply981421 0230.1
        Total 198113 8211 30215 1231.1
        Total 197613 6641 54115 2051.2
Construction—
    Building and construction51 7622 34654 1084.1
    Allied trades29 5202 10931 6292.4
        Total 198181 2794 45885 7376.4
        Total 1976106 7204 813111 5338.9
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels—
    Wholesale trade48 80418 42967 2335.0
    Retail trade58 32955 740114 0698.6
    Restaurants and hotels14 81722 32037 1372.8
        Total 1981121 94796 492218 43916.4
        Total 1976122 64492 157214 80117.1
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Transport and storage61 91110 71972 6305.5
    Communication20 09115 10835 1992.6
        Total 198182 00225 827107 8298.1
        Total 197685 29123 312108 6038.6
Finance, insurance, real estate, and business services—
    Financial institutions13 38316 18529 5682.2
    Insurance8 4845 80814 2921.1
    Real estate and business services27 34820 43047 7783.6
        Total 198149 21542 42391 6386.9
        Total 197644 40434 57678 9806.3
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration and defence54 45322 90577 3585.8
    Sanitary and similar services4 2783 5617 8390.6
    Social and related community services60 540104 730165 27012.4
    Recreational and cultural services13 0866 97520 0611.5
    Personal and household services25 17911 16036 3392.7
    International and other extra-territorial bodies4292827110.1
        Total 1981157 965149 610307 57523.1
        Total 1976131 238129 532260 77020.7
Activities not adequately defined—
        Total 198128 06817 89545 9633.4
        Total 197619 67812 57732 2552.6
        Total full-time labour force, 1981876 606455 7331 332 342100.0
        Total full-time labour force, 1976855 719403 3831 259 102100.0

Occupations—The occupational classification in major and minor groups is given for 1981 in the following table, with major group totals for 1976.

Occupational Major Group and Minor GroupMalesFemalesTotal

* Includes related workers.

† Includes armed forces.

Note: n.e.c. denotes—not elsewhere classified.

Professional and technical*—
    Physical scientists and technicians2 6311 1193 750
    Architects, engineers and technicians25 5451 41026 955
    Aircraft and ships officers2 460392 499
    Life scientists and technicians4 0412 6736 714
    Medical, dental, and veterinary workers *12 29732 04944 346
    Statisticians, mathematicians, systems analysts and technicians2 1427052 847
    Economists8432311 074
    Accountants9 6121 13110 743
    Jurists3 7683874 155
    Teachers22 24830 27352 521
    Workers in religion2 9196693 588
    Authors, journalists, and writers*2 1391 1733 312
    Sculptors, painters (artists), photographers3 2851 6744 959
    Composers and performing artists1 7521 0742 826
    Athletes, sportsmen/sportswomen*732267999
    Professional, technical n.e.c.*6 7055 97012 675
        Total 1981103 11980 847183 966
        Total 1976102 83373 206176 039
Administrators and managerial workers—
    Legislative officials and government administrators78081861
    Managers (excluding those in wholesale and retail trade, catering and lodging services, and in farming)41 4933 63945 132
        Total 198142 2733 72045 993
        Total 197637 6052 83640 441
Clerical workers—
      Clerical supervisors5 3882 4787 866
    Government executive officials6 0216546 675
    Stenographers, typists, and card-and-tape-punching machine operators63634 12834 764
    Bookkeepers, cashiers*14 61632 06746 683
    Computing machine operators1 3715 7967 167
    Transport and communication supervisors6 7235617 284
    Transport conductors55233585
    Mail distribution clerks2 3492 3314 680
    Telephone and telegraph operators1 2005 6106 810
    Clerical n.e.c.*28 28763 96392 250
        Total 198167 143147 618214 761
        Total 197669 360134 676204 036
Sales workers—
    Managers (wholesale and retail trade)13 9834 19118 174
    Working proprietors (wholesale and retail trade)10 9057 17018 075
    Sales supervisors, and buyers4 3951 1675 562
    Technical sales staff, commercial travellers, and manufacturers' agents13 5812 15715 738
    Insurance, real estate, securities and business services salespersons, and auctioneers10 7431 63812 381
    Salespersons and shop assistants*21 50135 33156 832
    Sales workers n.e.c.237102339
        Total 198175 34551 756127 101
        Total 197677 19947 351124 550
Service workers (incl. Armed Forces)—
    Managers (catering and lodging services)2 3791 7014 080
    Working proprietors (catering and lodging services)3 8763 3427 218
    Housekeeping and related service supervisors3512 3492 700
    Cooks, waiters/waitresses, bartenders*6 38414 49020 874
    Housestaff and related housekeeping service workers n.e.c.1 3599 24910 608
    Building caretakers, charworkers, and cleaners*6 5557 53314 088
    Launderers, drycleaners, and pressers1 1162 4633 579
    Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians*1 0774 6835 760
    Protective service workers†22 5901 83924 429
    Service workers n.e.c.4 6238 67313 296
        Total 198150 30756 322106 629
        Total 197645 57949 15094 729
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters—
    Farm managers and supervisors3 6481293 777
    Farmers59 17513 68072 855
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers39 26715 82555 092
    Forestry workers9 3003669 666
    Fishermen and hunters*4 7012074 908
        Total 1981116 09130 204146 295
        Total 1976107 84321 770129 613
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
    Production supervisors, overseers and general foremen/forewomen (non-clerical) and excluding agriculture, transport, sales and service supervisors, overseers and foremen/forewomen)16 2361 82418 060
    Miners, quarrymen, and well-drillers*1 89661 902
    Metal processers2 8051682 973
    Wood preparation workers and paper makers9 4265139 939
    Chemical processers*1 8813902 271
    Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers*3 8493 0036 852
    Tanners, fellmongers, and pelt dressers8972461 143
    Food and beverage processers39 8435 15444 997
    Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers126252378
    Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, and upholsterers*4 69518 88823 583
    Shoemakers and leather goods makers1 9862 6734 659
    Cabinet makers and related woodworkers5 6044446 048
    Stone cutters and carvers1899198
    Blacksmiths, toolmakers, and machine tool operators7 5606158 175
    Machinery fitters, machine assemblers, and precision instrument makers (except electrical)50 6251 56352 188
    Electrical fitters and electrical and electronics workers29 6733 12332 796
    Broadcasting station and sound equipment operators and cinema projectionists603126729
    Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers and erectors23 60753424 141
    Jewellery and precious metal workers9332581 191
    Glass formers and potters*2 1907352 925
    Rubber and plastics product makers4 7371 5726 309
    Paper and paper-board products makers552327879
    Printers*8 0793 36011 439
    Painters13 38039613 776
    Production and related workers n.e.c.4 7703 0937 863
    Bricklayers, carpenters, and other construction workers40 71917440 893
    Stationary engine and related equipment operators n.e.c.3 219153 234
    Material handling and related equipment operators, dockers, and freight handlers34 5067 60542 111
    Transport equipment operators37 6771 83639 513
    Labourers n.e.c.38 3948 37946 773
        Total 1981390 66067 275457 935
        Total 1976400 11165 595465 706
Workers not classifiable by occupation—
    New workers seeking employment, 19813 7954 7648 559
    19761 7052 5574 262
    Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described, 19816 9122 3019 213
    197612 5585 63918 197
    Workers not reporting any occupation (excluding armed forces), 198120 96410 92931 893
    19769266031 529
        Total in full-time labour force, 1981876 606455 7361 332 342
        Total in full-time labour force, 1976855 719403 3831 259 102

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE—The resident full-time labour force at the 1981 Census was 1 332 342, of whom 876 606 were males and 455 736 females. Thus, women and girls formed 34.2 percent of the labour force in 1981 compared with 32.0 percent in 1976. There was an increase of 73 240 or 5.8 percent in the total labour force in 1981 as compared with the previous census in 1976, but of this increase 52 353 (71.5 percent) were females and only 20 887 were males. The more rapid growth of the female component of the labour force as compared with male was in line with the experience of almost half a century, but the situation during the most recent intercensal period has been complicated by losses of both men and women from migration.

The labour force is defined as consisting of persons aged 15 years and over who are resident in New Zealand and working at least 20 hours per week for financial gain, plus those unemployed and seeking work. Data on those in part-time employment for less than 20 hours a week were also collected at the 1981 Census. The total number of people engaged in part-time employment was 115 140, of whom 20 013 were males and 95 127 females. Males in part-time work were mainly either relatively young (47.3 percent of them were in the 15–19 years age group) or in the 60 years and over category and so semi-retired. Female part-time workers were more evenly distributed over the age scale. Of the total of 95 127 women and girls, over three-quarters were married.

Among the 72 354 married women working part time, 23 709 worked from 15 to 19 hours a week and 21 987 worked from 10 to 14 hours a week.

The following table, which shows the numbers of married women and total women by age groups working for financial gain, is in three parts. The first part shows women working for financial gain for at least 20 hours a week and therefore forming part of the labour force; the second part shows women in part-time employment; and the third part all women working for financial gain. There are no data regarding hours spent in housework or in unpaid community or social work.

Employment and Marital StatusAge Group (Years)Total
15–1920–2425–2930–3940–4950 and Over
Full-time employment—
    Married women2 09426 22328 86969 65466 47446 683240 000
    Other women72 04558 00521 84624 68117 92821 237215 736
        Total74 13984 22850 71594 33584 40267 920455 736
Percentage, married2.831.156.973.878.868.752.7
Part-time employment—
    Married women1773 1989 99028 17617 25613 55172 354
    Other women9 6872 0881 3862 9161 8484 84822 773
        Total9 8645 28611 37631 09219 10418 39995 127
Percentage, married1.860.587.890.690.373.776.1
All women in employment—
    Married women2 27129 42138 85997 83083 73060 234312 354
    Other women81 73260 09323 23227 59719 77626 085238 509
        Total84 00389 51462 091125 427103 50686 319550 863
Percentage, married2.732.962.678.080.969.856.7

Note: These figures have been rounded, using simple random rounding, to base three. Because of this, totals are not necessarily the exact sum of the component parts.

Married women in the full-time labour force as a percentage of all married women in the same age group are given in the next table.

Age (Years)Census
193619451956196619761981*
* Based on resident New Zealand population excluding visitors.
 Percentage of Married Women in the Full-time Labour Force
16–195.718.218.523.540.341.7
20–244.317.419.426.744.048.4
25–293.710.311.715.828.834.0
30–343.68.011.316.431.535.6
35–393.68.413.921.841.746.9
40–443.98.716.626.946.353.2
45–494.47.817.527.744.251.3
50–544.26.115.525.237.842.2
55–594.24.610.818.525.428.9
60–642.82.55.29.511.49.9
    65+1.61.01.62.12.41.9
All ages
    16+3.77.712.919.932.635.8

The increasing tendency for women to continue in employment after marriage until the birth of the first child and to re-enter the labour force as family responsibilities lessen has been aided by a combination of factors, including more youthful marriages, changing social attitudes, and a greater awareness and acceptance of family planning.

For many years the female labour force has included a higher percentage of youthful workers than has the male but this is becoming progressively less noticeable as more married women remain in (or return to) the labour force. At the 1981 Census, women under 20 years of age made up 16.3 percent of the female labour force compared with 18.5 percent in 1976 and 25.9 percent twenty years earlier in 1961, Another reason for the fall in the percentage of women under 20 in the labour force is the increasing number of women and girls staying longer at school or attending tertiary education institutions as a preparation for a career. In 1961 students taking courses at universities and agricultural colleges numbered 12 585 males and 3944 females. Nineteen years later, in 1981, the number of males had slightly more than doubled to 25 673, but the number of females had increased more than fourfold to 19 063. Men of below 20 years of age make up a relatively constant proportion of around 10 percent of the male labour force. (They represented 10.0 percent and 10.1 percent, respectively, at the 1976 and 1981 censuses, and 9.3 percent 20 years earlier in 1961.)

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from, the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution.

Abridged tables of working life for males and females, based on labour force data from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings and the 1975–77 Life Tables (Total Population), are now given.

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100 000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the Following 5 Years of Age, per 100 000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force† (Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force‡ (Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

* Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for family formation.

† The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to family formation.

‡ Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

§ These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

Males
1583 49153045.710.0
2085.882 9619 79882041.110.1
2596.091 9392 15063736.510.2
3098.293 45230165731.710.2
3598.693 096461 05526.910.3
4098.592 0871 80422.210.4
4598.190 2833 42017.610.5
5097.186 8636 29713.210.6
5594.380 56617 2399.010.8
6079.963 32735 0825.610.5
6540.228 24517 9464.88.1
7017.710 2996 4344.65.4
759.13 8652 7634.03.7
804.11 1021 102§3.32.4
Females
1587 05717 52318.843.0
2071.169 53412 03238 08216.940.1
———*
2544.643 4841 99513 82821.231.0
3032.631 65212 1945 07222.924.4
3540.138 7749 6622 78120.721.9
4047.545 6554 0393 84616.821.0
4548.345 8482 2626 59813.020.3
5044.541 5136959 6559.719.1
5535.932 55214 3866.817.8
6020.818 16611 0925.115.4
658.67 0744 6354.612.0
703.32 4391 6174.58.5
751.38225634.35.7
800.5257258§4.03.2

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on employment will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Report of the State Services Commission (Parl. paper G. 3).

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

1981 Census of Population and Dwellings: Vol. 4, Labour Force—Department of Statistics.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Prices, Wages, and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

New Zealand Tables of Working Life—Department of Statistics.

Pocket Digest of Statistics—Department of Statistics (annual).

New Zealand Standard Classifications—Department of Statistics.

New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (NZSCO).

New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC).

The Department of Labour publishes a wide range of booklets, reports, and pamphlets on topics connected with its functions and responsibilities, especially employment opportunities and vocational guidance.

Chapter 33. Section 33 WAGES

Table of Contents

WAGES

The rules underlying the New Zealand system of industrial relations have traditionally been embodied in legislation. In both the private and public sectors, statutes confer bargaining rights on certain registered/recognised unions and specify various procedures for the conduct of negotiations.

In the private sector, the main body of rules covering industrial relations is contained in the Industrial Relations Act 1973. By a process of registration, unions secure bargaining rights for the class of workers they represent, and also access to various procedures for the settlement of disputes associated with the renegotiation of the collective agreement (dispute of interest) and its subsequent interpretation or application (dispute of right).

In the case of disputes of interest, the emphasis is on the parties reaching a settlement through the process of collective bargaining. The parties can agree to negotiate a voluntary settlement of the dispute. The resultant collective agreement is registered with the Arbitration Court and binds the immediate parties (usually an individual employer and employees). Alternatively, either party may apply for the dispute to proceed through the more orthodox conciliation and arbitration channels. Arbitration is neither compulsory nor inevitable. It is at the discretion of the applicant to withdraw from the arbitration proceedings. Moreover, the Arbitration Court may refuse to arbitrate if it is not satisfied that the parties have made a genuine attempt to settle. An agreement arrived at through conciliation or an award of the Court, automatically binds all persons in the industry to which it relates (whether parties to it or not) as well as any person who subsequently becomes connected with or engaged in the industry (termed “blanket coverage”).

The emphasis in respect of disputes of right is on their peaceful resolution, and accordingly the process of arbitration is rather more in evidence. A dispute proceeds through a disputes committee chaired by an independent person who may either make a decision, or refer the matter to the Arbitration Court for a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree.

Separate enactments cover bargaining relationships in the agriculture sector, on the waterfront, and in aircrew services. In the public sector, the principal enactment covering collective bargaining is the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. This Act provides for the recognition of service organisations, and specifies various procedures for the issuing of determinations prescribing conditions of employment in the State Services and for the resolution of disputes associated with the application of determinations. The procedures are essentially designed to guarantee the union bargaining rights in respect of the issue of determinations. A Police Staff Tribunal, established by the Police Act 1958, makes orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of the members of the Police.

Pay fixing in the State Services is linked to the private sector by way of the principle of fair comparability. White collar groups move in relation to the average surveyed movement in the private sector. Blue collar groups (including tradesmen) currently have their rates adjusted by the movement in the main private sector trades awards, supplemented by detailed pay research exercises.

WAGES IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR—The following strata can be identified in the wage determination system in the private sector.

  1. The Minimum Wage—Since 1945 the national adult minimum wage has been determined by Orders-in-Council issued under the Minimum Wage Act. The minimum wage essentially affords protection to the non-unionised sector, which is relatively small, encompassing such groups as domestics, gardeners, rest home employees, etc. It has usually been fixed at a level slightly below that determined by the unionised sector for an unskilled adult, having regard also to the level of the unemployment benefit. In other words, the minimum wage has followed rather than pushed wages in the unionised sector (see later in this section).

  2. National Awards—For all intents and purposes, the legally enforceable minimum wage rate for the unionised sector is determined by the national awards. These are arrived at by way of the conciliation and arbitration system, and have the effect of automatically binding all workers and employers in the industries to which they relate. The vast majority of awards are negotiated annually. Only occasionally is the Arbitration Court called upon to exercise its arbitral function, and then only on one or two clauses in the document. Compliance with award conditions is primarily the responsibility of inspectors of awards who undertake routine inspections of factory and commercial premises, and investigate specific complaints. They also initiate enforcement and recovery actions on behalf of workers in terms of the Industrial Relations Act 1973.

    National (or near-national) awards number approximately 200. They are primarily craft/occupation structured, and can extend across many different firms and industries (e.g., the Metal Trade Award, the Clerical Workers Award). Because of the structure of awards, wage rates are determined almost exclusively on the basis of historic relativity, which produces a high degree of synchronisation in the “award round”. Economic criteria such as ability to pay and productivity are difficult to accommodate in an award which covers firms and industries of quite different economic characteristics. The award movement is important in that it provides the basis for the movement in related ruling rate agreements (although it is noted that in some regions the award rate is the paid rate).

  3. Voluntary Settlement Collective Agreements—In most of the major industries, the main awards are supplemented by what are termed voluntary settlement collective agreements. Such agreements commonly cover an individual employing unit (or group of units in a particular locality) and the workers engaged in the particular craft. Occasionally, the agreement covers a combination of crafts within the employing unit(s) and is referred to as a composite collective agreement. The latter requires the various unions within the undertaking to come together and formulate a common set of claims on the employer.

    Strictly speaking, voluntary settlement collective agreements supersede the award, and in this sense prescribe the legally minimum rates of wages for the workers covered. Because they are negotiated under (and registered in terms of) the Industrial Relations Act they are enforceable in the same way as awards. Currently they number approximately 600.

    Voluntary settlement collective agreements invariably provide for a margin above the award, and in this sense reflect market conditions (ability to pay, productivity, etc.). However the movement in the wage rates in many such agreements is primarily determined by the parent award and in this sense market requirements are only partially accommodated.

  4. Informal House Agreements—These may simply be expressed in terms of a money margin above the award rate or they may prescribe a comprehensive code of employment. The latter are analogous to voluntary settlement collective agreements, but are not registered under the Industrial Relations Act and are therefore not enforceable in terms of that Act. By their nature, informal house agreements are limited to a single employing unit in an area in which market forces are producing above-award differentials. There is no precise information available as to the extent or nature of such agreements.

Other Regulations—The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 are still in force in a heavily amended form. Regulation 6 provides that no industrial agreement shall fix any rate of remuneration unless that rate is to continue in force for a period of at least 12 months unless there are special reasons to justify a shorter period. Part IIIa contains the redundancy provisions which are the second most important principles in the Regulations. Redundancy payments are limited to a sum not exceeding 2 percent of total ordinary pay derived in the 12 months prior to the redundancy, multiplied by the number of years' service for the employer, not exceeding 20. In other words, the rule is that the payment should not exceed one week of pay per year of service up to 20. However, the Arbitration Court may approve more favourable payments if it is satisfied that there are exceptional circumstances which render the normal payment inadequate.

WAGE, PRICE, AND RENT FREEZE—As from midnight on 22 June 1982 the Government imposed a wage, price, and rent freeze aimed at cutting New Zealand's 15 percent inflation rate. This included a total freeze on remuneration rates in both the private and state sectors.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—In the past the Department of Labour has carried out half-yearly surveys of employment and wages in April and October. These surveys were replaced from the beginning of 1980 by an annual employment survey in February and quarterly sample surveys in May, August, and November. For these surveys returns have been required from all establishments in which at least 2 persons (on a full-time equivalent basis) are engaged. This includes working proprietors. Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, or domestic service in private households. The armed forces are excluded.

The following table shows the average weekly payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from these surveys during recent years. Comparison is made with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult workers as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Dare of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per Person*
Aggregate Payout including Overtime for 1 Week Divided by Full-time and Half Part-time EmployeesAggregate Ordinary-time Earnings Divided by Full-time and Half Part-time Employees

* Including allowances and special payments (bonuses, penal and shift allowances, paid leave, and commission).

† Provisional.

 $$
1980—February192.31178.37
    May198.16184.84
    August207.32195.11
    November215.50201.46
1981—February231.33215.89
    May242.53226.50
    August252.34237.16
    November259.20241.90
1982—February270.60252.45
    May285.27265.97
    August282.80266.31
    November286.83268.59
1983—February†293.06274.36

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly and later surveys are shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees.

DateAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For All Workers Covered by Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Half Part-time Employees Combined
* Provisional
 $$$hourshourshours
1980—February4.826.904.9337.02.239.0
    May4.997.065.0937.02.038.9
    August5.277.365.3637.01.838.7
    November5.437.585.5437.12.038.9x
1981—February5.928.206.0336.52.038.4
    May6.148.646.2636.92.038.8
    August6.418.906.5237.01.938.7
    November6.569.106.6836.92.138.8
1982—February6.809.567.0136.72.138.6
    May7.2010.057.3437.02.138.9
    August7.209.937.3237.01.838.7
    November7.279.957.3937.02.038.8
1983—February*7.3810.187.5137.22.039.0

In the preceding table all industries are combined. A dissection by industry groups is available from the annual employment survey made each February, but not from the sample surveys made later in the year. The following table relates to the February 1982 survey. Results from the February 1983 survey were received too late for inclusion in this table.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings For All Workers Covered by Annual SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Annual Survey
Ordinary-TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
Forestry and logging6.749.136.9038.32.841.1
Mining and quarrying7.889.938.1536.65.542.0
Manufacturing—
    Seasonal food processing8.4210.228.6426.83.830.6
    Other food, beverages and tobacco6.118.956.3836.94.240.8
    Textiles, clothing and leather5.538.245.6437.31.738.9
    Wood and wood products6.179.076.3837.43.040.3
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing7.6010.967.8836.63.439.9
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics7.269.517.4237.42.940.3
    Non-metallic mineral products6.519.436.8237.64.542.0
    Metal products and engineering6.739.876.9837.43.440.7
    Machinery (except electrical)6.469.526.6437.72.440.0
    Electrical machinery and equipment6.228.936.3637.82.139.9
    Transport equipment6.6510.216.8337.22.039.1
    Other manufacturing5.938.075.9838.00.938.9
    Subtotal, manufacturing6.779.737.0035.33.038.2
Electricity, gas, and water7.5510.867.7538.22.640.8
Construction6.599.216.8138.63.542.1
Wholesale, retail, etc.—
    Wholesale trade6.848.966.9038.11.239.2
    Retail trade5.327.555.4136.32.037.9
    Restaurants, hotels, etc.5.487.765.5632.82.234.1
    Subtotal, wholesale, retail, etc.5.918.005.9936.31.737.7
Transport and communication—
    Transport and storage (excl. seasonal)7.2210.307.5338.04.342.2
    Seasonal storage and warehousing6.058.486.2237.72.840.5
    Communication7.2211.187,3939.41.841.2
    Subtotal, transport, etc.7.1910.457.4438.63.341.8
Financing, insurance, etc.—
    Finance6.798.486.8237.50.538.1
    Insurance7.769.927.7737.60.137.7
    Real estate and business services7.139.297.1736.50.737.1
    Subtotal, financing, etc.7.109.007.1237.00.537.5

REAL DISPOSABLE INCOME MEASURES—In December 1982, 3 new series of quarterly indexes were introduced to measure the impact of changes in the levels of taxation and consumer prices on the purchasing power of various income groups.

The index series are:

Ratio of Disposable to Gross Income Index—An index which measures the changing level of average gross income remaining after personal income tax.

Average Gross Income Index—An index which measures the changing level of gross income in current dollar terms.

Real Disposable Income Index—An index which measures the changing level of after-tax income in constant dollar terms thereby measuring the ability to purchase goods and services with gross income.

The following table and graph show the effects of the August 1982 budget taxation changes on the spending power of full-time wage and salary earners in various income groups. Full-time wage and salary earners are defined as those working 30 or more hours per week, and whose total income is predominantly for wages or salary.

The base of the index numbers is for the year ended March 1981 (= 1000).

PeriodRatio of Disposable to Gross Income Index*Percentage ChangeAverage Gross Income Index*Percentage ChangeReal Disposable Income Index† ‡Percentage Change

* Gross income from all sources.

† In dollars of constant (1980–81) purchasing power with respect to the regimen of the Consumers Price Index.

‡Balance of gross income after personal income tax liability is deducted.

§Lowest 20 percent of income distribution of full-time wage and salary earners.

‖Third lowest 20 percent of income distribution of full-time wage and salary earners.

¶Highest 20 percent of income distribution of full-time wage and salary earners.

Lowest Income Groups§
1980-Mar996..905..989..
       Jun1007..932..989..
       Sep1002..971..990..
       Dec997..1010..989..
1981-Mar10000.4107919.210273.8
       Jun995–1.2113121.410304.1
       Sep969–1.3117721.210263.6
       Dec985–1.2120919.710112.2
1982-Mar979–2.1126217.01015–1.2
       Jun971–2.4132617.21008–2.1
       Sep973–1.6131912.1970–5.5
       Dec979–0.6133810.7964–4.6
Middle Income Groups
1980-Mar1004..903..995..
        Jun1011..931..992..
        Sep1003..971..991..
        Dec995..1011..988..
1981-Mar996–0.8108620.310303.5
        Jun991–2.0113722.110324.0
        Sep982–2.1118321.810233.2
        Dec975–2.0121620.310061.8
1982-Mar964–3.2126916.91007–2.2
        Jun949–4.2133717.6994–3.7
        Sep953–3.0132411.9954–6.7
        Dec9820.7134610.7973–3.3
Highest Income Groups
1980-Mar1021..902..1011..
        Jun....930......
        Sep1005..971..993..
        Dec1007..1013..1002..
1981-Mar996–2.4108420.210281.7
        Jun981–3.6113922.510232.5
        Sep969–3.6118321.810111.8
        Dec960–4.7121820.2992–1.0
1982-Mar947–4.9127117.3990–3.7
        Jun930–5.2134418.0979–4.3
        Sep933–3.7133212.6940–7.0
        Dec107111.6135611.310697.8
Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings For All Workers Covered by Annual SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Annual Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
Community and personal services—
Public administration and defence7.9910.738.0537.80.838.6
Sanitary services, etc.5.838.755.9331.92.433.0
Education services8.238.478.2335.135.2
Research and scientific institutes9.3211.169.3437.90.438.3
Health services7.229.237.2539.10.839.8
Other community services6.978.876.9936.50.536.8
Recreational and cultural services7.539.997.6334.71.836.1
Personal and household services5.468.265.5638.01.439.4
        Subtotal, services7.429.457.4637.10.837.7
        Total, all surveyed industries6.889.567.0136.72.138.6

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEX—The Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index, which is shown in the following table, represents the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court or any special industrial tribunal or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. It covers all adult male and female employees. In selecting the occupations to be used for measuring wage and salary rate changes regard has been paid to all significant awards, agreements and determinations and the more important occupations (from the point of view of numbers employed) described by these documents. The index covers 284 awards and agreements within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court (Part 1 of the Index) with 461 selected occupations from these awards and agreements. For other agreements and determinations within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals and determining authorities (Part 2 of the Index) 210 occupations have been selected.

The awards and agreements used in Part 1 define only the legal minimum rates of pay, although in many cases, particularly with industrial agreements, these are the rates actually paid. On the other hand most of the rates used in Part 2 are normally mandatory. (A series of wage rate indexes following this Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index is based on prevailing or actual rates of pay.)

The following factors were taken into account in selecting the representative awards and agreements:

  1. The numbers of workers covered by the respective awards and agreements. All of the more important awards and agreements—so far as numbers of workers covered are concerned—are included in the index;

  2. The industrial coverage. The selection of awards and agreements appropriate for the various narrowly defined industry groups ensures that each industry is represented by its own award or agreement, or that for a closely related industry; and

  3. The geographic coverage. Not all district awards or agreements could be used but a balanced representation of the major industrial districts was obtained.

The following table shows the industry and occupation grouping of the index. The industry grouping conforms to the production groups of the New Zealand System of National Accounts, and the occupation groups are major groups of the New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations.

The use of standard production groups means that the classification is consistent with National Accounts, the Producers Price Index, and the series of integrated economic censuses.

The index is calculated for rates effective at mid-quarter.

Note: Index numbers in the following table were correct at the time of entry but, because of the possible incorporation of retrospective increases in wage and salary rates in awards, collective agreements, and determinations, they may be subject to later revisions. They may be checked against the appropriate table in the latest Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

INDEX NUMBERS OF NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES—ADULT EMPLOYEES*—continued
Base: For each group, average rates ruling for December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
GroupDec Quarter 19771982Dec Year 1982
Mar QuarterJun QuarterSep QuarterDec Quarter

* Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate relative movements in average rates in the different groups, not relative levels of average rates of wages and salaries. Because of possible retrospective increases in the wage or salary rates in forthcoming awards, collective agreements or determinations, etc., the more recent index numbers should be treated as provisional.

† These indexes measure changes in the rates (minimum and mandatory) within the jurisdiction of the stated wages and salary determining authorities.

‡ Derived in each case by dividing the nominal (or money) Wage Rate Index Number by the corresponding Consumers Price Index Number and multiplying by 1000.

Part 1—Rates within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court
            Industry Group
Agriculture100020082014207220722042
Fishing and hunting100019842139213921392100
Forestry and logging100020102028202820282024
Mining and quarrying100020212021202120212021
Food, beverages, and tobacco100020682089209220922085
Textiles, apparel and leather100019932005200520052002
Wood and wood products100019202021202120211996
Paper, printing and publishing100019802025202520252014
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100019541989198919891980
Non-metallic mineral products100019892054205420542038
Basic metals100020052006200620062006
Machinery and metal products100019341936193619361936
Other manufacturing100020772200220022002169
Electricity, gas and water100019891990199019901990
Construction100020112016201620162015
Trade, restaurants and hotels100020372053205320532049
Transport and storage100020312066206620662057
Communication1000..........
Insurance and financing100019101988200820081978
Community and personal services100019151982198619861967
Central Government100020612067206720672066
Local Government100019481959195919591956
Private non-profit services100019732000210321032045
All industries combined100019942020202520252016
            Occupation Group
Professional, technical and related workers100019822006204320432018
Administrative and managerial100019662009200920091998
Clerical and related workers100020032037204320432032
Sales workers100020072031203120312025
Service workers100020092078208420842064
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing100020022037207520752047
Production and transport100019872004200520052000
All occupations combined100019942020202520252016
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups100011211081104610191067
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining Authorities
            Industry Group
Agriculture100018161816181618161816
Fishing and hunting1000..........
Forestry and logging100019061906190619061906
Mining and quarrying100018701870187018701870
Food, beverages and tobacco1000..........
Textiles, apparel and leather1000..........
Wood and wood products100018521852185218521852
Paper, printing and publishing100018911891189118911891
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100019631963196319631963
Non-metallic mineral products1000..........
Basic metals1000..........
Machinery and metal products100019341934193419341934
Other manufacturing1000..........
Electricity, gas and water100018741874187418741874
Construction100019011901190119011901
Trade, restaurants and hotels100018871887188718871887
Transport and storage100018981956195619561942
Communication100018491849184918491849
Insurance and financing100018381838183818381838
Community and personal services100018611861186118611861
Central Government100018551855185518551855
Local Government1000..........
Private non-profit services1000..........
All industries combined100018631868186818681867
            Occupation Group
Professional, technical and related workers100018431843184318431843
Administrative and managerial100018601860186018601860
Clerical and related workers100018361836183618361836
Sales workers100019231923192319231923
Service workers100019571957195719571957
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing100018661866186618661866
Production and transport100019201953195319531945
All occupations combined100018631868186818681867
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups100010471000965940988
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of all Determining Authorities
            Industry Group
Agriculture100020042010206720672037
Fishing and hunting100019842139213921392100
Forestry and logging100019551964196419641962
Mining and quarrying100019391939193919391939
Food, beverages and tobacco100020682089209220922085
Textiles, apparel and leather100019932005200520052002
Wood and wood products100019192018201820181993
Paper, printing and publishing100019762018201820182008
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100019541989198919891980
Non-metallic mineral products100019892054205420542038
Basic metals100020052006200620062006
Machinery and metal products100019341936193619361936
Other manufacturing100020772200220022002169
Electricity, gas and water100019571957195719571957
Construction100019791982198219821981
Trade, restaurants and hotels100020362052205220522048
Transport and storage100019692015201520152004
Communication100018491849184918491849
Insurance and financing100018931952196819681945
Community and personal services100019071963196619661950
Central Government100018671867186718671867
Local Government100019481959195919591956
Private non-profit services100019732000210321032045
All industries combined100019451964196719671961
            Occupation Group
Professional, technical, and related workers100018611864186918691866
Administrative and managerial100018951909190919091906
Clerical and related workers100019291949195219521946
Sales workers100020042027202720272021
Service workers100019912036204020402027
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing100019782006203820382015
Production and transport100019771977197719971992
        All occupations combined100019451964196719671961
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups10001093105110169891037

PREVAILING WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEX—A new series of wage rate indexes was released by the Department of Statistics in March 1980. Known as the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index, this series measures the movements in the overall level of prevailing or actual rates of pay for all adult employees whose minimum or mandatory rates of pay are fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court or any special industrial tribunal or determined from time to time by some statutory authority, and includes house agreements registered with the Court.

This index has the same weighting pattern and coverage of awards and agreements as the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index (see previous pages). It is possible, therefore, to compare the 2 series so as to measure “wage drift”.

Part 2 of the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index is identical with part 2 of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.

The payrates surveyed for the index are those actually paid to the employees engaged in the nominated positions and are measured at the payday for the period which includes the 15th day of the mid-month of the quarter.

The Effective Prevailing Wage Rates Index (index of effective rates) adjusts the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index for the movements in the consumer price levels. This index is derived by dividing the Prevailing Wage Index for each quarter by the corresponding Consumers Price Index, and multiplying by 1000.

Like the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index, the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Indexes for more recent quarters are subject to later revision resulting from any backdating of awards, agreements, and determinations.

INDEX NUMBERS OF PREVAILING WAGE RATES—ADULT EMPLOYEES
Base: For each group, average rates prevailing for December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
Group19771982Dec Year 1982
Dec QuarterMar QuarterJun QuarterSep QuarterDec Quarter
Part 1—Rates within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court
        Industry Group
Agriculture100020472120211021132098
Fishing and hunting100018482011199820011964
Forestry and logging100019932024202720262018
Mining and quarrying100020632079207820782074
Food, beverages, and tobacco100019792002201720202004
Textiles, apparel, and leather100020132029202920302025
Wood and wood products100019732055204920492032
Paper, printing, and publishing100020232069207420692059
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100020062039204420432033
Non-metallic mineral products100020642134213721352118
Basic metals100020652067206920672067
Machinery and metal products100020382047204720442044
Other manufacturing100019942092209820972070
Electricity, gas, and water100020142006200520052008
Construction100020472057206220632057
Trade, restaurants, and hotels100020462072207920762068
Transport and storage100020462076207920762069
Communication1000..........
Insurance and financing100019202000200420071983
Community and personal services100019652026203520372016
Central Government100020792089209220922088
Local Government100019521965196419641961
Private non-profit services100020222051214721422090
        All industries combined100020162047205220532042
        Occupation Group
Professional, technical, and related workers100020412041208120872062
Administrative and managerial100019772022202220252012
Clerical and related workers100020052053206420602046
Sales workers100019982015203220312019
Service workers100020512121211721122101
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing100020212114210121042085
Production and transport100020152036203720382032
        All occupations combined100020162047205220522042
Index of Effective Rates—All groups100011331096106010321080
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining Authorities
        Industry Group
Agriculture100018161816181618161816
Fishing and hunting1000..........
Forestry and logging100019061906190619061906
Mining and quarrying100018701870187018701870
Foods, beverages, and tobacco1000..........
Textiles, apparel, and leather1000..........
Wood and wood products100018521852185218521852
Paper, printing, and publishing100018911891189118911891
Chemicals, petroleum, and plastics100019631963196319631963
Non-metallic mineral products1000..........
Basic metals1000..........
Machinery and metal products100019341934193419341934
Other manufacturing1000..........
Electricity, gas and water100018741874187418741874
Construction100019011901190119011901
Trade, restaurants and hotels100018871887188718871887
Transport and storage100018981956195619561942
Communication100018491849184918491849
Insurance and financing100018381838183818381838
Community and personal services100018611861186118611861
Central Government100018821882188218821882
Local Government1000..........
Private non-profit services1000..........
        All industries combined100018841880188518851885
        Occupation Group
Professional, technical, and related workers100018431843184318431843
Administrative and managerial100018601860186018601860
Clerical and related workers100018361836183618361836
Sales workers100019231923192319231923
Service workers100019571957195719571957
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing100018661866186618661866
Production and transport100019201953195319531945
        All occupations combined100018631868186818681867
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups100010471000965940988
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of all Determining Authorities
        Industry Group
Agriculture100020422115210521082092
Fishing and hunting100018482011199820011964
Forestry and logging100019481963196519641960
Mining and quarrying100019611968196819681966
Food, beverages, and tobacco100019792002201720202004
Textiles, apparel, and leather100020132029202920302025
Wood and wood products100019712052204720462029
Paper, printing, and publishing100020162060206420592050
Chemicals, petroleum, and plastics100020062039204420432033
Non-metallic mineral products100020642134213721352118
Basic metals100020652067206920672067
Machinery and metal products100020312039204020372037
Other manufacturing100019942092209820972070
Electricity, gas, and water100019751969196819691970
Construction100020042012201520162012
Trade, restaurants, and hotels100020452071207820752067
Transport and storage100019782020202220212010
Communication100018491849184918491849
Insurance and financing100019011963196719681950
Community and personal services100019492001200920111992
Central Government100018931894189418941894
Local Government100019521965196419641961
Private non-profit services100020222051214721422090
        All industries combined100019671990199319931986
        Occupation Group
Professional, technical, and related workers100018701870187519051902
Administrative and managerial100018991914191419141910
Clerical and related workers100019331960196619641956
Sales workers100019962012202820272016
Service workers100020192064206120592051
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing100019952073206220642048
Production and transport100020022024202620272020
        All occupations combined100019611984198719931986
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups100011021062102610031051

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—Except for one line, the Index of Effective Rates, at the foot of each table, the index numbers quoted in the foregoing tables relate to nominal and prevailing weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal or effective wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal, prevailing, and effective weekly wage rates together with the Consumers Price Index for the year ended December.

The base of the index numbers is in each case December Quarter 1977 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage Rates—Adults*Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates—Adult Employees
ActualEffectiveActualEffective
* Prior to 1978 refers to adult males only.
19735565781040....
19746186571063....
19757087471055....
19768288351008....
19779479491002....
197810601077101610821021
197912061244103212521038
198014121471104114861052
19811629175510781770x1086x
198218921961103719801047

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers Price Index and converting the whole to the base: December quarter 1977 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award or mandatory rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions. The index numbers of prevailing weekly wage rates, on the other hand, are based on the actual rates of pay of employees in the nominated positions. The consumer prices index numbers do not take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure. For example, income tax, charitable and other gifts, and domestic help are omitted (see section 23).

MINIMUM WAGE RATES—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of 20 years of age and upwards must receive not less than the rate's prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

As from 11 June 1981 the minimum rates for all workers (male or female) became $2.14 an hour if paid by the hour or on piecework, $16.86 a day if paid by the day; and $84.17 a week in other cases. On and after 1 April 1977, minimum rates for female workers became the same as for males.

FARM EMPLOYEES—The following table shows the salaries and wages of paid employees on farms during the year ended June 1981. The total of 21 238 paid permanent full-time employees was made up of 18 828 males and 2410 females. Paid permanent part-time employees consisted of 3091 males and 3685 females, and paid casual employees of 5019 males and 3551 females.

Farm Type*Number of Permanent Full-rime EmployeesNumber of Permanent Part-time EmployeesNumber of Casual EmployeesTotal Salaries and Wages Paid
At 30 June 1981
* For fuller definitions of farm types see footnotes to Farm Type tables in Section 14A Farming: General Survey.
    $(000)
Dairy farming: factory supply1 83576139039,776
Dairy farming: town supply437161877,620
Sheep farming4 1971 7051 87171,873
Beef farming3731981396,465
Pig farming17444202,520
Cropping144651042,352
Dairy farming with sheep8018171,818
Dairy farming with beef20091773,389
Dairy farming with other16852372,792
Sheep farming with dairy4072588
Sheep farming with beef3,87886096652,957
Sheep farming with cropping324154935,276
Sheep farming with other14879532,614
Beef farming with dairy2098399
Beef farming with sheep5291111147,041
Beef farming with other312029534
Cropping with sheep19093852,976
Cropping with other341777912
Pig farming with other7022141,059
Stud horse breeding18238202,017
Mixed livestock1 07135333215,776
Broiler chicken production10130181,708
Poultry farming188292584,697
Deer farming2877491
Bee keeping51368
Market gardening and flowers56936853512,594
Orchards1 3325691 92028,414
Hop growing18327467
Tobacco growing89371582,495
Nurseries1 01718240112,657
Mushroom growing2923711,444
Plantations3 5166830740,800
Goat farming1244
Other2141235965,478
Idle land72184
        Total, all farm types21 2386 7768 570342,295

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on wages will be found in the following publications:

Prices, Wages, and Labour: Pt. B. Wages and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Chapter 34. Section 34 INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

The rules underlying the New Zealand system of industrial relations have traditionally been embodied in legislation. In the private sector, statutes confer bargaining rights on certain registered/recognised organisations and specify various procedures for the conduct of negotiations. Various institutions are also available to assist the parties in resolving their differences.

The main body of rules covering industrial relations in the private sector is contained in the Industrial Relations Act 1973. By a process of registration, unions secure bargaining rights for the class of workers they represent, and also access to various procedures for the settlement of disputes associated with the renegotiation of the collective agreement (disputes of interest) and its subsequent application (disputes of right).

In the case of disputes of interest, the emphasis is on the parties reaching a settlement through the processes of collective bargaining. The parties may agree to negotiate a voluntary settlement of the dispute. Alternatively, either party may apply for the dispute to proceed through the more orthodox conciliation and arbitration channels. It should be stressed that applicants may, at any time, withdraw their claims from conciliation. Moreover, the Arbitration Court may refuse to arbitrate (i.e., make an award) if it considers that the parties have not made a genuine attempt to settle in conciliation.

In the case of disputes of right, the emphasis is on their peaceful resolution, and accordingly the process of arbitration is rather more in evidence. The disputes proceed through a system of disputes committees chaired by an independent person who may either make a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree or refer the matter to the Arbitration Court for a decision. Personal grievance issues proceed directly to the court for a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree.

The Act provides for the registration and enforcement of collective agreements. An agreement so registered is binding on the immediate parties to it (and their members). Additionally, an agreement arrived at through the process of conciliation, or an award of the court, automatically binds any person who subsequently becomes connected with or engaged in the industry to which it relates.

Separate enactments cover bargaining relationships in the agriculture sector, on the waterfront, and in the aircrew services.

INSTITUTIONS: The Arbitration Court—The Arbitration Court has the broad responsibility for the registering of settlements as collective agreements, the making of awards, and the settlement of disputes of right referred to it under the Act.

The court attempts, by means of a common membership, to achieve consistency in the decisions of the various wage fixing tribunals, e.g., public sector, waterfront, aircrew, agricultural.

The constitution of the court varies according to the matters before it and the wishes of the parties. The full court comprises 5 persons: 1 judge and 2 sets of members, nominated by the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour. The full court is limited to hearing disputes of interest and then only at the request of one or both of the parties. In all other circumstances, the court comprises 3 persons: being 1 judge and 1 set of nominated members. An establishment of 3 judges (with jurisdiction over other wage fixing tribunals) together with 2 sets of nominated members creates the possibility of 2 courts and 1 tribunal (or 1 court and 2 tribunals) sitting simultaneously.

The specific functions of the Arbitration Court are to:

  1. Hear and determine any question connected with the construction of any award or collective agreement;

  2. Hear and determine any question connected with the construction of the Industrial Relations Act or any Act relating to industrial matters;

  3. Make an order determining the rights of parties under any award or collective agreement;

  4. Order compliance with any award or collective agreement;

  5. Make an order determining the validity of any award or collective agreement (this power was not in the 1973 Act and is designed to cope with situations in which a union negotiates an agreement which covers workers who are not covered by its membership rule);

  6. Hear and determine enforcement and recovery actions;

  7. Hear and determine appeals from disputes committees;

  8. Hear and determine matters referred to the court relating to the grievance procedure;

  9. Hear and determine questions relating to the registration and jurisdiction of unions;

  10. Inquire into and determine questions relating to disputed elections.

The Industrial Conciliation Service—The New Zealand system of industrial relations has historically been governed by a formal system of conciliation and arbitration, and the Industrial Conciliation Service has long been an integral part of that system.

The service consists of conciliators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. The conciliator acts to convene conciliation councils for the hearing of disputes of interest, and to take any other steps considered advisable in reaching fair and amicable voluntary settlements of such disputes. More specifically, a conciliator sets dates for the hearing of disputes, appoints assessors to constitute the council, and calls or strikes out parties to a dispute. He is also responsible for recording and reporting the procedures of a conciliation to the court and referring unsettled disputes to the court for determination.

In practice the conciliator has 2 roles. During the formal proceedings he acts as a chairman. That is, he occasionally calls the council to order, ensures that they stick to the topic, and suggests the time for a break in the formal proceedings. It is during the break in formal proceedings that the conciliator acts as a link between the parties and assists them in moving to common ground. Above all, he ensures that the negotiations keep going.

The Industrial Mediation Service—The mediation service is relatively new to the industrial relations scene. It was established in 1970 by an amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act (forerunner to the Industrial Relations Act 1973).

The service consists of mediators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister after consultation with the central organisations. A mediator acts to assist employers, unions, and workers to carry out their responsibilities to establish and maintain harmonious industrial relations. The mediator has no power to impose his services on the parties to a dispute and may merely offer his assistance. With the agreement of the parties however he may decide issues referred to him. The mediator on no account is involved in a dispute of interest while conciliation or arbitration proceedings are in progress.

Once involved in a dispute, the mediator's approach is a flexible one. As with the conciliator, his objective is to assist the parties in arriving at a settlement themselves. This involves getting the parties talking to one another, and keeping them talking. In certain circumstances, it might be appropriate for the mediator to request that the Minister appoint a compulsory conference, perhaps with himself as chairman with decision-making powers. At other times, it might be appropriate to get the parties together in an informal way as a prelude to more formal discussions.

The Industrial Relations Council—This is an advisory body comprising representatives at national level of employer organisations, worker organisations, and the Government, under the chairmanship of the Minister of Labour. The council provides permanent machinery for tripartite consultation on industrial affairs. Some specific matters to which the council gives consideration are: the formulation and implementation of manpower policies; the formulation of codes of practice relating to industrial relations; and ways and means of improving industrial relations, industrial organisations, and industrial welfare. Various sub-committees have been formed to consider a range of policy issues.

The council went into recess in August 1979 after the Federation of Labour withdrew in protest at the repeal of the General Wage Orders Act 1977 by the Government, and the introduction of the Remuneration Bill.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS—The New Zealand system of conciliation and arbitration is based on the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations. The Industrial Relations Act 1973 simplified and consolidated procedures developed over the years under the former Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. A sliding scale operates to determine the minimum number required to form a union depending on the number of industrial districts in which the union has coverage. A union of employers with coverage of up to 1 full industrial district is to have a minimum of 6 members or more than 75 percent of employers engaged in the industry in the area concerned who together employ more than 75 percent of the workers so engaged, with an absolute minimum of 3. A union of workers with coverage of up to 1 full industrial district is to have a minimum of 30 members or more than 50 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the area concerned, with an absolute minimum of 10 members. The prime minimum and the absolute minimum figures increase progressively with coverage of a greater number of industrial districts. If the membership of a union falls below the minimum requirements the union may be deregistered. The great majority of unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under the Industrial Relations Act.

Further provisions of the Industrial Relations Act 1973 operate to deter multiple unionism and simplify the procedures for amalgamation of unions. It is hoped that this will give impetus to amalgamation of unions.

Restrictions on the exercise of welfare activities by unions have been removed and unions are able, subject to membership approval, to devote any percentage of subscription to welfare activities.

Providing that parties in negotiations agree, the Arbitration Court may insert an unqualified preference (union membership) provision in an award or collective agreement. If the parties fail to reach agreement, then the court will insert the provision, providing that no less than 50 percent of adult workers bound by the award or collective agreement desire its insertion. The matter is decided by a ballot conducted under section 100 of the Act. A 1982 amendment to the Act also provides that a specified number of union members may seek a ballot on the question of union membership. An unqualified preference provision once inserted in an award or collective agreement becomes a condition of employment and any worker who is not a union member must join the appropriate union upon taking up employment (usually within 14 days).

Fishing Industry Union Coverage Act 1979—Special legislation governing union coverage in the fishing industry was passed in 1979. This Act excludes existing unions from the fishing industry and provides that only 1 union may be registered in respect of the industry. The consent of the Minister of Labour is required prior to registration.

UNIONS OF WORKERS—In the years subsequent to 1936, when changes in the law enabled national unions of workers to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, two tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of larger unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of large unions, and to increase greatly their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, while the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains: at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised. Since 1962 the State has not imposed compulsory union membership.

The union movement remains diverse, with 258 separate registrations and some important unions and the professional associations outside it*. In size, the registered unions range from over 51 400 members†. down to 10, with many of them having fewer than 100. Amalgamation is proceeding and significant consolidation has occurred in recent years.

Most unions are still occupational, or craft-based, and the industry agreements that are becoming more common—especially at the informal bargaining level—require the co-operation of numerous unions‡.

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

Federation of Labour—The great increases in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The executive consists of the president, vice president, secretary, and 6 members elected directly by the conference. The National Council, which meets regularly twice a year, and at other times as required, consists of members of the National Executive and is representative of each local trades council. It is the governing body of the federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the federation are the local trades councils, 20 in number, and 1 trade union committee, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

Employers are more organised for negotiations with unions than figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers Federation is the central organisation of employers and the chief co-ordinating body of employers in all matters of industrial relations and employment. It comprises 4 regional divisions (the Auckland Provincial, Wellington Regional, Canterbury, and Otago-Southland Employers Associations) plus national and North or South Island organisations that are admitted to membership of the Federation's General Council. There are nearly 70 in this latter category.

Individual company membership of the 4 regional divisions of the federation now exceeds 10 000, and these employers receive advice, assistance, and representation from the associations' specialist industrial staff. In addition to work in the negotiations and advocacy field, the Employers Federation has staff handling research and information services.

* Mainly the State Services organisations, and the pulp and paper workers.

† The Engineers Union.

‡ Approximately 30; for example, in the forest products agreements and in the Hutt Valley motor vehicle assembly plants agreement.

A new constitution adopted by the federation in 1971 was designed to achieve greater unity amongst employers and employer organisations associated with the federation, and greater employer sector participation has been provided in the formulation of the federation's policies.

STATISTICS: Unions of Workers—The numbers and membership of workers' unions at the end of the year according to industry groups is shown in the following table. Where the members of a union are employed in more than 1 industry they have been classified to the predominant industry for the union concerned.

Industrial Group197919801981
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.516 760515 681516 372
Mining and quarrying340433643381
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering1559 0251658 9031559 199
    Textiles, clothing, and leather2029 9152025 9302027 519
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal3954 2663654 4043452 877
    Wood and wood products, including furniture817 989817 110818 030
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing716 690717 249716 213
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics104 319104 128104 323
    Non-metallic mineral products571956785706
    Other manufacturing741764776380
Construction1446 4381444 7911246 081
Road and rail transport1635 6441536 2171534 663
Air transport52 14252 06651 993
Shipping and stevedoring2913 3342813 5962813 260
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.2674 5192079 5452077 447
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.3193 09330101 49627103 604
Government and local authority, n.e.c.1017 7171018 9171019 964
Recreational services114 397114 572114 522
Social community services including health, education, etc.,44 52945 06156 310
Other personal and community services1214 6461215 1121215 861
    Total277506 963265516 297258519 705

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

At 31 DecemberUnder 100100–199200–299300–499500–9991 000–1 9992 000–2 9993 000–4 9995 000–9 99910 000 and OverTotal
Number of Unions
197786282329433116121311292
197881322230403513121212289
197978262423413412131313277
19807029192438321591613265
19817025202240321171615258
Membership
19774 1813 9855 65911 05929 28444 14037 45444 74494 533198 393473 432
19783 7874 4055 36511 93827 07950 59931 53546 90787 779217 139486 533
19793 6823 7145 7758 81526 88847 88927 83850 48895 614236 260506 963
19803 4094 0474 6149 41426 02844 88835 69535 512115 723236 967516 297
19813 3063 4194 7268 39328 50747 32726 83924 374112 531260 283519 705

The total membership of industrial unions of workers at intervals since 1940 is shown in the following table. In 1936 the membership of industrial unions had more than doubled, growing from 80 929 in 1935 to 185 527 in 1936. This was a result of the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed.

As at End of YearNumber of Members
1940248 081
1945229 103
1950275 779
1955304 520
1960332 362
1965353 093
1970378 465
1974436 623
1975454 991
1976464 453
1977473 432
1978486 533
1979506 963
1980516 297
1981519 705

Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of registered industrial unions of employers as at the end of the year are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. Some employers belong to two or more unions.

Industry Group197919801981
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.113 705114 148115 390
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering, etc.81 17681 12791 644
    Textiles, clothing, and leather104861049910499
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal214302142921409
    Wood and wood products, including furniture954195339521
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing854395859621
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics830582568250
    Non-metallic mineral products232232232
    Other manufacturing119116116
Construction566 523566 087566 179
Road and rail transport41 85641 99142004
Air transport233233253
Shipping and stevedoring410241064108
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.51 63551 60451 541
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.5413 0655412 9015312 667
Government and local authority, n.e.c.430143015378
Recreational services184182173
Social community services, including health, education, etc.389939153882
Other personal and community services567759935971
    Total21632 41221732 63821834 238

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of 2 or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as industrial associations. As at 31 December 1981 there were 14 industrial associations of employers and 23 of workers, the former having 105 affiliated unions and the latter, 119.

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table shows the proportion of workers belonging to registered unions to the total number of wage earners in the country. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumber of Workers on Rolls of Registered Unions*Percentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions*
* There are a number of associations of employees not registered. These include many State servants and mine workers, chemical fertiliser workers, agriculture workers, etc.
1961 (Apr)750 8821960332 36244
1966 (Mar)870 8131965353 09341
1971 (Mar)958 5631970378 46539
1976 (Mar)1 063 1701975454 99143
1981 (Mar)1 089 1291980516 29748

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow, only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised “go slow” or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. Stoppages in which no demand is made on the employer (or the employees in the case of a lockout) are not included—for example any stoppage which is the result of disagreement by workers with measures taken (or not taken) by Government or other authority, as distinct from employers, is excluded. To avoid confusion with the term “dispute” as used in industrial relations legislation, these statistics have been called “industrial stoppages”. A long-term series of stoppages is given towards the back of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue.

The following table shows incidence rates of stoppages during recent years.

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved in Stoppages as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1000 of Wage and Salary Earners
* October estimates prior to 1980. Since 1980 based on the quarterly employment survey of 15 November..
 (000)  
1975x1 032.07.26208.18
1976x1 042.119.30468.71
1977x1 044.915.20392.24
1978x1 040.215.18365.90
1979x1 020.515.50374.24
1980x1 021.010.59352.68
1981x1 033.47.60237.42
19821 033.611.57307.05

Industrial stoppages during recent years are summarised in the following table. The totals of stoppages include lockouts (if any). Where several occasions have been grouped as 1 stoppage the largest number of workers involved on any 1 day have been included under the relevant headings. Workers indirectly involved have also been included. “Partial strike” indicates a reduction of the normal rate of output.

Calendar YearNumber of StoppagesDurationNumber of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedApproximate Loss In Wages
Complete StrikePartial Strike*TotalTotal (Working Days)Average (Working Days)

* Reduction of normal rate of output.

† Includes lockouts and penalties (2 lockouts in 1979, 2 lockouts in 1981 and 4 lockouts in 1982).

      (000)(000) $(000)
197840564111 3473.231583812.4110,948
1979507145231 8633.561583822.4112,698
19803523521 283½3.651083603.3317,708
198128162891 2884.46792453.1213,502
198231773281 405½4.451203172.6523,891

The following graph shows industrial stoppages over a series of years.

In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industry in which they took place. The figures relate to stoppages which terminated during the 12 months ended December 1982.

INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES 1982
IndustryNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages*
* Individual components may not add due to rounding.
    $(000)
Agriculture, hunting
Forestry, logging
Mining, quarrying1972 328117
Meat export works9487 930218 59018,452
Other slaughtering, preparation, and preserving meat27591 810129
Dairy products; fruit, vegetable, and fish canning and preserving; vegetable oils, animal oils and fats91 3983 368179
Grain milling, bakery products, sugar, confectionery, etc.1101208
Beverage industries, tobacco232372
Textile, wearing apparel, leather goods101 1003 903157
Wood, wood products (incl. furniture)61191978
Paper, paper products; printing and publishing71 0902 499125
Chemicals; chemical, petroleum, and coal products157805 359303
Rubber and plastic products101 5806 595457
Non-metallic mineral products132 1395 806242
Basic metal industries61 5953 181188
Metal products, machinery including electrical151 4033 483198
Transport equipment186 31619 996863
Professional and scientific equipment
Other manufacturing25527311
Electricity, gas, water16642928
Buildings145513 191169
Construction other than buildings508 23923 3081,667
Ancillary building and construction services
Wholesale trade127153 852142
Retail trade2181807
Restaurants and hotels
Land transport171 6331 62775
Water transport773955031
Air transport112663
Services allied to transport55712 810124
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate, etc.111523
Community, social, and personal services75183 762205
Total, all industries328119 590317 36923,891

The following table gives an analysis of stoppages by duration during 1982.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
1 day and less13352 21935 2082,538
Over 1 day but not over 2 days548 89715 5001,191
Over 2 days but not over 3 days235 12012 784655
Over 3 days but less than 1 week3124 29542 4662,907
1 week but less than 2 weeks449 17836 4592,086
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks3118 962164 35113,755
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks96336 789425
8 weeks and over32863 812334
        Total328119 590317 36923,891

Note: A week is considered to be 5 working days.

The following table gives an international comparison of working days lost through industrial stoppages.

CountryWorking Days Lost Per 1000 Employees
198019811982

* Stoppage statistics for the United States are only collected for strikes involving at least 1000 persons.

† Figures for total labour force used in the calculation of these figures exclude the agricultural sector.

Source: Main Economic Indicators and Quarterly Labour Force Statistics, published by the OECD, Department of Economics and Statistics.

Canada774.0745.0..
United States*191.2152.680.6
Australia493.1614.4310.9
New Zealand†323.8221.7282.2
Finland680.9267.780.1
France72.264.4..
Germany4.72.20.5
Italy631.5398.8621.0
United Kingdom448.1160.7300.6

CAUSES—In the next table the causes of stoppages occurring during 1982 are shown. A breakdown in negotiations over a range of matters rather than over any 1 or more of the other categories of cause is recorded under “General Breakdown in Negotiations”.

Under the heading “Wages” are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates of piecework. Stoppages concerning the hours of work, leave and holidays are included under the heading “Period of Work”.

"Conditions of Work" includes safety, health, and general working conditions. Such matters as supervision, work allocation, manning levels, dismissals, redundancy, etc., are included under “Managerial Practice”.

Stoppages caused by workers striking in sympathy with demands of other workers, demarcation, victimisation, and other union matters are included under “Union Matters”.

The number of stoppages, number of workers involved, and working days lost are shown for each cause.

InvolvementCause of StoppageTotal
General Breakdown in NegotiationsWagesPeriod of WorkConditions of WorkManagerial PracticeUnion Matters*and other Causes
* Union matters: 45 stoppages; 25 268 workers involved; 144 499 working days lost.
Number of—
    Stoppages4454114611756328
    Workers involved21 91316 0303 9289 84355 21912 657119 590
    Working days lost38 64627 44518 47819 234188 63124 935317 369

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages in 1982. “Private negotiations” take place when discussions have occurred between employers and workers without intervention of a third party. Third parties intervening may include the industrial mediator, conciliators, the Department of Labour, the Minister of Labour, the Federation of Labour, etc.

A settlement is classified as “Voluntary return to work” where no negotiations have taken place, no conditions are changed, and workers simply return to work or decide to drop their claims.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
Private negotiations628 94329 0801,776
Intervention of third party6524 876178 10214,421
Voluntary return to work19385 192108 8437,577
Other85791 344115
    Total328119 590317 36923,891

WORKING CONDITIONS—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provisions of the Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971, the Factories and Commercial Premises Act 1981, the Coal Mines Act 1979, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, the Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1960, the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937, the Shearers Act 1962, or the Industrial Relations Act 1973. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962, the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the New Zealand Railways Corporation Act 1981, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Fire Services Act 1975, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1976.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 35D, Occupational Safety.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour 5-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Holidays Act 1981 provides for an annual holiday of 3 weeks duration paid at the worker's average weekly earnings during the year of entitlement, provided the average is not less than the ordinary weekly earnings being received at the date of commencing the holidays.

Public holidays include Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), Waitangi Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu). Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October. Waitangi Day is 6 February. Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday. Observance of Waitangi Day and Anzac Day cannot be transferred to another date.

Other statutes dealing with holidays are the Anzac Day Act 1966, Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952, and the Waitangi Day Act 1976.

FACTORIES AND COMMERCIAL PREMISES ACT—This Act applies to undertakings which include bakehouses, cinemas, commercial depots, factories, hotels, laundries, laboratories, mailrooms, offices, restaurants, shops, stores, theatres, telegraph offices, telex offices, and warehouses. The act also covers places where motor vehicles are repaired, serviced, or tested for pecuniary gain, or where food is prepared or cooked and sold ready for immediate human consumption elsewhere than in that place.

Restrictions on Employment—Persons under 15 years may not be employed in any factory. Persons under 16 years of age may not be employed in any undertaking between the hours of 10 p.m. and 6 a.m.

Safety, Health and Welfare—Safety measures in the Act include requirements such as a general safety duty for both employers and workers, powers for inspectors to deal immediately with serious dangers, storage of dangerous substances and materials generally, harmful noise, means of access and safety of employment, safety in confined spaces, and requirements to train and supervise workers. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities, and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare. Provision is made for the making of codes of practice that may be approved by the Minister. Other aspects include the establishment of work safety and health committees and safety representatives. Various regulations are made under the Act to ensure employees' health and safety when dealing with toxic or hazardous substances and processes involving particular risks to health and safety.

MATERNITY LEAVE—The Maternity Leave and Employment Protection Act 1980 allows women who are having babies or intending to adopt children under 5 years of age to take 26 weeks unpaid maternity leave. Entitlement to this leave depends upon a woman having worked for the same employer for a period of 18 months immediately preceding the expected date of delivery or the adoption of the child, for at least 15 hours per week.

At the end of the 26-week period of leave, the female employee may return to her position if her employer has been able to keep it open for her. Alternatively, she is entitled during the 6 months following her maternity leave to preference over other applicants for any position which is vacant in the employer's enterprise and which is substantially similar to the position she held at the beginning of her maternity leave. The Act also provides that it is unlawful to terminate the employment of a woman because of her pregnancy or her state of health during the pregnancy. The Act contains complaint procedures for a woman to use where she believes that any of the provisions of the Act have been contravened or her rights to maternity leave have been affected to her disadvantage by her employer.

SHOP TRADING HOURS—Under the Shop Trading Hours Act 1977 shops may open at any time between 7 a.m. and 9 p.m. Mondays to Saturdays inclusive but are to be closed outside these hours and on Sundays and statutory holidays unless an extension of opening hours has been authorised by the Shop Trading Hours Commission.

The Act provides that “approved” goods may be sold at any time. Goods other than those on the “approved” list are “restricted” goods. If an occupier intends to open his shop to sell “approved” goods outside the hours mentioned above, then all “restricted” goods must be out of sight of the public or kept in a part of the shop that is closed off.

Provision is made for the granting of orders authorising a shop occupier to open at times other than those mentioned above. The majority of the shop occupiers in an “area” (which may be a street, mall, or municipality area) can also apply for such an order to cover the whole of the area.

“Approved” Goods—These are listed in a Schedule contained in an Order made under the Act. “Approved” goods include bakers' and pastrycooks' goods, building supplies and handyman requisites, condiments, confectionery, dairy produce, drinks, fish, frozen foods, fruit and flowers, fuels, gardening supplies, aquarium flora and fauna, miscellaneous groceries, magazines and periodicals, meats and small goods, medicinal and household goods, motor accessories, photographic goods, plants, prepared and cooked foods, tobacco, etc., vegetables, and a number of miscellaneous lines.

The Act makes special provision for bona fide “dairy-mixed businesses” to allow them to open on a 7-day-week basis. Dairies need only complete a simple application form which is lodged with the Shop Trading Hours Commission. The application, together with a report from an inspector, is then considered by the commission without the need for a formal hearing. If the application is granted, the dairy may open outside the hours set by the Act. If it is declined the shop must observe the legally-permitted hours or, if the proprietor wants to open outside those hours, he or she must confine the display and sale of goods to those items on the “approved” goods list.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 regulations have been made setting out minimum standards of accommodation to be supplied for agricultural workers.

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

Safety and Health—The Act requires employers to take reasonable precautions for the safety and health of employees and provides for the instruction of employees as to dangers and precautions, miscellaneous protection, the provision of protective clothing or equipment as appropriate, and the moderation, insulation, or provision of protection against harmful noise.

Fixing of Wages and Conditions of Employment—The Act instituted a system for fixing wages and conditions of employment somewhat akin to that which operates for workers in other industries. The emphasis is on voluntary and conciliated settlement of disputes, but in cases of no agreement a specialised Agricultural Tribunal can make an award. A significant new concept is the registration of a single employers' organisation and a single employees' organisation for each class of agricultural work. The registered organisations have exclusive rights of representation for the particular class. Certain classes of work are defined and certain organisations are deemed to have been be registered from the commencement date of the Act, November 1977. Machinery is provided in the Act for amendment of the definitions of classes of work and for the registration of replacement organisations. This whole system has been integrated into the all-encompassing wage fixing machinery under the Arbitration Court. A Judge of that Court is the President of the Agricultural Tribunal.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him. Where 5 or more shearers are to be accommodated on the farm suitable accommodation must be provided. Minimum standards of amenities and accommodation are prescribed by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of navigational officers, engineers, and certain crew members. Rules or regulations under that Act set out the qualifications and examination standards for persons to obtain the appropriate certificates in New Zealand, and there are provisions for the acceptance of certain certificates granted in other Commonwealth countries. The number and qualifications of persons required to man ships of various classes are set out in statutory scales.

The seaworthiness of ships is covered by annual survey for compliance as to condition and equipment, and regulations govern the day-to-day operations of ships to ensure their safe navigation and operation.

The pay and many conditions of employment are determined by industrial awards or agreements between shipowners and employee organisations. There are also legislative measures to ensure compliance with some of the international conventions or recommendations relating to the employment of seafarers.

MINING LEGISLATION—The Mines Division of the Ministry of Energy is responsible for working conditions in mines under the Mining Act 1971 and its attendant regulations.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are determined by agreement reached at annual conferences between the coal-mine owners and the employee organisations.

Restrictions on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 35D.

WORKING CONDITIONS OF STATE SERVANTS—Apart from remuneration (which is discussed in Section 33—Wages) the working conditions of State servants are controlled by legislation set out in the following paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions, and also the regulation of a variety of points connected with control—e.g., leave, hours of work.

The New Zealand Railways Corporation Act 1981 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 furnish the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. There is a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal function of which is to adjudicate on single service conditions of work in respect of railway employees.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to hear and determine applications referred to it in respect of conditions of employment of Post Office staff.

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The 3 armed services are controlled by the Defence Act 1971.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the employment of teachers and other members of the education service. Payment and conditions of service are covered by determinations issued under the machinery set up by the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977.

In the hospital service, medical officers are employed under section 52 of the Hospitals Act 1957, paramedical groups under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, and clerical, trades and other support groups under awards issued in accordance with the Industrial Relations Act.

WATERFRONT INDUSTRY—Work within the waterfront industry is governed by the Waterfront Industry Act 1976. The Act defines waterside work as the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels, together with certain other work customarily performed within wharf limits by waterside workers. Work within the waterfront industry includes waterside work and certain other work carried out within wharf limits such as the driving or operation of mechanical cargo-handling equipment, tallying, the shoring and unshoring of cargo, and the work of foremen stevedores and timekeepers. Separate bodies are empowered by the Act to carry out, on the one hand, legislative and judicial functions, and on the other administrative functions only.

Waterfront Industry Tribunal—The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, which consists of 2 members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister, and as chairman the Chief Judge of the Arbitration Court or a judge of the Arbitration Court nominated by him. The members are appointed for a term of 3 years. The tribunal is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for work within the waterfront industry, and here the tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the Minister of Labour to direct the establishment of conciliation councils each consisting of an independent chairman and an equal number of employers' representatives and workers' representatives. These councils conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the tribunal which concerns 2 or more ports and the chairman is appointed by the Minister for a term not exceeding 1 year. Secondly, the tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to work within the waterfront industry and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent chairman. Thirdly, the tribunal is a general appeal court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations) and to determine appeals from any orders or decisions of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges and in respect of the provision of amenities for waterside workers, as well as against refusal of the commission to register an applicant for entry on the Register of Employers of Waterside Workers.

Waterfront Industry Commission—The Waterfront Industry Commission, which is the administrative body, consists of an independent chairman, 2 members nominated by the Unions of Employers, and 2 members nominated by the New Zealand Waterside Workers' Federation. All 5 members are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour for a term not exceeding 3 years. The functions of the commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with the engagement, employment, wage and allowances of waterside workers; guaranteed wage payments, annual and statutory holiday payments, and systems of payments by results for waterside workers, and to perform these functions for other workers in the waterfront industry if requested by the employers and workers concerned. Secondly, the commission is responsible for the provision of amenities for waterside workers and for the equipping, operation and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first aid rooms. The commission provides such amenities costing not more than $50,000 each at any port and approves schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $50,000 each at any port.

Of the remaining functions of the commission, the main ones are the determination of the number of workers to be entered on the Bureau Register for each port so as to ensure the supply of sufficient waterside labour for its efficient working, to be the sole employer of waterside workers for the purposes of the Accident Compensation Act 1972, to train waterside workers in first aid, to publish statistical information in relation to the waterfront industry, and to register employers of waterside labour providing they meet the statutory requirements.

The organisation of “registered” waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with one association or federation of unions. The port unions and the association are registered through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Information on working conditions in many industries can be obtained from the appropriate Acts or awards. Many of the Acts are mentioned in this section. Further information on industrial relations, etc., can be found in the following publications.

Prices, Wages, and Labour: Pt B Wages and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Report of the Waterfront Industry Commission (Parl. paper G. 2).

Report of the State Services Commission (Parl. paper G. 3).

Wages, Hours, and Employment—Department of Labour (6-monthly).

Industrial Stoppages Report—Department of Labour (annual).

Chapter 35. Section 35 PERSONAL SAFETY

35 A—ACCIDENT PREVENTION, REHABILITATION, AND COMPENSATION

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, which took effect from 1 April 1974, was undoubtedly one of the most significant developments in social welfare for many years.

The 3 main objectives of the legislation are: (a) to promote safety in every walk of life; (b) to urge forward the concept of prompt and effective rehabilitation of all people injured by accident so as to restore them to the fullest physical, mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulness of which they are capable; and (c) to provide prompt, fair, and reasonable compensation so that every accident victim will be treated according to his real needs.

Cover, embracing all 3 objectives, extends to virtually everyone in New Zealand, from the smallest child to the oldest citizen.

Accident prevention, which is of great importance to the Accident Compensation Corporation, is promoted by a safety team which aims at co-ordinating existing organisations and maintaining its own advisory programme.

Similar stress is laid on rehabilitation, and a staff of field officers has been established in offices throughout the country to make personal contact with the injured person and to ensure that all necessary rehabilitative measures are effectively undertaken.

As far as compensation is concerned, the Accident Compensation Act:

  1. provides immediate benefits for every person who suffers personal injury by accident in New Zealand, regardless of his or her fault and wherever the accident occurred in New Zealand;

  2. entitles the injured person to compensation both for permanent physical disability and also for loss of earnings on an income-related basis;

  3. provides for regular adjustment in the level of payment to injured persons in accord with variations in the value of money; and

  4. provides for everyone an effective insurance against personal injury by accident in New Zealand.

In all, New Zealand has a comprehensive system, the essence of which is that the community itself recognises its responsibility for both the accident toll and its effects, and finances and provides for the victims of all accidents however their injuries are caused.

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION CORPORATION—The Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1980, replacing the three-man Accident Compensation Commission by the Accident Compensation Corporation, came into effect on 1 January 1981. It provided for the corporation to consist of:

  1. not more than six members whose qualifications or experience are likely to be of assistance in carrying out the functions of the corporation, and who are to be appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour;

  2. the managing director of the corporation.

  3. the general manager of the State Insurance Office.

The members of the corporation, acting as a board of directors, are responsible for policy; whereas the managing director is the chief executive officer of the corporation and responsible for the efficient and economic administration of its functions and the supervision of its staff.

The head office of the corporation, based in Wellington, has safety, medical and rehabilitation, compensation, legal, and corporate functions, each headed by a controller. There are regional offices in Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin; and district offices at Whangarei, Otahuhu, Rotorua, Tauranga, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Napier, Lower Hutt, Nelson, Timaru, and Invercargill.

SAFETY—By virtue of its legislative duty as a matter of prime importance to take an active and co-ordinating role in the promotion of safety in all the different areas where accidents can occur, the corporation is involved in the prevention of accidents of every kind, whether they happen at work, on the roads, in the home, on the playing field, or in the outdoors. It has been recognised by industry that accidents have no economic boundaries, since a worker's productivity is affected equally whether he is injured on the job or off the job.

As accidents are reduced there is a corresponding reduction in the need for compensation and rehabilitation and a lessening of the financial drain on the whole community, of which compensation and other “direct” costs are only a portion.

The corporation's safety team comprises specialists in various aspects of accident prevention—including occupational, rural, home, and recreational safety.

Education and training form the cornerstone of their activities. An extensive range of residential and in-plant training courses is available, each course tailored to meet the requirements of a different level of employee—top and middle management, safety officers and engineers, supervisors, apprentices, and the rank-and-file worker.

The safety team also assists and co-ordinates the efforts of organisations already doing valuable work in accident prevention.

REHABILITATION—Prompt and successful rehabilitation reduces the need for compensation by returning people to economic usefulness more quickly, as well as in some cases providing them with a vocation and self-respect they might otherwise have lost altogether.

In many ways, however, rehabilitation goes hand in hand with compensation. By removing anxiety and economic fear, adequate compensation in itself helps to achieve rehabilitation of the injured. From the outset, earner and non-earner alike are assured of retaining a reasonable enjoyment of life and a reasonable standard of living, despite even the most severe disability.

The corporation's interests in rehabilitation extend to co-operating with existing work and to developing the whole concept to give the injured person the best possible treatment.

Rehabilitation extends to such matters as reducing the possibility of permanent disability; assisting those who are disabled to make the best possible use of what ability remains or can be inculcated by new training, further education, or other special help; re-establishing people in employment; modifying homes or workplaces to provide for incapacitated people; providing a wide assortment of rehabilitation aids; and adapting a car to hand-control so that transport to work is available.

To achieve these objectives, the corporation employs a field force of rehabilitation liaison officers whose function it is to counsel and advise claimants in respect of their needs and who recommend to the corporation what should be done to assist them.

Their services are readily available to all who have cover under the Act, earners and non-earners alike.

COMPENSATION—People are covered against personal injury by accident under a single comprehensive scheme. For administrative and statistical purposes the population may be categorised as:

  1. Earners—Everyone who receives remuneration either as an employee or as a self-employed person is entitled to both earnings-related compensation and other benefits as summarised below.

  2. Motor vehicle accident victims—Everyone injured by the use of a motor vehicle qualifies for all benefits including (if they receive earnings in New Zealand) earnings-related compensation.

  3. All those not otherwise covered—Tourists and people not earning (housewives, children, students, and retired people), who do not normally qualify for earnings-related compensation, are eligible for all other benefits.

The Accident Compensation Act 1982 rewrote the original 1972 Act and amended a number of benefits effective from 1 April 1983. The benefits mentioned below are those which apply from that date.

BENEFITS PROVIDED: Earnings-related Compensation—The scheme provides for the payment of compensation for loss of earnings at the rate of 80 percent of normal average earnings at the time of the accident, subject to a present maximum of $600 a week. No payment is made by the corporation for the first week following the accident but if it happens at work (including travel to and from work), an employer is generally required to pay an employee 80 percent of his normal rate of pay (including overtime) for this period.

If the injured person has more than one job he receives 80 percent of full pay for the first week from his employer on the job on which the accident occurred and the Corporation pays compensation based on the amount he would have earned from the other jobs.

After the first week, earnings-related compensation is paid by the corporation during any period of incapacity to all earners, regardless of how or where the accident occurred.

Full compensation is paid during periods of total incapacity and partial compensation during periods of partial incapacity.

Full-time self-employed persons also qualify for compensation for loss of earnings at the rate of 80 percent of normal average earnings at the time of the accident, but only after the first week, whether or not the accident happens at work. To protect full-time self-employed people, who may have an artificially low income, there is a minimum level of compensation and the option of electing to have assessable income based on the average ordinary-time weekly wage.

Weekly payments generally cease at the age of 65 years, but can continue until the normal retiring age for a particular job. If the accident occurs after 60 years of age, payment continues for a further 5 years; if it occurs after 65 years of age then up to the age of 70 years; and if the accident happens after the age of 70 compensation is payable for 1 year; assuming in all these cases that the injured person was an earner at the time of the accident.

Appropriate adjustments to the amount of compensation payable are made for partial incapacity. In some special circumstances, compensation for loss of potential earnings may be awarded.

Earnings-related compensation constitutes taxable income, PAYE tax being deducted at source.

Other Compensation—Provision is made for a wide range of benefits, including compensation for medical and hospital expenses, cost of transport to hospital, or wages paid to an attendant or nurse, and for reasonable expenses resulting directly from the accident.

In addition, the injured person may qualify for payment of a lump sum for permanent loss or impairment of bodily function up to a maximum of $17,000; and for loss of capacity to enjoy life, for pain and mental suffering, and for disfigurement, up to a maximum of $10,000.

Fatal Claims—In the event of a fatal accident the corporation pays reasonable funeral expenses. Also, the dependent spouse of an earner who has died as a result of an accident can qualify for three-fifths of the earnings-related compensation the deceased would have received had he or she been totally incapacitated but still living. For each of up to 2 dependent children, an additional one-fifth may be paid. Thus a widow with 2 or more children could qualify for the full earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated. In addition, a lump sum of up to $4,000 is payable to the totally dependent widow, plus up to $2,000 for each dependent child, to a maximum of $6,000 for the dependent children. Partially dependent widows and children receive a proportion of these amounts.

The same provisions would apply to dependent or partially dependent widowers.

Housewives—As well as the appropriate benefits listed under “Other Compensation” and “Fatal Claims”, housewives who are injured in an accident may, if justified, qualify for the cost of home help; or, in certain circumstances, the husband may be compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the house until the injured wife can resume her duties.

FINANCING OF COMPENSATION—Accident compensation is a form of compulsory insurance in which the community as a whole accepts responsibility for the accidents which inevitably will afflict a proportion of its members, as a consequence of the kind of life that society today demands as its right.

The community pays in these ways:

  1. Levies on employers (including the Crown) and on self-employed persons. They are paid through the Inland Revenue Department (as agent for the corporation).

  2. Levies on vehicle owners are paid to another agent for the corporation, the Post Office, to pay for motor vehicle accidents.

  3. General taxation pays for other claims through the Consolidated Account.

The employer pays levies on a risk-related scale, ranging from 50 cents to $5 per $100 of wages paid, and he classifies his employees for the appropriate levy in accordance with the industrial activity in which he is engaged. There are special classes for staff on clerical-management and commercial travelling duties, so that the employer can pay for them at a lower levy rate than that for employees engaged directly in his industrial activity. The maximum amount on which levy is payable is $39,000 a year for each employee.

A levy of 1.07 percent of earnings applies to self-employed people, regardless of their industrial activity, but the limit of income on which the levy may be imposed is $39,000 a year. Hence, the maximum payable by any self-employed person is $417.30 a year.

Levies for the motor vehicle accident scheme are collected when motor vehicles are registered or reregistered.

HANDLING OF CLAIMS—The corporation itself deals with claims in Otago. In all other areas the State Insurance Office is the claims handling agent for all cases except New Zealand seamen, whose claims are dealt with by P. & I. Services Limited. Claims are made by a worker injured at his place of employment notifying his employer and filling in a claim form which the employer then forwards to the State Insurance Office; or, in other cases, by direct notification to the State Insurance Office. Claims need to be supported by a medical certificate.

It is intended that there should be no long delays in providing compensation. An injured worker who is hurt at work will receive pay from his employer for the first week if he is unable to work. If his incapacity continues beyond the first week, earnings-related compensation should become available promptly, so that, effectively, there is no break in his flow of income. He will continue to be paid locally, without delay.

The corporation's objective for the self-employed is that earnings-related payments should begin equally promptly, after the first week. Difficulties often arise, however, in determining the weekly amount which on a fair and just basis truly reflects loss of earning capacity. More complex arrangements are necessary and these are set out in pamphlets available from all corporation and State Insurance offices.

Naturally, it will take time to assess permanent disability, loss of faculty, potential earnings, pain and suffering, loss of enjoyment of life, and the like; but here again it is firmly intended that delays will be minimised and early payments made once the disability has reached a stable condition.

REVIEWS AND APPEALS—Decisions by the corporation acting either itself or by its agents are subject to a right of appeal. The claimant can first apply to the corporation for a review of the decision. This review will be conducted by the corporation itself, or by a review officer appointed by the corporation. From any decisions made on a review there is a right of appeal to an appeal authority, who has full power to confirm, modify, or reverse any decision by the corporation. There is a further right of appeal to the High Court, on a question of law, a matter of general or public interest, or a matter which for any other reason should be heard by the High Court, and to the Court of Appeal on questions of law only.

CLAIMS RECEIVED—The following table sets out the number of claims received, according to the fund with which they were identified. It should be noted that not all claims result in compensation being paid—especially those made to protect the claimant's entitlement when incapacity has not yet arisen but may do in the future.

ClaimsYear Ended 31 March
19781979198019811982
Earners' Fund103 481105 96396 74596 65298 866
Motor Vehicle Fund11 56311 42211 15011 77111 830
Supplementary Fund17 39417 98418 49620 32421 280
    Total claims132 438135 369126 391128 747131 976

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE—In the following income and expenditure table compensation paid and medical expenditure incurred are analysed according to type of expenditure and fund charged. Figures refer to the years ended 31 March 1981 and 1982. It should, however, be pointed out that in many cases compensation will continue to be paid beyond the year in which a claim is made, sometimes until the claimant is aged 65. Hence the claims shown for any given year are not identical with the claims for which compensation was paid in that year. It could therefore be misleading to attempt to match claims with compensation payments. The true cost of any year's claims is not likely to be known until many years later.

Income, Compensation, and Medical ExpenditureEarners Compensation FundMotor Vehicle Compensation FundSupplementary Compensation Fund
198119821981198219811982
        Income$(thousand)
Gross levy revenue124,131149,31824,84225,650
Investment income23,49728,18812,36916,447
        Total income147,628177,50637,21142,097
        Expenditure
Earnings-related compensation54,05768,9527,97411,13980148
Dependant's allowances7,5699,9393,4314,251
Funeral expenses628612589677206271
Non-economic loss (i.e. lump sums)12,69418,4555,1607,7202,9774,888
Medical treatment9,64113,1521,1921,5899,17612,742
Hospital treatment2,1542,911395538736920
Dental treatment1,2291,318222254490533
Conveyance for medical attention1,6001,4931,052835946802
Rehabilitation2403171222296987
Other7741,100672947526686
        Total compensation and medical expenditure90,586118,24920,80928,17915,20621,077
Safety incentive bonus1,0541,076
Financial grants276333189173124142
Levy revenue collection fee2,6973,282953981
General fund transfer13,07313,8273,4453,4851,3841,566
        Total expenditure107,686136,76725,39632,81816,71422,785
Past period adjustment+283–127+104+227+147+100
Balance of fund177,614218,22695,721105,2271,173–2,029

35 B—COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS

The tables in this section cover accidents in the calendar year 1981. They are confined to claims where victims or their dependants have been compensated for one or more of the following:

  1. loss of earnings beyond the sixth day after the accident;

  2. permanent loss or impairment of bodily function;

  3. other non-economic loss;

  4. funeral expenses;

  5. damage to teeth, artificial aids, or clothing;

  6. medical treatment or transport expenses;

  7. cost of home help;

  8. rehabilitation costs; or

  9. certain other unusual costs.

The tables largely exclude injuries causing less than 8 days' incapacity (for which the corporation is not required to pay compensation) and those entailing medical treatment only (for which the doctor is normally reimbursed direct). In addition, the corporation does not always receive claims in the case of non-earners who are injured, which limits the significance of the tables of non-work injuries, especially where children and elderly people are concerned.

Suicides and self-inflicted injuries are not normally compensable. Any appearing in the tables are the results of the corporation's discretion to pay compensation under certain circumstances or of the fact that some compensation was paid before it was established that injury was self-inflicted.

Since claims continue to be received and processed some months after the end of 1981, all figures should be treated as provisional only. All numbers and compensation amounts are as recorded at 31 May 1982.

The tables in this Yearbook do not exhaust the range of accident details recorded by the corporation, nor do they attempt to present many of those parameters in combination. The Accident Compensation Corporation is happy to respond to requests for more specific or detailed statistics required for a definite purpose by any organisation or individual.

ENVIRONMENT—The environments in which accidents occurred are summarised in the following table, along with the result of the injury. It should be noted that work takes precedence over other environments. Hence, for example, an accident occurring on the road to a truck driver, or to an earner travelling to or from work, is classified under work and not road.

COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS 1981: ENVIRONMENT AND RESULT OF INJURY
EnvironmentFatalityNon-fatalTotal CasesCompensation Paid*
* As at 31 May 1982.
    $(000)
Work environments—
    Working at workplace11341 13841 25129,096
    Working away from workplace222228
    Travelling to or from work523 4983 5503,919
    Not adequately described131 4591 472518
Home environment21118 81219 02310,268
Road environment5159 96910 4849,546
Sporting or recreational environments—
    Athletics16016069
    Court games2 0142 0141,010
    Equestrian3455458288
    Field sports1 1861 186599
    Football codes37 0587 0614,234
    Flying69298220
    Hunting5135140120
    Shooting343430
    Pedestrian sports12169181142
    Water sports531 2751 328723
    Winter sports1589590364
    Wheeled sports4939943796
    Martial sports235235119
    Other sports61 4591 465754
Other environments1369 6809 8164,659
Not adequately described322 3172 349424
    Total1 165102 695103 86067,926

OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF VICTIMS—The following table divides victims of compensated accidents into earners and non-earners, and further analyses their occupational status. “Housewife” may include males describing themselves by that term or equivalent ones.

COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS 1981: OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF VICTIMS
Occupational StatusEnvironment
WorkNon-workTotalCompensation Paid*
* As at 31 May 1982.
    $(000)
Earners—
    Employed41 24937 71478 96357,303
    Self-employed4 3232 0686 3915,898
    Both employed and self-employed
    Unemployed182182127
    Not adequately described7239431 6661,230
        Total earners46 29540 90787 20264,558
Non-earners—
    Pre-school child797797111
    School student7 9867 986810
    Tertiary student12212232
    Housewife3 1433 143906
    Unemployed486486258
    Retired2 6212 621787
    Invalidity beneficiary16116147
    Visitor from abroad318318213
    Other or not adequately described1 0241 024204
    Total non-earners16 65816 6583,368
    Total victims46 29557 565103 86067,926

AGE AND SEX OF VICTIMS—The age and sex of accident victims are analysed in the following table. Different age groupings are chosen for earners and non-earners in order to highlight the especially vulnerable ages.

Age (years)Earners
MalesFemalesTotal
0–14661154815
15–1911 8042 87414 678
20–2415 0942 81817 912
25–2910 2261 60711 833
30–348 2431 6679 910
35–395 9781 4907 468
40–445 0211 3746 395
45–494 3461 2135 559
50–544 3631 1585 521
55–593 5678784 445
60–641 3553401 695
65 and over692192884
Not stated632487
      Total earners71 41315 78987 202
0–4538423961
5–91 8211 1142 935
10–142 3841 2163 600
15–191 5617102 271
20–294827371 219
30–39121677798
40–4959335394
50–5995521616
60–695071 0061 513
70–794201 1531 573
80–89148523671
90 and over197897
Not stated2810
      Total non-earners8 1578 50116 658

WORK ACCIDENTS—The following table analyses compensated work injuries occurring in 1981 by the industrial groups in which the victims were working, and the result of the injury. The groups are those of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC).

Because “first-week” incapacity does not usually result in a claim on the Accident Compensation Corporation, it is not possible to compile injury frequency and severity rates as in the past. However, a column is included in the table showing the labour force engaged in each industrial group according to the 1981 Census of Population. From this has been calculated an “injury rate”—that is, the number of compensated accidents per 1000 workers. Although not a comprehensive figure this rate will give a guide to the relative frequency of more serious injuries between the various industrial groups.

It is generally not feasible to make valid comparisons between the figures in the following table and those published for 1973 and earlier years by the Government Statistician. The earlier figures, being derived from claims made under the now-repealed Workers' Compensation Act, included first-week-only incapacities. On the other hand, they excluded injuries to self-employed people (notably farmers) and all but a few injuries incurred while travelling to and from work; these factors would have particularly affected the number of fatalities shown.

COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS 1981: WORK ACCIDENTS BY INDUSTRIAL GROUP
Industrial GroupFatalNon-fatalTotalLabour Force*Injury RateCompensation Paid

n.e.c.—not elsewhere classified.

* As recorded at 1981 Census of Population.

† Compensated claims per 1000 of labour force.

‡ As at 31 May 1982.

      $(000)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing
    Agriculture and livestock production233 7103 733113 562333,062
    Agricultural services41 0041 00815 13567846
    Hunting, trapping, and game propagation368711 5124754
    Forestry19449456 636142503
    Logging33073103 78382365
    Fishing102042143 62159254
        Total446 2376 281144 249445,084
Mining and quarrying
    Coal mining2162161 548140197
    Crude petroleum and natural gas production51517386966
    Metal ore mining26263996538
    Other mining21041061 97154127
        Total23973994 65686428
Manufacturing
    Food59 9319 93670 2301415,250
    Beverages1921925 33736158
    Tobacco134351 2092929
    Textiles45445414 97030358
    Wearing apparel except footwear19319322 3449118
    Leather and products of leather substitutes and fur (except footwear and apparel)1301303 5343786
    Footwear (except vulcanised or moulded rubber or plastic footwear)57574 6951252
    Wood, wood and cork products (except furniture)21 0191 02114 75769761
    Furniture and fixtures (except primarily of metal)2382388 08229159
Paper and paper products146546614 43932443
Printing, publishing, and allied industries31731719 80616241
Industrial chemicals2262266 19536186
Other chemical products1511517 81219128
Petroleum refineries25257593321
Miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal24245494431
Rubber products3233236 00954232
Plastic products, n.e.c.2072075 91935115
Pottery, china, and earthenware68681 7793827
Glass and glass products99992 8623556
Other non-metallic mineral products3243246 42350291
Iron and steel basic industries4484484 059110340
Non-ferrous metal basic industries2102103 04869138
Fabricated metal products (except machinery and equipment)291191323 64339693
Machinery (except electrical)21 1141 11617 98562907
Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies149950016 21831295
Transport equipment685886422 56338509
Professional and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c., and photographic and optical goods12121 38999
Other manufacturing industries21211234 5152786
    Total2218 65018 672311 1306011,719
Electricity, gas, and water
    Electricity, gas, and steam75075014 10053471
    Waterworks and supply24241 0232314
    Total77477415 12351485
Construction
    Buildings11 3031 30429 298451,201
    Other construction396296524 80739789
    Allied trades91 1461 15531 632371,213
    Total133 4113 42485 737403,203
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels
    Wholesale trade482983367 23312686
    Retail trade51 4581 463114 072131,092
    Restaurants, cafes, and other eating and drinking places242442619 38322320
    Hotels, motels, rooming houses, camps, and other lodging places334434717 75120292
    Total143 0553 069218 439142,390
Transport, storage, and communication
    Land transport162 2322 24843 008521,818
    Water transport21 0391 04114 073741,142
    Air transport22042069 62721190
    Services allied to transport76765 9221385
    Communication884184935 19924534
    Total284 3924 420107 829413,769
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services
    Financial institutions111011129 565465
    Insurance1404114 292321
    Real estate234366 471641
    Business services (except machinery and equipment rental and leasing)220320539 8855220
    Machinery and equipment rental and leasing34341 4252435
    Total642142791 6385382
Community, social, and personal services
    Public administration and defence182 9412 95977 358382,001
    Sanitary and similar services2992997 84238191
    Education services127027168 3764175
    Research and scientific institutions1051056 9901584
    Medical, dental, and other health and veterinary services11 7291 73071 208241,124
    Welfare institutions51518 472631
    Business, professional, and labour associations37372 6941430
    Other social and related community services11641657 53322103
    Motion picture and other entertainment services81817 4641171
    Libraries, museums, botanical and zoological gardens, and other cultural services, n.e.c.38382 7241413
    Amusement and recreational services, n.e.c.23763789 87038256
    Repair services, n.e.c.242142322 73419359
    Laundries, laundry services, and cleaning and dyeing plants45453 0481528
    Domestic services31311 9351621
    Miscellaneous personal services149508 619639
    International and other extra-territorial bodies708
    Total266 6376663307 575224,526
Not adequately described232 1432 16645 9631,592
    Total, all industries17846 11746 2951 332 3393533,578

In the following table the same data on type of casualty and injury rate are shown by major occupational groups.

Occupational Major GroupFatalNon-fatalTotalLabour Force*Injury RateCompensation Paid
      $(000)
Professional, technical, and related workers162 0332 049183 969111,656
Administrative and managerial workers519620145 9934249
Clerical and related workers61 3341 340214 7616977
Sales workers61 1351 141127 1019959
Service workers112 9112 922106 626272,077
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forest workers, fishermen, and hunters456 2966 341146 295435,143
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers7030 45530 525457 9326721,227
Not adequately described191 7571 77649 6621,290
    Total17846 11746 2951 332 3393533,578

MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENTS—Compensated accidents in which a motor vehicle was involved during 1981 numbered 13 979, or 13.5 percent of all accidents. The following table analyses these cases according to the type of motor vehicle, and whether the victim was an earner and in a work or non-work environment.

Motor VehicleEarnerNon-earnerTotalCompensation Paid*
WorkNon-work
* As at 31 May 1982.
     $(000)
Motorcar9623 8181 2756 0556,243
Rental car1881711
Taxi7821717
Truck17314958380526
Bus40527616890
Tractor7331326
Motor cycle1 5413 3014555 2975,574
Other6541513
Not adequately described1 796160612 0171,987
    Total4 5337 5041 94213 97914,487

ACCIDENT SEQUENCE—Until 1 April 1980 the Accident Compensation Corporation analysed the causes of accidents using internationally-recognised classifications promulgated by the International Labour Organisation and the World Health Organisation. While such classifications provided an interesting synoptic view of accidents, they proved inadequate to the needs of users researching how accidents happen and (more importantly) how they can be prevented. The corporation therefore adopted a system that records in a modular and literal form, three aspects of each accident: (1) what the victim was doing immediately before; (2) what went wrong; and (3) how the injury was inflicted. These aspects have been denoted, the activity, the accident, and the contact. Without requiring any more information from the claimant, this system provides infinitely more detailed and specific data for users of accident statistics.

The full sequence of tables, together with papers explaining the system; its application, and its benefits, are available from the corporation. Because of considerations of space, only the second aspect—the accident itself—is shown in this Yearbook. Designations having fewer than 50 cases are not shown separately.

AccidentCases
Aggression (intentional) of—
    Another person2 015
    Sheep164
    Cow149
    Dog146
    Horse142
    Other201
    Total2 817
Loss of balance by—
    Self5 216
    Horse113
    Another person56
    Other47
    Total5 432
Collapse, cave-in, or slip of—Other persons (including scrum)110
    Stack of objects or goods94
    Other402
    Total606
Dropped (by victim or another)—
    Heavy object, n.o.d.352
    Log or plank84
    Other570
    Total1006
Explosion, eruption, or ignition of—
    Petrol or petrol product105
    Oil, grease68
    Other381
    Total554
Failure or malfunction of—
    Ladder256
    Brakes179
    Tyre147
    Motor cycle or scooter137
    Door, gate, lid, bonnet, etc.102
    Jack85
    Pedal cycle or tricycle67
    Car, n.o.d.53
    Chainsaw72
    Chain50
    Other1 591
    Total2 739
Failure of material, etc.678
Moving into hazardous position, n.e.c. (including against, over edge of, into path of, etc.)—
    Another person886
    Car576
    Door, gate, lid, etc.532
    Subsidence410
    Ball318
    Sharp object, n.e.c.308
    Log, plank209
    Hole, well180
    Tree, branch238
    Stone, rock253
    Sporting implement (not ball)126
    Fence, railing, wall, etc.202
    Heavy object, n.o.d.145
    Glass (already broken)151
    Hot liquid, n.o.d.96
    Glass door126
    Truck, tanker86
    Motor mower84
    Dog51
    Motor cycle, scooter70
    Cliff, bank, mountain, etc.102
    Bed of sea, river, pool, etc.110
    Awkward object, n.o.d.207
    Trench, ditch92
    Horse55
    Bone71
    Cow61
    Thorn (included in wool)67
    Nail, etc. (including protruding)85
    Jungle gym, playground equipment57
    Lamppost, pole, road sign, etc.81
    Table65
    Knife60
    Window, porthole (including pane)68
    Parked vehicle55
    Chair, stool, etc.53
    Carcass (including frozen)57
    Other2 982
    Total9 375
Inherent part of activity7904
Practical joke, horseplay, or startled, by—
    Another person299
    Horse84
    Self51
    Other214
    Total643
Loss of control or misoperation (not by victim) of—
    Car3 239
    Motor cycle, scooter278
    Truck, tanker212
    Van, utility105
    Sporting implement (not ball)71
    Door, gate, lid, etc.82
Pedal cycle, tricycle66
Bus, trolleybus82
Knife51
Other875
    Total5 061
Loss of control or misoperation by victim of—
    Knife3 893
    Motor cycle, scooter2 128
    Car801
    Pedal cycle, tricycle663
    Heavy object, n.o.d.421
    Axe, slasher, cleaver, etc.373
    Horse344
    Chainsaw389
    Log, plank271
    Hammer, sledgehammer295
    Door, gate, lid, etc.238
    Spanner, wrench250
    Circular saw (hand-held)248
    Awkward object, n.o.d.171
    Sharp object, n.o.d.84
    Hose93
    Skis165
    Ladder131
    Handpowered vehicle70
    Motor mower86
    Roller skates105
    Hand saw72
    Tractor (wheeled or n.o.d.)77
    Carcass (including frozen)148
    Sheep51
    Skateboard53
    Drill (powered)63
    Sporting implement (not ball)65
    Tree branch67
    Trailer (not caravan)63
    Drum53
    Crowbar, lever58
    Ball56
    Food cutter, slicer, slitter88
    Welding, etc. torch51
    Box52
    Pipe (length of)55
    Other3 248
    Total15 539
Slipping, stumbling, skidding, or treading on—
    Water1 336
    Loose metal, gravel812
    Ice, snow252
    Stone, rock158
    Oil326
    Mud178
    Litter (excluding broken glass)78
    Glass (already broken)63
    Log, plank78
    Other716
    Total3 997
Natural disaster14
Overmeasure (acute) of—
    Movement13 405
    Other603
    Total14 008
Overmeasure (prolonged or repetitive) of—
    Movement1 777
    Other63
    Total1 840
Quarrel, fight or struggle643
Medical misadventure98
Slipping on—
    Stairs, steps1 482
    Floor (bare or n.o.d.)1 247
    Ground, n.o.d.1 046
    Path, footpath (paved)327
    Grass, field (not lawn)285
    Rocks, cliff, bank, etc.326
    Ladder192
    Undefined surface175
    Log or plank104
    Shower floor118
    Truck, tanker98
    Roof99
    Lawn70
    Verandah, balcony, deck, etc.116
    Road, n.e.c. or n.o.d.74
    Bath72
    Deck of ship83
    Kerb56
    Fence, railing, wall, etc.58
    Mat, rug57
    Playground equipment54
    Other1 670
    Total7 809
Tripping or stumbling over—
    Stairs, steps1 009
    Ground, n.o.d.565
    Floor366
    Path, footpath (paved)415
    Kerb209
    Mat, rug187
    Subsidence175
    Stone, rock106
    Undefined surface159
    Road96
    Log, plank80
    Grass, field (not lawn)63
    Other1 713
    Total5 143
Unconsciousness, collapse, or incapacity of—
    Self579
    Other53
    Total632
Environmental hazards—
    Wind312
    Noise337
    Microbe, virus, etc.72
    Undertow, wave, etc.158
    Other271
    Total1 150
Involvement of apparel, etc.—
    Clothing136
    Other100
    Total236
Unwitting aggression of—
    Another person1 079
    Self300
    Cow53
    Other156
    Total1 588
Ill-defined9 512
Other4 831
    Total accidents103 860
n.e.c. denotes not elsewhere classified. n.o.d. denotes not otherwise defined.

SCENE OF ACCIDENT—In the following table compensated accidents are analysed according to the surroundings where the accident occurred, and the result of the injury.

Scene of AccidentFatalNon-fatalTotal CasesCompensation Paid*
* As at 31 May 1982.
    $(000)
Air125062150
Beach or shore (not water)8656664418
Children's play area11311317
Dwelling (victim's own)16516 66416 8298,855
Dwelling (not victim's)392 7482 7871,571
Farm284 7724 8003,813
Hospital271 5471 5741,086
Learning institution, n.e.c.111011140
Motel or boarding establishment6390396280
Office377377205
Plant (factory, mill, yard, etc.)3629 71429 75019,445
Public building or area, n.e.c.151 5881 603893
Railway18731749495
Road or street including footpath60616 50717 11315,207
School12 5352 536360
Shop21 2381 240750
Sports area—indoors1 9851 985977
Sports area—outdoors1010 47310 4836,369
Tavern, bar4785789539
Underground126126102
Uninhabited area462 6142 6601,905
Water (sea, river, lake, etc.)691 1791 2481,040
Wharf3717720768
Not adequately described674 4474 5142,260
Other2629631381
    Total accidents1 165102 695103 86067,926

The preceding tables give only a very basic outline of the wide range of information on accidents available from the Accident Compensation Corporation. Those requiring fuller information are invited to contact the Chief Research Officer, Accident Compensation Corporation, Private Bag, Wellington.

35 C—FARM ACCIDENTS

While the increasing mechanisation on the 71 505 farms in 1980 is principally responsible for the high output per unit of labour engaged in farm production, it is equally responsible for the high number of accidents to persons associated with agricultural production.

Normal farm activities and the bringing into production of new land utilised in 1980 some 35 000 trucks, 49 000 disc harrows, 92 000 agricultural tractors, and 20 000 fertiliser spreaders. These have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths. These figures are further aggravated by the use of some 50 000 chain saws, 32 000 farm bikes, and large numbers of chemical-spraying plants.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control, and as pesticides and therapeutants, has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry are subjected. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on accidents and deaths sustained on farms. Domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes are excluded.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals in 1981 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents). Readmissions are included.

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (In Years)Total Patients
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
Machinery, n.e.c.5772784912268
Falls4647594518215
Animals195127122548506
Accidental poisoning2964223
Firearms272112
Fire and flames316212
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam22217
Struck by falling object582111449
Cutting or piercing instruments114771232154
Other and unspecified farm mishaps324165287173
    Total355361432218531 419

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Deaths from accidents on farms (excluding motor vehicle accidents) are shown by cause and age group of deceased in the following table. This refers to the years 1979 and 1980, the latest for which the data are available.

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (In Years)Total Deaths
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
197919801979198019791980197919801979198019791980
Farm machinery3151452531415
Animal being ridden123
Other injury by animals213
Struck by falling object1121133
Firearms21122
Electric current112
Falls1111132
Drowning or submersion1111
Fires11
Other and unspecified13121172
    Total52106111049163133

35 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them). The last two items were actually made under the Public Works Act 1981 but are always quoted in their own right.

The Factories and Commercial Premises Act 1981 (sections 18 to 54); the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Accident Compensation Act 1972; the Coal Mines Act 1979; the Mining Act 1971; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1974; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries and Tunnels Act 1982; the Health Act 1956 in so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A); the Petroleum Act 1937; the Geothermal Energy Act 1953; the Electrical Registration Act 1979; the Electric Linemen Act 1959; the Agricultural Workers Act 1977; the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1976; and the Electrical Supply Regulations 1967.

Department of Labour—This department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents and illness in industry other than the responsibility of the Accident Compensation Corporation as outlined in section 35a of this Yearbook. The principal statutes administered by the Department of Labour are: the Factories and Commercial Premises Act 1981, which is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories and other defined undertakings; the Construction Act 1959, which covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on construction work as defined in the Act; and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The department also administers regulations under these Acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare, e.g. the Bush Workers Act 1945, and the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 (section 56). In addition the department supervises more than 1366 collective agreements and awards, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. The department employs some 186 inspectors of factories (including 14 who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 59 safety inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive. The department also engages in advisory and educational work relating to occupational safety.

A Joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety of the Departments of Labour and Health and the Accident Compensation Corporation ensures that the educational work in this field is co-ordinated and that unnecessary overlapping of functions is avoided.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The Act also covers amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. The Act also requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural operations.

Construction Act—The Construction Act 1959, the provisions of which are in addition to and not in substitution for the safety provisions of any other Act, promotes the safety and welfare of persons engaged in construction work, a description which covers a wide variety of work including new construction, maintenance, and demolition of buildings, roads, harbour works, railways, canals, bridges, dams, pipelines, earthworks, etc. Certificates of competency are issued after examination to scaffolders, safety supervisors, and construction blasters.

A register of suitably qualified construction divers, crane operators, and construction riggers is maintained.

Explosives and Dangerous Goods Acts—Responsibility for the administration of the Explosives Act 1957 and the Dangerous Goods Act 1974 was transferred to the Department of Labour from the Department of Internal Affairs with effect from 1 April 1979.

Ministry of Transport: Safety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1966, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

Aircraft—The Ministry of Transport is responsible for promoting the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once a year and lifts twice a year. In the calendar year 1981 there were 26 574 inspections of boilers and unfired pressure vessels, 7240 inspections of lifts, and 3864 inspections of cranes. Fifty-three accident investigations were carried out under the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950, with 13 people suffering injuries. There were no fatalities.

Ministry of Energy—The Mining Act 1971 and the Quarries Act 1944 make provision for the safety of persons working in mines (both underground and opencast) and in quarries. The definition of a quarry covers the construction of electric power generation works, dams for public water supply, tunnels, and opencast coal quarries.

The ministry is also responsible for the administration of Acts designed to ensure the safety of electrical apparatus and installations and of electrical workers.

Ministry of Works and Development—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works and Development appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of safety officer.

Occupational Health Centres—The Department of Health provides occupational health centres at strategic points in the Whangarei, Takapuna, Auckland, Rotorua, Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin health districts. Attendances at occupational health centres and waterfront clinics in 1981 totalled 18 791 first attendances and 14 298 re-attendances.

FURTHER INFORMATION—The Occupational Health and Toxicology Branch of the Department of Health issues a number of occupational health publications including the following:

Diseases Arising from Occupation.

Factory First Aid.

Laboratory Safety.

Motor Garage Hazards.

Plastics.

Other publications containing information on occupation safety include the following:

Safety Supervisors Guide—Department of Labour.

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10).

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

General

Table of Contents

Chapter 36. Section 36; TERRITORIES

New Zealand administers two territories—the scattered South Pacific atolls of Tokelau and the Ross Dependency in Antarctica.

TOKELAU—Tokelau, a non-self-governing territory under New Zealand's administration, consists of three small atolls in the South Pacific with a total land area of 12 square kilometres and a population of just over 1500.

General Information: Geographic—The three atolls of Tokelau lie between latitudes 8° and 10° south and longitudes 171° and 173° west. They are Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo. The central atoll, Nukunonu, is 92 kilometres from Atafu and 64 kilometres from Fakaofo. Western Samoa, 480 kilometres to the south, is the nearest sizeable neighbour.

Topography—Each atoll consists of a number of reef-bound islets encircling a lagoon. These islets, known as motu, vary in length from 90 metres to 6 kilometres, and in width from a few metres to 200 metres. At no point do they rise higher than 5 metres above sea level.

Nukunonu, the largest atoll, is 4.7 square kilometres in area; Fakaofo is 4.0 square kilometres; and Atafu 3.5 square kilometres.

Constitutional History—The islands now known as Tokelau became a British protectorate in 1877, although it was not until 1889, that formal declarations to this effect were made. The British Government annexed the group (then known as the Union Islands) at the request of the inhabitants in 1916 and included it within the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony. In 1925, administrative control of the Union Islands was transferred to the Governor-General of New Zealand, who was authorised to delegate his powers to the Administrator of Western Samoa. Formal sovereignty was transferred to New Zealand under the 1948 Tokelau Islands Act, which included Tokelau within the boundaries of New Zealand.

People—Although Tokelau lies in a border zone between Micronesia and Polynesia, its inhabitants are Polynesian. They retain linguistic, family, and cultural links with Western Samoa, which are maintained by contact between their administrations, by radio broadcasts, and by church ties. The culture of Tokelau is, however, distinctively shaped by its atoll environment, which has its closest parallel in Tuvalu, with which there are also many links.

Tokelauan is usually spoken on the atolls, but most Tokelauans speak some English, which is taught as a second language.

Population—The population of Tokelau at 1 October 1982 was estimated to be 1552. The breakdown by atolls is shown below with the November 1981 census figures in parentheses:

 Male Female Total 
Atafu279(273)295(281)574(554)
Fakaofo294(316)325(334)619(650)
Nukunonu178(188)181(180)359(368)
 751(777)801(795)1 552(1 572)

Administration—Overall responsibility for Tokelau lies with the Administrator of Tokelau, who is responsible to the Minister of Foreign Affairs. In practice, most of the powers of the Administrator are exercised by the Official Secretary of the Office for Tokelau Affairs, which, by agreement with the Government of Western Samoa, is based in Apia. The office co-ordinates the activities of the members of the Tokelau Public Service working on the atolls.

Each year the Administrator presents a report on the territory to the New Zealand House of Representatives.

New Zealand is committed to assisting Tokelau towards a greater degree of self-government and economic self-sufficiency. In June 1981 a mission from the United Nations Special Committee on

Decolonisation visited Tokelau, at the invitation of Tokelau and New Zealand, to ascertain the wishes of the people concerning their future. The people of Tokelau informed the mission that at present they did not want to review the nature of the existing ties between New Zealand and the territory.

New Zealand has taken steps to ensure that the Tokelau Public Service is properly responsive to, and equipped to meet, Tokelau's needs and wishes. Increasingly the Administrator and the Official Secretary, in his role as the Administrator's representative, act in a supervisory capacity only, with the Tokelau Public Service operating under the overall direction of the village representatives.

Considerable practical assistance is received from the Government of Western Samoa, whose officers (medical and public health officials, for example) are made available to the Tokelau Public Service on request. Moreover, Samoa has generously arranged for United Nations and other experts working in Samoa to make available their expertise to Tokelau.

Judiciary—The Tokelau Amendment Act 1970 gives the High Court of Niue civil and criminal jurisdiction in Tokelau as if that court had been established as a separate Court of Justice in Tokelau. It also gives the High Court of New Zealand concurrent jurisdiction in respect of civil matters and also criminal offences where the offender is found in New Zealand and where the offence with which he is charged, if committed in New Zealand, would have been an indictable offence under New Zealand law. (In addition the District Courts in New Zealand have limited jurisdiction in respect of those criminal offences for which the High Court of New Zealand has jurisdiction.) The Act further gives the High Court of New Zealand jurisdiction to determine cases stated by and appeals from final judgments of the High Court of Niue in either civil or criminal jurisdiction. Provision is also made in the Act for the appointment of Tokelauan commissioners, currently the faipule on each of the 3 atolls, who exercise a limited jurisdiction in respect of civil and criminal matters, and from whose judgments a right of appeal lies to a judge of the High Court of Niue.

Crime Prevention—There are 7 Tokelauan police officers—3 on Fakaofo, and 2 each on Atafu and Nukunonu. They are responsible to the village authorities for the enforcement of law and order and to the Tokelau Public Service for their various civil duties. There is little crime, and there are no prisons. Punishment generally takes the form of public rebukes, fines, or labour.

Public Service—Almost all the 180 staff of the Tokelau Public Service are Tokelauans. Efforts are continuing to attract New Zealand-based Tokelauans with appropriate skills and qualifications to the Tokelau Public Service.

Local Government—In the villages of Nukunonu and Atafu the dominant political institution is a council of elders (taupulega), comprising the head of each family group, together with the faipule and pulenuku. In Fakaofo the taupulega is made up of the faipule, the pulenuku, and selected village elders; meetings involving all the heads of family groups are held only infrequently. The faipule represents the village at large in its dealings with the administering power and the public service and presides at meetings of the council and the court. The pulenuku is responsible for the administration of village affairs such as the scheduling of work, cleanliness, water supplies, and the inspection of plantations. The village clerk (failautuhi) keeps records of village meetings and transactions.

Matters concerning Tokelau as a whole are discussed at the general fono (which usually convenes at least once a year), to which each atoll sends a delegation lead by its faipule.

New Zealand has been conducting a programme of political education in Tokelau with the aim of encouraging the Tokelauans to play a more active role in the running of their own affairs. A recent important development has been the forming of a budget advisory committee of the general fono, consisting of 3 elders from each atoll, in order to involve the Tokelauan leaders directly in the establishment of priorities of expenditure for Tokelau's annual budget.

Suffrage—The faipule and pulenuku are democratically elected by universal adult suffrage at 3-yearly intervals.

Economic Conditions—Tokelau's size, isolation, and lack of land-based resources allow little scope for economic development. The principal revenue earners are copra, stamps, souvenir coins, and handicrafts. Money is also remitted to Tokelauan families from relatives in New Zealand.

Tokelau has in the past had a subsistence economy, based in the main on the resources of the sea, the plant cover of the atolls (chiefly the coconut and pandanus palms and certain types of tree used for housing and canoe-making), and livestock. There has been little demand for the material standards of more developed countries, but increasing contacts with Western Samoa and New Zealand have stimulated a desire amongst the people to advance their living standards.

Public revenue is derived from an export tax of 10 percent on handicrafts, from shipping and freight charges, the sale of postage stamps and coins, from customs duties, and the return from radio and telegram services. New Zealand's budgetary aid for the year ended 31 March 1983 was $2.1 million.

Village Revenue—Village revenue is derived principally from overseas remittances—funds sent by the Tokelauan communities in New Zealand for village and church projects, for example—and from the export tax levied on copra at the rate of 10 percent ad valorem of its f.o.b. value at the port of Apia. This revenue is paid into special funds, the utilisation of which is determined by the authorities of the village. The funds attract a 2:1 subsidy from Tokelau's general budget.

A co-operative store has been operating on each atoll since 1978.

Development Assistance—Substantial assistance is provided by the South Pacific Commission, the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation, the International Labour Organisation, and the United Nations in areas such as communications, technical training, health, fishery development, and village development.

Land Tenure and Usage—All land is held by customary title in accordance with the customs and usages of the inhabitants. The Tokelau Amendment Act 1967 provides that the people of Tokelau may dispose of their land among themselves according to their customs, but they may not alienate land by sale or gift to non-indigenous inhabitants. Land holdings pass from generation to generation within the families, being held by the head of the family group. Some land is held in common.

Principal Crops—Tokelau's soil is thin and infertile and has resisted all efforts to increase its productivity by the application of fertilisers. Apart from copra, agricultural products are of a basic subsistence nature. Food crops consist of coconuts, pulaka, breadfruit, ta'amu, pawpaw, the fruit of the edible pandanus, and bananas.

Livestock and Fisheries—Livestock comprises pigs and fowls. Ocean and lagoon fish and shellfish are available in quantity, and form a staple constituent of the diet. The most common species of fish caught are tuna, bonito, trevally, and mullet.

At the request of the general fono (the councils of the three atolls in joint session), New Zealand implemented Tokelau's Exclusive Economic Zone on 1 April 1980 and entered into negotiations with third countries on the declaration and licensing of the zone as appropriate. The benefits of Tokelau's 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone will accrue to the Tokelauans.

Transport and Communications—A chartered vessel travels to Tokelau from Apia 10 to 12 times a year; and an amphibian aircraft operates at approximately 5-weekly intervals between Apia and Tokelau.

Social Conditions—Society is centred on the extended family group (kaiga). Village affairs are the prerogative of the council of elders (taupulega), which includes representatives of all the family groups.

Labour and Employment—Copra production and the manufacture of plaited ware and woodwork are the only industries of significance in Tokelau, and no supervision of employment conditions in these industries is necessary. Most labour is devoted to procuring food from lagoon, ocean, or plantation, to village maintenance, and to the production of woven mats, fans, and curios. The various public works programmes and projects also provide employment.

Health—The health authorities in Tokelau receive advice and guidance from Apia, the South Pacific Commission, and the World Health Organisation. Each atoll has its own hospital and medical staff. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—Each atoll has a modern and well-equipped primary school catering for children between the ages of 5 and 15. Schooling is free and attendance is close to 100 percent. Pre-school classes are also run in each village.

The New Zealand Department of Education provides advisory services to the three school principals and also helps with the provision of materials and equipment. The schools are usually inspected annually by a senior officer of the department.

Tokelau's teaching establishment stands at 40 qualified teachers and 15 teacher aides. The schools are equipped with radio sets, tape recorders, and slide and movie projectors. Each island has a parents' committee which helps in the raising of funds and in the organisation of school activities.

Schooling in Tokelau is aimed both at preparing children for life in Tokelau and at equipping them to pursue their studies or undertake a career in New Zealand.

Since 1979 an expatriate education adviser has been appointed to assist the Director of Education in the Office for Tokelau Affairs to review school curricula, provide inservice training of teachers, and upgrade teaching standards.

ROSS DEPENDENCY—The Ross Dependency consists of the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west, together with the islands between those longitudes, and above 60° south—that latitude being also the extremity of the Antarctic Treaty area. Within these bounds there are about

400 000 to 450 000 square kilometres of land and 330 000 square kilometres of permanent ice shelf. The land, apart from the mountainous regions and some coastal areas, is entirely covered by ice; and the only human populations to be found are the people involved in scientific research programmes.

Historical Notes—The territory is named after James Clark Ross, leader of a British expedition of 1839–43 which penetrated the Ross Sea and discovered the Ross Ice Shelf, McMurdo Sound, and Ross Island. The two main peaks of Ross Island are named after his ships Erebus and Terror. Ross's reports on his expedition were a significant factor in the development of the whaling industry in Antarctic waters, but the lack of other commercial opportunities at the time led to a decline in interest in Antarctica in the ensuing 50 years.

Between 1889 and 1917 there was a resurgence of interest, and 10 expeditions established bases on the Antarctic mainland, seven of them in the Ross Sea area. Five were under the sponsorship of Britain, the exceptions being the Norwegian expeditions in 1910–12 and a Japanese expedition in 1911–12. Of these, the British expedition of 1898–1900, which included a New Zealander among its members, was the first to establish a base on the Antarctic continent—at Cape Adare in February 1899—and to winter-over.

Administration—Britain claimed the Ross Sea area under the British Settlements Act 1887. Thirty-six years later, by Order in Council dated 30 July 1923, the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of New Zealand.

Administrative powers over the territory are vested in the Governor-General, who from time to time has promulgated laws by regulation or by Order in Council. An example is the Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977, making provision for the implementation of a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in the Ross Dependency.

Since 1956 the Officer-in-charge of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Justice of the Peace and Coroner. The Officer-in-charge also has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antarctica, as well as being responsible for carrying out the Antarctic Research Programme directed by Antarctic Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR).

At the political level, New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

New Zealand Bases—Scott Base, at Pram Point near Cape Armitage on Ross Island, was established for the first New Zealand expedition involved in the Antarctic Scientific Research Programme during the International Geophysical Year 1957. Since then this base has been continuously occupied by support staff and scientists. Other bases are Vanda Station, near the shores of Lake Vanda in the Dry Valleys region, and Cape Bird, 100 kilometres north of Scott Base on the northern tip of Ross Island—both used for only part of the year.

Scientific Programme—For the past 25 years New Zealand has been a direct participant in Antarctic scientific research. The Ross Dependency Research Committee draws up the annual scientific programme for approval by the Minister of Science and Technology; and the Antarctic Division of the DSIR then has the responsibility for detailed planning and implementation. International co-operation is a major feature of the scientific programmes, with the main channels for scientific contact with other countries being the National Committee on Antarctic Research—a member body of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

Antarctic Treaty—In 1959 New Zealand was one of the original 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty, which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only and promotes international cooperation, freedom of scientific investigation and exchange of information and scientific personnel. The treaty specifically stipulates that there is no prejudice to existing territorial claims in Antarctica.

The Antarctic Treaty consultative parties, who now number 14 since the accession of Poland in 1977 and West Germany in 1981, meet regularly to consider questions of mutual interest within the treaty framework. In recent years, questions of resource management have assumed considerable significance. Several countries, almost all of them consultative parties, are catching protein-rich krill; and there is considerable interest in the hydrocarbon potential in Antarctic waters. A series of special meetings convened to discuss these issues led to the conclusion in 1980 of a Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which entered into force early in 1982. Discussions about Antarctic mineral resources are however continuing, and the Antarctic Treaty consultative parties held further consultations in Wellington during June 1982, and again during January 1983.

The Antarctica Amendment Act 1970 provides means of enforcing certain regulations contained within the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora) and the prevention of pollution to the Antarctic continent and surrounding waters. The Antarctic Marine Living Resources Act 1981 provides similar powers in respect of the 1980 convention.

Chapter 37. Section 37; TRAVEL AND TOURISM

Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has developed rapidly in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to tourists of all countries. Although recently the tourist industry has shown the effects of more difficult economic conditions, it was for more than 2 decades the fastest growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it became the largest industry.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all the services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in this expanding industry. There has been a considerable surge in the building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. New scenic routes have been developed, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas. There is a network of convenient air services.

Various travel associations (the Pacific Area Travel Association, for example) and international airlines have predicted that the Pacific area will experience a higher than average rate of growth in tourism during the remaining years of this century. This prediction is based on the belief that, as traditional holiday areas become overcrowded, travellers will seek new destinations in relatively unspoiled areas.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—Overseas travel, once largely the prerogative of the wealthy or adventurous, is now within the reach of a large proportion of the population in developed countries. Between 1965 and 1970 the surge in overseas travel resulted in almost doubling the annual total of overseas visitors to New Zealand. In more recent years the rate of increase has declined, reflecting less favourable conditions on the world economic scene.

At the end of 1978 the Tourism Advisory Council, an advisory body to the Government, predicted an average increase in visitor arrivals for New Zealand of 8 percent per annum through the 1980s. Because of the worldwide recession, the rate of growth during the year ended 31 December 1982 was only 2 percent.

The following table shows overseas visitors to New Zealand during recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayStopover (in Transit)Other*Total Overseas Visitors
HolidayStay with Relations or Friends

* Includes formal education and unspecified.

† Does not include through passengers, defined as passengers (mainly on cruise ships) who do not stay ashore in New Zealand. They totalled 162 733 in 1977–78, 176 586 in 1978–79, 176 822 in 1979–80, 138 378 in 1980–81, and 129 866 in 1981–82.

1978234 59274 84044 0609 0128 37620 060390 940
1979247 48376 70144 88213 93114 33221 415418 744
1980243 22996 23646 74215 42014 26429 304445 195
1981246 520102 44050 71415 57817 44830 756463 456
1982248 150108 98856 12816 09615 66727 552472 581

New Zealand residents departing temporarily (i.e., for less than 12 months) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayFormal EducationOther*Total N.Z. Residents Departing Temporarily
HolidayStay with Relations or Friends
* Includes unspecified.
1978153 20064 26837 99212 3722 20014 252284 284
1979193 02865 90046 49216 5522 21219 580343 764
1980238 167101 187x48 00519 6142 99216 840426 805x
1981255 368110 38649 04419 9302 72113 851451 300
1982227 234106 30650 96218 6302 71313 613419 458

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Persons arriving on working holidays or for educational purposes are not normally classified internationally as visitors or tourists.

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives initially 71 percent of all visitors: most of the visitors arrive by air.

Reserve Bank Travel Receipts and Payments—Travel receipts and payments (excluding fares) as recorded by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand are shown in the following table. These are “official” figures but there are other travel receipts outside the system which are important but which cannot currently be measured. It is not possible to compile a full “balance of payments” for tourism.

Year Ended 31 MarchAustraliaUnited StatesCanadaUnited KingdomJapanOtherTotal
NZ$(million)
Receipts
197894.738.42.313.72.39.3160.7
197999.234.02.516.92.510.8165.9
1980105.547.33.1.24.43.513.4197.2
1981119.061.54.730.94.618.4239.1
1982145.176.96.337.38.724.2298.5
Payments
1978115.546.24.266.42.165.6300.0
1979155.363.46.387.32.273.7388.3
1980221.288.26.1101.6..82.8499.5
1981267.6104.26.486.33.987.1555.4
1982317.6142.07.384.86.593.1651.3

From a survey made by the Tourist and Publicity Department some years ago it was estimated that overseas visitor expenditure in New Zealand during the 12 months ended October 1973 was $76.7 million. This was broken down into expenditure per visitor from selected countries and regions as shown in the following table.

ItemVisitors from
AustraliaUnited States and CanadaUnited KingdomJapanEuropeOther
Total expenditure ($m)41.717.94.71.42.28.8
Expenditure per tourist ($)—
      Accommodation1068974969173
      Meals353637273835
      Transport576648465650
      Excursions12798107
      Social181225142016
      Souvenirs and gifts373231332229
      Personal9793520
      Other1620931610
              Total290269242230258240
Average length of stay (days)16.511.327.45.716.620.0

This survey refers to all overseas visitors. In addition to tourists, it includes persons from overseas visiting relatives or friends, and expenditure by persons in New Zealand on business.

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all visitors other than through passengers to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country1977–781978–791979–801980–811981–82
Australia216 444217 776214 478215 516214 380
Canada12 80813 52416 98817 78016 614
United States54 28858 90870 16875 25473 796
United Kingdom27 96428 66434 67235 30637 144
Other countries79 43699 872108 889119 600130 647
All countries390 940418 744445 195463 456472 581

Visitors who are not New Zealanders require permits to enter the country, and temporary permits or student permits are issued as appropriate. Those people who are accorded the right of free entry are not required to apply to make visits. They are granted entry on arrival. Others may make visits without visas

under agreements we have entered into with a number of countries, including Japan and United States. Residents of other countries must obtain entry authorities before they set out and these are obtained through the various New Zealand posts overseas. The British posts also have some authority to act in the absence of an accredited New Zealand post. Short-term visitors are asked to submit to very little formality. Those coming under the visa abolition agreements must intend remaining no longer than the periods set out in the agreements, which vary from 30 days to 3 months, and all visitors must have sufficient funds for maintenance, and fully paid tickets which will take them out of the country.

ACCOMMODATION IN NEW ZEALAND—Accommodation has been developed by the private and public sector, with the Government's Tourist Hotel Corporation (THC) operating establishments in 12 areas. The THC has mainly concentrated its activities in isolated resort areas where private enterprise finds it uneconomic to operate. The development by both sectors has provided hotels of an excellent standard in all main centres and resorts. These establishments usually operate on a room-only basis with meals as an optional extra.

There are large numbers of high standard hotels and motels throughout New Zealand and scores of motor camps.

Motor camping is a popular form of holidaymaking during the summer months (December to Easter). Campers provide their own tents and equipment (a number of companies specialise in hiring out camping equipment) and the camps provide community washing, cooking, and toilet facilities. Some camps offer limited cabin accommodation.

Tourist arrivals are highest from October to March. These arrivals, taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, can impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts.

Inventory of Accommodation—An inventory of accommodation has been compiled by the Tourist and Publicity Department. It relates only to hotels licensed to supply liquor and to motels. Licensed hotels have been grouped, as far as possible, according to physical standards provided:

Group 1 are hotels having all or most rooms with private bath/shower and toilet, ample good quality public rooms, and excellent standards of maintenance.

Group 2 are hotels of good overall quality. They have a sufficient proportion of their rooms with private bath/shower and toilet to meet normal demands from people requiring these facilities. A much greater proportion than of Group 1 are older hotels.

Group 3 are hotels providing good, simple accommodation but which are not able to be included in Groups 1 and 2.

Establishments of a motel character having a tourist hotel licence or restaurant licence are counted as hotels in that they may provide hotel facilities for their guests. Motel units when run as part of an hotel are included as accommodation of that hotel.

Motels are defined as establishments providing self-contained units or apartments with bath/shower and toilet. They may include kitchen and dining-room facilities. They may (but usually do not) provide restaurant services on the premises. Tourist flats and holiday flats which do not supply ready made-up beds, and where linen, etc., is available for hire, are excluded.

Private hotels and guest houses (also holiday flats not catering for overnight travellers) have not been included. Private hotels and guest houses, however, provide a significant proportion (up to 20 percent) of all available commercial accommodation. In the following table statistics for licensed hotels and motels are set out by regional areas, as at 31 March 1981.

RegionRooms in Licensed HotelsUnits in Motels
Group 1Group 2Group 3
Northland3201592241 105
Auckland1 9272651311 587
Waikato189140122516
King Country80811750
Coromandel-Thames2525146337
Rotorua - Bay of Plenty9273071691 514
Taupo2279643538
East Coast64213184228
Hawke's Bay29451221570
Taranaki21448176371
Wanganui - Tongariro National Park22584155237
Manawatu-Horowhenua17548172399
Wairarapa697082
Wellington941299189510
Marlborough15369160399
Nelson231178364
Westland430191155382
North and Mid Canterbury960440267923
South Canterbury - North Otago51283203341
Otago1 119299198794
Southland263146156258
Fiordland556110
      Total9 90130443 33611 615
Note—Licensed hotels are here grouped principally according to availability of rooms with private facilities: Group 1—all or most rooms so equipped; Group 2—sufficient private facilities for general availability; Group 3—a smaller proportion of rooms with private facilities.

ASSISTANCE TO THE TOURIST INDUSTRY: Accommodation—Since 1978 the Development Finance Corporation has been the main source of loans and guarantees to encourage the building of new tourist accommodation of an acceptable modern standard and the extension of existing hotels and motels where there is a significant shortage of accommodation.

There are special depreciation allowances for taxation purposes which apply to approved accommodation projects.

Tourist Facilities—The main sources of loans and guarantees to encourage the development of tourist facilities other than accommodation are the Development Finance Corporation and the Tourist Facilities Development Scheme administered by the Tourist and Publicity Department.

Export Incentives—The development of New Zealand tourism is encouraged by the export marketing development incentive, which provides a 67.5 percent tax rebate for certain types of expenditure incurred in promoting New Zealand tourism internationally, and by the export performance incentive and the export promotion grants scheme, which provide tax rebates or grants to approved projects.

These measures are expected to result in improved profitability for tourism operators and in increased promotional and marketing activities overseas.

The Tourist and Publicity Department has produced a booklet on the assistance available for tourism development.

TRANSPORT—All main cities, towns, and tourist resorts are served by regular road or rail services and there is an extensive network of internal air services. In addition to the inter-island air services, the North and South Islands are also linked by roll-on roll-off ferry services operating between Wellington and Picton.

Touring by drive-yourself hire car is a popular way of seeing the country. Several companies provide a nation-wide car-hire service. All main centres also have chauffeur-driven cars available. Coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods are operated by a number of companies.

At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lake regions of the South Island, set or charter air tours are available.

Travel Services—Fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—With features such as the thermal areas, lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions.

Thermal Areas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes in the centre of the North Island. The Rotorua locality is a noted centre of thermal activity, with a wide variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blow-holes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs, is a well-known New Zealand spa. At Taupo and Wairakei hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Sports and Recreations—Sporting attractions include fishing (both fresh-water and salt-water, and including big-game fishing), shooting and hunting, ski-ing, mountaineering and tramping, walking, golf, boating, swimming, and surfing. There are facilities in most parts of the country for tennis, bowls, skating, squash, and most other sports. Popular spectator-sports include horse-racing (galloping and trotting), rugby football, soccer, and cricket. Section 8e, Recreation and Sport, has more details of the types of sporting and other recreational attractions available.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons—The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

Summer: December, January, February.

Autumn: March, April, May.

Winter: June, July, August.

Spring: September, October, November.

TOURIST AND PUBLICITY DEPARTMENT—The Tourist and Publicity Department is responsible for the promotion of New Zealand overseas as a tourist destination and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Bureaus are sited in Auckland, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Queenstown, with agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, Tokyo, Vancouver, and Frankfurt. The department also supplies general New Zealand publicity material, publications, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas to create a background knowledge of New Zealand, its people, and way of life.

Tourism Advisory Council—The Tourism Advisory Council is a 16-member advisory body to the Government. The council has an independent chairman and members are drawn from both the private and public sectors to be fully representative of the industry. The secretariat is provided by the Tourist and Publicity Department.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand National Travel Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

The Travel Agents Association of New Zealand (TAANZ) represents travel agents and tour operators promoting international travel to and from New Zealand.

New Zealand is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Books, guides, and other publications on the tourist attractions of New Zealand are numerous. A small selection is listed in the section on New Zealand books near the back of this Yearbook. Section 8e Recreation and Sport, may also be of interest. The Tourist and Publicity Department (see above) is always pleased to be of assistance.

The following publications are concerned mainly with the present and future development of tourism as an industry.

Report of the Tourist and Publicity Department—(Parl. paper G. 25).

Report of the Tourist Hotel Corporation—(Parl. paper G. 24).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Accommodation Surveys—Tourist and Publicity Department.

N.Z. Accommodation Inventory and Room Occupancy Rates—Tourist and Publicity Department.

New Zealand Visitor Statistics—Tourist and Publicity Department.

Report of the Tourism Advisory Council (November 1978)—Tourist and Publicity Department.

Tourist and Publicity Department 1982 Numbered Series:

  1. Education and Training for the New Zealand Tourism Industry.

  2. Tourism Incentives 1982 New Zealand.

  3. 3. A Survey of the “Discover New Zealand” Campaign 1981.

  4. Tourism in the New Zealand Economy.

  5. The Non-economic Benefits of Tourism.

  6. New Zealand Visitor Statistics 1981–82.

  7. Holiday Destination New Zealand.

Chapter 38. Section 38; MISCELLANEOUS

HUMAN RIGHTS—An Act to establish a Human Rights Commission and to promote the advancement of human rights in New Zealand in general accordance with the United Nations International Covenant on Human Rights was passed by Parliament in November 1977 and came into force in September 1978.

The Human Rights Commission, established by the Act of the same name, has the general functions of promoting, encouraging, and co-ordinating programmes and activities in the field of human rights, and the specific functions of investigating alleged breaches of the wide-ranging provisions against discrimination on grounds of sex, marital status, or religious or ethical beliefs set out in Part II of the Act. (Part II also makes unlawful any discrimination on grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origin in a number of areas of activity not already covered by the Race Relations Act 1971).

The membership of the commission consists of the Chief Human Rights Commissioner (the chairman), the Chief Ombudsman, the Race Relations Conciliator, and up to three others appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice.

An Equal Opportunities Tribunal was constituted under the same Act. The Tribunal consists of a chairman, who must be a barrister or solicitor of the High Court, and two other persons appointed by the chairman for the purposes of each hearing from a panel maintained by the Minister of Justice. The principal function of the Equal Opportunities Tribunal is to adjudicate in civil proceedings brought by the commission alleging discriminatory practice under Part II of the Act.

RACE RELATIONS—The Race Relations Act 1971 was designed to affirm and promote racial equality in New Zealand and implements the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Discrimination is unlawful on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins for; (a) access by the public to places, vehicles, and facilities; (b) provision of goods and services; (c) employment (including employment of independent contractors); (d) land, housing, and other accommodation. It is also unlawful to publish or display any advertisement or notice which indicates an intention to commit a breach of any of these provisions.

A breach of any of the provisions may be the subject of an investigation by the Race Relations Conciliator.

The Act also makes it an offence to incite racial disharmony.

The most important role for a race relations mediator is in situations where misunderstanding due to different racial backgrounds or concepts on the part of the parties has occurred. Potential racial incidents can often be avoided by a mediator with an explanatory role. This extension of the conciliator's duties from an area confined to complaints of racial discrimination to one where discrimination may not have occurred, but where racial misunderstanding exists, is in keeping with the aims of the Act of affirming and promoting racial equality in New Zealand.

There are offices for receiving complaints under the Human Rights Commission Act and the Race Relations Act in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

METRICATION—The Metric Advisory Board was set up by the Government in 1969 *** encourage, advise, and assist the progressive adoption within New Zealand of the metric system of weights and measures. The conversion to this system was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

New Zealand's decision to change to the metric system was based almost entirely on the necessity to keep in step with her overseas trading partners. The metric system is not only simpler and more efficient than the imperial system but also has the benefits of internationally agreed definitions and standardisation. The modern version of the metric system known as the “International System” (also called SI—”Systeme International d' Unites”) was adopted for use in New Zealand. This system has also been adopted by other countries that have recently changed to the metric system. A table showing the relationships between British (Imperial) units and SI (Metric) units is included in the front pages of this Yearbook.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned with patents, designs, and trade marks is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1981–82 was 8815, which was 251 more than in the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1976–773 2723 757531
1977–783 0853 779451
1978–793 2214 155574
1979–803 2504 468490
1980–813 3694 650545
1981–823 5044 725586

Patents—The 3504 applications received during 1981–82 were broadly classified as follows: chemistry, 1346; mechanical engineering, 813; building technology, 373; home science, 337; electrical engineering, 363; primary industries, 272.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 1052; the United States, 943; the United Kingdom, 455; Australia, 237; Switzerland, 151; West Germany, 154; France, 80; Japan, 110; Italy, 43; the Netherlands, 63; Sweden, 51; and the balance of 165 from 27 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1981–82 applications for trade marks totalled 4725. The countries from which the applications for the registration of trade marks originated were: New Zealand, 2070; United States, 1148; Great Britain, 347; Australia, 344; West Germany, 155; France, 91; Japan, 133; Switzerland, 45; and Italy, 61; with the remaining 331 distributed among 31 other countries.

Trade marks registered during 1981–82 totalled 2284. Renewal of registration of 3344 trade marks was effected during the year.

Industrial Property Advisory Committee—This committee was set up in 1981 to advise the Minister of Justice on industrial property matters. It is serviced by the Patent Office.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, or artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also exists in New Zealand for sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases, sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both conventions. Most countries of the world have acceded to the one or the other or both conventions.

In 1976, New Zealand acceded to the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorised Duplication of their Phonograms. The Convention obliges each contracting state to protect the producers of phonograms (i.e., records, cassettes, and other exclusively aural fixations of a performance or other sounds) against the unauthorised reproduction of their phonograms, and against the importation and distribution to the public of such unauthorised reproductions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COUNCIL—The New Zealand Industrial Design Council was established under the Industrial Design Act 1966 to promote the development of industrial design with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, packaging, and appearance of goods produced in New Zealand. It works closely with relevant Government departments, statutory bodies, and professional design

organisations, and maintains regular contact with the manufacturers' and retailers' federations and other organisations interested in industrial design. Products which meet high standards of design and manufacture are awarded the prestige Designmark label as a marketing aid. The council gives assistance through its field advisory service to improve products which do not meet these standards. This can include the recommendation of designers from its designer service. Product improvement is also effected through conferences and specialised seminars. The council has established the annual Prince Philip Award for New Zealand Industrial Design with the backing of His Royal Highness to recognise and promote the best of New Zealand's well designed products.

The council publishes a monthly magazine Designscape (circulation 3500) and maintains a reference library at its Wellington headquarters.

STANDARDS COUNCIL—The Standards Act 1965 established the Standards Council as the governing body of the Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ). Its aims are to improve efficiency and stimulate development in industry and commerce by providing standards documents, which will also assist in promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The association administers the standard certification mark scheme, which encourages improved quality control in industry with consequent improvement in the quality of consumer goods.

It also provides a service known as Technical Help to Exporters (THE) which provides assistance to manufacturers whose products need to comply with the standards and regulations of overseas markets.

The council regards international standardisation as an important factor in facilitating international trade. The association is the New Zealand member of the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC). For the 1983–85 term the Standards Association of New Zealand has been elected to serve as a council member of the International Organisation for Standardisation.

The SANZ library holds over 170 000 overseas or international standards. Copies of all standards, from whatever source, can be obtained from the association's sales service.

The association publishes new and revised New Zealand Standards and amendments. Details of these and of other national and international standards activities are given in a monthly publication, Standards. A catalogue, published annually, lists all the standards in use in New Zealand.

The association depends on the subscriptions of members and on sales of standards for a large proportion of its income. Sales of standards exceed $650,000 annually and the subscribing membership of the association, which includes most of the more prominent manufacturers and local authorities, totalled 1740 at 31 March 1982.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of services has been considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; manager of the estates of protected patients; manager (when so appointed by the court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor and any subsequent will or codicil may be prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge. With certain qualifications the Public Trustee may act jointly with another person or persons.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the High Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $15,000. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $20,000 the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1982, 7296 estates and funds valued at $150.6 million were accepted for administration. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1982 numbered 37 897 and were valued at $601.5 million.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or are invested in securities authorised by S.30a of the Public Trust Office Act 1957. Testators or settlors also have the option of specifically excluding investment in the Common Fund in which case the provisions of S.4 Trustee Act as amended by S.3 Trustee Amendment Act 1974 apply.

Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys invested pursuant to S. 30a or directed to be invested in specific securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1982 totalled $17.2 million. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1982 totalled $122.8 million. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates, or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1982, 31 653 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1982 was 316 631. During the year ended 31 March 1982 effect was given in 13 23$$1 cases to changes desired by testators.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967 and the Insolvency Regulations 1970. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the High Court.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $200 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the assignee on a resolution by creditors. A person adjudged bankrupt is discharged three years after the date of adjudication unless discharged sooner.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which 2 are not included in official bankruptcy statistics. There were none in 1978, 1979, or 1980, one in 1981 and six in 1982.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last 5 years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearBankruptciesCourt Orders for Liquidation of CompaniesTotal Commercial Failures
Petitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by Creditors

* Includes orders under Pt. IV Administration Act 1969.

† Includes orders under Pt. XVII Insolvency Act 1967 and 1969.

‡ Includes voluntary liquidations.

§Includes annulments.

1978325182285792
1979302194336834*†
1980355250367975
1981303254264‡821
1982324244312‡881†§

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by official assignees.

In some cases of company liquidation, subsequent court orders are given for the winding up of companies to be transferred to private liquidators.

The table following shows for each of the last 6 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends preferential claims and secured claims to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $percent
197722,9034.8
197822,0665.2
197929,4795.2
198030,2283.7
198137,7885.7
198235,8278.1

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

In the following table bankruptcies during the 2 latest years are classified according to amount groups of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities198019811982

* Excludes 3 annulments.

† Excludes 1 partnership and 9 annulments.

‡ Excludes 2 partnerships, 3 annulments, 1 order under Pt. XVII Administration Act 1967 and 2 voluntary liquidations.

Nil1711
Under $2,00011410182
$2,000 and under $5,000190141126
$5,000 and under $10,000133133135
$10,000 and under $20,000145122135
$20,000 and under $50,000160111143
$50,000 and under $100,000687175
$100,000 and over475457
No statement of amounts received11471109
      Total972*811873

Occupational Groups of Bankrupts—All persons adjudged bankrupt (whether self-employed, employers of labour, or salary and wage earners) have been classified in the following table according to the occupation in which they were last employed.

Occupational Group19781979198019811982

* Excludes partnerships as follows: 1978, nil; 1979, 5; 1980, 1; 1981, 1; and 1982, 2.

† Excludes 1 annulment and 1 transfer.

‡ Excludes 3 annulments

§ Excludes 9 annulments.

Professional, technical, and related workers179161212
Administrative and managerial workers2122312128
Clerical and related workers89995
Sales workers6762979076
Service workers2541525430
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters6656785681
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers242236221189212
Not gainfully employed/actively engaged5958100116120
      Total*505493604547§564

The occupational status of individual bankrupts is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

YearOccupational Status
Working for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking On Own Account But Not Employing LabourNot Gainfully EmployedTotal*

* Excludes partnerships as follows: 1978, nil; 1979, 5; 1980, 1; 1981, 1; and 1982, 2.

† Excludes 3 annulments.

‡ Excludes 9 annulments.

19781896718762505
19791816316386493
1980158102239105604†
198116283167135547‡
1982160103170131564‡

GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies on food items and on services have been sharply reduced or abolished in recent years. In fact, the only food item now subsidised is milk. The average subsidy on this during the year ended 31 August 1981, 9.223c per litre and for the year ended 31 August 1982, 7.595c per litre. A subsidy at the rate of 5c per litre on the transport of liquid petroleum gas (lpg) to the South Island was introduced in 1978.

The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the Stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving farm incentives, etc., are included in other Government expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended March
1980198119821983

* Includes $5,321,000 in advance for 1980–81.

Expenditure on economic stabilisation is given in the Estimates of Expenditure (Parl. paper B. 7 Pt. 1).

 $(thousand)
Milk37,02335,21729,68530,000
Transport of lpg59115271465
Gas industry2,4962,5352,368770
To meet loss on operations of Railways119,040*89,77294,170..
      Total158,618127,639126,49431,235

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. Environmental and other factors are being increasingly recognised as components of the quality of life, a much less easily measured concept. In assessing standards of living, consideration is now given to the development of social indicators parallel with purely economic terms of measurement. These include health and personal safety; equality of educational opportunity; employment and quality of working life; leisure satisfaction; social welfare provisions; social opportunity and quality; social, cultural, and communication capabilities; housing and community facilities; and the physical environment.

Methods of measurement of these factors are being recommended on an international basis. In these wider terms of reference New Zealand's position is appreciably improved.

Some comparative indicators related to standards of living are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on life expectancy, infant mortality, medical and dental services, energy, libraries, and newspaper circulation.

ItemNew ZealandUnited StatesCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSwedenJapan

* 1975.

† EEC countries as a whole. Figures for individual member countries not available.

‡ 1980.

§ 1978.

Persons per vehicle—
      Cars (1979)2.51.92.32.53.82.95.4
      Total vehicles (1979)2.01.41.82.03.32.73.2
Number per 1000 of population—
      Radios (1976)8651 882*1 011770706390530
      Television sets (1976)259571*428351317363235*
      Telephones (1981)567837672525496795495
Consumption per head—
      Coffee (1978) kg1.834.944.231.761.8712.131.13
      Tea (1976–78) kg2.390.370.921.733.300.360.99
      Sugar (1978) kg53.544.746.855.140.7†40.925.0
      Steel (1978) kg265670575358348468535
      Wool (1975) kg3.90.20.21.52.00.21.2
      Cotton (1974) kg9.87.57.810.14.57.86.3
      Artificial and synthetic fibres (1974) kg8.714.411.712.59.311.37.0
      Newsprint (1978) kg24.145.440.133.023.827.421.3
Public education expenditure as a percentage of GNP (1979)5.6‡6.47.76.05.7§9.15.8
Persons per hospital bed (1976 or 1977)971$$911480..6794

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of legislation governing the sale of liquor in New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. As a general rule, that Act provides that no liquor may be sold without the appropriate licence or a club charter, and licences may only be authorised if it is shown that they are necessary or desirable in particular localities. The Act also serves to regulate the conduct of the licensed trade and the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and service provided for the public.

In 1981 that part of the Act dealing with the licensing of wine makers was transferred to a new Act, the Wine Makers Act 1981, which introduced a procedure for ensuring that we which is to be exported is of an appropriate standard.

The Licensing Control Commission established under the Sale of Liquor Act has the following functions:

To ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation services and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new licences and club charters are necessary or desirable; and to authorise their issue. It is also the commission's function to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, facilities and services on licensed premises, and to hear appeals from, licensing committees decisions.

There are 21 licensing committees throughout the country. These are serviced by the local District Courts. Each committee has five members, of whom four are nominated by the local authorities in the area. The chairman is a District Court judge. The functions of licensing committees are to issue licences, renew licences annually, and hear applications for the cancellation or suspension of licences on the grounds of lack of hygiene or fire safety or the failure of the licensee to conduct the premises in a proper manner.

There is a right of appeal to the Licensing Control Commission from most decisions of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character, in which case the appeal is to the High Court. Some of the commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the High Court and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Such appeals lie with the administrative division of the High Court.

The types of licences which may be granted include hotel, tavern, and tourist house (premises and keeper's) licences, and wholesale, wine resellers booth, airport, ship, food and entertainment, and club licences. The food and entertainment licence and the club licence were introduced in 1980 to replace respectively the restaurant, theatre, cabaret, and caterer's licences and the general ancillary licence. Accordingly, at 1 April 1981 all existing licences of those former types converted automatically into food and entertainment or club licences. With both new types of licence the Licensing Control Commission

has a discretion to fix hours (within broad statutory parameters) and conditions appropriate to the particular licensee.

A number of permits for specific purposes are also provided for under the Act. For example, a permit is available to the owners of unlicensed restaurants whereby patrons may bring their own liquor to the restaurant for consumption with their meal. In 1982 a wine distributor's licence was introduced, which authorises the holder to sell wine to other licensees only.

Licences in force at 30 June 1981 comprised 691 hotel keepers licences, 378 tavern keepers licences, 112 tourist house keepers licences, 5 airport licences, 175 wholesale licences, and 382 wine resellers licences. A total of 373 chartered clubs were in existence. There were 405 food and entertainment licences and 1205 club licences. Approximately 496 restaurants had Bring Your Own (BYO) permits.

Wine makers were formerly licensed under the Sale of Liquor Act. However, the Wine Makers Act 1981 provided for the general licensing of wine makers as from 1 April 1982.

The Sale of Liquor Act was amended in 1979 to empower a licensee or manager to refuse to admit to a public bar any person whom he has reasonable cause to believe will, if admitted to the premises, engage in violent, quarrelsome, insulting, or disorderly conduct, or provoke other persons to engage in such conduct on the premises. The Act was further amended in 1981 to allow the sale of imported wine by wine resellers.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry, at which all interested parties may make representations, whether the issue of any new hotel or tavern premises licences or a wholesale or wine resellers licence are necessary or desirable in particular localities. In the case of a hotel or tavern premises licence the commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. There is provision for a poll of residents to be taken to determine whether they desire that a hotel or tavern be established in their locality. If the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the issue of the licence, the commission may not authorise such a licence unless special circumstances exist. Subject to the result of any such poll, the commission may then call for applications for the new hotel or tavern premises or wholesale licence and may grant it to the most suitable applicant. When the commission decides to issue a new wine reseller's licence, however, the matter is then referred to the appropriate licensing committee, which then invites and considers applications for the licence. Applications for all other types of licences may be made at any time and are considered at public hearings in various centres throughout the country.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotels, taverns, and chartered club bar rooms. Since 1917 the closing hour had been 6 p.m. The proposal for later closing was carried, and the new hours of 11 a.m. to 10 p.m. came into effect from 9 October 1967. Hotels and taverns may also seek authority to open earlier than 11 a.m., but may not be open for more than 11 hours each day. The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1976 allowed for further extensions upon application for individual hotels or taverns. Orders may be made permitting these to remain open until 11 p.m. on Friday or Saturday or on Christmas Eve and until 12.30 a.m. on the morning of New Year's Day. Any such extension is in addition to the 11 hours per day during which liquor may normally be sold to the public. With certain exceptions, sales from hotels and taverns are prohibited on Sundays and Christmas Day and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with that meal. An amendment in 1976 extended the hours, which are now from 9 a.m. on any day to 1 a.m. the following morning. A further amendment in 1980 applied these hours to those taverns which operate a dining room or restaurant facility.

Prior to the 1980 amendment, different hours were prescribed for restaurant, theatre, cabaret, and caterer's licences. With the change to the new good and entertainment licence, however, the commission is authorised to fix hours of sale between 9 a.m. on any day appropriate to the particular licensee and 3 a.m. on the following day. Different times may be fixed for different days of the week and for different periods of the year. Similarly, the hours under a club licence are set by the commission on an individual basis, but must generally be between 11 a.m. and 10 p.m. on any day. The permits for unlicensed restaurants authorise consumption by patrons of their own liquor until 11.30 p.m. on any day, and the vineyard bar permit authorises sales until 9 p.m. except on Sundays, Good Friday, or Christmas Day.

Drinking Age—The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1969 made provision from 24 October 1969 for the sale of liquor to persons of the age of 20 years; liquor may also be supplied to persons of 18 years of age or above if the person is accompanied by a spouse of 20 or more years of age or a parent. The 1976 amendment to the Act also provided for a family lounge permit, whereby parents may take their underage children into designated parts of hotels, taverns, or chartered clubs. The 1980 amendment replaced the word “parent” in both instances by the phrase “parent or guardian”, and further provided

that a child accompanied by, and in the care of, any other adult member of his or her family may now be admitted into a family lounge bar. Liquor may be supplied to an unaccompanied person of 18 years of age or above as part of a meal provided in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling liquor outlets through privately-held licences supervised by licensing committees, and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. Licensing trusts are elected by the residents and are responsible to them, similar to local bodies.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts—Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition an increasing number of local trusts scattered throughout New Zealand are operating hotels and taverns. Because of the circumstances of the remaining no-licence districts and their relation to the metropolitan areas of Auckland and Wellington, legislation was introduced in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of those areas should carry restoration. A new form of trust control, known as suburban trusts, was introduced.

Prior to 1975, six suburban trusts had been constituted: Johnsonville; Terawhiti; Wellington South (in Wellington); and Mt Albert; Portage; and Waitakere (in Auckland). These trusts held licences under the Sale of Liquor Act and had a preferential right to all hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licences, or wholesale licences authorised by the commission in their areas. In 1975 these trusts and the Birkenhead Local Licensing Trust were converted into district trusts, which did not hold such licences and were then not subject to the jurisdiction of the Licensing Control Commission. They were also free to choose the nature of the liquor outlets and where and when they should be established.

The 1976 Amendment to the Licensing Trusts Act converted the trusts back to suburban trust status, bringing them under a degree of supervision by the Licensing Control Commission but not to the same extent as that which prevailed prior to 1975. The trusts are still free to establish what outlets they see fit without the need to hold licences under the Sale of Liquor Act, but the commission's approval must first be obtained. This allows the commission to consider the requirements of the particular area of which the suburban trust is part, as well as providing an appropriate forum in which objections to the trust's proposals may be heard. Local residents also have the right to apply to the commission for a poll to be conducted to determine if any proposed new premises should be established in their area.

There are also local licensing trusts which are established to operate a new hotel or tavern authorised by the commission. Local trusts are set up following the carrying of a poll to determine if the residents desire that a new licence be issued to a trust.

The Licensing Trusts Act was again amended in 1977, principally to permit licensing trusts to operate catering facilities on the same basis as holders of a food and entertainment licence may operate their premises under the Sale of Liquor Act.

In addition the same right to apply for later hours on Fridays, Saturdays, Christmas Eve, and New Year's Eve that private licences enjoy under the Sale of Liquor Act was conferred on licensing trusts by this amendment. The Licensing Trusts Act was further amended in 1980 to apply to licensing trusts those changes made by the Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1980.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of Parliamentary representatives was held on 28 November 1981, voting in New Zealand for both General and Maori electorates taking place on that day. The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after this election was National 47, Labour 43, Social Credit, 2.

The relative strengths of the political parties in Parliament following the last 8 general elections are shown in the following table.

Political Party19601963196619691972197519781981
Labour3435353955324043
National4645444532555147
Social Credit112
      Total8080808487879292

The total number of electors on the master roll for the election in 1981 was 2 034 747. A total of 1 860 564 votes were cast; this represents 91.44 percent of electors on the master roll.

A second table shows the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes, at the four most recent general elections.

Political ParryVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
19721975197819811972197519781981
Labour677 669636 319691 076702 63048.3739.7040.4139.01
National581 422760 365680 991698 50841.5047.4439.8238.78
Social Credit93 231119 123274 756372 0566.657.4316.0720.65
Values27 46783 21341 2203 4601.965.192.410.19
Others21 3633 75722 13024 6491.520.231.291.37
      Total valid votes1 401 1521 602 7771 710 1731 801 303100.00100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes9 0888 24311 2708 998
      Total votes recorded1 410 2401 611 0201 721 4431 810 301

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 28 November 1981, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the nineteenth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1981 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows:

Voting Issue196619691972197519781981
For national continuance817 760903 962931 7781 094 4451 053 2681 124 258
For State purchase and control176 946242 499244 003235 374252 154247 217
For national prohibition198 859176 055203 791250 640374 194384 780

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of 3 years, as at present, totalled 678 960; votes for a maximum term of 4 years totalled 317 973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30′ east of Greenwich (exactly 11½ hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time, 11h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as “Summer Time” became “New Zealand Standard Time” as from 1 January 1946.

The Time Act of 1974 consolidated the Standard Time Act of 1945 and also enabled the Governor-General, by Order in Council, to introduce 1 hour of daylight saving for specified periods. This time is designated New Zealand Daylight Time, and is 13 h in advance of Universal Time (or Greenwich Mean Time). The first period specified for the use of New Zealand Daylight Time was from 3 November 1974 to 23 February 1975. In recent years the specified period has been from 02h New Zealand Standard Time (N.Z.S.T.) on the last Sunday in October, until 02h N.Z.S.T. on the first Sunday in March in the following year.

Time in the Chatham Islands is 45 minutes ahead of that kept in New Zealand.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is checked daily against the caesium beam primary frequency standard at the Physics and Engineering Laboratory, Lower Hutt. The error is usually much less than one millisecond.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations operated by the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1981 and 1982 which have been included by the National Library of New Zealand in the New Zealand National Bibliography. Variations in statistics from year to year should not be interpreted as strictly equivalent variations in book production, but as publications for which it has been possible to prepare entries in the bibliography.

Subject19811982
BooksPamphletsTotalBooksPamphletsTotal
General4258100273360
Religion, theology, philosophy415192231942
Sociology, statistics352863193251
Political science, economics17114031111276188
Law, public administration, social welfare10111821910088188
Education6290152384886
Trade, communications, transport462571301747
Linguistics, philology17557271118
Sciences1131472607895173
Technology and trades1151452606248110
Agriculture, forestry6265127403979
Domestic science221537221032
Commercial management223254242145
Fine arts, etc.841051894361104
Entertainment, sport7659135603090
Literature93741677166137
Geography, travel371956381149
History, biography10133134474289
      Total1 2401 2592 4998417471 588

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand, and works that deal in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, music scores, sound recordings, maps, new serials, and serials that have ceased publication.

As at 31 January 1982 there were 5245 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the legal deposit provisions of the Copyright Act.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

Holiday19811982198319841985
* Actual date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Year's Day1 January1 January1 January1 January1 January
Waitangi Day6 February6 February6 February6 February6 February
Good Friday17 April9 April1 April20 April5 April
Easter Monday20 April12 April4 April23 April8 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday*1 June7 June6 June4 June3 June
Labour Day26 October25 October24 October22 October21 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 29 January; Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day of local significance; in Taranaki it is the second Monday in March to avoid a clash with Easter observance.

NATIONAL ANTHEMSGod Defend New Zealand, the words written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods, was written in the early 1870s and formally adopted as the New Zealand national hymn in 1940. In November 1977 it was announced that, with the consent of Her Majesty the Queen, the Government had decided that the national anthems of New Zealand shall be the traditional anthem, God Save the Queen and God Defend New Zealand, both being of equal status as national anthems appropriate to the occasion.

In June 1979 the Minister of Internal Affairs published a new specially-commissioned arrangement of the New Zealand anthem more suited to general or massed singing than the original score, which lent itself best to solo or choral singing. The new arrangement was published as a supplement to the New Zealand Gazette dated 31 May 1979.

Below, the five verses of the New Zealand anthem are given in English and in Maori.

GOD DEFEND NEW ZEALAND

  1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet. Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land. Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar. God defend New Zealand.

  2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

  3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.

  4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.

  5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nations' van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand.

AOTEAROA

  1. E Ihoa Atua, O nga Iwi! Matoura, Ata whaka rongona; Me aroha noa. Kia hua ko te pai; Kia tau to atawhai; Manaakitia mai Aotearoa.

  2. Ona mano tangata Kiri whero, kiri ma, Iwi Maori Pakeha, Repeke katoa, Nei ka tono ko nga he Mau e whakaahu ke, Kia ora marire Aotearoa.

  3. Tona mana kia tu! Tona kaha kia u; Tona rongo hei paku Ki te ao katoa Aua rawa nga whawhai, Nga tutu a tata mai; Kia tupu nui ai Aotearoa.

  4. Waiho tona takiwa Ko te ao marama; Kia whiti tona ra Taiawhio noa. Ko te hae me te ngangau Meinga kia kore kau; Waiho i te rongo mau Aotearoa.

  5. Tona pai me toitu; Tika rawa, pono pu; Tona noho, tana tu; Iwi no Ihoa. Kaua mona whakama; Kia hau te ingoa; Kia tu hei tauira; Aotearoa.

NEW ZEALAND FLAG—Under the Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981 the flag hitherto known as the New Zealand Ensign was declared to be the New Zealand Flag, the national flag of New Zealand. The basis of the New Zealand Flag is the Union Jack in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed red stars with white borders.

NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS—The New Zealand Coat of Arms was pictured and described as a frontispiece in the 1969 and earlier issues of the Official Yearbook. It appears on the title page and the spine of the present volume.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Some information on the many subjects mentioned in this section will be found in the following publications.

Annual Report of the Human Rights Commission (Parl. paper E. 6).

Report of the Race Relations Conciliator (Parl. paper E. 17).

Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. paper E. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Industrial Design Council (Parl. paper G. 16).

Report of the Standards Council (Parl. paper G. 15).

Accounts and Reports of the Public Trust Office (Parl. paper B. 9).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Licensing Control Commission (Parl. paper E. 8).

The General Election 1981 (Parl. paper E. 9, 1982).

Licensing Polls 1981 (Parl. paper E. 9b, 1982).

Report of the Trustees of the National Library of New Zealand (Parl. paper G. 13).

Chapter 39. Section 39; OFFICIAL

Table of Contents

NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT—Information on positions held within the New Zealand Government, Parliamentary sessions and number of Public Acts passed during the year is now contained in Section 2B of this Yearbook.

OFFICIAL INFORMATION: Background—The Official Information Act 1982 came into effect on 1 July 1983. Its objectives are embodied in the principle of availability (Section 5) which states that information shall be made available unless there is good reason for withholding it.

The legislation is based on the recommendations of the Committee on Official Information (the Danks Committee) which was set up by the Government in May 1978. The terms of reference for this committee was “to contribute to the larger aim of freedom of information by considering the extent to which official information can be made readily available to the public”.

Nature of the Legislation—The Act establishes a flexible mechanism, capable of contributing to and being responsive to changing attitudes and circumstances and leading to increased availability of information.

The purposes of the Act as set out in section 4 are:

  1. To increase progressively the availability of official information to the people of New Zealand in order—

    To enable their more effective participation in the making and administration of laws and policies; and

    To promote the accountability of Ministers of the Crown and officials—and thereby to enhance respect for the law and to promote the good Government of New Zealand;

  2. To provide for proper access by each person to official information relating to that person;

  3. To protect official information to the extent consistent with the public interest and the preservation of personal privacy.

A number of key words and phrases are defined in the Act to facilitate the interpretation. Official information is defined as any information held by a department, or a Minister of the Crown in his official capacity, or an organisation, including information held outside New Zealand by branches or posts of those departments or organisations. The word ‘information’ is to be interpreted in its widest sense. Indeed the Danks Committee stated “information includes not merely recorded data but knowledge of a fact or state of affairs by officers of the agency in their official capacity e.g. when a particular report is to be presented”.

The Act excludes certain types of information from the definition. Most significant are:

  • — library or museum material made or acquired and preserved solely for reference or exhibition purposes;

  • — material placed in the National Library of New Zealand by or on behalf of persons other than Ministers of the Crown in their official capacity or departments;

  • — information held by a Minister, department or organisation, solely as an agent or for safe custody;

  • — evidence given or submissions made to a Royal Commission of Inquiry appointed by Order in Council made under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908 or Commission, Board, Court or Committee of Inquiry appointed, pursuant to, and not by, any provision of an Act, to inquire into a specified matter.

The word “document” has also been given the widest possible meaning. The Act makes it clear that it is intended to cover all forms of information retention including any writing on any material; any information recorded or stored by means of any tape-recorder, computer or other device, and any material subsequently derived from information so recorded or stored; any label, marking, or other writing that identifies or describes anything of which it forms part or to which it is attached by any means; any book, map, plan, graph or drawing; any photograph, film, negative, tape or other device in which one or more visual images are embodied so as to be capable (with or without the aid of some other equipment) of being reproduced.

Whilst the Act extends to cover all Government departments, with the exception of the legislative department, and some 140 organisations, it does not include a Court; in relation to its judicial functions, a Tribunal; a Royal Commission; a Commission of Inquiry appointed by an Order in Council made under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908; a Commission, Board, Court or Committee of Inquiry appointed, pursuant to, and not by, any provision of an Act, to inquire into a specified matter.

The Act provides special rights of access to personal information which means any official information held about an identifiable person. A “person” is defined as including a corporation sole and also a body of persons, whether corporate or unincorporate. Where it is necessary to make a distinction between an identifiable individual human being, and those other entities legally described as “persons”, the former is referred to as a “natural person”.

Access to Official Information—A request for personal information is a very particular form of request for official information and a legally enforceable right of access to it is conferred by the Act. It gives the right to know what information is held by an agency about an individual, the right to be able to correct that information and to know the reasons for a decision made by an agency about the individual, and the rules under which decisions are made.

Access to official information is available to a New Zealand citizen, a permanent resident of New Zealand, or a body corporate which is incorporated in New Zealand. Right of access to personal information is available to a New Zealand citizen, a permanent resident or a person who is in New Zealand, or a body corporate incorporated or carrying on business in New Zealand. The Act places an onus of responsibility on the suppliers of personal information to satisfy themselves concerning the identity of the applicant, and to ensure that it is only received by the person concerned or their authorised agent.

In legislating for increased openness in the release and dissemination of information, Parliament recognised that there may be good reasons for withholding some information. The criteria which may justify not releasing information are set down in Sections 6 to 9 of the Act. Section 6 gives the “conclusive reasons”. These cover information the release of which would be likely to prejudice:

  1. the security, defence or international relations of New Zealand;

  2. the entrusting of information to the Government of New Zealand on a basis of confidence by the Government or government agency of another country, or an international organisation or agency;

  3. the maintenance of law and order;

  4. the economic interests of New Zealand. Section 7 sets out special reasons for withholding official information related to the Cook Islands, Tokelau or Niue, or the Ross Dependency, while special reasons for withholding official information related to competitive commercial activities are stated in Section 8. Section 9 sets out other good reasons for withholding official information unless in the circumstances of the particular case the withholding of that information is outweighed by other considerations which render it desirable in the public interest to make that information available.

Applications for Access—Every request for access to information must be dealt with on its merits, and there is clearly scope for review of decisions as circumstances change. An important point to note is that political sensitivity, embarrassment or shame are not listed as possible reasons for withholding information.

Requests for information do not have to be made in any prescribed form; they may be made by telephone, in person or in writing. Requests should however provide sufficient detail to allow the relevant material or documents to be identified. Sometimes applicants will need assistance with this task and the Act makes the provision of reasonable assistance a duty. Information guides concerning access to personal and official information are available.

To facilitate the formulation and lodging of requests, reference can be made to the Official Information Directory, available at all Post Offices and Public Libraries. This gives a full list of all the organisations covered by the Act. It sets out the structure and function of every department and organisation; a general description of all kinds of documents held; a list of all manuals, and similar types of documents which contain policies, principles, rules or guidelines, in accordance with which decisions are made; and how to obtain access to information including details of contact officers.

When a request for information is received a decision must be made as soon as possible whether the request is to be granted and if so in what form and for what charge if any. (While access to personal information is free, charges are made for access to official information.) Undue delay in making official information available can be deemed a refusal to release the information and the general aim is to furnish either the information or indicate the likely response time within 7 days of a request.

Review by an Ombudsman—Information will where possible be made available in the manner preferred by the applicant. Where this is not done, or only part of the information requested is made available, the applicant will be given the reason and, if requested, the grounds in support of that reason. Where a request for information is refused, the applicant must be given the reason for the refusal and information concerning the right to seek an investigation and review of the refusal by an Ombudsman. On further request they may also obtain the grounds in support of the reason to decline access.

Complaints to an Ombudsman must be in writing. There is no charge for the service and the investigation is conducted in private.

Where an Ombudsman is of the opinion that the request should not have been refused or that the decision complained of is, for example, unreasonable or wrong then he shall report his opinion and his reasons to the appropriate department or Minister of the Crown or organisation together with such recommendations as he thinks fit. The complainant is also given a copy of his recommendations (if any) and such other information as the Ombudsman thinks proper. Where a complaint is directed against one of the departments or organisations covered by the Act, the Ombudsman is required to send a copy of his report and recommendations to either the Minister concerned or such Minister as he considers appropriate.

The Ombudsman's formal recommendations are binding unless overridden by a Minister in accordance with a formal procedure. That procedure requires that where a Minister declines to accept an Ombudsman's recommendation, the decision, the ground for it, and (except where that ground is national security), the source and purport of any advice on which it was based are to be published in the Gazette.

If an Ombudsman concludes that any complaint made under the Act cannot be sustained, he will explain his reasons to the complainant.

The Information Authority—The Danks Committee identified three distinct tasks to be carried out in opening up public and personal access to official information and adjusting the conditions and degree of access to keep in line with the changing needs and attitudes of the community. These responsibilities have been divided between 3 bodies.

Firstly a small Information Unit has been established within the State Services Commission to advise and assist Government departments and organisations in carrying out their responsibilities under the new legislation. Secondly the Office of the Ombudsman acts as the independent arbiter to deal with complaints by individuals concerning the disclosure and non-disclosure of information.

While these administrative and review mechanisms are thus provided within existing institutions, the committee also saw the need for the establishment of an independent body, the Information Authority. This is responsible for the third task of undertaking a continuing inquiry into and definition of categories of information which should be made available. The specific functions and responsibilities of the Authority are set down in the Official Information Act. These give it 3 broad roles: regulatory, monitoring and a particular role in the field of personal information. There are 3 members of the Authority, all appointed for 3 years in the first instance. They are Sir Alan Danks, Chairman; Mr Ian Lythgoe and Mrs Shirley Maddock. The authority itself has a life of only 5 years, until 30 June 1988, in which to carry out its task. Its first priority will be to review the protection of official information under any other legislation, to see that it is reasonable and also compatible with the Official Information Act.

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND—The following list shows the departments responsible for the administration of the Public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1983 or which had been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to Amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Compensation Act 1982Labour
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Justice
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1969Justice
Admiralty Act 1973Transport
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Adult Education Act 1963Education
Age of Majority Act 1970Justice
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Workers Act 1977Labour
Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture and Fisheries
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971Labour
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976Justice
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals ***Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals *** Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Antarctic Marine Living Resources Act 1981Agriculture and Fisheries
Antarctica Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Antiquities Act 1975Internal Affairs
Anzac Day Act 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Arbitration (Foreign Agreements and Awards) Act 1982Justice
Arbitration (International Investments Disputes) Act 1979Labour
Architects Act 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Energy
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works and Development
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Aviation Crimes Act 1972Transport
Bank of New Zealand Act 1979Treasury
Banking Act 1982Treasury
Beer Duty Act 1977Customs
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Transport
Boxing and Wrestling Act 1981Internal Affairs
Broadcasting Act 1976Broadcasting Corporation
Building Performance Guarantee Corporation Act 1977Housing Corporation
Building Research Levy Act 1969Scientific and Industrial Research
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriage of Goods Act 1979Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Chateau Companies Act 1977Justice
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Children and Young Persons Act 1974Social Welfare
Children Health Camps Act 1972Health
Chiropractors Act 1982Justice
Cinematograph Films Act 1976Internal Affairs
Citizenship Act 1977Internal Affairs
Citizenship (Western Samoa) Act 1982Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1979Prime Minister
Clean Air Act 1972Health
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1979Energy
Commerce Act 1975Trade and Industry
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Countries Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Commonwealth Games Symbol Protection Act 1974Internal Affairs
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934–35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consular Privileges and Immunities Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Consumer Council Act 1966Trade and Industry
Consumer Information Act 1969Trade and Industry
Continental Shelf Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion Act 1977Justice
Contracts Enforcement Act 1956Justice
Contracts (Privity) Act 1982Justice
Contractual Mistakes Act 1977Justice
Contractual Remedies Act 1979Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Cook Islands Act 1915Foreign Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Forestry Companies Act 1978Forest Service
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Act 1962Justice
Cornish Companies Management Act 1974Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1980Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Act 1953Defence
Credit Contracts Act 1981Justice
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Crimes (Internationally Protected Persons and Hostages) Act 1980Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crown Grants Act 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Act 1950Justice
Customs Act 1966Customs
Customs Law Act 1908Customs
Customs Orders Confirmation Act 1981Customs
Dairy Board Act 1961Agriculture and Fisheries
Dairy Industry Act 1952Agriculture and Fisheries
Dangerous Goods Act 1974Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Act 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Defence Act 1971Defence
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Social Welfare Act 1971Social Welfare
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1973Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975Social Welfare
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1950Labour
Distillation Act 1971Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
District Courts Act 1947Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works and Development
Dog Control and Hydatids Act 1982Internal Affairs
Domestic Actions Act 1975Justice
Domestic Air Travel Tax Act 1980Customs
Domestic Protection Act 1982Justice
Domicile Act 1976Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Trade and Industry
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Trade and Industry
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Act 1949Education
Electoral Act 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Energy
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Energy
Electrical Registration Act 1979Energy
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Energy
Electricity Act 1968Energy
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Welfare
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Act 1951Public Trust
Energy Resources Levy Act 1976Energy
Engineering Association Act 1961Works and Development
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works and Development
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Equal Pay Act ***Labour
Estate and Gift D*** Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Explosives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
Extradition Act 1965Justice
Factories and Commercial Premises Act 1981Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964Social Welfare
Family Courts Act 1980Justice
Family Proceedings Act 1980Justice
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Farm Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1978Justice
Fertilisers Act 1982Agriculture and Fisheries
Fire Service Act 1975Internal Affairs
Fisheries Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Industry (Union Coverage) Act 1979Labour
Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings Act 1977Treasury
Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981Internal Affairs
Food Act 1981Health
Food and Drug Act 1969Health
Foreign Affairs Act 1943Foreign Affairs
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1977Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Act 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Franklin-Manukau Pest Destruction Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Friendly Societies and Credit Unions Act 1982Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (U.K.)Justice
Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977Internal Affairs
Gaming Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Gas Act 1982Energy
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
Geneva Conventions Act 1958Foreign Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Energy
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Service Commission
Government Superannuation Fund Act 1956Treasury
Guardianship Act 1968Justice
Harbours Act 1950Transport
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Lands and Survey
Health Act 1956Health
Health Benefits (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1982Social Welfare
Heavy Engineering Research Levy Act 1978Scientific and Industrial Research
Higher Salaries Commission Act 1977Labour
Hire Purchase Act 1971Justice
Historic Places Act 1980Internal Affairs
Hive Levy Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Holidays Act 1981Labour
Home Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Hotel Association of New Zealand Act 1969Justice
Housing Act 1955Housing Corporation
Housing Corporation Act 1974Housing Corporation
Hovercraft Act 1971Transport
Howard Estate Act 1978Public Trust Office
Human Rights Commission Act 1977Justice
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Illegal Contracts Act 1970Justice
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Design Act 1966Trade and Industry
Industrial Relations Act 1973Labour
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Training Levies Act 1978Labour
Industries Development Commission Act 1961Trade and Industry
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1974Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Justice
Insurance Law Reform Act 1977Justice
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Departure Tax Act 1979Treasury
International Energy Agreement Act 1976Energy
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Energy
Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977Internal Affairs
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1981Justice
Kermadec Island Act 1887Foreign Affairs
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Energy
Lake Waikaremoana Act 1971Maori Affairs
Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973Prime Minister
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1982Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1969Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Justice
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Liquid Fuels Trust Act 1978Energy
Litter Act 1979Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1976Internal Affairs
Local Government Act 1974Internal Affairs
Local Railways Act 1914Works and Development
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Manapouri - Te Anau Development Act 1963Works and Development
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Affairs Department Act 1968Maori Affairs
Maori Community Development Act 1962Maori Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Education
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934–35Maori Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954Maori Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine and Power Engineers' Institute Industrial Disputes Act 1974Labour
Marine Farming Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Pollution Act 1974Transport
Marine Reserves Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture and Fisheries
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Massage Parlours Act 1978Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Maternity Leave and Employment Protection Act 1980Labour
Matrimonial Property Act 1976Justice
Meat Act 1981Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Control Act 1921–22Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Prices Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Medicines Act 1981Health
Mental Health Act 1969Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Trade and Industry
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1971Energy
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Ministry of Energy Act 1977Energy
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Minors' Contracts Act 1969Justice
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975Health
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Trade and Industry
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Energy
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1975Justice
Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978Lands and Survey
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Act 1981Education
Mutual Insurance Act 1955Public Trust
National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Act 1972Internal Affairs
National Development Act 1979Works and Development
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Housing Commission Act 1972Housing Corporation
National Library Act 1965Education
National Parks Act 1980Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Act 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council Act 1963State Services Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works and Development
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
Navy Act 1954Defence
New Zealand Army Act 1950Defence
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1972Education
New Zealand Council for Postgraduate Medical Education Act 1978Health
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Act 1932–33Treasury
New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974Trade and Industry
New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978Internal Affairs
New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Act 1939Education
New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
New Zealand Planning Act 1982Treasury
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Transport
New Zealand Railways Corporation Act 1981Transport
New Zealand Register of Osteopaths Incorporated Act 1978Health
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969Justice
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
New Zealand Walkways Act 1975Lands and Survey
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Niue Constitution Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Noise Control Act 1982Health
Noxious Plants Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Nurses Act 1977Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Information Act 1982Justice
Ombudsman Act 1975Justice
Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976Health
Orakei Block (Vesting and Use) Act 1978Lands and Survey
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Overseas Investment Act 1973Treasury
Overseas Representatives Act 1942Foreign Affairs
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation Act 1972Education
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1980Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Act 1964Justice
Pesticides Act 1979Agriculture and Fisheries
Petroleum Act 1937Energy
Petroleum Demand Restraint Act 1981Energy
Pharmacy Act 1970Health
Phosphate Commission of New Zealand Act 1981Agriculture and Fisheries
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plant Varieties Act 1973Agriculture and Fisheries
Plants Act 1970Agriculture and Fisheries
Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1976Health
Police Act 1958Police
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
Pork Industry Board Act 1982Agriculture and Fisheries
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Board Act 1981Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Product Marketing Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Regulations Confirmation Act 1981Agriculture and Fisheries
Private Investigators and Security Guards Act 1974Justice
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975Education
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Transport
Psychologists Act 1981Health
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works and Development
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1969Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1962Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Finance Act 1977Treasury
Public Safety Conservation Act 1932Justice
Public Service Investment Society Management Act (No. 2) 1979Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1981Works and Development
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works and Development
Quarries and Tunnels Act 1982Energy
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1974Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth The Second National Trust Act 1977Lands and Survey
Queen Elizabeth The Second Postgraduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Queen Elizabeth The Second Technicians Study Award Act 1970Education
Race Relations Act 1971Justice
Racing Act 1971Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rates Rebate Act 1973Internal Affairs
Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1976Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Recreation and Sport Act 1973Ministry of Recreation and Sport
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Welfare
Remuneration Act Repeal Act 1980Labour
Rent Appeal Act 1973Housing Corporation
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Reserve Bank
Reserves Act 1977Lands and Survey
Restricted Drugs Act 1960Health
River Boards Act 1908Internal Affairs
Road User Charges Act 1977Transport
Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950Defence
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Royal Powers Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1974Internal Affairs
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974Treasury
Rural Housing Act 1939Housing Corporation
Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927Housing Corporation
Safety of Children's Night Clothes Act 1977Trade and Industry
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sales Tax Act 1974Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1974Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Trade and Industry
Seal of New Zealand Act 1977Internal Affairs
Seamen's Union Funds Act 1971Labour
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Securities Act 1978Justice
Securities Transfer Act 1977Justice
Securities Advertising Act 1977Justice
Services Export Development Grants Act 1973Trade and Industry
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Transport
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973Transport
Shop Trading Hours Act 1977Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969Social Welfare
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works and Development
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stamp and Cheque Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Trade and Industry
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977State Services Commission
Statistics Act 1975Statistics
Status of Children Act 1969Justice
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Parliamentary Counsel Office
Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966Transport
Summary Offences Act 1981Justice
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Schemes Act 1976Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Transport
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Taratahi Agricultural Training Centre (Wairarapa) Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori Affairs
Tauranga Moana Maori Trust Board Act 1981Maori Affairs
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Testing Laboratory Registration Act 1972Scientific and Industrial Research
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Service
Time Act 1974Internal Affairs
Tobacco Growing Industry Act 1974Trade and Industry
Tokelau Act 1948Foreign Affairs
Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act 1908Tourist and Publicity
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1974Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1977Works and Development
Toxic Substances Act 1979Health
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trade and Industry Act 1956Trade and Industry
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Tramways Act 1908Works and Development
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975Maori Affairs
Trespass Act 1980Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Management Act 1975Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Reserve Bank
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Unclaimed Money Act 1971Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works and Development
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
Unit Titles Act 1972Justice
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
United Nations Act 1946Foreign Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Albany Act 1972Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordinance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1975Justice
Urban Transport Act 1980Transport
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture and Fisheries
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939Foreign Affairs
Vocational Awards Act 1979Education
Vocational Training Council Act 1982Labour
Volunteers Employment Protection Act 1973Labour
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act 1910Works and Development
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works and Development
Waitangi Day Act 1976Internal Affairs
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
Wanganui Computer Centre Act 1976Justice
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Welfare
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967Works and Development
Waterfront Industry Act 1976Labour
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Transport
Wheat Board Act 1965Trade and Industry
Wheat Levy Act 1974Trade and Industry
Wild Animal Control Act 1977Forest Service
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Wine Makers Act 1981Justice
Wine Makers Levy Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Labelling Act 1949Trade and Industry
Wool Testing Authority Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Workers Compensation Act 1956Labour

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS—Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. Useful references are The Citizen and Power; Administrative Tribunals—a survey by the Department of Justice, and the reports of the Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee, published annually.

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals—An Administrative Division of the High Court (then the Supreme Court) was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division consists of up to four Judges of the High Court, who are assigned to the Division by the Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division is to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It also hears and determines applications for judicial review and for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and High Court

Chief Justice; Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, c.m.g., g.b.e.

Court of Appeal; Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, c.m.g., g.b.e. (ex officio); Rt. Hon. Sir Owen Woodhouse, k.b.e., d.s.c., President; Rt. Hon. Sir Robin Cooke; Rt. Hon. I. L. M. Richardson; Rt. Hon. D. W. McMullin; Rt. Hon. E. J. Somers.

High Court; Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, c.m.g., g.b.e.; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. J. P. Quilliam; Hon. J. B. O'Regan; Hon. M. F. Chilwell; Hon. M. E. Casey; Hon. J. A. Ongley; Hon. R. I. Barker; Hon. J. F. Jeffries; Hon. M. H. Vautier; Hon. J. B. Sinclair; Hon. T. M. Thorp; Hon. G. E. Bisson; Hon. A. D. Holland; Hon. L. M. Greig; Hon. J. P. Cook, o.b.e., e.d.; Hon. R. C. Savage; Hon. M. Hardie Boys; Hon. E. M. Prichard; Hon. J. H. Wallace; Hon. J. T. Eichelbaum; Hon. D. L. Tompkins.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS

DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
* The Director-General of the Housing Corporation acts also as permanent head of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry ofDirector-GeneralM. L. Cameron, b.agr.sc.
AuditController and Auditor-GentralA. C. Shailes, b.a., f.c.a.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralD. P. Neazor, ll.m., q.c.
CustomsComptrollerP. J. McKone
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryD.B.G. McLean, m.sc., b.a. (oxon.)
 Chief of Defence StaffAir Marshal D. E. Jamieson, c.b., o.b.e.
 Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshal D. M. Crooks
 Chief of General StaffMajor-General R. Williams
 Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral C. Stewart
EducationDirector-GeneralW. L. Renwick, m.a.
Energy, Ministry ofSecretaryJ. J. Chesterman, f.n.z.i.e.
Environment, Commission for theCommissionerK. Piddington, m.a.
Foreign Affairs, Ministry ofSecretaryM. Norrish, m.a.
Government Life Insurance OfficeCommissionerH. D. Peacock, f.i.a.
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterP. D. Hasselberg, accts. prof.
HealthDirector-GeneralR. A. Barker, m.b., ch.b., f.r.c.p., f.r.a.c.p.
Housing CorporationDirector-GeneralA. Fear, dip. v.f.m., r.v.
Inland RevenueCommissionerJ. Simcock, a.c.a.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsE. J. Babe, b.com., a.c.a., d.p.a., dip. r.v.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeS. J. Callahan, a.c.a., d.p.a.
LabourSecretary of LabourG. L. Jackson, a.c.a.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralP. H. C. Lucas, accts. prof.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesC. P. Littlejohn, ll.m.
Maori AffairsSecretary and Maori TrusteeI. P. Puketapu, b.a.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralG. M. O'Neill, b.sc., b.sc. for. (edb.)
New Zealand Security Intelligence ServiceDirector of SecurityBrigadier J. L. Smith, m.b.e., c.b.e., b.a.
PoliceCommissionerK. O. Thompson.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralF. K. McInerney
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadG. Hensley, M.A.
Public Trust OfficePublic TrusteeN. W. Currie, a.c.a.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerT. M. Hayward, f.c.i.t.
Rural Banking and Finance Corp.*
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralG. Butler, m.sc., ph.d.(sweden), f.r.s.n.z.
Social WelfareDirector-GeneralJ. W. Grant
State Insurance OfficeGeneral ManagerG. D. Pringle, f.i.d., a.i.d.
State Services CommissionChairmanM. C. Probine, m.sc., ph.d.(lds), f.i.p.
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. H. Darwin, m.sc., b.a., ph.d. (mancun.)
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerW. N. Plimmer, m.a.
Trade and IndustrySecretaryJ. W. H. Clark, b.a., admin, prof., d.p.a.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryA. J. Healy, a.c.a.
TreasurySecretaryB. V. J. Galvin, b.a., m.p.a.(hvd.)
ValuationValuer-GeneralM. R. Mander, dip. v.f.m., r.v.
Works and Development, Ministry ofCommissionerR. Norman, b.e., m.sc., m.n.z.i.e.

FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS. THE STATE SERVICES

The State services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 34 departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Corporation, Legislative Department, Parliamentary Counsel Office, and other State organisations such as other Government corporations and agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services.

Under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the State Services Co-ordinating Committee is constituted as the principal adviser to the Minister of State Services and the official negotiating body with service organisations on all personnel matters which in the opinion of the committee significantly affect more than one employing authority. The committee consists of the following or their representatives; Chairman of the State Services Commission; Secretary to the Treasury; Director-General of the Post Office; General Manager of Railways; Secretary of Defence; Director-General of Health; and the Director-General of Education. Other State service employing authorities may be co-opted as members of the committee from time to time.

Apart from proposals concerning salaries and related conditions of employment, the committee discusses more general personnel matters referred to it by the Government, individual employing authorities, and employee organisations, and tries to achieve a reasonable degree of inter-service uniformity.

Brief summaries of the functions of Government departments are now given.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of—The purpose of the ministry is to assist the farming, horticulture, and fishing industries to identify and realise their potentials, to maintain and where possible improve New Zealand's animal, fish, and plant health status, and to provide our overseas customers with an assurance of the purity and safety of the food products we produce. The ministry also advises the Government on policies which will promote the growth and development of farming, horticulture, and fishing, maintain renewable resources, and enhance the New Zealand environment.

Audit Office—The Audit Office is responsible for auditing throughout the public sector—the Public Accounts, Government departments. Government trading corporations, local authorities, and producer boards. The audit is wider than the normal company audit and encompasses the twin areas of;

Financial—independent opinion on annual financial statements produced by above bodies.

—periodic review over financial control systems not directly related to the production of external financial statements.

Value for money—periodic reviews of the systems in both Central and Local Government for ensuring the efficient and effective use of public funds.

The Auditor-General, the statutory head of the Audit Office, has an annual duty to report to Parliament on any matters arising from audits which he desires to bring to public attention. In recent years these reports have concerned themselves with many aspects of financial management and administration generally in the public sector.

Crown Law Office—The primary function of the Crown Law Office is to act as the legal adviser of the Government and Ministers in matters affecting the Crown and Government departments. In addition the Solicitor-General performs most of the statutory and ex officio duties of the Attorney-General's office and is himself entrusted by statute with various specific rights, duties, and functions. In range and activity the legal work of the Crown Law Office corresponds with the activities of the Government itself, and just as those activities have extended in the past 30 years into commerce and social services, as well as the purely government sphere, so the scope of the Crown Law Office's legal work has widened accordingly.

Customs Department—The principal functions of the Customs Department are the detection and investigation of offences against the Customs Acts; administration of Customs prohibitions and restrictions; advising the Government on matters of tariff and other means of protection for local industry; collection of indirect taxation (Customs Duty, excise duty, sales tax, beer duty, motor spirits duty, international departure tax, and domestic air travel tax); investigations into values and origins of goods; participation in the negotiation of international and bilateral trade agreements; administration of the import licence issue procedures in conjunction with the Department of Trade and Industry; and the provision of administrative support for all functions of the department.

Customs responsibilities involve the entry and clearance of ships and aircraft, passenger processing, liaison with New Zealand and overseas agencies in the control of international traffic, ensuring staff are trained to a satisfactory standard, protection and assistance to domestic industry, thus allowing growth in productivity, exports and employment; collecting the optimum level of indirect taxation as set out in the relevant legislation; the facilitation of international trade to the benefit of New Zealand in accordance with the Government's policies; and the issue of import licences and control of exports from New Zealand.

Defence, Ministry of—Functions include the provision of the resources required to enable Defence Headquarters to undertake the central command, control, management, and administration of the defence forces and the Ministry of Defence, and also maintaining and operating the defence communications network.

Education, Department of—The primary objective of the department is to ensure that suitable education facilities and services are readily available for all children of compulsory school age (from 6 to 15 years); for children who by choice start school at the age of 5 years; for those pupils over the age of 15 who stay on at school; for suitably qualified school leavers who seek (or are required to undertake) education and training on leaving school in secondary schools, teachers colleges, or technical institutes; and for adults wishing to continue their education, whether for vocational or non-vocational purposes. Associated with this objective is the responsibility for administering government policy in the maintenance and development of pre-school education.

In carrying out these objectives the department's main activities are the provision of professional and administrative services for the support of the education system, the administration of primary and secondary education, special education, the training of teachers, technical and continuing education, and the National Library.

Energy, Ministry of—The Ministry of Energy was established to advise the Government on the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. In carrying out this function the ministry must take into account energy-sources and resources; exploration, assessment, research and development; production, supply, and distribution; consumption and conservation; needs of industry, commerce, transport, and domestic users; needs of regions; international responsibilities; environmental and social issues; organisational and administration methods; and future patterns, changes, problems, and the need for planning.

The ministry incorporates a head office, comprising the Corporate Services and Planning Divisions, and three operating divisions: Oil and Gas, Electricity, and Mines. All are responsible to the Secretary of Energy.

The Oil and Gas Division is responsible for oil supply and demand, demand restraint measures, the implementation of policy relating to alternative fuels, the pricing of oil and gas, policy relating to exploration and mining, natural gas utilisation and distribution, and the use of geothermal energy.

The Planning Division is responsible for economic studies into the demand for all types of energy, formulating suitable supply strategies, promoting efficient and economic use of energy conservation incentive schemes, and investigations into the viability of adopting new energy-related technologies.

The primary purpose of the Electricity Division of the ministry is to operate and maintain the bulk electricity supply system and to extend it so that the electricity needs of New Zealand are supplied safely, continuously, and economically. A further requirement is to undertake or promote measures to achieve greater economy and efficiency in the use of electricity as a means of reducing the future rate of growth of electricity requirements.

The Mines Division is responsible for the production and marketing of coal from state coal mines and administering licensing for the prospecting and mining of coal and other minerals. This includes the regulation and inspection of mining operations to ensure acceptable safety standards.

Environment, Commission for the—The commission provides advice and administrative support to the Minister for the Environment, promotes the co-ordination of Government policies in the environmental field, and initiates new policy proposals for the consideration of the Minister and others. It also audits environmental impact reports prepared by Government departments and other organisations on proposed new major works with significant environmental consequences.

Foreign Affairs, Ministry of—The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has the primary responsibility for advising and assisting the Government on the whole range of its relations with the outside world. This includes advising foreign governments of New Zealand's policies and keeping the New Zealand Government informed of overseas developments affecting New Zealand's interests. Policy formulation is undertaken in relation to New Zealand's economic, trade, political, and security needs, with the preparation of recommendations to the Government being carried out in close association with a number of other Government departments.

Other functions include the administration of New Zealand's official programme of aid to developing countries and responsibility for all official New Zealand information and publicity activities overseas other than those relating specifically to trade promotion or tourism.

The Ministry is the agency through which other governments and their representatives in New Zealand communicate with the New Zealand Government. It also undertakes foreign affairs and defence functions for the Cook Islands and Niue after consultation with their respective heads of government. It administers Tokelau.

In addition, the Ministry is responsible for operating and administering New Zealand's official representation overseas, which comprises a network of diplomatic and consular posts. A full list of these can be found in the Official Section at the end of this Yearbook. These posts represent and pursue New Zealand's interests overseas through a variety of ways, including participation in international negotiations, the gathering of information, and the promotion of a favourable New Zealand image. The posts perform services overseas on behalf of all Government departments and give assistance to New Zealanders overseas, whether travelling in official or private capacities. On behalf of other Government departments, posts are responsible for the overseas issue of passports and visas.

Forest Service, New Zealand—Management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards maintaining an exotic forest estate sufficiently large and diverse to meet future domestic timber and other forest produce needs and to provide for exports whilst also protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests.

Development and management of a wood resource for new forest-based industries leads to continuing employment opportunities and other socio-economic benefits regionally.

Implementation of a multiple-use forest policy involves the establishment and maintenance of forests for wood production, soil and water conservation, scenery preservation, the provision of recreational areas, and biological reserves.

Government Life Insurance Office—The operations of the Government Life Insurance Office are essentially a single activity which is to provide full and progressive life insurance and superannuation facilities for the people of New Zealand.

The office is a mutual life insurance office operating in active competition with private offices.

Government Printing Office—The function of the department is to supply the requirements of printing, stationery, and allied services to Government departments. It follows that the volume of demand from client departments regulates to a large extent the development or expansion of the Printing Office.

Health, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Health are;

  1. To administer the Health Act 1956, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Mental Health Act 1969, Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, the Toxic Substances Act 1979, the Clean Air Act 1972, and all other public Acts relating to the promotion or conservation of human health.

  2. To advise local authorities in matters relating to environmental health.

  3. To prevent, limit, and suppress communicable and other diseases.

  4. To promote or carry out research and investigation in public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease.

  5. To carry out inspections of factories within the meaning of section 2 of the Factories Act 1946 in relation to matters concerning the public health and the prevention or treatment of disease, and to carry out all such inspections as may be required or authorised by or under any other Act.

  6. To publish reports, information, and advice concerning public health.

  7. To organise and control medical, dental, and nursing services, so far as such services are paid for out of public moneys.

  8. Generally to take all such steps as may be desirable to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and co-ordination of measures conducive to public health.

  9. To provide advisory information and processing services to hospital boards and various health agencies.

Housing Corporation—The Housing Corporation is the chief government agency for providing finance for home ownership. It also provides home improvement loans, mortgage guarantees, and some refinance assistance.

Its other main function is the provision of publicly-owned housing. Activities include land acquisition and development, land sales, house construction, the management of its rental houses, sale of houses, loans and subsidy for pensioner accommodation, and urban development and redevelopment.

The corporation in its own right, or as agent, provides industrial loans and agency services including: administration of the Home Ownership Savings Act 1974; advances under the Family Benefit Capitalisation scheme; rehabilitation concessions to ex-servicemen; subsidies for hostel accommodation for young people; loans for hotel/motel accommodation, private schools, medical centres, and home insulation; and loans and mortgage guarantees to provide tourist accommodation and facilities.

Inland Revenue Department—The main function of the Inland Revenue Department is to assess and collect various taxes and duties. The principal of these is income tax which is collected in part by PAYE deductions from salaries and wages, in part by the payment of provisional tax during the year of derivation of income, and in part by an end of the year assessment. Of the other revenues collected the most significant comprise stamp duty, estate and gift duties, land tax, and totalisator duty. The department also collects accident compensation levies on behalf of the Accident Compensation Corporation.

Internal Affairs, Department of—The department carries out a broad range of functions, encompassing constitutional matters, including local government, community development, aspects of social regulation, conservation activities, common services to Government departments, and other responsibilities.

Through the Gaming, Films and Constitutional Division, the department attends to formal constitutional procedures for the summoning and prorogation of Parliament. As Clerk of the Writs the Secretary for Internal Affairs performs functions concerning the issue and return of writs for parliamentary general elections and by-elections. The department administers legislation relating to New Zealand citizenship and passports, attends to the reception of guests of Government and arrangement of State functions, and administers servicemen's cemeteries. It also administers the legislation relating to horse and greyhound racing, gaming and lotteries, and cinematograph film censorship.

The Local Government Division is responsible for administering legislation relating to regional and territorial local government and services Local Government Commission schemes. It also has responsibility for administering Government policies and legislation in relation to the New Zealand Fire Service, for co-ordination of Government activities for the Chatham Islands, and for the administration of Lake Taupo.

The Ministry of Civil Defence, in addition to its operational responsibilities, implements Government policy for assistance to local authorities in carrying out their civil defence obligations and for co-ordinating the planning and use of Government resources in civil defence emergencies.

The Recreation, Arts, and Youth Division, incorporating the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, is responsible for administering Government policies and legislation relating to cultural matters, the recreation and sport programme, and youth activities. It administers a large number of community funding programmes. The work of the Commonwealth Youth Programme within New Zealand is coordinated by the department. The New Zealand Lottery Board, the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, the National Museum, the National Art Gallery, and the New Zealand Historic Places Trust are all serviced by the department. The National Archives and the Historical Publications Branch form part of the department.

The Wildlife Service, in addition to managing the wildlife resources of two acclimatisation districts, is responsible nationally for the protection of New Zealand fauna. It administers legislation on recreational fishing, game hunting, and the conservation of native birds, terrestrial and freshwater invertebrates, and other wildlife species.

The department provides a translation service for Government departments which is also available to exporters, and administers the cleaning of Government offices. It attends to administrative matters relating to the office of the Governor-General and his staff, and to offices of Ministers of the Crown and Parliamentary Under-Secretaries. Meeting the costs of commissions of inquiry and carrying out administrative functions in respect to them are other responsibilities of the department.

Justice, Department of—The functions of the department may be classified broadly under the headings of penal policy and administration; law reform; the administration of justice; commercial affairs (including the administration of the Companies and Insolvency Acts); electoral; registration work including land titles, trade marks, patents, and births, deaths, and marriages; and social measures of a preventive nature. The Family Proceedings Act 1980, Legal Aid Act 1969, the Race Relations Act 1971, and the Summary Instalment Order provisions of the Insolvency Act 1967 have taken the department further into the broad area of social administration. The department is, through its Tribunals Division, responsible for the administration of the Sale of Liquor Act 1962, the Indecent Publications Act 1963, and the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 (Appeal Board provisions), together with other various tribunals.

Labour, Department of—The principal responsibilities of the Department of Labour are to promote and maintain full employment through the provision of a complete employment and vocational guidance service, to ensure through the work of its field staff that workers are employed under safe and healthy working conditions, to assist and promote good industrial relations, and to collect and publish relevant information. In addition, it administers a complex variety of statutes; among the most important are the Industrial Relations Act, the Factories and Commercial Premises Act, the Construction Act, and those dealing with weights and measures, apprenticeship, training, immigration, dangerous goods, and explosives.

Lands and Survey, Department of—As the Government's major land administering agency, the department manages, controls, or is involved with the administration of, about 10.3 million hectares of land, which represents approximately 38 percent of New Zealand's land area. Some 5.7 million hectares of this area is Crown leasehold, 2.8 million hectares is national parks and reserves, 663 766 hectares is being developed for farming purposes while the balance falls into miscellaneous categories (mountain tops, vacant Crown land, lake and riverbeds, etc.).

The department is also the national survey and mapping organisation, thus providing economies and effective co-ordination of all activities. This work includes control surveys as the basis for cadastral surveys and basic topographic mapping, land title surveys, large scale topographical surveys for engineering and management purposes, land development servicing, fixing of marine and air navigation aids and aerodrome obstruction surveys, earth deformation studies, and land environmental planning.

Maori Affairs, Department of—The broad functions of the Department of Maori Affairs are to assist the Maori and Pacific Island peoples, particularly in social, economic, and cultural matters. For example, Maori land owners are assisted by the way of title reform and capital advances to make full use of their resources, and through its Community Services Division, the department gives encouragement in the fields of education, employment, housing, and health.

New Zealand Police—The role of the Police is;

  1. (a)To protect life and property, by guarding, patrolling, and anticipating danger not only from criminal acts, but also those which are natural, accidental, or unintentional.

    (b)To safeguard the liberties of the individual and preserve the public peace, by seeking to create and maintain conditions under which people may go about their lawful affairs undisturbed and protected from harmful and dangerous conduct.

    (c)To prevent crime and to seek, identify, and eliminate the causes of crime.

    (d)To detect offenders if crime is committed.

  2. To encourage and advise the community on how to protect their persons and property from criminal behaviour.

  3. To provide guidance and assistance;

    1. In helping young people to achieve social maturity.

    2. In cases of tragedy, or family and/or other personal crisis.

Post Office—The Post Office is charged with the operation and development of postal and telecommunications systems, both internal and overseas; the Post Office Savings Bank; and with handling a wide range of payments and receipts for Government departments and other organisations.

Prime Minister's Department—The Prime Minister's Department was established as a separate department in December 1975. Within the Department, the Cabinet Office is responsible for servicing Cabinet, its Committees, and the Executive Council. The Press Office is responsible for news media and public information relating to the Prime Minister and the general co-ordination of ministerial publicity. The staff of the Office of the Prime Minister provides the normal ministerial services. The Advisory Group advises the Prime Minister on policy matters referred to it. The External Intelligence Bureau functions, as a research organisation in the general field of international affairs, and receives direction and policy guidance from the New Zealand Intelligence Council.

Public Trust Office—The Public Trustee provides a wide range of services as trustee, executor, manager, and attorney. He also acts as sinking fund or depreciation fund commissioner for many local authorities when so appointed, and additionally holds other funds on their behalf. He is required to provide a number of statutory services irrespective of whether these are remunerative.

New Zealand Railways Corporation—As from 1 April 1982 the New Zealand Government Railways Department became the New Zealand Railways Corporation.

The objectives of the corporation are—

  1. To establish, maintain, and operate, or otherwise arrange for, safe and efficient rail freight and passenger transport services within New Zealand.

  2. To establish, maintain, and operate, or otherwise arrange for, safe and efficient road passenger and freight transport services within New Zealand.

  3. To establish, maintain, and operate, or otherwise arrange for, a safe and efficient ferry service for freight including the carriage of passengers and vehicles between the North and South Islands.

  4. To provide or otherwise arrange for those ancillary services which, in the opinion of the corporation, are necessary for it to efficiently carry out its functions.

  5. To endeavour to carry on the operations of the corporation in such a way that revenue exceeds costs, including interest and depreciation; and to provide for a return on capital that may be specified from time to time by the Minister of Finance.

Rural Banking and Finance Corporation—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation was established on 1 April 1974 with the principal function of making loans and providing other assistance for farming and other primary industries and for related service industries.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of—The department exercises the functions of providing background scientific research for economic development, land use, and environmental control in several major areas.

Agriculture—Agriculture is a priority area, it being the mainstay of the country's economy. Increasing emphasis is placed on (a) new crops, including those suitable for irrigated land and mechanical harvesting, to meet the demands of the rapidly expanding food processing industry; (b) the breeding of new and better varieties of pasture, particularly for hill country farming; (c) pests and disease control, and (d) the curing, drying, storage, processing, and packaging of agricultural products.

Manufacturing—Particular emphasis is given to improved industrial liaison and advisory services, electronic and electrical work, metal cutting and forming, industrial vibration and acoustic problems, and new product development.

Minerals—Continuing emphasis is given to prospecting, finding new uses for and testing the processing of local raw materials with a view to substantially increasing the “added value” component before export.

Energy—Aspects of prospecting for, storage, and processing of energy resources are investigated. Advice is given on building and maintenance of energy-generating installations and on efficiency of use and conversion of energy in building and appliances. Processes for production of motor fuels from crops, coal, and wastes are being developed and tested, including economic aspects. Emphasis is being given to investigating the extent and possible additional utilisation of indigenous energy resources such as coal, natural gas, oil, and geothermal steam. Alternative forms of energy, i.e., solar, wind, ocean, are being investigated.

Natural Environment—Surveys are made of geology, soils, oceanography, flora, and fauna. Studies involve the environmental impact of major development proposals, including pollution problems.

Other Scientific Services—There are increasing demands for scientific services from Department of Health (food and drug analysis), Ministry of Transport (blood alcohol analysis), and Police Department (forensic), and for work related to road safety. Seven research journals are published for New Zealand scientists, a quality-assurance journal for industry, and information leaflets for the public.

Social Welfare, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are;

  1. To administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

State Insurance Office—The State Insurance Office transacts all classes of fire, accident, and marine insurance in New Zealand. Its function is to maintain a competitive insurance service.

It administers the Export Guarantee Office, which provides credit insurance for exporters, and also acts as claims-handling agent for the Accident Compensation Corporation.

Statistics, Department of—The Department of Statistics has the following broad functions;

  1. To collect, compile, analyse, abstract, and publish economic, financial, production, and social statistics, and to make estimates, forecasts, projections, and statistical models;

  2. To advise and inform the Minister of Statistics on statistical policy matters;

  3. To define and promote standard concepts, procedures, definitions, and classifications;

  4. To examine all proposals by other departments for commencing or commissioning new statistical surveys, and to prepare submissions to the Minister of Statistics for his approval;

  5. To review periodically the collection, compilation, analyses, abstraction, and publication of all official statistics;

  6. To maintain liaison with international organisations or agencies requiring or making use of New Zealand statistics.

Pay Research—The Pay Research Unit conducts pay research investigations into specified classes of work carried on in the State Services and comparable work carried on outside. The work is assigned by the Pay Research Council which comprises an equal representation of official and staff organisations.

Tourist and Publicity Department—The main functions of the Tourist and Publicity Department are to promote travel to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to develop domestic tourism and to stimulate off-season travel; to promote New Zealand overseas in the interests of tourist industry development; to administer schemes for financial assistance for the provision of accommodation and other tourist facilities and for expanding private sector marketing overseas; to undertake research into overseas tourism markets and into domestic tourism; to operate and sell tours and provide a complete travel service to assist overseas travel agents; and to provide, within New Zealand, information and publicity services for Ministers of the Crown and Government departments. In order to provide these services, the department includes the National Film Unit, the National Publicity Studios, and the Information and Publicity Services Division. It also provides research services for the Tourism Advisory Council, an advisory body established in 1977 to report and make recommendations to the Minister of Tourism on all aspects of tourism.

Trade and Industry, Department of—The principal statutory functions of the Department of Trade and Industry are to promote and encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce within New Zealand and to promote and encourage its export trade with a view to fostering the economic welfare of the country.

Greater attention is now being focused on the general economic climate in New Zealand with the objective of ensuring that decisions relating to investment and growth are framed so that resources are allocated efficiently. This provides a framework for the future development of the manufacturing sector which will encourage appropriate industries.

The diversification of New Zealand's exports, in the sense of both markets and products, is a major concern of the department. Trade negotiations with other countries, both individually and in international forums, are of critical importance and are increasing in number and complexity as trading horizons are widened. Equally, the department is involved with an increasing number of exporters in the development of new markets in a growing list of countries and in maintaining and expanding existing markets.

The department is trying to ensure that its administration of legislation on prices, monopolies, and mergers and takeovers, while fair to the consumer, does not inhibit either industrial development or the aims of increasing production, maintaining maximum levels of employment, and raising levels of productivity and exports.

Transport, Ministry of—The ministry is responsible for providing the Government with the information and advice necessary for the development of an efficient and economic transport policy.

The principal objective of the Road Transport Division is to develop, implement, and manage a range of programmes that will achieve a safe, efficient, and economic system of road transport.

The main objective of the Marine Division is to promote the safety of shipping in and beyond New Zealand waters, to ensure the safe handling of cargo at New Zealand ports, and the safe operation of boilers, pressure vessels, cranes, and lifts throughout New Zealand.

The main objective of the Civil Aviation Division is continuation of the existing high standards of civil aircraft operation. The ministry will continue its programme of providing improved facilities associated with the safe operation of aircraft particularly in regard to navigation aids, surveillance radars, aircraft and airport security, and general aviation supervision.

The Meteorological Service is responsible for the provision of information and advice to all sections of the community on the atmosphere, environment, weather, climatic conditions, and pollution of the air, and for promoting meteorological research and advising the Government on meteorological matters.

Treasury—The role of Treasury is;

  1. To control the receipt, custody, and payment of the Government's finances as directed by statute and Government decisions.

  2. To keep the Government informed on the existing external and internal economic situation, the effects of existing policy and trends and prospects for the future.

  3. To advise the Government on the level and content of its expenditure and receipts, and assess the most effective allocations of limited resources among competing expenditure proposals.

  4. To advise on, and implement, various aspects of the Government's financial and economic policies.

These general functions involve financial and economic management and investigating divisions of Treasury in the following particular tasks; the allocation of funds to departments; the investment of public funds; the raising, repayment, and conversion of loans; the preparation and co-ordination of economic situation reports, forecasts, and policy advice; and the preparation of the Budget and the annual Estimates of Expenditure.

The following specialist functions are also carried out by Treasury;

  1. The Superannuation Division administers the Government Superannuation Fund, and the National Provident Fund. The division also operates the local authorities investment pool which involves the granting of loans to local authorities and the investment of surplus funds.

  2. The Government Actuary's office provides specialist services for the Government Life Insurance Office and Government superannuation, registered friendly societies, and Government departments as required. The Government Actuary is also the Registrar of Building Societies.

  3. The Government Stores Board is the central controlling agency for the purchase, custody, and disposal of Government stores.

Valuation Department—The major activity of the department is to prepare valuation rolls for all districts in New Zealand, to maintain these rolls up to date with changes in property holdings, ownership, occupancy, and development and to revise the values at not more than 5-yearly intervals. Between the 5-yearly general revaluations current market values of individual properties are assessed as required. Values set by the department are used by other authorities to levy rates, land tax, estate, stamp and gift duties and also by most Government departments and agencies involved in land transactions. The department does research work on real estate markets and compiles section and house price indexes. It provides an advisory service to local authorities on all matters relating to rating. The department's extensive property record system is used to furnish data for land use, town planning and similar surveys to both local authorities and other public sector organisations.

Works and Development, Ministry of—In addition to the carrying out of Government works, the ministry has responsibility under the Minister's direction for executing projects and undertakings of national significance. Its objectives include the investigation, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of these works, having due regard to standards and costs, and the best practical means whereby environmental conditions can be conserved, restored, or enhanced. In most cases, completed works are taken over for operation and maintenance by operating departments such as the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy, and New Zealand Railways.

Further roles of the department include the development of natural resources and the encouragement, investigation, and co-ordination of proposals for regional planning, as well as the task of assembling information on the building and construction industries, and the programming of national capital formation including Government works.

Specific statutes administered by the department include the Public Works Act (which, inter alia, provides the Crown and local authorities with land acquisition powers), the Town and Country Planning Act, the National Development Act, the National Roads Act (the department services the National Roads Board), Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, Water and Soil Conservation Act (which involves the department in water allocation and quality control activities), and some local Acts.

Staff of State Services—The following table shows employment levels in the public sector.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
19781979198019811982

* Source; Annual Reports; calculated on head count basis.

† Includes Cook Strait ferry staff.

‡ Comprises teaching, non-teaching, and ancillary staff. Calculation of the teaching staff figure is based on entitlement in full-time equivalents while non-teaching and ancillary staff are calculated on a head count basis. Figures for 1978–1981 have been revised. Source: Departments of Education and University Grants Committee. 1982 figure is provisional.

§ Source: National Health Statistics Centre; calculated as average full-time equivalents.

‖ Effective strength of uniformed police plus cadets, matrons, staff on retiring leave, etc.

¶ Includes Legislative Department, Parliamentary Counsel Office, Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, Ombudsmen's Office, Privacy Commissioner's Office, Vocational Training Council, and other bodies financed by Government funds.

** Figures for 1978–81 have been revised.

†† As at February for 1980 and 1981.

‡‡ Source: Census, March 1981.

Public Service*83 24284 51684 36385 66686 045
Railways*†21 91522 07621 79421 24121 610
Post Office*38 89439 39539 46539 63939 279
Education‡57 733x58 026x61 607x61 245x61 590
Hospital services§47 82848 66848 53249 27149 024
Armed forces*12 76212 73912 64112 86612 808
Police‖4 8284 8825 0885 0605 085
Other (estimated)¶700750750704710
      Total267 902x271 052x274 240x275 692x276 151
Percentage of total labour force**20.95x20.85x20.94x20.80x20.73
Labour force as at April††1 278 8001 299 8001 309 4001 325 4001 332 300‡‡

In New Zealand, with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres, the work of the State Services covers a broad field. The Government decides when a new service is to be provided or a new function undertaken. Work loads increase as a result of such factors as legislative changes or population growth, but are offset to some extent by improvements in efficiency. Since February 1976 the total staff ceiling of the public service has been frozen, with priority demands for additional staff in departments being met from a “pool” of positions to which each department contributes a fixed percentage of its total staff ceiling. It should be noted that staff ceiling figures are calculated on full-time equivalent positions while the figures in the tables are actual head counts and also include staff appointed under the separate ceilings for training and for unemployment-related functions. Recent trends have been for more staff for research and resource development, especially development of energy projects, and expanded social services.

The consumption expenditure of Central Government and Local Government as percentages of the appropriation of national disposable income is shown in the following table.

Year Ended MarchFinal Consumption Expenditure ofNational Disposable IncomeExpenditure as Percentage of National Disposable Income
Central GovernmentLocal GovernmentCentral GovernmentLocal Government
* Provisional.
 $(m)$(m)$(m)%%
1977–782,10627113,67415.42.0
1978–792,56533315,74816.32.1
1979–80*2,92839619,04915.42.1
1980–81*3,65848722,01116.62.2
1981–82*4,43459626,34416.82.3

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION—In terms of the State Services Act 1962 the State Services Commission is responsible to the Government of the day for efficiency and economy in the administration of Government policies.

In its role as the central personnel authority for the Public Service, the Commission is independent of the Government of the day in making appointments and promotions and in taking disciplinary action and other personnel decisions. This independence is protected by law.

The Act provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The statutory functions of the Commission are set out in section 12 of the Act:

  1. Reviewing the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between departments, the desirability of (or need for) the creation of new departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing departments, the co-ordination of the activities of departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one department over the operations of another department:

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each department;

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service;

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff;

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service;

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff;

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

The Commission has additional functions under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. That legislation provides that the Commission is responsible for determining the salaries and conditions of employment for all employees of the Public Service and for co-ordinating the determination of pay rates and conditions of employment in all branches of the State Services (the Post Office, Railways, teaching service, hospital service, Broadcasting, Fire Service, the armed forces and the Public Service).

Computer Services—The Computer Services Division of the State Services Commission is responsible for the control, co-ordination, planning, and provision of electronic data-processing services within the Public Service, and for advising the Government on computing.

The division's head office is in Cumberland House, Willis Street, Wellington.

It maintains 4 computer centres;

Cumberland Computer Centre, Cumberland House, for accounting and payroll applications for the majority of Government departments.

Pipitea Computer Centre, Thorndon Quay, for Valuation, Social Welfare, and Inland Revenue systems.

Trentham Computer Centre, Anzac Road, Trentham, to support bulk processing of the Statistics Department and scientific users.

Wanganui Computer Centre, Wairere House, Bute Street, Wanganui, to service the Police, Transport, and Justice Departments.

An engineering and scientific computer centre in the Vogel Building, Wellington, is operated by the Ministry of Works and Development as agent for the State Services Commission.

The division also maintains 4 data preparation centres located in Blenheim, Palmerston North, Waikanae, and Upper Hutt.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment—The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its recruitment officers and district representatives, and by departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools, and career leaflets are published.

Promotion—Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. Appointments to positions above basic level may be made either from people within the Public Service or from people outside the service. In making appointments the State Services Commission requires departments to adhere to the principle of equal employment opportunity. Accordingly, any person may apply to join the Public Service, without regard to race, colour, national or ethnic origins, sex, marital status, and religious beliefs or the absence thereof. Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Classification and Grading—Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required, and individual positions are allocated a grade or grades within that class.

Remuneration—Salary rates are prescribed in accordance with the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 and are in general related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service. Adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.

Efficiency and Economy—In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with departments, reviews and analyses systems, standards, and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; and lays down clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education—The Commission also advises departments on education, staff training, and development, and provides resource material and training programmes. It has a particular responsibility for the provision and delivery of middle and senior management programmes. Future staffing needs of the Public Service are studied.

Elimination of Discrimination—The public service has tended to be ahead of the private sector in the introduction of provisions to eliminate discrimination, e.g., equal pay, maternity and paternity leave, preferential re-entry after resigning to care for a pre-school child, and equal access to housing finance for male and female staff on transfer. The Public Service also operates affirmative action programmes for the disabled and for Maoris and Pacific Islanders.

Statistics; Staff—The detailed distribution of staff among departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (Parliamentary paper G. 3). At 31 March 1982 there were 66 259 permanent officers and 1454 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 65 844 and 1531 respectively. These figures do not include wage workers, who totalled 18 332 in 1982.

STATUTORY BOARDS AND COMMITTEES—The following is a list of the main statutory boards and committees grouped according to the Government department responsible for the administration of the legislation or the servicing of the boards. The order of departments is generally that followed in the Yearbook for coverage of the main subject matter.

Foreign Affairs, Ministry of

Advisory Committee on External Aid and Development.

New Zealand/Australia Foundation Board of Trustees.

New Zealand/Japan Foundation Board of Trustees.

Health, Department of

Advisory Board on Health Services Computing.

Advisory Committee on Hospital Board Funding.

Advisory Committee on Medical Manpower.

Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health.

Ambulance Transport Advisory Board.

Anaesthetic Mortality Assessment Committee.

Anaesthetic Technicians Training Committee.

Board of Health.

Board of Health Committee on Child Health.

Board of Health Committee on the Health of the Elderly.

Board of Health Committee on Hearing.

Board of Health Epidemiology Advisory Committee.

Board of Health Local Authority Affairs Committee.

Board of Health Maori and Polynesian Health Committee.

Board of Health Maternity Services Committee.

Central Committee on Training of Orthopaedic Technicians.

Central Standing Committee on Health Centres.

Children's Health Camps Board.

Civil Defence Medical Planning Committee.

Clean Air Council.

Committee on Adverse Drug Reactions.

Committee on Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing.

Congenital Anomalies Advisory Committee.

Consultant Advisers in Pathology Committee.

Council of the Pharmaceutical Society.

Dental Benefits Central Advisory Committee.

Dental Council.

Dental Council: Investigation Committee.

Dental Technicians Board.

Dietitians Board.

Dietitians Salaries Grading Committee.

Drug Assessment Advisory Committee.

Drugs Advisory Committee.

Engineers Salaries Grading Committee.

Fluoridation Advisory Committee.

Food Standards Committee.

Hospital Medical Officers Advisory Committee.

Hospital Scientific Officers Salaries Grading Advisory Committee.

Hospital Services Committee.

Hospital Works Committee.

Hospitals Advisory Council.

House Surgeons Establishment Committee.

Laboratory Officers Salaries Grading Committee.

Laboratory Services Advisory Committee.

Laboratory Services Fees Negotiating Committee.

Maternal Deaths Assessment Committee.

Maternity Benefits Negotiating Committee.

Medical Council of New Zealand.

Medical Laboratory Technologists Board.

Medical Officers Salaries Grading Committee.

Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee.

Medical Radiation Technologists Board.

Medical Research Council of New Zealand.

Medical Services Advisory Committee.

National Advisory Committee on Cancer Treatment Services.

National Nursing Manpower Planning Committee.

National Technical Committee on Standards and Quality Control in Medical Clinical Laboratories.

N.Z. Council for Postgraduate Medical Education.

Northland Health Services Advisory Committee.

Nosocomial Infections Advisory Committee.

Nursing Council of New Zealand.

Nursing Education Review Advisory Committee.

Nutrition Advisory Committee.

Occupational Health Advisory Committee.

Occupational Therapy Board.

Opticians Board.

Pharmaceutical Advisory Committee.

Pharmaceutical Benefits Negotiating Committee.

Pharmaceutical and Therapeutics Advisory Committee.

Pharmacy Board of Appeal.

Physiotherapy Board.

Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Board.

Podiatrics Board.

Poisons Committee.

Psychologists Board.

Radiation Protection Advisory Council.

Radiographers Salaries Grading Committee.

Radiological Services Advisory Committee.

Registrars Review Panel.

Review Committee.

Secretarial and Clerical Officers Salaries Grading Committee.

Senior Medical Officers Overseas Study Grants Selection Committee.

South Auckland Plunket Child Health Committee.

Special Advisory Committee on Health Services Organisation.

Special Dentist Manpower Advisory Committee.

Supervising Committee, Rotoroa Island Inebriates Home.

Supervising Committee, The Bridge (Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch).

Technical Standing Committee on Renal Dialysis.

Technicians Grading Advisory Committee.

Toxic Substances Board.

Transfusion Advisory Committee.

Wellington Health Services Advisory Committee.

Social Welfare. Department of

National Advisory Committee on the Prevention of Child Abuse.

N.Z. Social Work Training Centre.

Social Advisory Council.

Social Science Research Fund Committee.

War Pensions and Rehabilitation

War Pensions Board.

War Pensions Appeal Board.

War Pensions Medical Research Trust.

Rehabilitation Board.

N.Z. Artificial Limb Board.

Advisory Council for the Community Welfare of Disabled Persons.

Education, Department of

Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards.

Central Advisory Committee.

Education Boards Employment Review Committee.

Integration Advisory Committee.

Maori Education Foundation.

Music Teachers' Registration Board.

N.Z. National Commission for UNESCO.

National Council of Adult Education.

National Library Board of Trustees.

Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Board.

Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation.

Primary Teachers Appointments Appeal Board.

School Certificate Examination Board.

Teacher Assessment and Classification Appeal Board.

Teachers Court of Appeal.

Teachers Disciplinary Board.

Technical Institute and Community College Boards Employment Review Committee.

N.Z. Trades Certification Board.

Justice, Department of

Abortion Supervisory Committee.

Accident Compensation Appeal Authority.

Broadcasting Tribunal.

Chiropractic Board.

Contracts and Commercial Law Reform Committee.

Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal.

Copyright Tribunal.

Criminal Law Reform Committee.

District Courts Rules Committee.

Deportation Review Tribunal.

Equal Opportunities Tribunal.

Fire Service Appeal Authority.

Hotel Investment Account Advisory Committee.

Indecent Publications Tribunal.

Inspector Licensed Premises.

Land Valuation Tribunals (there are 21 of these).

Law Reform Council.

Legal Aid Appeal Authority.

Legal Aid Board.

Licensing Committees (there are 21 of these).

Licensing Control Commission.

Milk Appeal Authority.

Motor Vehicle Disputes Tribunal.

Pharmacy Authority.

Planning Tribunals.

Prison Parole Board.

Property Law and Equity Reform Committee.

Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee.

Real Estate Agents Licensing Board.

Registrar of Private Investigators and Security Guards.

Release to Work Committee.

Representation Commission.

Rules Committee.

Securities Commission.

Small Claims Tribunal.

Taxation Review Authority.

Tertiary Assistance Grants Appeal Authority.

Torts and General Law Reform Committee.

Waitangi Tribunal.

Ministry of Defence

Armed Forces Canteen Council.

Police Department

Disciplinary Inquiry Tribunal.

Police Promotion Board.

Police Appeal Board.

Police Staff Tribunal.

Medical Appeal Board.

Transport, Ministry of

Air New Zealand.

Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority.

Air Services Licensing Authority.

Aviation Safety Board.

Marine Council.

Maritime Appeal Authority.

New Zealand Ports Authority.

Urban Transport Council.

Road Traffic Safety Research Council.

Shipping Industry Tribunal.

Shipping Corporation of New Zealand.

Transport Advisory Council.

Transport Licensing Authorities (5).

Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Committees—

Small Boat Safety Committee.

National Pollution Committee.

New Zealand Search and Rescue Committee.

Safe Driving Award Scheme Committee.

Railways Corporation

Government Railways Appeal Board.

Government Railways Industrial Tribunal.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of

Biological Resources Centre.

Building Research Association of N.Z. Inc.

Carter Observatory Board.

Cawthron Institute Trust Board.

Coal Research Association of N.Z. Inc.

N.Z. Dairy Research Institute.

Fruit Research Advisory Committee.

Geothermal Research Advisory Committee.

Hop Research Committee.

Meat Industry Research Institute of N.Z.

N.Z. Atomic Energy Committee.

N.Z. Committee of Culture Collection of Microorganisms.

N.Z. Concrete Research Association.

N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers Research Association.

N.Z. Heavy Engineering Research Association (Inc.).

N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association Inc.

N.Z. Logging Industry Research Association.

N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association.

Potato Research Advisory Committee.

Research Institute of Textile Services.

Ross Dependency Research Committee.

Seed Potato Certification Advisory Committee.

Testing Laboratory Registration Council.

Tobacco Research Advisory Committee

Viticultural and Oenological Research Advisory Committee.

Wheat Research Committee.

Wool Research Organisation of N.Z. Inc.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of

Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

Animal Remedies Board.

Apple and Pear Prices Authority.

Citrus Marketing Authority.

Dairy Factory Managers' Registration Board.

Dairy Industry Loans Council.

Dairy Products Prices Authority.

Fisheries Licensing Authority.

Fishing Industry Board.

Herd Improvement Council.

Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority.

Meat Export Prices Committee.

Meat Industry Authority.

Milk Prices Authority.

Nassella Tussock Boards (Marlborough and North Canterbury).

National Dairy Association of New Zealand Ltd.

National Hydatids Council.

N.Z. Dairy Board.

N.Z. Honey Marketing Authority.

N.Z. Meat Producers Board.

N.Z. Milk Board.

N.Z. Pork Industry Council.

N.Z. Potato Board.

N.Z. Poultry Board.

N.Z. Wheat Board.

N.Z. Wool Board.

N.Z. Wool Testing Authority.

Noxious Plants Council.

Pesticides Board.

Phosphate Commission of N.Z.

Plant Varieties Board.

Pork Marketing Board.

Raspberry Marketing Committees (Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago).

Raspberry Marketing Council.

Royal N.Z. Institute of Horticulture.

Telford Farm Training Institute.

Veterinary Services Council.

Veterinary Surgeons' Board.

(Excludes advisory or technical committees appointed under section 13 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953).

Works and Development, Ministry of

Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority.

Building Industry Advisory Council.

Clerks of Works Registration Board.

Engineering Associates Registration Board.

Engineers Registration Board.

National Roads Board.

National Water and Soil Conservation Authority.

Quantity Surveyors' Registration Board.

Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.

Water Resources Council.

Lands and Survey, Department of

Land Settlement Board.

National Parks and Reserves Authority.

Maritime Parks Boards.

National Parks and Reserves Boards.

Nature Conservation Council.

N.Z. Survey Board.

N.Z. Geographic Board.

N.Z. Walkway Commission.

Land Use Advisory Council.

National Land Inventory Committee.

Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust.

N.Z. Forest Service

N.Z. Forestry Council.

Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee.

Forest Disease Control Advisory Committee.

Forest Parks Advisory Committees (17).

State Forest Reserves Scientific Advisory Committee.

Timber Industry Training Centre Advisory Committee.

Timber Preservation Authority.

Indigenous Forest Timber Advisory Committee.

National Recreational Hunting Advisory Committee.

Maori Affairs, Department of

Maori Land Board.

Maori Purposes Fund Board.

Licensed Interpreters Board of Examiners.

New Zealand Polynesian Festival Committee.

Valuation Department

Valuers Registration Board.

Housing Corporation of New Zealand

Housing Allocation Committees

Ministry of Energy

N.Z. Gas Council.

Board of Examiners—Coal Mines Act 1979.

Board of Examiners—Mining Act 1971.

Coal Mines Council.

Coal Mining Industries Welfare Council.

Coal Promotion Council.

Electricians Registration Board.

Electric Lineman Training Committee.

Rural Electrical Reticulation Council.

Electrical Wiring Regulations Committee.

N.Z. Energy Research and Development Committee.

Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand and subsidiary companies.

Liquid Fuels Trust Board.

Major Projects Advisory Group.

CNG Co-ordination Committee.

Demand Restraint Advisory Committee.

Clean Air Council.

Interdepartmental Committee on Heating of Public Buildings.

Energy Advisory Committee.

Oil Stocks and Supply Advisory Committee.

Maramarua Coal Fields Ltd.

Coal Supplies (Wholesale) Ltd.

Waikato Carbonisation Ltd.

Roose Packaging Ltd.

Roosepak Distributors Ltd.

Trade and Industry, Department of

Industries and Commerce

Commerce Commission.

Consumer Council.

Development Finance Corporation.

Emergency Protection Authority.

Industries Development Commission.

Manufacturing Development Council.

Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.

Motor Spirits Licensing Appeal Authority.

N.Z. Industrial Design Council.

N.Z. Wheat Board.

Regional Development Councils (East Coast, King Country, Marlborough, Northland, Otago, Southern Canterbury, Southland, Taranaki, Wairarapa, Wanganui, and West Coast).

Standards Association of N.Z.—Standards Council.

Tobacco Board.

Overseas Trade

Export Guarantee Advisory Committee.

N.Z. Export Import Corporation.

Treasury

Government Stores Board.

Local Authorities Loans Board.

National Provident Fund Board.

National Provident Fund Investment Committee.

N.Z. Planning Council.

Government Superannuation Board.

Labour, Department of

Advisory Committee on Apprenticeship Reform.

Agricultural Tribunal.

Aircrew Industrial Tribunal.

Apprenticeship Committees (39).

Arbitration Court.

Building Industry Technicians' Training Council.

Conscientious Objection Committee.

Construction Act Advisory Committee.

Dental Technician Training Council.

Deportation Review Tribunal.

Employment Advisory Committees (12).

Freezing Industry Disputes Committee.

Government Service Tribunal.

Higher Salaries Commission.

Industrial Conciliation Service.

Industrial Mediation Service.

Industrial Relations Council.

National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.

Public Service Appeal Board.

Public Service Classification and Grading Committee.

Public Sector Tribunal.

Shop Trading Hours Commission.

Vocational Training Council.

Waterfront Industry Commission.

Waterfront Industry Tribunal.

Tourist and Publicity Department

Tourism Advisory Council.

Maori Arts and Crafts Institute.

Internal Affairs, Department of

Architects' Education and Registration Board.

Architects' Investigation Committee.

Council for Maori and South Pacific Arts.

Fauna Protection Advisory Council.

N.Z. Historic Places Trust.

N.Z. Lottery Board and Distribution Committees (5).

N.Z. Fire Service Commission.

N.Z. Canteen Fund Board.

N.Z. Patriotic Fund Board.

N.Z. Racing Authority.

Totalisator Agency Board.

Arts

ANZAC Fellowship Selection Committee.

Authors Fund Advisory Committee.

Cultural Facilities Advisory Committee.

Films Censorship Board of Review.

Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

National Art Gallery, Museum and War Memorial Board and Councils (4).

N.Z. Film Commission.

Art Galleries and Museums Fund Advisory Committee.

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council.

Regional Arts Councils (3).

Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board.

Civil Defence

National Civil Defence Committee.

National Civil Defence Planning Committees for; Communications; Medical; Supply and Services; Welfare and Evacuation; Publicity; Transport; Traffic Control; Law and Order; Fire Fighting.

Local Government

Joint Council for Local Authority Services.

Local Government Commission.

Recreation and Sport

N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport.

State Services Commission

Classification and Grading Committee.

Education Service Committee.

Hospital Service Committee.

Government Service Tribunal.

National Research Advisory Council.

Public Service Appeal Board.

State Services Co-ordinating Committee.

Public Sector Tribunal.

Wanganui Computer Centre Policy Committee.

Wanganui Computer Centre Management Committee.

NEW ZEALAND'S OVERSEAS POSTS

For further information on the overseas posts listed below refer to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' publication New Zealand Government Offices Overseas.

Australia—High Commission, Commonwealth Avenue, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600.

Consulate-General, 60 Park Street (corner Park and Elizabeth Streets), Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 (G.P.O. Box 365, Sydney, N.S.W. 2001).

Government Tourist Office, 115 Pitt Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000 (G.P.O. Box 614, Sydney N.S.W. 2001).

Consulate-General, 330 Collins Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3001).

Government Tourist Office, 332 Collins Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3001).

Consulate, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Government Tourist Office, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Consulate, 5th Floor, St. George's Court, 16 St. George's Terrace, Perth, W.A. 6000 (G.P.O. Box X2227, Perth, W.A. 6001).

Austria—Embassy, Hollandstrasse 2/XII, Vienna (Postal address: Postfach 1471, A-1011 Vienna).

Bahrain—Consulate-General, 1st Floor, Manama Centre Building, Government Road, Manama. (Postal address: P.O. Box 5881, Manama, Bahrain).

Bangladesh—High Commissioner (designate) resident in Wellington.

Barbados—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa (see under Canada).

Belgium—Embassy, Boulevard du Regent 47–48, 1000 Brussels.

Brazil—Ambassador resident in Santiago (see under Chile).

Britain—High Commission, New Zealand House, Haymarket, London SW 1Y 4TQ.

Brunei—Commissioner resident in Kuala Lumpur (see under Malaysia).

Burma—Ambassador resident in Bangkok (see under Thailand).

Canada—High Commission, Suite 801, Metropolitan House, 99 Bank Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 6G3.

Consulate, Suite 1160–701, West Georgia Street, I.B.M. Tower, Vancouver, B.C. (P.O. Box 10071, Pacific Centre, Vancouver, B.C. V7Y 1B6).

Chile—Embassy, Avenida Isidora Goyenechea 3516 Las Condes, Santiago.

China—Embassy, Ritan Dongerjie No. 1, Chaoyang District, Peking.

Colombia—Ambassador resident in Lima (see under Peru).

Cook Islands—Office of the New Zealand Representative, 1st Floor, Philatelic Bureau Building, Takuvaine Road, Avarua, Rarotonga (P.O. Box 21, Rarotonga).

Cyprus—High Commissioner resident in Athens (see under Greece).

Czechoslovakia—Ambassador resident in Vienna (see under Austria).

Denmark—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Ecuador—Ambassador resident in Lima (see under Peru).

Egypt—Ambassador resident in Rome (see under Italy).

European Communities—Ambassador resident in Brussels (see under Belgium).

Fiji—High Commission, Ratu Sukuna House, corner of Victoria Parade and MacArthur Street (P.O. Box 1378), Suva.

Finland—Ambassador resident in Moscow (see under U.S.S.R.).

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)—See under United Nations.

France—Embassy, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Consulate-General, 4 Boulevard Vauban, Noumea, New Caledonia (Postal Address: Bo$iCte Postale 2219).

New Zealand Government Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., Vaima Centre, (B.P. 73), Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia.

German Democratic Republic—Ambassador resident in Vienna (see under Austria).

Germany, Federal Republic of—Embassy, Bonn Center, HI 902, Bundeskanzlerplatz, 5300 Bonn. Government Tourist Office, Kaiserhofstrasse 7, 6000 Frankfurt, Main.

Greece—Embassy, An Tsoha 15–17, Ambelokipi, Athens, TT 618.

Guyana—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa (see under Canada).

Holy See—Ambassador resident in Paris (see under France).

Hong Kong—Commission, 3414 Connaught Centre, Connaught Road (G.P.O. Box 2790), Hong Kong.

Hungary—Ambassador resident in Vienna (see under Austria).

India—High Commissioner resident in Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy, Jalan Diponegoro No. 41, Menteng, Jakarta. (Postal address; P.O. Box 2439 JKT).

Iran—Embassy, Avenue Mirzai Shirazi, Shahid Ali-ye-Mirza Hassani Street, No. 29 (P.O. Box 128), Tehran.

Iraq—Embassy, 2D/19, Zuwiya, Jadriyah, Baghdad (near Baghdad University), (P.O. Box 2350 Alwiyah).

Ireland—Ambassador resident in London (see under Britain).

Italy—Embassy, Via Zara 28, Rome 00198.

Jamaica—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa (see under Canada).

Japan—Embassy, 20–40 Kamiyama-cho, Shibuya-Ku, Tokyo 150.

Government Tourist Office, 5–2 Yurakucho 1-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100.

Kenya—High Commissioner resident in Athens (see under Greece).

Kiribati—High Commissioner resident in Suva (see under Fiji).

Korea, Republic of—Embassy, 2nd Floor, Publishers Association Building, No. 105–2, Sagan-dong, Chongro-ku (G.P.O. Box 1059), Seoul.

Laos—Ambassador resident in Bangkok (see under Thailand).

Luxembourg—Ambassador resident in Brussels (see under Belgium).

Macau—Consul-General resident in Hong Kong.

Malaysia—High Commission, 193 Jalan Pekeliling (P.O. Box 2003), Kuala Lumpur, 16–01.

Maldives—Ambassador resident in Singapore.

Malta—High Commissioner resident in Rome (see under Italy).

Mexico—Ambassador resident in Washington (see under United States). A resident mission will be opened in first half of 1983.

Mongolia—Ambassador resident in Moscow (see under U.S.S.R.).

Nauru—High Commissioner resident in Suva (see under Fiji).

Nepal—Ambassador resident in Wellington.

Netherlands—Embassy, Lange Voorhout 18, 2514 EE The Hague.

New Caledonia—See under France.

Nigeria—High Commissioner resident in London (see under Britain).

Niue—Office of the New Zealand Representative, Tapeu, Alofi (P.O. Box 78), Niue.

Norway—Ambassador resident in The Hague (see under Netherlands).

OECD—N.Z. Permanent Delegation to the OECD is located at the N.Z. Embassy in Paris (see under France).

Pakistan—Ambassador resident in Tehran (see under Iran).

Papua New Guinea—High Commission, 6th Floor, Australian High Commission Building, Waigani, Port Moresby (P.O. Box 1144, Boroko, Port Moresby).

Peru—Embassy, Avenida Salaverry 3006, San Isidro (Postal address; Casilla 5587), Lima.

Philippines—Embassy, 10th Floor, Bankmer Building, 6756 Ayala Avenue (P.O. Box 2208, Makati Commercial Centre), Makati, Metro, Manila.

Poland—Ambassador resident in Vienna (see under Austria).

Portugal—Ambassador resident in Paris (see under France).

Romania—Ambassador resident in Vienna (see under Austria).

Saudi Arabia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

Singapore—High Commission, 13 Nassim Road, Singapore 1025.

Solomon Islands—High Commission, Soltel House, Mendana Avenue (P.O. Box 697), Honiara.

Spain—Ambassador resident in Paris (see under France).

Sri Lanka—High Commissioner resident in Singapore.

Sweden—Ambassador resident in The Hague (see under The Netherlands).

Switzerland—Ambassador resident in Bonn.

Consulate-General, 28a Chemin du Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

Tahiti—See under France.

Tanzania—High Commissioner resident in Athens (see under Greece).

Thailand—Embassy, 93 Wireless Road (P.O. Box 2719), Bangkok 5.

Tokelau—Office for Tokelau Affairs, Savalalo Street, Apia, Western Samoa (P.O. Box 865, Apia).

Tonga—High Commission, Tungi Arcade, Taufa'ahau Road, Nuku'alofa (P.O. Box 830).

Trinidad and Tobago—High Commission resident in Ottawa (see under Canada).

Tuvalu—High Commissioner resident in Suva (see under Fiji).

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics—Embassy, 44 Ulitsa Vorovskovo, Moscow 121069.

United Nations—New Zealand Permanent Mission to the United Nations, One U.N. Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10017.

New Zealand Permanent Mission to the Office of the United Nations in Geneva, 28a Chemin du Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva, (Postal address; Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland).

New Zealand Permanent Mission to the Office of the U.N. in Vienna, located at the N.Z. Embassy in Vienna (see under Austria).

New Zealand Permanent Delegation to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), located at the N.Z. Embassy in Rome (see under Italy).

New Zealand Permanent Delegation to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation, located at the N.Z. Embassy in Paris (see under France).

United States—Embassy, 37 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008.

Consulate-General, Suite 530, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10111, U.S.A.

Consulate-General, Alcoa Building, Suite 970, Maritime Plaza, San Francisco, Ca. 94111.

Consulate-General, Suite 1530, Tishman Building, 10960 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, Ca. 90024.

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., Suite 1707, Waikiki Business Plaza, 2270 Kalakaua Avenue, Waikiki, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96815, U.S.A.

Vanuatu—High Commissioner resident in Honiara (see under Solomon Islands).

Venezuela—Ambassador resident in Lima (see under Peru).

Viet Nam—Ambassador resident in Bangkok (see under Thailand).

Western Samoa—High Commission, Beach Road (P.O. Box 208), Apia.

Yugoslavia—Ambassador resident in Rome (see under Rome).

DIPLOMATIC, CONSULAR, AND OTHER REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

For further information on the official overseas representation in New Zealand listed below refer to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' publication Diplomatic Corps and Consular and Other Representatives.

Australia—Australian High Commission, 72–78 Hobson Street, Thorndon, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Lorne Towers, 12 Lorne Street, Auckland.

Austria—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul, 158 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 1 McColl Street, Auckland.

Bangladesh—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, 1–3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 8th Floor, Southern Cross Building, Victoria Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 10th Floor, AMP Building, 47 Cathedral Square, Christchurch.

Brazil—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul, 8 Commerce Street, Auckland.

Britain—British High Commission, Reserve Bank Building, 2 The Terrace, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Norwich Union Building, Queen Street, Auckland 1.

Hon. Consul, 44b Glandovey Road, Fendalton, Christchurch.

Burma—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, ICI House Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Chile—Embassy of the Republic of Chile, 12th Floor, Robert Jones House, Jervois Quay, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 280–288, Parnell Road, Auckland.

China—Embassy of the People's Republic of China, 2–6 Glenmore Street, Wellington.

Colombia—Ambassador resident in Peking.

Hon. Consul, Charter House, 20 Northcroft Street, Takapuna, Auckland.

Cook Islands—Consular Office of the Cook Islands, 330 Parnell Rd, Parnell, Auckland.

Costa Rica—Hon. Consul-General, 2–12 Parnell Road, Auckland.

Cyprus—High Commissioner resident in Canberra.

Czechoslovakia—Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul-General, 105–109, The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-General, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Danish Trade Representative, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 100 Cumnor Terrace, Woolston, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, 1220 St. Andrew Street, Dunedin.

Ecuador—Ambassador resident in Tokyo.

Hon. Consul, Databank House, 175 The Terrace, Wellington.

Egypt—Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt, Dalmuir House, The Terrace, Wellington.

Fiji—Fiji High Commission, 2nd Floor, Robert Jones House, Jervois Quay, Wellington.

Finland—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul-General, 126 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Enfield Street, Auckland 3.

Hon. Consul, Durham Courts, cnr. Durham and Wordsworth Streets, Sydenham, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, Mutual Fund Building, 11 Bond Street, Dunedin.

France—Embassy of France, 14th Floor, Robert Jones House, 1–3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, corner of Princes Street and Eden Crescent, Auckland 1.

Office of the Trade Representative for France, U.D.C. Building, cnr. Albert and Wyndham Streets, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, c/o Teachers College, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, c/o University of Otago, Dunedin.

German Democratic Republic—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Germany (West)—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 90–92 Hobson Street, Thorndon, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 17 Albert Street, Auckland 1.

Hon. Consul, 500 Colombo Street, Christchurch.

Greece—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul-General, 37 Courtenay Place, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Prudential Assurance Building, 9 Manukau Road, Epsom, Auckland.

Holy See—Apostolic Nunciature, 112 Queen's Drive, Lyall Bay, Wellington 3.

Hungary—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Iceland—Hon. Consul-General, 88 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

India—Office of the High Commissioner for India, 180 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 70 Glen Road, Kelburn, Wellington 1.

Iran—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Iraq—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Ireland—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul, 2nd Floor, Dingwall Building, 87 Queen Street, Auckland.

Israel—Embassy of Israel, 13th Floor, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Italy—Embassy of Italy, 38 Grant Road, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, 1 Princes Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, 161a Eglinton Road, Mornington, Dunedin.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, 7th and 8th Floors, Norwich Insurance House, 3–11 Hunter Street, Wellington.

Consulate-General of Japan, 6th Floor, National Mutual Building, 37–45 Shortland Street, Auckland.

Consular Office of Japan, 1st Floor, General Building, 77 Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Kiribati—High Commissioner resident in Tarawa.

Hon. Consul, 33 Great South Road, Otahuhu, Auckland.

Korea—Embassy of the Republic of Korea, 12th Floor, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Rainger House, 150 Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 126 Cashel Street, Christchurch.

Laos—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Lebanon—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Malaysia—High Commission of Malaysia, Chase-NBA House, 163–165 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 14 Hazeldean Road, Christchurch.

Mexico—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul, Tatra House, 96 Tory Street, Wellington.

Mongolia—Ambassador resident in Tokyo.

Nauru—Consulate-General of Nauru, Samoa House, Level 3, 283 Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Nepal—Ambassador resident in Tokyo.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, 10th Floor, Investment Centre, corner Ballance and Featherson Streets, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, c/o Russell and Somers Ltd., 83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Amsterdam House, 161–163 Kilmore Street, Christchurch.

Nigeria—High Commissioner resident in Canberra.

Niue—Consular Office, 4th Floor, Samoa House, 283 Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Norway—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul-General, 38–42 Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Swanson Towers, Plaza Level, 20 Hobson Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 163 Worcester Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, 365 Princes Street, Dunedin.

Pakistan—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Papua New Guinea—Papua New Guinea High Commission, Construction House, 80–82 Kent Terrace, Wellington.

Peru—Embassy of Peru, 3rd Floor, 35–37 Victoria Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 79 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Philippines—Embassy of the Philippines, Level 30, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-General, 93–97 Dominion Road, Mount Eden, Auckland 1.

Poland—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Portugal—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul, 47–51 Fort Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 330 Moray Place, Dunedin.

Hon. Consul, c/o Hutchison Hull &Co., 17th Floor, Challenge House, 105–109 The Terrace, Wellington.

Romania—Embassy, 100 Evans Bay Road, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, 17 Kabul Street, Khandallah, Wellington.

Solomon Islands—High Commissioner resident in Honiara.

South Africa—Consul-General, 1st and 5th Floors, Molesworth House, 101–103 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Spain—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Vice-Consul, c/o Lees Industries Ltd., Papakura, Auckland.

Sri Lanka—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Trade Commissioner, c/o Chambers Nicholls, Williams Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, 8th Floor, Greenock House, 39 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 37 St Georges Bay Road, Parnell, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 178 Cashel Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 40 Jetty Street, Dunedin.

Hon. Vice-Consul, The Crescent, Invercargill.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, Panama House, 22–24 Panama Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 48 Carr Road. Mount Roskill, Auckland.

Thailand—Royal Thai Embassy, 2 Burnell Avenue, Wellington.

Tonga—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, cnr Church Street and Beachcroft Avenue, Onehunga, Auckland 6.

Turkey—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Hon. Consul-General, 5th Floor, 228 Queen Street. Auckland.

Tuvalu—Hon. Consul, 33 Great South Road, Otahuhu, Auckland.

Uruguay—Charg$eA resident in Canberra.

U.S.A.—Embassy of the United States of America, 29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Consulate-General, cnr Shortland and O'Connell Streets, Auckland.

Consular Agent, c/o Lawrence Anderson Buddie, P.O. Box 13250, Christchurch.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Karori, Wellington.

Vanuatu—High Commissioner resident in Port Vila.

Venezuela—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Viet Nam—Ambassador resident in Canberra.

Western Samoa—High Commission for Western Samoa, 1A Wesley Road, Kelburn, Wellington. Consulate-General, 3rd Floor, Maota Samoa, 283 Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Yugoslavia—Embassy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 24 Hatton Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 2nd Floor, A.M.P. Building, corner of Great South and Manukau Roads, Newmarket, Auckland.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY

LIST OF TABLES
 PAGE
Total Population and External Migration944
Vital Statistics944
Education945
Justice945
Summary of Price Movements (i)946
Summary of Price Movements (ii)946
Price and Wage Movements947
Labour Force, Unemployment, and Industrial Stoppages947
Postal and Telecommunications948
Government Railways948
Agriculture949
Livestock949
Agricultural and Pastoral Production949–950
Manufacturing950
Coal Consumption950–951
Summary of Overseas Trade951
Exports of New Zealand Produce951–953
New Zealand's Official Overseas Reserves954
Revenue and Expenditure of Central Government954
National Income, Social Security Benefits, and War and Other Pensions955
Indebtedness of Central Government955
Post Office Savings Bank956
Mortgages and Land Transfers956
Bankruptcies and New Company Registrations956

Note: Throughout this section, years are Years Ended December unless otherwise defined. For further information on previous years refer to the 1982 Yearbook.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION
YearPopulation*Mean Population*Natural IncreaseNet Migration
At 31 MarchAt 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 March

* Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

† Excluding through passengers, crews, and members of armed forces, etc.

‡ Provisional.

19311 511 7001 522 7621 498 4161 514 21515 8055 109
19411 636 2301 631 2761 635 7151 630 94822 123714
19511 938 0321 970 5221 917 9341 947 52930 9707 522
19612 414 2962 461 2432 388 0042 426 65443 6081 620
19712 861 0002 895 5002 831 2002 864 20040 1517 845
19722 909 2002 959 7002 876 0002 915 60038 41410 851
19732 973 2003 024 9002 931 3002 977 10035 41525 475
19743 040 6003 091 9002 993 6003 041 80034 07533 167
19753 012 5003 143 7003 057 8003 100 10031 52529 141
19763 140 3003 163 4003 111 3003 131 80029 6485 192
19773 155 4003 166 4003 136 2003 142 60028 218–16 270
19783 160 2003 165 2003 143 5003 143 50026 360–22 156
19793 158 2003 163 9003 143 1003 137 80026 939–26 544
19803 161 3003 176 4003 138 0003 144 00023 866–21 314
19813 170 9003 195 8003 146 7003 157 20025 644x–16 209
1982‡3 190 1003 229 8003 162 1003 182 90024 406–4 743
VITAL STATISTICS
YearNumbersRates per 1000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1000 Live Births*Marriages
Live Births*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearLive Births*DeathsNumberRate per 1000 Mean Population
* Figures have been revised to exclude registrations under Section 24 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1925 and Section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 (late registration).
193128 86713 0621 07719.068.6337.3110 2546.77
194139 17017 0471 56224.0210.4539.8813 8308.48
195149 80618 8361 37425.579.6727.5916 9158.69
196165 39021 7821 49026.958.9822.7919 4268.01
197164 46024 3091 06622.518.4916.5427 1999.50
197263 21524 80198821.688.5115.6326 8689.22
197360 72725 31298520.408.5016.2226 2748.83
197459 33625 26192219.518.3015.5425 4128.35
197556 63925 11490418.278.1015.9624 5357.91
197655 10525 45776617.608.1313.9024 1547.71
197754 17925 96177017.248.2614.2122 5897.19
197851 02924 66970316.237.8513.7822 4267.13
197952 27925 34065316.668.0812.4922 3267.12
198050 54226 67665016.088.4812.8622 9817.31
198150 79425 15059216.097.9711.6523 6607.49
198249 93825 53258715.698.0211.7525 5378.02
EDUCATION
Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions
At 1 JulyPrimarySecondaryHigher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers' CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extra-mural and Part-time Students)

* Includes kindergarten trainees.

† Excludes short course enrolments counted previously.

1931220 97626 44831 0534 602..1 1655 111
1941208 59527 83633 2536 451..1 5035 065
1951265 23037 10950 68211 045..2 70410 956
1961376 47554 079109 63220 7522213 81416 820
1971467 09751 009160 83929 2672 2367 79137 257
1972468 69250 859166 85129 8043 1188 08838 482
1973470 27350 711171 97830 2013 3787 81138 995
1974473 09950 574177 58231 0143 5617 61639 949
1975474 57850 745187 95031 8043 8407 21142 436
1976475 11349 899197 91232 3794 5137 521*46 207
1977473 62149 309199 73432 2814 9466 834*47 706
1978472 14448 893202 75632 2875 9606 234*48 511
1979467 62148 355198 12432 0046 2865 820*49 188
1980460 98345 619195 09031 2566 8425 919*51 522
1981454 85938 997196 94627 8906 9155 901*52 988
1982458 96827 199204 12519 3767 3304 470*54 149†
JUSTICE
YearDistricts Courts*High Court*Prisoners in Jail at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
Total Charge Summary ConvictionsRate per 1000 of Mean PopulationPersons SentencedRate per 1000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1000 of Population as at 31 Dec

* Previous to 1 April 1980 District Courts were known as Magistrates' Courts and the High Court as the Supreme Court. From 1 April 1981 includes District Court trial courts.

† From 1977 excludes traffic offences except those resulting in deaths or injuries. Statistics prior to 1977 are not comparable with figures from 1977.

‡ Known to be short-counted. See page 273.

193123 25915.366000.401 6141.06
194124 52915.045420.339880.61
195122 40911.506440.331 0400.53
196135 31814.552940.121 8180.75
197161 70121.544040.142 5440.88
197265 27422.424760.162 4470.83
197368 47723.064790.162 3700.78
197472 76224.005450.182 2950.74
197582 65526.786690.222 5930.82
197691 67529.427100.232 7130.86
1977†91 59229.286870.222 7110.86
197887 171‡27.867250.232 4240.77
197976 639‡24.537140.232 593x0.82x
198098 29731.139230.292 625x0.83x
1981....1 0350.332 3000.72
Summaryof Price Movements (i)
Base: December Quarter 1977. (= 100 for terms of trade. For all other indexes = 1000.)
Calendar YearImport PricesExport PricesTerms of TradeProducers Prices* All Industries Inputs
Pastoral and DairyAll Exports
* Wholesale Prices Index replaced by General Price Index from December quarter 1977. This index was later renamed the Producers Price Index.
193199898990..
1941127141140110..
1951261430416159..
1961284342334118..
1971395456441112..
1972411551531129..
1973433730680157..
1974549693669122..
197572464266392..
197689286987498..
197798010141003102..
19781017108110661051072
19791149131212911121262
198014841497x14931011550
1981x169516641685991812
1982138618191863992085
Summaryof Price Movements (ii)
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
June YearImport Prices (All Groups)Export Prices (All Groups)Producers Prices* All Industries InputConsumers PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
FoodAll Groups

* See note to previous table.

† Provisional.

Year Ended 30 June
1940..134134139276
1950213287183187432
1960282373303299706
19703604084194191249
19713854194564581151
19724024864894991087
19734216195185311303
19744736935885831326
19756266346426601018
19768257787467671059
19779419648388831097
19789961012100410081044
1979104511671148112411191148
1980132614191406135813101322
198115841576167516021515..
198218041805195718551758..
1983†........1987..
PRICE AND WAGE MOVEMENTS
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000).
YearConsumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage Rates (Adult Employees)
FoodAll GroupsNominalEffective*
* Index numbers of effective or “real” wage rates are obtained by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices and multiplying by 1000.
193110612522779632
194113814828298662
1951224216504171792
1961311306755250817
19714754811077474985
197249851411715171006
197355455613825781040
197461861811246571063
197568370810377471055
197681082811268351008
197794894710279491002
197810491060111510771016
197912311206121012461033
198014831412153714741044
198117311629..17581079
198219451893..19611037
LABOUR FORCE, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES
YearTotal Labour Force*Registered Unemployed Monthly AverageIndustrial Stoppages
MalesFemalesTotalNumberTotal Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days Lost

* Estimated labour force as at 15 April of each year up until 1980. From 1980 the estimates are based on an annual survey taken in February of each year.

† The National Employment Service was established as from 1 April 1946 under the Employment Act 1945. Prior to 1942 a State Placement Service had operated a system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March 1946 this was merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Department.

‡ The Department of Labour has recently revised the estimated labour force figures back to 1971 to conform with the benchmarks provided by 1971 and 1976 Census of Population data.

§ Based on February survey.

 (000)(000)(000)   (000)(000)
1950559.2176.7735.93812956791.5271.5
1960660.6215.0875.66336034414.335.7
1970779.2311.51 090.71 6003231 394110.1277.3
1971‡777.5326.91 104.43 1153131 38986.0162.6
1972787.5332.81 120.35 6842661 25760.4134.5
1973807.8348.01 155.82 3213941 892115.9271.7
1974830.6373.71 204.39553801 53070.9183.7
1975843.2385.21 228.44 1664281 82974.8214.6
1976853.1397.41 250.55 3564871 986201.1488.4
1977857.6411.81 269.47 3855622 174159.4436.8
1978860.3418.51 278.822 3304111 347157.9380.6
1979863.3436.51 299.825 2395231 863158.2381.9
1980863.1446.31 309.4§36 4993521 284108.1360.0
1981867.5457.91 325.4§48 3132391 28878.5245.3
1982......53 8603261 450118.6314.4
POSTAL AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*TelephonesTollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal NotesRevenueExpenditure

* Calendar year until 1945. Includes letters, other articles, and parcels.

† Installed as at 31 March. At 31 March 1982 there were 1 180 301 subscribers (including applicants).

 million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
19716151 262.467.95.55.5129.8143.5
19726221 304.764.85.15.4169.8169.5
19736451 358.167.15.05.5186.9188.9
19746691 444.073.94.95.4206.3212.5
19756991 531.277.64.65.2236.5257.2
19767071 610.480.74.35.1262.9301.6
19776621 674.179.43.64.3367.5346.3
19786511 715.383.03.54.1440.0402.3
19796601 677.386.23.2..514.5464.9
19806541 730.089.52.8..604.3533.4
19816591 799.598.22.5..710.7622.1
19826601 875.5105.52.3..816.5740.4
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS
Year Ended 31 MarchKilometres Open for TrafficRevenue Train-KilometresRail Passenger JourneysGoods and LivestockRevenue*Expenditure*
* Figures relate to railway operation only.
  (000)(000)tonnes(000)$(000)$(000)
19405 45621 51224 4547 79717,52415,886
19505 67523 20825 89510 10832,12434,722
19605 36923 30326 13410 71260,54261,516
19704 92921 39621 03111 77983,19479,836
19714 84721 87720 78412 04086,99996,502
19724 80721 37620 11511 493101,296107,277
19734 80521 39918 56512 322112,162117,197
19744 79922 44718 94413 378125,789135,363
19754 79722 22918 89412 883124,921166,657
19764 79722 05320 03513 197137,287194,829
19774 72421 30318 47813 601202,419214,796
19784 66820 07316 40212 577212,748251,863
19794 57720 15016 74911 721237,266287,241
19804 51618 78216 01111 755274,369331,360
19814 44919 08014 93411 392331,783384,477
19824 41918 84414 34011 520399,335459,300
AGRICULTURE
SeasonWheal for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per HectareOatsBarleyPeas for ThreshingPotatoes
 hectarestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnes
1930–31100 772206 2742.0561 26518 9996 570153 957
1940–4198 418226 0522.3056 51824 18620 18295 634
1950–5158 584170 6972.9133 16643 14717 031121 700
1960–6175 590253 3573.3542 62777 46725 331193 495
1970–7197 528325 6463.3459 752259 32051 856209 927
1971–72106 596389 1563.6549 457335 49057 519219 970
1972–73107 690376 1113.4944 965258 26159 733244 211
1973–7467 414214 5823.1863 226241 56952 882206 192
1974–7557 656179 8743.1250 219262 88147 522225 522
1975–76103 742388 1783.7441 820285 49554 515248 321
1976–7796 236354 0353.6857 997272 09645 023270 497
1977–7890 982328 7563.6151 540258 69059 051237 291
1978–7987 156295 0283.3858 249263 58063 407203 285
1979–8085 952305 7683.5662 039228 34769 252213 557
1980–8181 451326 3344.0145 177272 68354 447208 775
LIVESTOCK
YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs

* Coverage to 1951 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries, except that Manukau City has been included since Manukau County was absorbed by the city.

† Since 1971 the coverage applies to 1 hectare and over.

‡ Figures previous to 1980 are as at 31 January of year stated, except for sheep which are as at 30 June. From 1980 all figures are as at 30 June.

§ Provisional.

 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1931*..1 479..4 04429 793469
1941*..1 759..4 53931 752769
1951*2 1491 8982 9115 06034 786564
1961*3 3341 9293 1116 44648 462655
1971†5 2802 2393 5398 81958 913617
1976†6 7692 0923 0089 77756 400505
1977†6 5052 0742 9669 47259 105536
1978†6 1972 0532 9329 12962 163539
1979†5 5822 0402 9178 49963 523503
1980‡5 1621 9992 9698 13168 772434
1981‡5 1131 9762 9228 03569 884420
1982‡§4 9511 9942 9797 93070 398..
AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION
SeasonWool ProductionMilkfat Production
Total Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Price (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in Milk*Average Revenue per kgSawn Timber ProductionMeat Production§

* Calculated from 1966–67 on “at factory” basis.

† Milkfat for butter making only. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk or manufacture.

‡ Year ended 31 March.

§Year ended September.

‖Provisional.

 tonnes (000)c per kg$(m)tonnes (000)kgc per kgm3(000)tonnes (000)
1931–321229.6611.81549820.21363..
1940–4115122.4935.521111930.69807..
1950–51177161.38285.522211656.951 246538
1960–6126774.12197.724912861.551 687770
1970–7133453.42178.427911670.071 8531 055
1971–7232266.46214.229212773.541 7491 082
1972–73309143.96444.528012276.771 7871 097
1973–74285139.19396.426111876.662 054990
1974–7529491.75269.827312880.892 0861 089
1975–76312157.12489.929613774.422 0031 234
1976–77303219.58664.230314381.862 2121 152
1977–78311190.43591.927913196.801 9611 160
1978–79321218.85701.5301142..1 8651 119
1979–80357265.09945.0318x151..2 0101 151
1980–81381247.48942.2308147..2 1821 207
1981–82363255.70928.2309144‖..2 2981 282
MANUFACTURING
YearEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCos: of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

* Figures based on Integrated Economic Census of Manufacturing (see Section 18 Manufacturing). Not directly comparable with figures for earlier years.

† Includes ancillary units.

‡ Purchases and other expenses.

§ Turnover.

‖ Value Added.

 No.No.  $(million)  
1920–213 89462 972235106.0..151.0..51.4
1930–315 04770 62527.890.616.9143.437.069.0
1940–416 252104 78448.6186.022.4274.867.784.3
1950–518 113138 435130.0533.857.7760.4171.6175.2
1960–616 875165 572277.3905.0111.01,441.9393.9462.8
1970–717 600229 104676.02,014.6306.73,407.4995.71,239.3
1971–727 783232 424780.32,288.6354.43,874.31,130.71,436.9
1972–737 669235 648875.42,787.2561.54,611.31,301.71,634.0
1973–747 690244 5221,042.23,112.8683.75,250.91,502.4..
1974–75*8 883†292 4481,389.04,664.0‡6,433.0§2,144.0‖..
1975–76*9 212†298 6921,576.04,993.0‡7,264.0§2,351.0‖..
1976–77*9 738†306 1771,802.06,381.0‡8,987.0§2,865.0‖..
1978–79*10 520†298 3312,293.87,595.5‡10,925.7§3,478.0‖..
COAL CONSUMPTION
YearFactoriesShippingRailGas WorksHouseholdsPublic Hospitals and Central HeatingElectricity GenerationTotal

* Estimated.

† For later September year figures see table in Section 17, Minerals.

tonnes(000)
1930499251440244....1732 615
1940693154572262....822 540
195083250486306610..912 778
19601 01592232815491006112 965
197091010154345*1635422 306
19719255*109300*1644422 114
1972934*99290*1875582 188*
1973948*91284*1938272 461*
19741 120*109289*2818142 613*
19751 077*89234*2448442 488*
19761 149*80288*2407302 487*
19771 125*80290*2656102 370*
19781 075*75240*2675252 182*
1979†1 050*79220*2305302 109*
SUMMARY OF OVERSEAS TRADE*
YearExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.d.v.)Imports (c.t.f.)†
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency. Gold and specie excluded.

† Previous to 1955 c.d.v. +10 percent.

‡ Valuation for 1979 onwards is v.f.d. (value for duty).

 $(m)$$(m)$$(m)$
1940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
Year Ended June
19701,086.7388.3944.3337.41,007.2359.9
19711,131.7398.21,070.6376.71,155.5406.6
19721,375.0476.41,152.7399.41,239.0429.3
19731,792.0609.31,282.2436.01,374.1467.3
19741,787.3595.51,861.8620.42,036.7678.5
19751,621.5529.72,492.0814.02,763.1902.6
19762,386.9768.72,730.1879.32,961.6953.8
19773,228.71,033.53,244.41,038.53,538.01,132.5
19783,313.51,058.73,018.2964.53,276.71,046.9
19794,067.41,299.93,574.1‡1,142.83,840.51,227.4
19805,152.21,648.34,809.6‡1,538.75,172.61,654.8
19816,065.31,925.95,587.3‡1,774.16,023.61,912.6
19826,733.82,125.27,044.8‡2,223.37,600.42,398.7
EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
YearWool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Including fine animal hair.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
193175 0688.25 0120.996 03411.0
194173 31517.411 1643.797 85925.2
1951111 820188.510 81524.5143 727256.4
1961197 367152.924 33824.3251 723200.7
Year Ended June
1971173 926100.282 22565.7293 499187.9
1972177 990119.196 62984.1312 374228.6
1973160 325224.294 849152.5288 082424.0
1974120 927189.366 976131.3213 158361.6
1975102 871107.786 997125.4218 198261.7
1976142 605220.1105 432197.7272 369456.4
1977124 625283.3103 005304.6253 899648.2
1978111 346228.7106 385297.9242 913580.0
1979117 612271.3121 198365.0258 775683.3
1980127 501366.9140 756516.7285 043930.8
1981134 357362.7136 156482.7289 488892.6
1982125 431363.6137 244504.0281 569918.8
YearBeef and VealLamb and MuttonAll Meat
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
193123 9421.2175 93115.7210 26117.8
194140 2093.5192 19224.5268 48333.2
195143 5675.8212 07439.6278 92950.7
196197 02444.4348 27889.9467 883144.2
Year Ended June
1971180 858170.4425 311186.5647 785385.7
1972185 390187.2446 913178.1674 335393.3
1973203 529241.3441 837257.5691 992535.5
1974183 326235.5348 950256.5570 406529.5
1975192 445161.8385 263238.7616 545438.0
1976228 111241.4397 408297.4674 867586.2
1977260 639312.1402 501387.5716 703756.5
1978225 776313.0374 888389.7647 057756.8
1979244 628487.1460 500528.5751 8321,087.2
1980215 624528.4405 695583.9661 5181,183.6
1981231 578586.8493 362854.2771 5901,510.0
1982233 474619.9463 658856.2750 2661,550.1
YearBurnerCheeseMilk, Dried and Condensed
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
1931101 02421.383 1308.95 8270.5
1941115 00731.6120 21119.713 4451.4
1951149 83083.0108 33033.347 4637.9
1961167 68978.889 01339.851 2678.4
Year Ended June
1971194 464113.992 68148.0160 45234.1
1972187 680183.988 46466.3191 92576.5
1973176 619137.195 25579.2197 75787.4
1974162 146109.568 48161.8278 333130.6
1975164 171122.164 76348.4159 869103.1
1976206 788204.280 64078.0147 82684.6
1977212 929253.979 04684.9240 423108.5
1978177 265240.970 15476.6242 041129.5
1979192 200277.263 36975.5200 522125.6
1980231 002360.669 241105.9268.536214.3
1981203 058398.080 480137.7262 179305.4
1982199 617556.481 048181.5257 613395.1
YearCaseinApples and Pears*Grass and Clover Seeds
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Whole fruit only.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
19312 6880.224 3161.32 0810.3
19416300.11934 4801.1
19515 9871.912 6751.44 4922.5
196129 4948.837 1224.86 7022.6
Year Ended June
197169 53430.255 5969.29 7194.9
197242 11325.460 63510.711 6404.4
197327 72822.069 56913.415 9546.5
197439 96528.668 96313.59 3098.9
197517 11914.781 11019.711 41110.0
197624 26327.177 93021.26 0714.5
197762 38459.760 66916.612 39610.8
197859 94060.581 70826.59 3209.9
197952 37262.385 44430.49 0449.8
198058 564112.594 39436.610 28814.0
198142 617117.2101 93948.66 61811.6
198244 626142.098 62353.46 92314.8
YearHides and SkinsSausage CasingsTallow*
* From 1929 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep, or goats are included in all figures.
 $(m)$(m)tonnes$(m)
19312.50.823 6370.8
19418.21.639 9591.6
195125.77.830 1345.1
196124.37.358 6496.3
Year Ended June
197150.614.165 83810.2
197262.215.469 6518.9
197395.914.272 9509.7
197467.017.253 76913.8
197562.718.871 63716.4
197677.423.596 13025.8
1977128.625.895 45133.0
1978144.027.085 30432.4
1979181.830.289 59942.4
1980180.133.585 68343.4
1981129.946.8106 87147.7
1982152.948.6108 59853.2
YearTimberWood PulpNewsprint
 $(m)tonnes(000)$(m)tonnes (000)$(m)
19310.3
19410.4
19511.5
19614.4655.0475.4
Year Ended June
197137.1979.411114.0
197240.911311.313116.5
197345.614214.112316.2
197447.824325.710314.5
197528.231243.512120.8
197632.036058.813234.3
197750.442070.017651.8
197861.843169.919051.6
197978.445686.220355.7
1980126.0479120.222381.0
1981136.6515151.323199.2
1982105.9422155.7199110.6
NEW ZEALAND'S OFFICIAL OVERSEAS RESERVES
As at Last Wednesday of Each QuarterAssets of N.Z. Banking SystemTreasury-held Overseas SecuritiesOther Government-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldInternational Monetary FundTotal
Reserve PositionSpecial Drawing Rights
 $(million)
1963—Mar167.265.05.80.522.5260.9
1973—Mar561.9235.022.30.745.152.1917.2
1980—Mar464.8238.841.90.737.4783.6
1981—Mar379.0253.449.00.735.941.8759.8
            Jun358.8256.848.00.736.721.9x722.5
            Sep183.6245.946.00.737.427.7541.3
            Dec577.9270.549.80.738.627.7965.2
1982—Mar360.4392.855.00.727.3836.2
            Jun147.8491.557.70.73.4701.1
            Sep128.5564.362.30.72.8758.6
            Dec507.0596.763.50.72.51,170.3
1983—Mar911.7994.50.72.61,909.5
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal

* Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act; $0.8 million in 1961–62.

† Includes transfers from Loans Account ($730 million), Reserve Account ($90 million), and Trust Account ($20 million).

‡ Includes transfer from Loans Account ($678 million).

§ Includes transfer from Loans Account ($956 million) in 1980–81 and $1,281 million in 1981–82.

Note—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

$(million)
CONSOLIDATED FUND
193232.413.145.449.74.3
194270.338.7109.1105.83.3
1952313.947.7361.6336.325.3
1962508.393.0601.3*600.6*0.6
CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT
19721,617.3203.41,820.71,812.38.4
CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNT
19794,830.41,687.6†6,518.0†6,512.85.2
19805,880.51,650.0‡7,530.6‡7,529.11.4
19816,861.52,132.7§8,994.2§8,992.51.8
19828,586.52,550.9§11,137.4§11,125.012.4
NATIONAL INCOME, SOCIAL SECURITY BENEFITS, AND WAR AND OTHER PENSIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchNational Disposable Income*Expenditure on Cash Benefits and Pensions
Family BenefitsNational Super-annuation‡§Other Cash Benefits§‖All Cash BenefitsWar and Other Pensions§Total

* For years prior to 1972, net national income at factor cost plus indirect taxes and net current transfers from the rest of the world and less subsidies.

† Includes family benefit capitalisation.

‡ Prior to February 1977, universal superannuation plus age benefit.

§ Includes supplementary assistance, 1955–76 inclusive.

‖ Includes benefit on death from 1976 onwards.

¶ Provisional.

Amount $(million)
19404630.513.05.218.73.822.5
19501,02629.734.610.074.310.184.4
19602,28571.485.518.6175.522.5198.0
19704,43279.8155.834.4270.030.4300.4
198019,049¶229.91,334.1369.11,933.174.72,007.8
198122.011¶312.61,556.8471.32,340.776.52,417.2
198226,344¶302.11,895.8582.62,780.578.12,858.6
Expenditure as Percentage of National Disposable Income
19400.12.81.14.00.84.9
19502.93.41.07.21.08.2
19603.13.70.87.71.08.7
19701.83.50.86.10.76.8
19801.27.01.910.10.410.5
19811.47.12.110.60.311.0
19821.17.22.210.50.310.8

Source: Report of the Department of Social Welfare.

INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION
(Nominal Amounts)
As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States and World BankLondon and Europe, etc.AustraliaNew Zealand

* Provisional.

† Amounts outstanding overseas other than in Europe, U.S.A., or with the World Bank. External debt is now usually shown by currencies rather than by countries (see section 26C).

   NZ$(million)  $
1932268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1942255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1952155.61,151.81,307.3658.70
196225.1254.01,528.61,807.7730.50
1972159.4494.12,533.03,186.61,096.55
1980571.92,534.0461.7†6,778.910,346.43,311.06*
19811,225.82,355.9654.4†7,381.011,617.13,663.65*
19821,045.83,640.1863.5†8,832.014,381.44,508.13*
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK
Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

* From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts; and from October 1969 includes interest paid on National Development Bonds redeemed.

† Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

 (000)  $(million)  
1932–3379733.92.939.3–2.4†84.1
1942–431 40080.33.853.830.3178.8
1952–531 836216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1962–632 191409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1972–732 838782.430.5736.576.31,038.7
1979–803 099x2,543.264.62,522.885.01,702.8
1980–813 104x3,217.875.3x3,161.8x131.31,834.1
1981–823 178x4,066.285.9x4,031.0x121.1x1,955.2x
MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS
Year Ended 31 MarchMortgages RegisteredAverage Rate of Interest on New MortgagesLand Transfers
NumberConsideration
* Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.
 $(m)percent $(m)
193160.46.2525 62644.1
194132.54.6928 82851.5
1951*91.64.0957 938158.7
1961300.85.0161 412375.6
1971703.06.8883 610918.9
19802,467.511.38100 1763,575.9
19812,655.212.89110 2824,400.3
19823,545.814.30135 4606,575.6
BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS
YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

* Public, private, and overseas.

† Since 1961 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000) $(m)
1931848217.62,084.479516.6
194116570.9142.028822.5
195114596.5273.62 02025.6
1961†425303.61,415.83 56771.7
1971477604.43,471.75 490359.0
1972461698.54,138.56 5474,271.1
1973329783.02,991.08 837249.4
1974324606.03,009.07 749471.8
19754871,041.09,122.07 815104.6
19764591,392.09,541.06 366..
19776261,564.014,314.05 292..
19787922,860.017,410.45 473..
19798342,003.524,585.85 778..
19809754,169.229,472.56 116..
19818213,449.231,024.36 753..
19828814,538.831,564.06 370..

CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand”. Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau Bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31 774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Prime Minister. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1901 Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner”.

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner Control.

1913 Extensive strikes.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operation on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licencing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s. Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family allowances Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman airmail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors' Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored.

1938 Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain.

1940 Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine.

1941 Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia-New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April.

1947 Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustments of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Referendum agrees to compulsory military training.

1950 Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. K-force sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront dispute. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Accession of Queen Elizabeth II.

1953 Armistice agreement signed in Korea. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores.

1954 The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-east Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Separate Court of Appeal constituted.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau-Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland.

1961 Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank For Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation.

1962 Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei.

1965 Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use.

1966 Labour force reached 1 000 000. Licensed television sets reached 500 000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £).

1968 T.e.v. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Jet planes introduced in internal air services.

1969 Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Invercargill commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Oil strike off shore at Taranaki. Voting rights extended to 20-year-old persons.

1970 Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland.

1971 Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All seven generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures.

1972 Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk.

1973 Britain joined European Economic Community. Wool Marketing Corporation established. Farm income equalisation scheme extended. Trade negotiations with China; embassy opened in Peking. New Zealand became member of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Agreement reached for development of Maui field of natural gas off shore from Taranaki. Timber and pulp mill opened at Whirinaki, Napier. New Zealand currency placed on “near float arrangement” of relationships with major trading partners. Colour television introduced. First step of Equal Pay Act in effect. New Zealand Shipping Corporation established. Construction of 100-megawatt Rangipo hydro-power station and 550-megawatt Huntly coal-fired power station approved.

1974 Tenth British Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch. New Plymouth thermal power station in operation. Fourth Cook Strait rail-ferry brought into service. Death of the Prime Minister, Right Hon. N. E. Kirk; succeeded in office by Right Hon. W. E. Rowling.

1975 Further Government participation in off-shore oil exploration announced. New trade deals established with Middle-East countries, Japan, and U.S.S.R. (Jul) New Zealand's terms of trade reached lowest level since the Second World War. (Oct) Permanent stabilisation scheme for meat prices announced. Conversion of New Plymouth power station from oil to natural gas under way. National Government, under Right Hon. R. D. Muldoon, assumed office.

1976 In February, cuts in subsidies on electricity, rail charges, and Post Office charges. (Apr)

Subsidies on bread, eggs, butter, and flour abolished. (Jul) Wool Income Stabilisation Scheme introduced. (Aug) Price and rent freeze until end of year introduced. New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement extended for further 10 years. Controversy over New Zealand's sporting links with South Africa resulted in African nations walk-out at Olympic Games in Montreal. Storm caused severe flooding in Hutt Valley.

1977 The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visited New Zealand in February as part of the Silver Jubilee celebrations. New national superannuation scheme came into operation. New Zealand Planning Council formed. (June) Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference sponsored Gleneagles agreement on sporting contacts with South Africa. (September) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act passed, establishing 200-$$mine-wide economic zone around New Zealand coast. (October) Act passed establishing Ministry of Energy, combining functions of Mines Department, Electricity Department, and Ministry of Energy Resources. Difficult economic conditions, with inflation as a major problem and an increasing problem of unemployment, continued throughout year. There were also continued population losses from net migration.

1978 Merger of New Zealand Wool Board and New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation came into effect on 7 February. National Airways Corporation merged with Air New Zealand. Government approved programme for large-scale production of methanol from Maui gas by 1985–86 to cut oil imports. (Oct) Widespread floods in Southland. (Nov) National party retains power at General Election with greatly reduced majority. Another year of difficult economic conditions with relatively heavy unemployment and continuing population losses from net emigration.

1979 (Apr) First stage of Maui gasfield development completed. Price control phased out over a wide range of commodities and services; replaced by price surveillance scheme. Severe landslip at Abbotsford. (Sep) Plans for Maui gas, including building of methanol plant, announced by

Government. (Nov) Air New Zealand D.C. 10 crash on Mount Erebus in Antarctica, killing 257 passengers and crew. 25th Commonwealth Conference held in Wellington. Another difficult year with relatively high unemployment, inflation, and population losses from net migration.

1980 (Jan) Widespread flooding in Southland. New Zealand troops included in Zimbabwe peacekeeping force. (Mar) $500 million Eurodollar loan raised to finance a hydrocracker for expansion of Marsden Point oil refinery. Petrocorp given approval to build New Zealand's first methanol plant. (Apr) $600 million expansion of New Zealand Steel Ltd. plant announced. (Oct) Remuneration Act repealed as part of 3-pronged wage policy agreement with F.O.L. and Employers' Federation. Act passed legalising Saturday trading. Another year of relatively high unemployment and continued inflation. Population losses from net migration continued, but on a decreasing scale.

1981 (Apr) Butter deal concluded with E.E.C. Britain to import 94 000 tonnes of New Zealand butter in 1981, and 92 000 tonnes in 1982. (June) Government approved construction of oil pipeline between Marsden Point refinery and Auckland. Cost-of-living increase of 5 percent granted by Arbitration Court. (Jul-Aug) Controversial tour of New Zealand by South African rugby team. (Aug) N.Z. Dairy Board purchased 100 000 tonnes of surplus U.S. butter to prevent swamping of international butter market with surplus supplies. Crash of Silver Fern railcar resulted in 4 deaths and many injuries. (Sep) Approval given for construction of synthetic petrol plant in Taranaki. (Oct) Visit to New Zealand by the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh. Major expansion of N.Z. Steel's plant approved. (Nov) General Election resulting in narrow victory for National party. (Dec) Four-year trade deal on dairy products signed with U.S.S.R. Unemployment and inflation continued at high level.

1982 (Jan) Government departments order to prune 3 percent from their budgets for 1982–83 financial year. (Feb) Contract for Motunui synthetic fuel plant signed. (Apr) Increased charges for postage, telephone rentals, state coal, electricity, and road user charges. New Zealand frigate lent to Royal Navy for duty in Indian Ocean. Railway Department became New Zealand Railways Corporation. (Jun) Increases in motor vehicle fees and rail charges. Twelve-month wage, price, and rent freeze imposed from midnight 22 June. (Jun-Sep) Clyde dam controversy over water rights. Continued severe drought in Canterbury and North Otago. (Aug) Budget introduced flatter personal income tax scale designed to lessen effects of fiscal drag. (Oct) EEC ministers agreed in principle to import quota of 87 000 tonnes of butter from New Zealand. Because of continuing market uncertainties, N.Z. Meat Producers Board announced it would buy all export Iamb and mutton for expected period of 2 years. Plans for Aramoana aluminium smelter shelved indefinitely because of world glut of aluminium. (Nov) Plans announced for development of McKee oilfield in North Taranaki. Australia and New Zealand reached final agreement on closer economic relations (CER), scheduled to be inaugurated on 1 January 1983. (Dec) Ammonia-urea plant at Kapuni commenced production. Unemployment and inflation remained as major problems throughout the year.

Select Bibliography; New Zealand Books

Compiled in the New Zealand Bibliographic Unit, National Library, Wellington

The following list of books has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as books published overseas about New Zealand. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The New Zealand National Bibliography, published monthly and cumulated annually, lists books, pamphlets, music, maps, periodicals, and selected non-book materials. It is prepared in the New Zealand Bibliographic Unit, and available from the National Library of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

Bagnall, A. G., New Zealand National Bibliography to the Year 1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970–80. Vol. 1, to 1889. $80. v2–4, 1890–1960. $85.

Dunmore Bookof New Zealand Records, edited by P. Dunmore. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1977. $8.95.

Ellis, N., comp. New Zealand Associations, Societies &Clubs; A National Directory. 2nd ed. Wn, Victoria University Press with Price Milburn, 1979. $4.50.

Encyclopaediaof New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 3 v. o.p. $15.

Fischer, B. Guide to New Zealand Book Collecting and Handbook of Values. Dn, City Publishers, 1977. $15.95.

Gilderdale, B. A sea change: 145 Years of New Zealand Junior Fiction. Ak, Longman Paul, 1982. $24.95.

Guideto New Zealand Information Sources. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1975. Bibliographies have been published on plants and animals, fanning, field and horticultural crops, education, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry, religion, and official publications.

Heinemann New Zealand Dictionary, edited by H. W. Orsman. Ak, Heineman Educational, 1979. $11.95.

*Millett, A. P. U. and Cole, F. T. H. Bibliographical Work in New Zealand 1982; Work in Progress and Work Published. Hamilton, University of Waikato Library, 1982.

National Registerof Archivesand Manuscriptsin New Zealand. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1979. $11 with binder for each volume.

New Zealand Booksin Print 1982. Melbourne, Thorpe, 1982. A$16.50.

New Zealand Library Association. Bibliography of New Zealand Bibliographies. Wn, 1967.

Oxford New Zealand Encyclopaedia. London. O.U.P., 1965. o.p.

Robertson, E. and Hughes, P. H. New Zealand Royal Commissions, Commissions and Committees of Inquiry, 1864–1981: A Checklist. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1982. $38.50.

Taylor, C. R. H. A Bibliography of Publications on the New Zealand Maori, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1972. $24.95.

——— A Pacific Bibliography. 2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. o.p.

Union Catalogueof New Zealand Newspapers Preservedin Public Libraries, Newspaper Offices, and Local Authority Offices. 2nd ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. $1.30.

Union Listof Serialsin New Zealand Libraries. 3rd ed. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1969–70. 6 v. $25. Interim edition on microfiche. 1976. $45.

Union Listof Thesesofthe Universityof New Zealand, 1910–1954. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1956. o.p. Supplement, 1955–1962. $2. Supplement, 1963–1967. $4. Supplement, 1968–1971. $4. Supplement, 1971–1975. $9. Supplement, 1976–1978. $19.60. See also Rodger above.

Wood, G. A. A Guide for Students of New Zealand History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973. $2.95.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Ageing New Zealanders, edited by R. A. Barker, F. M. Caughey, M. W. Guthrie. Wn, Dept. of Health, 1982. $8.95.

Barrington, R. and Gray, A., The Smith Women; 100 New Zealand Women Talk About Their Lives. Wn, Reed, 1981. $14.95.

Beyond New Zealand; The Foreign Policy of a Small State, edited by John Henderson, Keith Jackson, and Richard Kennaway. Ak, Methuen, 1980. Pbk: $14.95.

Bedggood, D. Rich and Poor in New Zealand. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1980.

Blackburn, A. Race Against Time. Wn, Human Rights Commission, 1982. $5.

Burnett, A. A. and R. Burnett. The Australia and New Zealand Nexus. Canberra, Australian Institute of International Affairs, 1978. $5.

Bush, G. W. A. Local Government and Politics in New Zealand. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1980. $19.95

Clark, K. J. The Two-way Street; A Survey of Volunteer Service Abroad. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1978. $8.

Davis, P. Health and Health Care in New Zealand. Ak. Longman Paul, 1981. $17.95.

*Dollimore, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973. 90c.

Easton, B., Social Policy and the Welfare State in New Zealand. Ak, Allen & Unwin, 1980. $17.50.

Familiesin New Zealand Society, edited by P. G. Koopman-Boyden. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $13.95.

Foreign Policy School, 13th, Australia and New Zealand Relations, edited by Ralph Hayburn, Dn, University of Otago, 1978. $4.95.

Grimshaw, P. Women's Suffrage in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $8.50.

Gustafson, B. S. Labour's Path to Political Independence. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1980. $18.50.

Hanson, E. A. The Politics of Social Security. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1980. $14.20.

McGibbon, I. C., Blue-water Rationale; The Naval Defence of New Zealand. 1914–1942. Wn, Govt. Print. 1981. $45.

McGill, D. The Other New Zealanders. Wn, Mallinson Rendel, 1982. Hbk: $24.95. Pbk: $15.95.

McGill, J. F. Immigration and the New Zealand Economy. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1981. $8.50.

Mahoney, J. D. Kings of the Iron Road: Steam Passenger Trains of New Zealand. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1982. $19.95.

Mol, Hans. The Fixed and the Fickle, Religion and Identity in New Zealand. Dunedin, Pilgrims Southern Press, 1982. $16.50.

N.Z. Dept, of Labour. Research and Planning Division. Immigration and Immigrants; A bibliography. Wn, Dept. of Labour, 1975.

New Zealandin World Affairs, Vol. I. Wn, Price Milburn for the New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $4.50.

New Zealand Ministryof Energy. Energy Strategy '79. Wn, Office of the Minister of Energy, 1979. $5.50.

New Zealand Parliamentary Record, 1840–1949, edited by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50. Supplement 1950–1969, edited by J. O. Wilson. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969.

New Zealand Planning Council; Employment: Towards an Active Employment Policy. Wn, 1980. Pbk: $5.25.

New Zealand, Sociological Perspectives, edited by Paul Spoonley, David Pearson, Ian Shirley. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1982.

Parry, G. A Fence at the Top, the First 75 Years of the Plunket Society. Dn, The Society, 1982. $10.

The Pathto Reform, edited by C. Burns. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration. $15.75.

People Likeus, Celebrating Cultural Diversity, edited by Anthony Haas, Allison Webber, Pam Brown. Wn, Asia Pacific Books, 1982. $18.95.

Palmer, G. Unbridled Power; An Interpretation of New Zealand's Constitution and Government. Wn, O.U.P., 1979. $8.95.

Phillips, R., Divorce in New Zealand; A Social History. Ak, O.U.P., 1981. $10.95.

The Populationof New Zealand, edited by R. J. W. Neveille and C. J. O'Neill. Ak, Longman Paul, 1979. Pbk: $11.95.

Religionin New Zealand Society, edited by Brian Colless and Peter Donovan. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1980. Hbk: $14.95. Pbk: $11.95.

Roth, B. and Hammond, J., Toil and Trouble; The Struggle for a Better Life in New Zealand. Ak, Methuen New Zealand, 1981. $19.95.

Roth, B. Trade Unions in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

Scott, C. D. Local and Regional Government in New Zealand; Function and Finance. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1979. $6.95.

Social Welfareand New Zealand Society, edited by A. D. Trlin. Wn, Methuen, 1977. $15.35.

State Servantsandthe Publicinthe 1980s, edited by R. M. Alley. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1980. Pbk: $7.

Womenin New Zealand Society, edited by P. Bunkle and B. Hughes. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1980. $19.50.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

Burrowes, A. W. and R. D. Mulholland, Investing on the New Zealand Sharemarket. Ak, Macmillan, 1982. $9.95.

Carey, R. H., and F. W. Holmes. A Preliminary Bibliography of New Zealand Economics and Economic History. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, 1967. o.p.

External Economic Structureand Policy, an Analysisof New Zealand's Balanceof Payments, edited by R. S. Deane, P. W. E. Nicholl, and M. J. Walsh. Wn, Reserve Bank of New Zealand, 1981. $10.

Franklin, S. H. Trade, Growth and Anxiety; New Zealand Beyond the Welfare State. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. Hbk: $29.95. Pbk: $24.95.

Greensmith, E. I. The New Zealand Wool Commission. Wn, New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation, 1976.

Hawke, G. R. Between Governments and Banks; A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973. $7.50.

Lloyd Prichard, M. F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Ak, Collins, 1970. $11.60.

——— Economic Practice in New Zealand, 1954/55–1967/68. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.60.

Lodge, J. The European Community and New Zealand. London, F. Pinter, 1982.

Monetary Policyandthe New Zealand Financial System, edited by R. S. Deane and P. W. E. Nicholl. Wn, Reserve Bank of New Zealand, 1979. $5.

National Incomes Policy, Proceedingsofa Seminar, edited by Pat Walsh. Wn, Industrial Relations Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, 1982. $12.50.

N.Z. Committeeof Enquiryinto Inflation Accounting. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $1.75.

New Zealand Valuation Dept. Handbook for Local Authorities. 4th ed. Wn, 1982. $5.

Oliver, H. M. Printing and Publishing in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1976. $2.

Organisationfor Economic Co-operationand Development. New Zealand. Paris, O.E.C.D., 1979. $3.20.

Preston, D. A. Government Accounting in New Zealand. Wn. Govt. Print., 1980.

LAW

Afford, J., Kos, S. and Napier, B., The Law and You; A Practical Guide for New Zealanders. Wn, Reed, 1981. $8.95.

Brooks, B. T. The Practice of Industrial Relations in New Zealand. Ak, Commerce Clearing House (New Zealand), 1978. $16.75.

Campbell, L. G. The Framework of Industrial Law in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, Industrial Relations Centre, 1982. $5.

Doyle, M. W. Criminal Procedure in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1978. $8.95.

Duncan, P. C. The Layman and the Law in New Zealand. New ed. Ak, J. M. McGregor, 1981. $5.95.

Family Guideto New Zealand Law. Surrey Hills, NSW, Readers Digest, 1980. $33.

Hinde, G. W. and M. S. Hinde. New Zealand Law Dictionary. 3rd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1979. $26.

McBride, T. J. New Zealand Civil Rights Handbook. Wn, Price Milburn, Butterworth, 1980. $15.50.

Mulholland, R. D. Consumer Law in New Zealand. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1982. $17.65.

Mulholland, R. D. Introduction to the New Zealand Legal System, 3rd rev. ed, Wn, Butterworth, 1979. $25.

New Zealand Laws, Statutes, Etc. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand. 1908–57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958–1961. 16 v. $11.75 each.

Northey, J. F. Index to New Zealand Legal Writing. Ak, Legal Research Foundation, 1982. Annual supplements also published. $45.

O'Keefe, J. A. B. The Principles and Practice of Rating and Rating Valuations in New Zealand. Auckland University, 1982.

Tapp, P. and Wilson, M. Women and the Law in New Zealand. New ed. Ak, Methuen, 1982. $8.95.

Williams, D. A. R. Environmental Law in New Zealand. Wn, Butterworth, 1980. $39.95.

EDUCATION

Advisory Councilon Educational Planning. Directions for Educational Development. Wn, 1974. $2.25.

Artin Schools; The New Zealand Experience. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. $14.25.

Barrington, J. M. and T. H. Beaglehole. Maori Schools in a Changing Society, An Historical Review. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1974. $8.

Boshier, R. Adult and Continuing Education in New Zealand, 1851–1978; A Bibliography. Vancouver, Adult Education Research Centre, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia; Toronto, International Council for Adult Education, 1979. $7.75.

Campbell, W. J. Realities of Teacher Development. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1977. Gratis.

Cumming, I. and A. Cumming. History of State Education in New Zealand, 1840–1975. Wn, Pitman, 1978. $19.95.

Educationandthe Equalityofthe Sexes; Conference on Women and Education sponsored by the Committee on Women and the Department of Education, 23–27 November 1975, Victoria University of Wellington. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. Gratis.

Educational Systemof New Zealand, Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office, 1981.

Fitzgerald, T. K. Education and Identity; A Study of the New Zealand Maori Graduate. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $8.

Forwardto Basics, edited by J. Shallcrass. Wn. New Zealand Education Institute, 1978. $9.95.

Gadd, D. B. H. Cultural Difference in the Classroom; The Special Needs of Maoris in Pakeha Schools. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $2.65.

Guidancein New Zealand Secondary Schools, compiled and edited by G. Hermansson. Ak, New Zealand Counselling and Guidance Association, 1981. $10.

McDonald, G. Maori Mothers and Pre-school Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1973. $4.

Meade, A. comp. New Zealand Early Childhood Care and Education: Bibliography, 1965–1978; with annotations. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1979. $4.

New Zealand Committeeon Healthand Social Education. Growing, Sharing, Learning; The report of the Committee on Health and Social Education. 2nd ed. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. $3.

New Zealand Dept. of Education. Education and the Equality of the Sexes; a list of resources. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. Gratis.

New Zealand Early Childhood Careand Development Convention. 2nd, University of Canterbury, 1979, Early Childhood in New Zealand: Their needs, our concern. Ch, Christchurch Teachers College, 1979. $5.

*New Zealand Educational Development Council. Review of Educational Developments, 1974–1978: Progress on Recommendations of the Educational Development Conference. Wn, Educational Development Council, 1978. $1.85.

New Zealand National Advisory Committeeon Maori Education. He Huarahi. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1980. $3.95.

New Zealand Research Committeeon Open Plan Schools. Report on Open Plan Education in New Zealand Primary Schools. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1977. $3.25.

Parton, H. The University of New Zealand. Ak. Auckland University Press; Wn, C.U.P., 1979. $16.

Politicsof Educationin New Zealand, edited by M. Clark. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1981. $10.

Ramsay, P. D. K. and others. The Family and the School in New Zealand Society; An Introduction to the Sociology of New Zealand Education. Carlton, Vic., Pitman, 1975. $12.95.

Roth, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

Seminaron Aspectsof Tertiary Education, Wellington, 1968. Trends and Issues in Higher Education; seven papers presented at a seminar organised by the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research and the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand, 1970. $2.40.

Williams, B. M. Structures and Attitudes in New Zealand Adult Education, 1945–75. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1978. $10.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

Te Ao Hurihuri; The World Moves On; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975, reprinted 1977. Pbk: $6.95.

Best, E. Games and Pastimes of the Maori. Wn, Board of Maori Ethnological Research for the Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $17.

——— The Maori as He Was. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.50.

——— Maori Agriculture. Wn, Board of Maori Ethnological Research for the Dominion Museum, 1925. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $13.50.

Biggs, B. The Complete English-Maori Dictionary. Ak, Auckland University Press, Wn, O.U.P. 1981. $14.

——— Let's Learn Maori; a Guide to the Study of the Maori language. Wn, Reed, 1975. $3.85.

Buck, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $8.95.

Concise Maori Handbook; compiled by A. W. Reed. Wn, Reed, 1978. $8.95.

Duff, R. S. The Moa-hunter Period of Maori Culture, 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $17.50.

Firth, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $8.75.

Intothe Worldof Light: An Anthologyof Maori Writing, edited by Witi Ihimaera and D. S. Lang. Ak, Heinemann, 1982. $12.95.

Lewis, D. The Maori: Heirs of Tane. London, Orbis, 1982. $29.95.

Maoriis My Name; Historical Maori Writings in Translation, edited by John Caselberg. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. Hbk: $6.95. Pbk: $3.95.

The Maori Peopleinthe Nineteen Sixties, A Symposium edited by E. G. Schwimmer. Ak, Longman Paul, 1972. $12.65.

Metge, J. The Maoris of New Zealand: Rautahi. London, Routledge, 1976. Hbk: $21.55. Pbk: $10.35.

Pool, D. I. The Maori Population of New Zealand, 1976–1971. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $8.35.

Reed, A. W. Treasury of Maori Exploration; Legends Relating to the First Polynesian Explorers of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1977. $10.95.

Ryan, P. M. A Dictionary of Modern Maori. Ak. Heinemann Educational, 1974. $7.65.

Salmond, A. Hui; A Study of Maori Ceremonial Gatherings. Wn. Reed, 1975. Hbk: $9.95. Pbk: $5.95.

Schwimmer, E. G. The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

Selected Readingsin Maori; edited by B. Biggs, P. Hohepa, and S. M. Mead. Wn, Reed, 1967.

Simmons, D. R. The Great New Zealand Myth; A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1976. $19.95.

Stirling, E. Eruera; The Teachings of a Maori Elder. Wn, O.U.P., 1980. Hbk: $29.95. Pbk: $15.95.

Tihe Maori Ora; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $4.95.

Williams, H. W. A Bibliography of Printed Maori to 1900, and Supplement. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $4.50.

Williams, W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed., by H. W. Williams. Rev. and augmented by the Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language, Department of Education. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $7.50.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

Biogeography Ecologyin New Zealand, edited by G. Kuschel. The Hague, Dr W. Juur, 1975.

Directoryof New Zealand Science. 5th ed., Wn, New Zealand Association of Scientists, 1975. $8.

Ellis, N. E. The New Zealand Environment; a bibliography of material available through New Zealand public libraries, including a select list of overseas publications, 1968–1974. Wn, Nature Conservation Council, 1975. Supplements also published.

Environmental Policiesin New Zealand, Paris, O.E.C.D., 1981.

Landsatii Over New Zealand; Monitoring Our Resources From Space, edited by P. J. Ellis, I. L. Thomas and M. J. McDonnell. Wn, DSIR, 1978. $20.

Morton, J. E. and M. Miller. The New Zealand Sea Shore. 2nd ed. London, Collins, 1973. $18.95.

New Zealand's Nature Heritage. Ak, Hamlyn, 1976.

GEOLOGY

Adkin, G. L. and B. W. Collins. A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1967. o.p. Index, compiled by D.L. Jenkins, published Wn, D.S.I.R., 1976. $5.50.

Bibliographyof New Zealand Geology, 1951–1969, complied by Guyon Warren and others. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1977. $7. Updates Adkin.

Eiby, G. A. Earthquakes. London, Heinemann, 1980. $18.45.

Fleming, Sir C. A. The Geological History of New Zealand and its Life. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1979. $7.60.

Gage, M. Legends in the Rocks; An Outline of New Zealand Geology. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1980. $35.

Geochemistry, 1977; A Collection of Papers by New Zealand Geochemists in Honour of S. H. Wilson, compiled by A. J. Ellis. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1977. $20.

Geologyof New Zealand, chief editor, R. P. Suggate, associate editors, G. R. Stevens, M. T. Te Punga. Wn, Govt. Print., 1980. 2v. $92.

Grindley, G. W., H. J. Harrington, and B. L. Wood. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2 000 000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

Houghton, B. F. Geyserland: A Guide to the Volcanoes and Geothermal Areas of Rotorua. Lower Hutt, Geological Society of New Zealand. $3.95.

Kingma, J. T. The Geological Structure of New Zealand. New York, Wiley, 1974. $69.

Landformsof New Zealand, edited by J. M. Soons and M. J. Selby. Ak, Longman Paul, 1982. $34.95.

New Zealand Cave Atlas, compiled by P. C. Crossley, B. P. Hurst and R. G. West. Ak, University of Auckland, Dept. of Geography, 1981. $13.50.

New Zealand Waterand Soil Division. Land Use Capability Survey Handbook; a New Zealand Handbook for the Classification of Land. Rev. ed. Wn, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, 1971.

Salmon, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.70.

Stevens, G. R. Rugged Landscape; The Geology of Central New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.50.

——— New Zealand Adrift. Wn, Reed, 1980. $19.95.

ZOOLOGY

Ayling, A. M. Collins Guide to the Sea Fishes of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1982. $19.95.

Buller, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand. New ed. by E. G. Turbott. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $49.95.

Bull, P. C. and P. D. Gaze and C. J. R. Robertson. Bird Distribution in New Zealand; A Provisional Atlas, 1969–1976. Wn, Ornithological Society of New Zealand, 1978. $10.

Chapman, M. A. and M. H. Lewis. An Introduction to the Freshwater Crustacea of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1976. $19.50.

Cusa, N. W. and R. M. Lockley. New Zealand Endangered Species. Ak, Cassell, 1980. $27.95.

Doak, W. T. Fishes of the New Zealand Region. Rev. ed. Ak, Hidder and Stoughton, 1978. $16.75.

Falla, R. A., R.B. Sibson, and E. G. Turbott. A New Guide to Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. Rev. Ed.; ed. London; 1979. $14.95.

Forster, R. R., and L. M. Forster. Small Land Animals of New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1970. Pbk: $6.95.

Forster, R. R. New Zealand Spiders. Ak, Collins, 1973. $10.60.

Gibbs, G. W. New Zealand Butterflies. Ak, Collins, 1980. $45.

Mcdowall, R. M. New Zealand Freshwater Fishes; A Guide and Natural History. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1978. $26.75.

Marshall, J., Kinsky, F. C. and Robertson, C. J. R. The Fiat Book of Common Birds in New Zealand. 3 v. Wn, Reed, 1972–75. $7.50.

Miller, D. Common Insects in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $11.95.

O'Brien, C. A. A Book of New Zealand Wildlife. Ak, Lansdowne Press, 1981. $17.95.

Powell, A. W. B. New Zealand Mollusca: Marine, Land and Freshwater Shells. Ak, Collins, 1979. $60.

——— Shells of New Zealand, An Illustrated Handbook, 5th ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $12.

Ramsay, G. W. and Singh, P. Guide to New Zealand Entomology. Ak, Entomological Society of New Zealand, 1982. $9.

Sharell, R. New Zealand Insects and Their Story. Ak, Collins, 1971. $15.95.

——— The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins, 1966. $8.40.

Sibson, R. B. Birds at Risk, Rare or Endangered Species of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1982. $39.95.

Wild Animalsin New Zealand, compiled under the direction of A. L. Poole. Wn, Reed, 1970. $11.95.

BOTANY

Allison, K. W. and J. Child. The Mosses of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1971. $9.95.

Chinnock, R. J. and Heath E. Common Ferns and Fern Allies. New ed. Wn, Reed, 1981. $5.95.

Connor, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $9.75.

Crowe, A. A Field Guide to the Native Edible Plants of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1981. $19.95.

Eagle, A. L. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand in Colour, two hundred and twenty-eight botanical paintings. Ak, Collins, 1975. $50. Also published 1978 in 2 volumes as Eagle's 100 Trees of New Zealand, and Eagle's 100 Shrubs & Climbers of New Zealand. $15 each.

Fisher, M. E. New Zealand Ferns in Your Garden. Ak, Collins, 1976. $9.95.

Floraof New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961–63 vol. 1 by H. H. Allan, 1961. $45. vol. 2. by L. B. Moore and E. Edgar, 1970. $6.75. vol. 3. by A. J. Healey and E. Edgar, 1980. $18.50.

Given, D. R. Rare and Endangered Plants of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1981. $22.95.

Laing, R. M., and E. W. Blackwell. Plants of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

Mark, A. F., and N. M. Adams. New Zealand Alpine Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. Hbk: $19.50. Pbk: $17.95.

Moore, L. B. and J. B. Irwin. The Oxford Book of New Zealand Plants. Wn, O.U.P., 1978. $40.

Parham, B. E. V., and A. J. Healy. Common Weeds in New Zealand; An Illustrated Guide to Their Identification. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $6.75.

Poole, A. L., and N. M. Adams. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1980. $15.95.

Salmon, J. T. The Native Trees of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1980. $75.

Taylor, G. M. Mushrooms and Toadstools in New Zealand. New ed. Wn, Reed, 1981. $5.95.

TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

Atkinson, J. D. DSIR's First fifty years. Wn, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1976. $5.00.

Burton, D. Two Hundred Years of New Zealand Food and Cookery. Wn, Reed, 1982. $29.95.

The Farmingof Deer, World Trendsand Modern Techniques, edited by David Yerex. Wn, Agricultural Promotion Associates, 1982. $22.

Fenemore, P. G. Plant Pests and their Control. Wn, Butterworths, 1982. $26.

Fisher, M. E., E. Satchell, and J. M. Watkins. Gardening with New Zealand Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. Rev. ed. Ak, Collins, 1975. $12.50.

Gibbs, H. S. New Zealand Soils. Wn, O.U.P., 1980. Pbk: $10.50.

Harrison, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2nd. ed. Rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison, 1971. $12.95.

——— Handbook of Trees and Shrubs. New ed. Rev, Wn, Reed, 1979. $14.95.

Healy, A. J. F. Indentification of Weeds and Clover. Wn, Editorial Services, 1982.

Healy, B. A Hundred Million Trees, the. Story of New Zealand Forest Products. Ak, Hodder & Stoughton, 1982. $16.95.

Holden, P. The Wild Pig in New Zealand. Ak, Hodder & Stoughton, 1982. $22.95.

Langer, R. H. M. Pastures and Pasture Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. $12.95.

Levy, E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 3rd ed. Wn. Govt. Print., 1970. $5.50.

Leitch, D. B. Railways of New Zealand. Ak, L. Fullerton; Newton Abbot, Devon, David and Charles, 1972, $8.95.

McLauchlan, G. The Farming of New Zealand. Ak, Australia & New Zealand Book Company, 1981. $29.95.

McLean, I. The Future for New Zealand Agriculture; Economic Strategies for the 1980s. Wn, Fourth Estate Books, 1978. $4.50.

Matthews, B. W. Gardens of New Zealand. Ak; Harrlyn, 1975. $9.95.

Metcalf, L. J. The Cultivation of New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. Wn, Reed, 1972. $12.80.

Morton, H. The Whale's Wake. Dn, McIndoe, 1982. $38.

Munro, M. N. and J. Munro, A Taste of New Zealand in Food and Pictures. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.95.

New Zealand Farmers' Veterinary Guide. 4th. ed. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Exporter, 1972. $6.

New Zealand Insect Pests, edited by D. N. Ferro. Lincoln, Lincoln University College of Agriculture, 1976. $15.

New Zealand Ministryof Agricultureand Fisheries. New Zealand Agriculture. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.

Noonan, R. J. By Design; A Brief History of the Public Works Department, Ministry of Works. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $18.50.

Painter, G. The Herb Garden Displayed. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. $28.50.

Pearce, G. L. The Pioneer Craftsmen of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1982. $29.95.

Schofield, J. C. Materials for the New Zealand Potter. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $3.75.

Sheep Production, Breedingand Reproduction, edited by G. A. Wickham and M. F. McDonald. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Agricultural Science, 1982. $30.

Simpson, T. E. Kauri and Radiata: Origin and Expansion of the Timber Industry of New Zealand. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1973.

Thornton, G. G. New Zealand's Industrial Heritage. Wn, Reed, 1982. $29.95.

Troup, G. S. Steel Roads of New Zealand; An Illustrated Survey. Wn, Reed, 1973. $12.95.

Ward, A. H. A. Command of Co-operatives; The Development of Leadership, Marketing and Price Control in the Co-operative Dairy Industry of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Board, 1975. $5.60.

ARTS

Archey, Sir G. E. Whaowhia; Maori Art and its Artists. Ak, Collins, 1977. $19.95.

Barrow, T. T. Decorative Art of the New Zealand Maori. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1975. $4.50.

——— Maori Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed; Paris, Unesco Press, 1978. $5.95.

Blumhardt, D. and Brake, B. Craft New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1981. $60.

Brake, B., J. M. McNeish and D. Simmons. Art of the Pacific. Wn, O.U.P., 1979. $35.95.

Brown, G. H. and Keith, H. An Introduction to New Zealand Painting, 1839–1980. Rev. ed. Ak, Collins, 1982. $29.95.

Brown, G. H. New Zealand Painting 1940–1960, Conformity and Dissension. Wn, Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 1981. $11.95.

Cape, P. I. New Zealand Painting Since 1960; A Study in Themes and Developments. Ak, Collins, 1979. $29.50.

——— Please Touch: A Survey of the Three-dimensional Arts. Ak, Collins, 1980.

——— Prints and Printmakers in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1974. $19.50.

Docking, G. C. Two Hundred Years of New Zealand Painting. Wn, Reed, 1971. $37.95.

Downes, P. E. Shadows on the Stage; Theatre in New Zealand; The First Seventy Years. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. $2.50.

Downes, P. E. and P. Harcourt. Voices in the Air; Radio Broadcasting in New Zealand. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $3.95.

Ellis, E. M. and D. G. Ellis. Early Prints of New Zealand, 1642–1875. Ch, Avon Fine Prints, 1978. $80.

Harcourt, P. M. A Dramatic Appearance; New Zealand Theatre, 1920–1970. Wn, Methuen, 1978. $11.95.

*Hill, P. M. New Zealand Architecture. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $1.25.

Historic Buildingsof New Zealand; North Island, edited by Frances Porter. Ak, Cassell New Zealand, 1979. $30.

McLean, M. E. and M. Orbell. Traditional Songs of the Maori. Ak, Auckland University Press; Wn, Oxford University Press, 1979. $13.50.

N.Z. Art & Antiques Yearbook, 1982/83; incorporating N.Z. art auction records. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1982.

*New Zealand Folk Songs: Songs of a Young Country, compiled by N. Colquhon. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.45.

New Zealand Poster Book, 1830–1940, compiled by E. Ellis. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.95.

New Zealand Potters; Their Work and Words, edited by D. Blumhardt. Wn, Reed, 1976. $16.95.

Norman, P. T. Bibliography of New Zealand Compositions, vol. 1, Ch, Nota Bene Music, 1982. $18.50.

Performance; A Handbookofthe Performing Artsin New Zealand. Wn, Association of Community Theatres, 1982.

Platts, U. Nineteenth Century New Zealand Artists. Ch, Avon Fine Prints, 1980. $30.

Smyth, B. W. and Howorth, H. Books and Pamphlets Relating to Culture and the Arts in New Zealand; A Bibliography Including Works Published to the End of the Year 1977. Ch, Dept. of Extension Studies, University of Canterbury, Wn, New Zealand National Commission for UNESCO, 1979. $2.

Thompson, F., E. Littlewood and M. Norris. Craft Hunter's Guide, New Zealand 1980. Ak, 1980. (Available from Pitmans). $3.

Thomson, K. W., Art Galleries and Museums of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1981. $24.95.

Views/Exposures, Ten Contemporary New Zealand Photographers. Wn, National Art Gallery, 1982. $25.

SPORT, INCLUDING MOUNTAINEERING

Agnew, I. J. Kiwis Can Fly. Ak, Marketforce, 1976. $7.95.

Allan, W. J. D. Power and Sail; A Complete Guide to Yachting and Boating in New Zealand. Ak, Heinemann, 1975. $9.95.

Brittenden, R. T. The Finest Years; Twenty Years of New Zealand Cricket. Wn, Reed, 1977. $14.95.

Byrne, J. Wing Shooting in New Zealand; Pheasant, Quail, Partridge, Duck and Goose. Wn, Reed, 1982. $19.95.

Chester, R. H. and N. A. C. McMillan. Men in Black. Rev. ed. Ak, Moa Publications, 1979. $14.95.

Costello, J. B. New Zealand Galloping Greats. Enl. ed. Ak, Moa Publications, 1977. $8.95.

Forrester, R. and Illingworth, N. Hunting in New Zealand. New rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1979. $10.95.

Garner, I. and Walter, I. New Zealand Soccer, the Impossible Dream. Ak, Hodder & Stoughton, 1982. $11.95.

Howitt, R. J. New Zealand Rugby Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1982. 2v. $27.90.

Lousley, D. P. Guide to the Ski Fields of the South Island, New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $2.95.

Memorable Momentsin New Zealand Sport, edited by Don Cameron. Ak, Moa Publications, 1979. $14.95.

New Zealand Sporting Clubs Directory 1980. Ak, Tasman, 1980. $9.95.

Radio New Zealand Sports Annual. Wn, Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, 1982. $16.95.

Scanlan, M. The New Zealand Boating Handbook. Wn, Reed, 1980. $12.95.

Sport New Zealand. Ak, New Zealand International Publishing Group, 1982. $9.95.

Todd, S.P. DB Sporting Records of New Zealand, Ak, Moa Publications, 1976. $9.95.

Wilson, J. The New Zealand Fisherman's Bible. Ak, Lansdowne Press, 1981. $11.95.

Wood, B. Flying Sulkies; A History of the New Zealand Trotting Cup, 1904–1980. Ak, Moa Publications, 1981. $17.95.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

A Bookof New Zealand, edited by J. C. Reid and P. Cape. Rev. and enl. ed. Ak, Collins 1979. $14.95.

Mccormick, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. London, O.U.P., 1959. o.p.

Stead, C. K. In the Glass Case; Essays on New Zealand Literature. Ak, Auckland University Press and Oxford University Press, 1981. $16.90.

Thomson, J. E. P., New Zealand Literature to 1977: A Guide to Information Sources. Detroit, Gale, 1980.

Women Writersof New Zealand, 1932–1982; Jubilee Historyand Writingsofthe New Zealand Women Writers' Society, edited by Margaret Hayward and Joy Cowley. Wn, Colonial Associates, 1982. $24.95.

POETRY

*Adcock, K. F. The Inner Harbour. Oxford, O.U.P., 1979. $5.95.

Anthologyof Twentieth Century New Zealand Poetry, selected by V. O'Sullivan. 2nd ed. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. Hbk: $10.50. Pbk: $7.

Baxter, J. K. Selected poems. Ak, O.U.P., 1982. $9.95.

Bertram, J. M. Charles Brasch. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $3.65.

Campbell, A. Collected Poems, 1947–1981. Martinborough, Taylor, 1981. $19.95.

Curnow, A. Selected Poems. Ak, Penguin, 1982. $10.95.

Edmond, M. End Wall. Ak, O.U.P. 1981. $9.95.

Fairburn, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1975. $4.50.

Fifteen Contemporary New Zealand Poets. Dn. Pilgrims South Press, 1980. $11.95.

Glover, D. Selected Poems. 1981. Ak, Penguin, 1981. $7.95.

Hulme, K. The Silences Between, Moeraki Conversations. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1982. $6.40.

Hunt, S. Collected Poems, 1963–1980. Ak, Penguin, 1980. $4.95.

Jackaman, R. Shaman and Charlatan. Ak, Cicada, 1981. $4.95.

Johnson, L. Coming and Going. Wn, Mallinson Rendel, 1982. $9.95.

Mccormick, G. Zephyr. Gisborne, Piano Publishing. $5.50.

Manhire, B. Good Looks. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1982. $7.90.

Mitcalfe, B. Maori Poetry; The Singing Word. Wn, Price Milburn, 1974. $6.30.

Nga Moteatea, edited by A. T. Ngata. 3 v. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959–72. Collection of Maori songs. $8.95.

*New Zealand Love Poems, chosen by J. Bertram. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $4.95.

Oliver, W. H. Out of Season. Wn, O.U.P. 1980. $6.95.

*O'Sullivan, V. G. The Rose Ballroom and Other Poems. Dn, McIndoe, 1982. $7.95.

——— James K. Baxter. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $2.95.

Penguin Bookof New Zealand Verse, edited by T. A. M. Curnow. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1966.

Sewell, B. Solo Flight. Dn, McIndoe, 1982. $7.95.

Southam, B. The People Dance. Dn, Northcott Reeves, 1982. Hbk $12.50.

Stead, C. K. Geographies. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1982. $9.50.

The Oxford Bookof Contemporary New Zealand Poetry Chosenby Fleur Adcock. Ak, Oxford University Press, 1982. $11.95.

*Thomson, J. E. P. Denis Glover. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $2.95.

*Tuwhare, H. No Ordinary Sun. 3rd ed. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. $3.95.

Weir, J. E. and Lyon, B. A. A Preliminary Bibliography of Works by and Works About James K. Baxter. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1981. $15.

FICTION

Bird, Hawk, Bogie; Essays on Janet Frame, edited by Jeanne Delbaere. Aarhus, Dangaroo Press, 1978.

Burns, J. New Zealand Novels and Novelists, 1861–1979; An Annotated Bibliography. Ak, Heinemann, 1981. $14.95.

Copland, R. A. Frank Sargeson. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $2.95.

Cowley, C. J. The Growing Season. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. $9.95.

Critical Essaysonthe New Zealand Novel, edited by Cherry Hankin. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $6.95.

Critical Essaysonthe New Zealand Short Story, edited by Cherry Hankin. Ak, Heinemann, 1982. $14.95.

Cross, I. R. The God Boy. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1972. $4.95.

Davin, D. M. Roads from Home. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. Hbk: $8.40. Pbk: $4.50.

Du Fresne, Y. Farvel and Other Stories. Wn, Victoria University Press, 1980. $7.95.

Duggan, M. Collected Stories. Ak, Auckland University Press, Oxford University Press, 1981. $25.

Evans, P. D. Janet Frame, Boston, Twayne, 1977.

Frame, J. Living in the Maniototo. New York, Braziller, 1979, US$8.95.

——— Owls Do Cry. London, W. H. Allen, 1961.

——— A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967.

Gee, M. Games of Choice. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $4.50.

——— Meg. London, Faber: Ak, Penguin, 1981. $15.95.

——— Plumb. Wn, OUP, London, Faber and Faber, 1979. Pbk; $4.95.

Gifkins, M. After the Revolution and Other Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1982. $9.95.

Grace, P. F. Mutuwhenua; The Moon Sleeps. Ak, Longman Paul, 1978. Hbk: $8.75. Pbk: $5.50.

——— The Dream Sleepers and Other Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1980. $5.95.

Grover, R. Cork of War, Ngati Toa and the British Mission, and Historical Narrative. Dn, McIndoe, 1982. $29.95.

Hilliard, N. H. Maori Girl. London, Heinemann, 1971. Hbk $5.25. Pbk $4.50.

——— Send Somebody Nice. London, Hale, 1976. $4.95.

Hyde, R. The Godwits Fly. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1970. Hbk: $7.50. Pbk: $4.95.

Ihimaera, W. T. The New Net Goes Fishing. Ak, Heinemann, 1977. $9.45.

——— Tangi. Ak, Heinemann, 1974. $4.50.

——— Whanau. Ak, Heinemann, 1974. Hbk: $7. Pbk: $4.50.

Kidman, F. A Breed of Women. Sydney, Harper & Row, 1979. $12.95.

Kidman, F. Mrs Dixon and Friend, Short Stories. Ak, Heinemann, 1982. $11.95.

Lee, J. A. Children of the Poor. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1973. $4.50.

McCauley, S. Other Halves. Ak, Hodder & Stoughton, 1982. Hbk: $15.95. Pbk: $10.95.

McNeish, J. Joy. Ak, Hodder & Stoughton, 1982. $16.95.

Mander, J. Allen Adair. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1971. Hbk: $7.50. Pbk: $4.95.

Mansfield, K. Complete Stories. Ak, Golden Press, 1974. $6.99.

——— Selected Stories, edited with an introduction by D. M. Davin. Oxford, O.U.P., 1981. £1.75.

Marshall, O. The Master of Big Jingles and Other Stories. Dn, McIndoe, 1982. $9.95.

Morrieson, J. R. H. Pallet on the Floor. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1976. Hbk: $6.95. Pbk: $4.50.

——— The Scarecrow. Ak., Heinemann, 1976. $3.95.

Mulgan, J. A. E. Man Alone. 2nd ed. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975. $4.50.

N.Z. Listener Short Stories, chosen by B. Manhire. 2 v. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1977–78. $5.95.

New Zealand Short Stories, Wn, O.U.P., 1975. 3 series. $13.95.

Pickard, A. G. All Part of the Game; The Stories of A. P. Gaskell. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1978. Hbk: $9.95. Pbk: $5.90.

Sargeson, F. Stories. Ak, Penguin, 1982. $9.95.

Shadbolt, M. F. R. Figures in Light: Selected Stories. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. Hbk: $9.95 Pbk: $5.95.

——— Strangers and Journeys. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. Hbk: $7.15. Pbk: $4.15.

——— The Lovelock Version. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1980. $22.95.

Shirley Templeisa Wifeand Mother; 34 Stories, edited by C.C. Catley. Whatamongo Bay, Cape Catley, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $5.95.

Stead, C. K. Five for the Symbol. Ak, Longman Paul, 1981. $13.95.

——— Smith's Dream. Ak, Longman Paul, 1971. $3.95.

Stevens, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1965. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1966.

Temple, P. Beak of the Moon. Ak, Collins, 1981. Hbk: $22.95. Pbk: $14.95.

Wendt, A. Sons for the Return Home. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. Hbk: $5.95. Pbk: $3.95.

DRAMA

*Baxter, J. K. Jack Winter's Dream, Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, 1979. $2.50.

Contemporary New Zealand Plays, selected by H. McNaughton. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. $4.95.

Directoryof New Zealand Playsand Playwrights. Rev. ed. Wn, Playmarket, 1981. $3.95.

Hall, R. L. Middle-age Spread. Wn, Price Milburn, 1978. $3.50.

——— Glide Time; a play in four acts set in the Public Service. Wn, Price Milburn, 1977. $3.50.

McGee, G. Foreskin's Lament. Wn, Price Milburn and Victoria University Press, 1981. $5.50.

McNaughton, H. D. New Zealand Drama; A Bibliographical Guide. Ch, Library University of Canterbury, 1974. $2.95.

——— New Zealand Drama. Boston, Twayne, 1981.

Mason, B. Blood of the Lamb. Wn, Price Milburn, 1981. $5.50.

DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL

About New Zealand. Wn, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1982.

Alexander, L. Adventure Holidays in New Zealand. Wn, INL Print, 1982. $7.95.

Barriball, M. New Zealand, Images, Impressions. Wn, Reed, 1982. $29.95.

Braithwaite, E. F. New Zealand and its People. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $10.95.

Cobb, L. and Duncan, J. New Zealand's National Parks. Ak, Hamlyn, 1980. $15.95.

Conlon, D. Presenting New Zealand. Ak, Golden Press, 1982. $29.95.

Joyce, R. and Saunders, B. Discover New Zealand, the Glorious Islands. Ak, Landsdowne, 1982. $34.95.

King, M. and Barriball, M. New Zealand in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1982. $14.95.

New Zealand Atlas, edited by Ian Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $8.

New Zealandin Maps, edited by A. G. Anderson. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. £5.50.

New Zealand Automobile Association. AA Road Atlas of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ak, Hamlyn, 1978. $7.95.

——— AA Bookof New Zealand Walkways. Sydney, Landsdowne, 1982. $24.95.

——— AA Bookofthe New Zealand Countryside. Ak, Hamlyn, 1978. $12.95.

Peat, N. Detours, a Journey through Small-Town New Zealand. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1982. $17.95.

Pope, D. and Pope, J. The Mobil Illustrated Guide to New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1982. $39.95.

Pope, D. M. and Pope, J. D. Mobil New Zealand Travel Guide, North Island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $7.95.

——— South Island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1978. $6.95.

Reed, A. W. Place Names of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1975. $10.50. and supplement, 1979. $9.95.

Wild New Zealand. Sydney, Reader's Digest, 1981. $29.95.

Wises New Zealand Guide; A Gazetteer of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ak, Wise Publications, 1979. $45.

HISTORICAL WORKS

Adams, P. W. T. Fatal Necessity; British Intervention in New Zealand, 1830–1847. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $13.60.

Beaglehole, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, O.U.P., 1961. o.p.

Begg, A. C., and N. C. Begg. James Cook and New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969. $4.50.

Brett, H. White Wings. Ak, Brett Printing Co., 1924–28. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. 2 v. $50. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

Cook, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beaglehole. Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955–5 v. to date. (Hakluyt Society. Extra series No. 34.)

Cowan, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–1956. 2 v. $9.

Cumberland. K. B. Landmarks. Surrey Hills N.S.W., Reader's Digest, 1981. $39.95.

Facsimilesofthe Declarationof Independenceandthe Treatyof Waitangi. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $12.95.

Grant, I. F. The Unauthorised Version: A Cartoon History of New Zealand. Ak, Cassell, 1980. $18.95.

Ingram, C. W. N. New Zealand Shipwrecks, 1795–1975. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $16.95.

Jackson, W. K. The New Zealand Legislative Council; A Study of the Establishment, Failure, and Abolition of an Upper House. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1972. $9.95.

King, M. New Zealanders at War. Ak, Heinemann, 1981. $34.95.

Lissington, M. P. New Zealand and Japan, 1900–1941. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $5.75.

——— New Zealand and the United States, 1840–1944. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $3.

Looking Back; A Photographic History of New Zealand, compiled by K. Sinclair & W. Harrex. Wn, O.U.P., 1978. $18.95.

McLintock, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

McNab, R. The Old Whaling Days; A History of Southern New Zealand from 1830 to 1840. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $4.95.

Maddock, S. These Antipodes; A New Zealand Album, 1814 to 1854. Ak, Collins, 1979. $29.50.

Maning, F. E. Old New Zealand; A Tale of the Good Old Times and A History of the War in the North Told by an Old Chief of the Ngapuhi Tribe. Ak, Golden Press, 1973. $6.98.

Morrell, W. P. The Anglican Church in New Zealand; A History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973. $5.95.

——— The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852–76. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

New Zealand Centennial Branch. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939–40. 2 v. o.p.

New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Leaflets on various historic sites; Booklets. See under individual authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., in following section. Gratis.

New Zealand War History Branch. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. Wn, 1949–63. 3 v. 1 o.p.; 2, $1.25; 3, $2.50.

New Zealand's Heritage; The Making of a Nation. Ak, Hamlyn, 1977. 7 v. in 105 pts, issued weekly. $1 per issue.

Oliver, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, Faber, 1963. Hbk: $3.50. Pbk: $1.35.

The Oxford Historyof New Zealand, edited by W. H. Oliver with B. R. Williams. Oxford, Clarendon Press; Wn, Oxford University Press, 1981. Hbk: $39.95. Pbk: $24.95.

Pascoe, J. D. Exploration New Zealand. Wn, Reed. 1971. $4.50.

Simpson, A. C. The Road to Erewhon. Ak, Beaux Arts, 1976. $8.95.

——— The Sugarbag Years. Wn, A. Taylor, 1974. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $5.95.

Sinclair, K. A. History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. London, Lane, 1980. Hbk: $19.95. Pbk: $5.95.

——— The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1974. $7.90.

Sutch, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand; A Reassessment. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed. 1969. $4.95.

——— The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 to 1966. Wn, O.U.P., 1966. Hbk: $6.50. Pbk: $3.

Taylor, R. Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.95.

Thirteen Facets; Essays to Celebrate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth the Second, 1952–1977, edited by I. Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $13.95.

Wakefield, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $3.95.

Wood, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, Historical Publications Branch in conjunction with Reed, 1971. $5.95.

REGIONAL AND LOCAL WORKS

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

Acland, L. G. D. The Early Canterbury Runs. 4th. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975. $14.95.

Alington, M. H. Unquiet Earth; A History of the Bolton Street Cemetery. Wn, Wellington City Council, Govt. Print., 1978. $9.75.

Allan, R. M. Nelson; A History of Early Settlement. Wn, Reed, 1965.

Andersen, J. C. Place Names of Banks Peninsula; A Topographical History. Wn, Govt. Print., 1927. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. $12.

Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

Bagnall, A. G. Wairarapa. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1976. $19.50.

Barber, L. H. The View from Pirongia; The History of Waipa County. Ak, Richards Publishing, 1978. $12.50.

Begg, A. C. and N. C. Begg. Port Preservation. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973, $12.50.

Buchanan, J. D. H. The Maori History and Place Names of Hawke's Bay. Wn, Reed, 1973.

Campbell, M. D. N. Story of Napier, 1874–1974. Napier, Napier City Council, 1975. $7.

Carkeek, W. The Kapiti Coast; Maori History and Place Names. Wn, Reed, 1966. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1978. $30.

Eldred-Grigg, S. A New History of Canterbury. Dn, McIndoe, 1982. $29.95.

Field, T. A. Relics of the Goldfields, Central Otago. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $6.95.

Gibbons, P. J. Astride the River; A History of Hamilton. Ch, Whitcoulls for the Hamilton City Council, 1977. $11.50.

Guthrie-Smith, W. H. Tutira; The Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969.

Hall-Jones, Fiordland Explored; An Illustrated History. Wn, Reed, 1976. $13.95.

A Historyof Canterbury. Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1957–71. 3 v.

Holcroft, M. H. The Line of Road; A History of Manawatu County, 1876–1976. Dn, McIndoe for the Manawatu County Council, 1977. $10.

Howard, B. H. Rakiura; A History of Stewart Island. Dn, Reed, 1974. $19.95.

Irvine-Smith, F. L. The Streets of My City; Wellington, New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1967.

Lambert, T. The Story of Old Wairoa and the East Coast District, North Island, New Zealand. Dn, Coulls Somerville Wilkie, 1925. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1977. $40.

McAra, J. B. Gold Mining at Waihi, 1878–1952. Waihi, Waihi Historical Society, 1978. $16.50.

Main, W. Auckland Through a Victorian Lens. Wn, Millwood Press, 1977. $19.95.

May, P. R. The West Coast Gold Rushes. 2nd. Rev. ed. Ch, Pegasus, 1967.

Nordmeyer, A. Waitaki; The River and its Lakes, the Land and its People. Oamaru, Waitaki Lakes Committee, 1981. $10.50.

Oliver, W. H. Challenge and Response; A Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region. Gisborne, East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. $4.50.

Reed, A. H. The Story of Northland. Wn, Reed, 1975. $6.50.

Smart, M. J. G. and A. P. Bates. The Wanganui Story. Wanganui Newspapers, 1972. $5.90.

Smedley, B. Homewood and its Families. Wn, Mallinson Rendel, 1980. $12.95.

*Standish, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station, Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 70c. Also others issued by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

Tullett, J. S. The Industrious Heart; A History of New Plymouth. New Plymouth, New Plymouth City Council, 1981. $29.95.

Woodhouse, A. E. Blue Cliffs, the Biography of a South Canterbury Sheep Station, 1856–1970. Wn, Reed, 1982. $29.95.

BIOGRAPHY

Honours, Titles, Styles, and Precedencein New Zealand, compiled and edited by P. P. O'Shea. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $13.90. Supplement, 1980. $9.25.

Who's Whoin New Zealand. 11th ed., edited by J. E. Traue. Wn, Reed, 1978. $16.95.

Bassett, J. Sir Harry Atkinson, 1831–1892. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $12.

Beaglehole, J. C. The Life of Captain James Cook. London, Black, 1974.

Binney, J. and Chaplin, G. and Wallace, C. Mihaia; The Prophet Rua Kenana and His Community at Maungapohatu. Wn, O.U.P., 1979. Hbk; $19.95. Pbk; $13.50.

Burns, P. Te Rauparaha. Wn, Reed, 1980. $29.95.

Condliffe, J. B. Te Rangi Hiroa; The Life of Sir Peter Buck. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971.

Cresswell, W. D. The Letters of D'Arcy Cresswell. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1971. $6.

Fairburn, A. R. D. The Letters of A. R. D. Fairburn, selected and edited by L. Edmond. Ak, Oxford University Press, 1981. $31.95.

Fingleton, D. Kiri Te Kanawa. London, Collins, 1982. $19.95.

Gordon, J. All the World's a Stage. Wn, Mallinson Rendel, 1981. $13.95.

Harper, B. Petticoat Pioneers: South Island Women of the Colonial Era. Wn, Reed, 1980. $19.95.

Hayward, M. Diary of the Kirk Years. Wn, Reed; Queen Charlotte Sound, Cape Catley, 1981. $19.95.

Henderson, J. M. Ratana; The Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

King, M. Te Puea. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1982. $11.95.

Lee, J. A. The John A. Lee Diaries, 1936–40. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1981. $16.95.

Lush, V. The Waikato journals, 1864–68, 1881–82. Ch, Pegasus, 1982. $29.50.

Macgregor, M. F. Petticoat Pioneers, North Island Women of the Colonial Era. Wn, Reed, 1973. 2 v. 1975. $12.95 each.

McCormick, E. H. Omai, Pacific Envoy. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $21.60.

——— Portrait of Frances Hodgkins. Ak, Auckland University Press; O.U.P., 1981. $19.50.

Marsh, N. Black Beech and Honeydew; An Autobiography. Rev. and enl. ed. Ak, Collins, 1981. $19.95.

Meyers, J. Katherine Mansfield; A Biography. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. $16.75. Also published London, H. Hamilton, 1978.

Notable New Zealanders. Ak, Hamlyn, 1979. $34.50.

Olssen, E. N. John A. Lee. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1977. $14.95.

O'Shea, P. P. An Unknown Few; The Story of Those Holders of the George Cross, the Empire Gallantry Medal, and the Albert Medals Associated with New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print, 1981. $27.50.

Raeside, J. D. Sovereign Chief, A Biography of Baron de Thierry. Ch, Caxton Press, 1977. $22.50.

Rolleston, R. William and Mary Rolleston. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.50.

Sargeson, F. Sargeson. Ak, Penguin, 1981. $10.95.

Scott, R. G. A Stake in the Country; Assid Abraham Corban and His Family, 1892–1977. Ak, Southern Cross Books, 1977. $25.

Shadbolt, M. F. R. Love and Legend; Some 20th Century New Zealanders. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $8.45.

Sinclair, K. Walter Nash. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. Hbk: $13.95. Pbk: $8.40.

——— William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.90.

Stone, R. J. C. Young Logan Campbell. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1982. $19.90.

Stirling, A. M. Amiria; The Life Story of a Maori Woman, as told to Anne Salmond. Wn, Reed, 1976. Hbk: $13.95. Pbk: $9.95.

Thomson, J. M. A Distant Music, the Life and Times of Alfred Hill, 1870–1960. Ak, O.U.P., 1980.

Te Wiata, B. Inia Te Wiata, Most Happy Fella. Ak, Hutchinson, 1982. Hbk: $24.95. Pbk: $17.95.

Webster, P. Rua and the Maori Millennium. Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, 1979. $18.

Wilson, O. An Outsider Looks Back, Reflections on Experience. Wn, Port Nicholson Press, 1982. $24.95.

Awards in Literature and the Arts

LITERATURE

New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister for the Arts, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship of $9,000 is awarded annually to an established New Zealand writer by the Minister for the Arts, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

Victoria University of Wellington Writer's Fellowship—Funded jointly by the New Zealand Literary Fund and Victoria University, the fellowship is to enable a writer to work on a literary project at the university for 12 months. Details on the fellowship are available from the Registrar, Victoria University of Wellington, Private Bag, Wellington.

Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. The fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

Maori Writers' Awards—The Maori Purposes Fund Board annually makes available one award of $1,000 for creative writing in the English language, and another of $1,000 for creative writing in the Maori language. Applications from persons of Maori descent should be sent to the Secretary of the Maori Purposes Fund Board, Box 2390, Wellington.

New Zealand Book Awards—Annual awards of $2,000 are made by the Minister for the Arts with the support of the Literary Fund and the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, for the best books published each year in the categories of poetry, fiction, non-fiction, and book production.

Award for Achievement—The Award for Achievement, of $500, recognises the contribution of one person to New Zealand literature. The award is granted each year by the Minister for the Arts, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. (Applications are not called for.)

Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander. (Applications are not called for.)

Russell Clark Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the illustrator responsible for the most distinguished illustrations for a children's book. The illustrator must be a citizen or resident of New Zealand. (Applications are not called for.)

Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, is available annually for the best first book of prose writing by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

Jessie Mackay Poetry Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund is available annually for the best first book of poetry written by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors a biennial prestige memorial award for the short story.

Bank of New Zealand Young Writers' Awards—Concurrently with the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award, the Bank of New Zealand sponsors 2 awards for young writers. These are the senior award, for entrants aged 24 years and under; and the junior award for secondary school students. Both awards are for short stories.

Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship (Winn-Manson Menton Trust)—The fellowship is to allow a New Zealand writer to write and study at Menton in the South of France. Applicants must be serious writers who would use the fellowship to further their literary studies and endeavours. The fellow will

receive not less than $4,000, return airfares, and a contribution towards living expenses. Applications should be made to the Hon. Secretary, Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship, P.O. Box 10–256, Wellington, before 19 July each year.

Young Writer's Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, the New Zealand Book Council, and the Department of Education, is available annually for writing by people under 20 years of age. There are categories for prose and poetry. Applications should be made to the Secretary, P.O. Box 2283, Wellington.

James Wattie Book of the Year Award—This award is made each year by Wattie Industries Limited. Full conditions of entry for the James Wattie Book of the Year Award, which is aimed mainly at encouraging the growth of publishing in New Zealand, are available from the Director, BPANZ, P.O. Box 78071, Grey Lynn, Auckland.

ICI Writers' Bursary—The bursary of $6,000 is jointly funded by ICI New Zealand Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. Its purpose is to enable a writer with potential, but not necessarily with a well established publication record, to work full time for up to 1 year on a particular project. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

Choysa Bursary For Children's Writers—The bursary of $7,000 is jointly funded by Quality Packers Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The bursary is offered annually to writers of imaginative work for children. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

Canterbury University Writer-in-Residence— Funded jointly by the New Zealand Literary Fund and Canterbury University, the scheme is to enable writers to work for 9 months at the university. Details of the Writer-in-Residence scheme are available from the Registrar, Canterbury University, Christchurch.

A. W. Reed Memorial Book Award—An annual award of $5,000 is offered to the author of the best non-fiction manuscript. Inquiries to Mr Paul Bradwell, Reed Publishers, P.O. Box 14029, Kilbirnie, Wellington.

Air New Zealand's International Competition for Short Story Writers—An annual award for short stories of up to 2500 words. Judged by PEN (New Zealand Centre). Successful stories are published in Air New Zealand's Inflight magazine. Inquiries to Air New Zealand, Private Bag, Auckland.

University of Auckland Literary Fellowship—The award is funded jointly by the N.Z. Literary Fund and the University of Auckland to enable a writer to work for 6 months at the university. Details from the Registrar, University of Auckland, Private Bag, Auckland.

Painting and Sculpture: Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors, preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

Music: Mozart Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand musicians who are serious composers. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Applicants should be at least 27 years old. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

General Statistical Publications

  • Monthly Abstract of Statistics

  • Pocket Digest of Statistics

  • New Zealand Official Yearbook

  • New Zealand at a Glance (brochure)

  • Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics

  • Descriptive List of Publications

  • Can We Help?

Annual Reports

  • Agricultural Statistics

  • Balance of Payments

  • Building and Construction Statistics

  • External Trade

  •   Exports (Final Statistics)

  •   Imports (Final Statistics)

  •   Report and Analysis

  • Household Survey

  • Incomes and Income Tax

  • Insurance Statistics

  • Justice Statistics

  • Local Authority Statistics

  • Population and Migration

  •   Pt. A Population

  •   Pt. B External Migration

  • Prices, Wages, and Labour

  •   Pt. A Prices

  •   Pt. B Wages and Labour

  • Transport

  • Vital Statistics

Census of Population and Dwellings 1981

  • Vol. 1 Pt. A Population Size and Distribution

  •               Pt. B Population Density

  •               Pt. C Location and Increase of Population

  •               2 Ages and Marital Status

  •               3 Religious Professions

  •               4 Industries and Occupations

  •               5 Incomes

  •               6 Education

  •               7 Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin

  •               8A Maori Population and Dwellings

  •               8B Pacific Island Polynesian Population

  •               9 Dwellings

  •               10 Households, Families, and Fertility

  •               11 Internal Migration

Some Other Census Volumes

  • Census of Agricultural Contracting Services

  • Census of Building and Construction

  • Census of Distribution

  • Census of Fishing

  • Census of Forestry and Logging

  • Census of Libraries

  • Census of Manufacturing

  • Census of Mining and Quarrying

  • Census of Services

  • Census of Transport, Storage and Communication

Other Publications

  • Inter-Industry Studies

  • Life Tables

  • Life Annuity Tables

  • Demographic Bulletin (6-monthly)

  • New Zealand Subnational Population Projections 1981–2001

  • Maps of Statistical Boundaries 1981

A leaflet showing further details of statistical publications can be obtained from Government Bookshops at the following addresses—

  • Auckland: Housing Corporation Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344). Ph. 32 919.

  • Hamilton: Northern Automobile Building, Alexandra Street (P.O. Box 857). Ph. 80 103.

  • Wellington: Head Office, Mulgrave Street (Private Bag). Ph. 737 320.

  • Wellington: World Trade Center, Cubacade (Private Bag). Ph. 849 572.

  • Christchurch: 159 Hereford Street (Private Bag). Ph. 797 142.

  • Dunedin: T. and G. Building, Princes Street (P.O. Box 1104). Ph. 778 294.

DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS

STATISTICAL BULLETINS

A wide range of statistical information is published in the form of statistical bulletins, frequently before publication in an annual volume. A list of Department of Statistics' publications is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and a Descriptive List of Publications is available from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

Provisional and regional results of the 1981 Census of Population and Dwellings have been published in a series of bulletins before publication of the subject-matter volumes.

A list of bulletins in the Miscellaneous Series is published below, following the Census bulletins. Most of these bulletins are obtainable only from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

1981 Census of Population and Dwellings Bulletins

Regional Statistics Series

  1. Northland

  2. Central Auckland

  3. South Auckland - Bay of Plenty

  4. Hawke's Bay and East Coast

  5. Taranaki

  6. Wellington

  7. Marlborough, Nelson, and Westland

  8. Canterbury

  9. Otago and Southland

  10.   Regional Summary

  11.   National Statistics

Miscellaneous Bulletin Series

  1. New Zealand Males and Females: A Statistical Comparison 1945–78 (replacing previous Bulletin 1)

  2. New Zealand Tables; of Working Life

  3. New Zealand Supreme Court Criminal Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  4. New Zealand Supreme Court Divorce Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  5. New Zealand Children and Young Persons Courts Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  6. New Zealand Maori and Non-Maori Populations—Time Series

  7. 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings, The Range and Availability of National Statistics

  8. Family Statistics in New Zealand 1978

  9. Survey on Driving Practices and Opinions, 1975

  10. New Zealand Children 1979

  11. New Zealand's Changing Population Structure

  12. Survey on Housing Conditions and Internal Migration in New Zealand, 1975

  13. Health and Health Services and Travel to Work in New Zealand

  14. New Zealand Permanent and Long-Term Migration Time Series Statistics, 1922–79

New Zealand Standard Classifications

Obtainable from Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

  • New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (NZSCO)

  • New Zealand Standard Country Code (NZSCC)

  • New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC)

  • New Zealand Standard Institutional Sector Classification (NZISC)

  • New Zealand Statistical Classification of Exports

  • New Zealand Statistical Classification of Imports

  • New Zealand Statistical Classification of Goods and Services.

Occasional Papers

  1. The Effects of Increases in Nominal Incomes on Personal Income Tax Rates.

  2. ASSET—A Simulation System for Evaluating Taxation.

  3. A Comparison of New Zealand and Australian Manufacturing Industries, 1978–79.

SPECIAL FEATURES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

SPECIAL ARTICLES

Special articles published prior to 1970 were listed in the 1982 and earlier Yearbooks.

      SubjectYearbook
Metrication1970
Human pressures on the natural environment1970
Ministry of Works, 1871–19711971
Evolution of social security in New Zealand1972
Evolution of New Zealand dairy industry 1871–19711972
Development of the meat industry 1922–721973
New Zealand membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development1973
Tenth British Commonwealth Games 19741973
New Zealand Ports and Shipping Developments1974
Revision of Consumers Price Index 19741975
Household Sample Survey 1973–741975
Input-output analysis: an abacus for economists1975
Tourism: the invisible export1976
One hundred years of Lands and Survey1976
Royal Visit 19771977
New Zealand at the turning point1977
Education in the New Zealand community1977
Abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms1978
General Price Index1978
Abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms (revised)1979
The child and learning in a multi-cultural society1979
The New Zealand environment and changes in environmental management since 19701980
Life tables: a measure of life expectancy1980
Golden Fleece: The evolution of the New Zealand wool industry1981
Consumers Price Index 1980 revision1981
General Election 19811982
A Century of Meat Exports1982

PHOTOGRAPHIC SUPPLEMENTS

Photographic supplements published since 1970 are listed below. A capital C following the subject denotes a colour supplement.

SubjectYearbook
A Century of Public Works 1871–19711971
New Zealand Environment1972
Leisure in New Zealand1973
Tenth British Commonwealth Games (C)1974
Vista of Colourful New Zealand (C)1975
Seeing New Zealand—Then and Now (C)1976
New Zealand's Primary Industries (C)1977
New Zealand from the air (C)1978
New Zealand Children (C)1979
Power for New Zealand (C)1980
New Zealand Development Assistance (C)1981
Antarctica (C)1982

1981 Census of Population and Dwellings

EDUCATION

Statistics from the 1981 Census of Population questions relating to educational attainment, show that 43 percent of persons usually resident in New Zealand, aged 15 years and over (or 989 109 persons) hold some formal educational qualification. Of these persons, 540 891 (23.6 percent) had obtained a secondary school qualification only; 347 136 (15.1 percent) identified their highest qualification as a vocational (non-university) one—i.e. a professional or trade qualification, and 101 082 persons (4.4 percent) held a university degree or diploma.

The following table gives the highest educational qualifications of usually resident population aged 15 years and over. The table includes those still studying at census date, either for first or for additional qualifications.

In 1981, more than one-tenth of the usually resident population 15 years and over (242 046) indicated they were attending some form of educational establishment. Nearly half of these (107 754) were still at secondary school; the remainder (134 292) were enrolled in a tertiary (i.e. post-secondary) education programme.

Source of Highest QualificationNumber of PersonsPercentage of those with QualificationsPercentage of Subject Population
* Polytechnic, technical institute, teachers' college, business college, police college, etc.
University101 08210.24.4
Vocational institute*347 13635.115.1
Secondary school540 89154.723.6
Total with qualifications989 109100.043.1
No qualifications1 066 749..46.4
Not specified240 846..10.5
        Total2 296 704..100.0

Highest Level of School Attendance—The highest level of educational attendance reported at the Census gives some measure of the standard of education of the New Zealand population. Some 80.6 percent of the usually resident population 15 years and over, or 1 851 753 persons, have attended a secondary school. Of these, 71.2 percent (1 317 930) were educated to at least fifth-form level, 32.9 percent (608 472) had received a sixth-form education, and 10.4 percent (193 275) a seventh-form education.

Only 1 percent of the population reported having no formal schooling of any kind. In the majority of cases, those without a secondary education recorded at least primary school attendance. A total of 343 137 persons (14.9 percent of the usually resident population 15 years and over) came into this category in 1981.

Of those people who had left secondary school almost two-thirds (1 169 079) reported no further formal education. The majority (80.5 percent) of this latter group, had received, at most, a fifth-form education only.

Highest Level of Schooling Attended*Number of PersonsPercent of Total with Secondary AttendancePercent of Subject Population

* Includes persons still attending school.

Note—Since 1944, all children in New Zealand have been required by law to attend school from age 6 to 15 years.

Secondary school—
    Form 7193 27510.48.4
    Form 6415 19722.418.1
    Form 5709 45838.330.9
    Form 4387 44120.916.9
    Form 3146 3827.96.4
            Total, secondary attendance1 851 753100.080.6
Primary school attendance only343 137..14.9
No school attendance22 419..1.0
Attendance not specified79 395..3.5
            Total2 296 704..100.0

Educational Level of Full-time Labour Force—Out of a workforce of 1 332 342 persons at the 1981 Census, half of the persons in the workforce (or 50.9 percent) stated that they held at least one educational qualification. Those qualified were almost evenly divided between those with secondary school qualifications only (341 547) and those with tertiary qualifications (336 030).

The majority of the persons in the labour force who qualified at a tertiary level held non-university (76.6 percent) rather than university (23.4 percent) qualifications. Among those with a university degree or diploma, the highest qualification held was most commonly a bachelor's degree (44 781), followed by an undergraduate diploma (14 082) and then a master's degree (9504). Workers with doctorate degrees totalled 3615.

The following table gives highest qualifications held by people in the full-time labour force.

Highest Educational QualificationNumber of PersonsPercentage of Subject Population
MaleFemaleTotal

* Includes people still attending tertiary educational centres, who are not yet qualified.

† Includes people still attending secondary school who are not yet qualified.

Note—For census purposes the full-time labour force comprises all people aged 15 years and over, who are working at least 20 hours per week for the purposes of financial gain. Also included are people unemployed and seeking work at census date.

University qualification
    Doctorate3 2973183 6150.3
    Master's degree7 3202 1849 5040.7
    Post-graduate diploma5 3551 1736 5280.5
    Bachelor's degree32 37012 41144 7813.4
    Under-graduate diploma11 0852 99714 0821.1
Vocational (non-university) qualification only173 94983 571257 52019.3
            Total with tertiary qualifications233 376102 654336 03025.2
    Secondary school qualification only*201 468140 079341 54725.6
    No qualifications†370 914174 489545 40640.9
    Not specified70 85138 511109 3598.2
Total876 606455 7331 332 342100.0

Qualifications and Occupations—New workers (those who have left school or other educational establishments but have yet to be employed) had the lowest proportion of educationally-qualified persons, out of all occupation categories. Only 4.8 percent had a tertiary qualification, and only

28.8 percent had a secondary school qualification (as their highest qualification). For the whole labour force 25.2 percent of persons had a tertiary qualification and 25.6 percent had a secondary school qualification (as their highest qualification).

Other occupations with high proportions of workers without educational qualifications were agriculture/forestry/fishing 53.3 percent, production/transport/labouring 53.2 percent and those who gave inadequate job descriptions, etc., 53.9 percent.

The professional and technical occupation group had the lowest proportion of workers with no qualifications (5.4 percent). Other groups with relatively low proportions were administrative and managerial 28.8 percent, clerical and related trades 29.3 percent, sales workers 45.8 percent and service workers 49.2 percent.

Of the 78 510 members of the labour force with a university qualification, over two-thirds (53 772) were engaged in professional or related technical occupations. Almost 1 in 3 persons in these occupations held a university degree or diploma, compared with 1 in 10 who were administrators and managers, 1 in 25 agricultural workers, 1 in 69 service workers, and 1 in 155 of those in production, transport equipment and labouring occupations.

Educational Levels of Males and Females—As in previous censuses, the 1981 results showed differences in the educational attainments of usually resident New Zealand men and women—both in attendance levels and education qualifications.

At the 1981 Census, the proportion of females reporting school attendance at fifth and sixth-form level was higher than for males (50.8 percent of females 15 years and over, compared to 47.1 percent of males). Of those persons reporting attendance at Seventh Form level, however, a marked difference between the sexes is apparent, with 58.7 percent being males as against 41.3 percent being females out of a total of 193 278 persons.

This difference is also reflected in figures for persons holding seventh-form qualifications—University Scholarship, Bursary, or Higher Leaving Certificate. There were 91 833 males in this category compared to 64 584 females. In contrast more females held fifth or sixth-form qualifications (University Entrance, School Certificate, etc.), only (300 270 females compared to 273 132 males).

A comparison of the schooling levels of 15–19-year olds with the usually resident population aged 15 and over as a whole, suggests that these male/female differentials are under-going substantial change. As more pupils of both sexes remain at school above the legal leaving age, female attendance at the Seventh Form level approaches male attendance more closely. Out of 32 631 persons in the 15- to 19-years age group, who reported Seventh Form attendance, 53.5 percent were males and 46.5 percent were females.

At the tertiary education level, statistics of the full-time labour force show that male workers outnumber female workers 2 to 1 in the possession of non-university qualifications, and 3 to 1 in university qualifications. Of the 257 520 full-time workers qualified at a non-university level in 1981, 173 949 were males and 83 571 females. There were 78 510 persons (59 427 males and 19 083 females) qualified to university level.

Age Groups and Sex15–1920–2425–4445–5960 and overTotal
MFMFMFMFMFMF
* Includes passes in 1 or 2 School Certificate subjects.
Highest level of secondary schoolingPercentages
    Form 711.110.117.112.512.17.26.14.64.23.310.06.8
    Form 626.834.225.833.117.119.912.011.98.67.117.119.1
    Form 543.340.736.636.735.741.221.425.912.312.530.131.7
    Forms 3 and 413.910.917.015.127.425.530.930.321.421.724.022.5
    No attendance or not specified4.94.13.52.67.66.229.627.353.455.318.919.9
            Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Highest Secondary School qualificationPercentages
    U. Scholarship/Bursary/Higher Leaving Certificate6.75.714.810.710.46.35.14.13.12.78.15.5
    University Entrance9.813.211.816.09.19.49.37.09.86.29.79.5
    School Cert./Endorsed School Cert./6th Form Cert.22.425.021.224.518.022.28.09.23.02.714.516.2
    Other qualifications*10.211.810.811.75.35.91.62.10.70.75.15.5
    No qualification/not specified50.944.341.437.157.156.376.077.683.487.762.663.2
            Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pp. 943 to 956). Other information is given in the following pages. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and the frequent Information Service releases of the Department of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population—The following table shows the total and Maori population by sex at the end of the latest available quarters.

Quarter EndedTotal PopulationMaori Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Provisional
 (000)(000)
1982-Dec1 604.81 625.03 229.8......
1983-Mar1 605.01 625.03 230.0......
          Jun*....3 203.3......

Unemployment—The following table shows the numbers of registered unemployed and those on special work during recent months.

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special WorkPrivate Sector Job Creation Programme
MalesFemalesTotalWith Government Depts.With Local Authorities
Monthly average—
  198129 18819 12548 3135 1939 0048 891
  198231 13420 96552 0995 11213 16113 783
End of month—
  1983—January44 34229 71174 0533 93013 71116 115
              February46 04030 33176 3714 15613 48715 588
              March44 50528 26572 7704 37413 63914 600
              April45 49228 37873 8704 60114 08514 821
              May46 83828 09274 9304 64814 81315 128
              June48 92027 94876 8684 98615 64315 227
              July52 07627 26179 3375 11216 53914 735

Migration—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
19821983
* Mainly on cruise ships.
                    Arrivals
Permanent and long-term arrivals45 29245 854
New Zealand residents returning428 414381 951
Temporary visitors472 581487 658
          Total946 287915 463
Crews164 047167 074
Through passengers*129 866161 416
          Grand total, all arrivals1 240 2001 243 953
                    Departures
Permanent and long-term departures56 77442 674
New Zealand residents departing temporarily419 458373 193
Temporary visitors departing474 798484 154
          Total951 030900 021
Crews164 486166 664
Through passengers*129 866161 416
          Grand total, all departures1 245 3821 228 101
Net inflow (+) or outflow (−)−5 18215 852

The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures by occupation during the 2 latest March years.

Occupational DivisionYear Ended March 1982Year Ended March 1983
ArrivalsDeparturesArrivalsDepartures
* Included in above.
Professional, technical, and related workers8 1788 9087 9087 382
Administrative and managerial workers9921 2679611 000
Clerical and related workers4 2156 3153 8924 771
Sales workers1 2882 2681 3511 663
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forest workers, fishermen and hunters1 0011 4881 0471 139
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers7 17711 6467 7308 117
Service workers1 9012 6721 8082 136
Occupations not classifiable or unspecified1 2681 2111 3051 085
Not actively engaged19 27220 99919 85215 381
        Total45 29256 77445 85442 674
        Net gain−11 482 3 180 
 Actively Engaged*
        Total26 02035 77526 00227 293
        Net loss−9 755−1 291

BUILDING AND HOUSING

Building Permits—The following table presents statistics on building permits and authorisations issued during the two latest March years.

Type of Building PermitYear Ended 31 March
19821983
NumberValueNumberValue

* Provisional.

† Works which require building permits but are not in the nature of buildings, e.g. swimming pools, retaining walls, etc. includes alterations and additions.

  $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats19 006850.315 999795.1
Alterations and additions to houses and flats64 488269.5x64 347235.4
Other buildings (including additions and alterations)17 702881.917 317910.9
        Total, all buildings101 1962,001.897 6632,000.0
Other construction†6 03530.55 49459.8

Houses and Flats Completed—Houses and flats completed during the year ended 31 March 1983 totalled 14 800 compared with 16 300 during the previous year. The 1982–83 total includes 298 State rental dwellings built by the Housing Corporation (compared with 267 during 1981–82).

CHANGES TO HOUSING CORPORATION POLICY

From 2 August 1983 first mortgage finance became available from the Post Office and home-ownership account holders whose income does not fall within specified income limits can seek first mortgage finance from the Post Office.

Housing Corporation Loans—To qualify for a loan from the Housing Corporation the following income limits apply:

  1. Sole applicants—$210 per week for applicants aged 26 years and over.

  2. Low income households with dependents—The gross income of the principal earner may exceed $210 per week by $25 per week for each dependent, provided the gross family income does not exceed $410 per week (family income is defined as the combined gross income of the principal earner and the spouse/partner).

  3. Households with no dependents—Where both partners/spouses are working, the maximum gross income of the principal earner is not to exceed $210 per week with the maximum family income $410 per week.

In order to qualify for a Corporation loan, no more than 30 percent of an applicant's gross income (including couples with dual incomes) may be used on outgoings on the home (i.e., mortgage commitments local authority rates and fire insurance premiums).

Previously the rates were: 30 percent of gross income for a one-income family not paying tax; 35 percent of gross joint income not paying tax; 35 percent of gross income for a one-income family first home owner, paying tax; and 40 percent of gross joint incomes for dual income first home owners paying tax.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—The income limit for people wanting to capitalise on family benefits to buy homes has been increased as follows (income relates to gross income earned by the principal earner, not gross family income)—

  1. $275 per week gross for a one-child family, increased by $25 per week for each subsequent child.

  2. The amount available for capitalisation is $4,000, $6 per week.

The maximum loan available to purchase a new or previously occupied house is as follows—

1983–84New HouseExisting House
 $$
Modest income earners25,00030,000
Service-related groups18,50025,000

The minimum deposit required for those purchasing or erecting a dwelling was reduced from 20 percent to 12.5 percent of the total cost.

The loan term for modest income earners remained at 30 years, but for service-related groups the maximum term was limited to 25 years. The maximum term is reduced to 20 years if service-related groups' outgoings (based on a 25-year term) do not exceed 15 percent of gross income. When the ratio does not exceed 10 percent, the maximum term is 15 years.

Interest Rates—From 28 July 1983 the interest rate for loans to modest income first home seekers was reduced to 7.5 percent (previously 9 percent) reviewable annually after the first three years. The reduced rate applies to home improvement loans irrespective of refinance loans, residential section loans and loans to purchase a Housing Corporation rental dwelling. For service-related groups the interest rate remains at 9 percent reviewable annually.

The concessional interest rate for modest income first home mortgagors is five percent reviewable annually after the first 3 years. The concessional interest rate is available when the gross income of the principal earner, less $25 per week for each dependent child, is up to $160 per week.

(Prior to changes in Corporation policy the following interest rates applied: up to $85 per week, 3 percent; $86 to $120 per week, 5 percent; $121 to $160 per week, 6.5 percent; over $160, 9 percent.)

Low start options continue to be offered to modest income first home mortgagors who do not qualify on income tax interest concessions.

Refinance Loans—There was no change in the present criteria but the maximum loan limits were extended—

  • First mortgages from $18,500 to $25,000;

  • Second mortgages from $5,000 to $15,000.

Home Improvement Loans—During 1982–83 authorisations for home improvement loans increased greatly. To keep the total loans approved within the funds allocated, a need to reduce the demand was evident.

From 22 June 1983 home improvement loans were not available to:

  1. Absentee landlords including those who own properties in Neighbourhood Improvement Areas;

  2. Sole applicants aged 25 years or less with no dependents.

MANUFACTURING

Manufacturing Main Indicators—This series of indicators, which is published quarterly, is based on a sample survey of approximately 1500 firms. The survey was revised in June 1982.

Year Ended MarchSalesStocksAdditions to Fixed Assets
MaterialsFinished Goods*
* Includes work in progress.
 $(million)
198013,184.4x1,379.0x1,217.5x605.4x
198115,188.8x1,501.9x1,391.2x746.5x
198218,936.9x1,716.6x1,595.3x1,391.1x
198320,549.81,845.21,714.62,577.9
Year Ended MarchSalaries and WagesPurchases and Other Operating ExpensesHours Worked
† Includes all other operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations.
 $(million)(000)
19802,785.7x9,830.5x546 929x
19813,229.8x11,133.6x529 322x
19823,931.7x13,886.5x540 639x
19834,270.414,998.4x533 302

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1981–82

Results of the Census of Manufacturing 1981–82 indicate that a number of significant changes have taken place in the manufacturing industry since the previous census in 1978–79.

Establishment Size—Between the 2 censuses the number of persons engaged per location fell to 26.8 (28.4 in 1978–79). The number of establishments and ancillaries increased by 5.2 percent to 11 064, and the number of persons engaged decreased by 0.5 percent to 296 822.

Turnover—Turnover rose 68 percent to $18,355 million ($10,926 million in 1978–79). Turnover is defined as sales and other income, including subsidies and the value of capital work done by own employees. Interest, dividends, royalties and insurance claims are excluded.

Stock Management Efficiency—Stock turnover rose from 3 percent in 1978–79 to 3.3 percent in 1981–82, indicating greater economy in the use of financial resources by reducing stock levels.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1982

Manufacturing ActivitiesEstablishments and Ancillary UnitsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages
Working Proprietors and PartnersPaid EmployeesWorking Proprietors and PartnersPaid Employees
Full-timePan-timeFull-timePan-timeTotal
* Excludes $17,257,000 wages that were capitalised or allocated to items included in other expenditure.
 No.No.No.No.No.No.$(000)$(000)
Food, beverages, and tobacco1 5091 09310771 1173 02375 34016,5161,012,373
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather goods1 5561 4628437 9843 05142 58123,128420,033
Wood and wood products, including furniture1 4831 47114619 79091322 32025,661248,516
Paper, paper products, printing and publishing8958457625 0152 53628 47216,777432,354
Chemicals, chemical petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products9084564422 87895124 32910,207340,290
Non-metallic mineral products (excludes petroleum and coal products)587399509 1313049 8846,707131,820
Basic metals1449696 5601176 7822,775114,886
Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment3 5623 31234072 4502 52678 62868,944974,171
Other manufacturing331375323 2012373 8455,39034,869
Manufacturing activities10 9759 509888268 12613 658292 181176,1073,709,311
Ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing activity89    4 641-88,949
          Total manufacturing11 064    296 822176,1073,798,260*
Manufacturing ActivitiesIncome*ExpenditureNet Profit
PurchasesDepreciationTotal

* Includes subsidies, interest and sales, etc.

† Purchases for ancillary units are included in total expenditure.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Food, beverages, and tobacco5,581,9903,492,206128,9075,375,438290,533
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather goods1,649,651858,34425,7031,577,76296,646
Wood and wood products, including furniture1,167,838617,46420,2041,109,08190,702
Paper, paper products, printing, and publishing1,958,810919,33857,9721,788,205200,995
Chemicals, chemical petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products2,018,9271,141,50944,9571,907,429176,416
Non-metallic mineral products (excludes petroleum and coal products)631,980287,69318,223569,93472,911
Basic metals717,817425,70916,546691,67256,708
Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment4,385,0292,611,98168,7674,326,44***208,811
Other manufacturing152,71772,7832,882146,3***10,206
Manufacturing activities18,264,76110,427,027384,16117,492,3221,203,927
Ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing activity181,842-†6,969320,188†−138,346
        Total manufacturing18,446,60310,427,027391,13017,812,5091,065,582

DOMESTIC TRADE

Retail Trade

Quarter EndedTotal TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $In Constant Dec Quarter 1980 $ Seasonally AdjustedIn Current $In Constant Dec Qtr 1980 $ Seasonally Adjusted
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedAs RecordedSeasonally Adjusted
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$$$
1983—
    March3,914.74,122.13,220.41,212.01,276.2997.1
    June4,074.14,170.63,227.71,266.61,296.61,003.4

Details of retail sales and retailers' stocks by store-type group are shown in the table following.

Store-type GroupRetail StocksRetail Sales
As atQuarter Ended
31 March 198330 June 193331 March 198330 June 1933
 $(million)
Butcher, poulterer, etc.7.37.894.297.9
Grocer and dairy157.7157.4663.9668.9
Other food and drink4.75.349.446.0
Footwear75.770.742.657.3
Apparel191.8182.4142.9176.7
Furniture and soft furnishings115.2120.3129.6135.9
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, T.V., etc.89.189.0123.8140.7
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.51.352.664.460.2
Chemist55.156.893.294.5
General department and variety213.4221.5210.4246.1
Automotive, fuel and repairs568.7566.21,498.81,554.4
Restaurants and takeaways15.915.7147.2158.7
Liquor72.877.1332.1316.4
Other233.0244.8274.2282.7
          Total, all retail stores1,851.61,867.73,914.74,074.1
          Total, seasonally adjusted1,853.01,879.14,122.14,170.6

Hire Purchase Trade—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with the previous quarter) by surveyed businesses covering about 92 percent of total hire purchase business as recorded by the 1978 Census of Distribution.

Quarter EndedAdvances Under Hire Purchase AgreementsTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor Buses, Trucks, and TractorsCars, Motor Cycles Caravans, etc.Plant and MachineryHousehold and Personal GoodsTotal Advances

* As at end of quarter.

† Including television sets.

 $(million)
1982—
    Dec53.673.420.271.4218.61,089.8
1983—
    Mar47.071.117.158.7193.91,109.9
    Jun55.469.517.758.2200.71,104.6

Wholesale Trade

PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
1983—Sales or Turnover
    31 March636.7152.865.0310.7266.0157.7
    30 June748.7147.490.2303.8293.7196.5
As at—
1983—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 March249.3122.496.6210.5240.6155.0
    30 June246.8117.782.4202.4232.0135.0
PeriodGeneral MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousTotal
ActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended$(million)
1983—Sales or Turnover
    31 March153.3129.652.671.1412.62,408.02,541.0
    30 June162.6124.762.872.4425.32,628.12,635.1
As at—
1983—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 March98.2158.755.543.5211.71,641.91,565.3
    30 June96.4153.255.042.1202.91,645.81,562.7

EXTERNAL TRADE

Exports and Imports—The following table shows the values of exports and imports during the 3 latest June years. Exports are valued f.o.b. (free on board) and imports v.f.d. (value for duty).

Class of CommodityYear Ended June
1981x1982x1983*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
 Value of Exports (f.o.b.)
Food and live animals, beverages, and tobacco—
    Meat and meat preparations1,520.91,564.11,875.5
    Dairy produce and eggs853.51,149.81,291.8
            Total (including other commodities)2,883.53,369.23,999.6
Crude materials (inedible) except fuels1,435.51,474.01,624.1
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials, animal and vegetable oils and fats119.8171.481.4
Chemicals216.3274.7308.0
Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material790.6879.9965.1
Other manufactures and miscellaneous384.3458.7458.5
            Total of New Zealand produce5,830.06,527.87,430.7
Re-exports235.2206.0267.1
            Total exports6,065.36,733.87,699.6
 Value of Exports (f.o.b.)
Food and live animals, beverages, and tobacco260.7415.9366.0
Crude materials (inedible) except fuels; animal and vegetable oils and fats269.5345.6343.2
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials1,247.71,285.01,343.8
Chemicals611.8823.3732.6
Machinery and electrical equipment978.31,326.11,586.0
Transport equipment843.2865.5548.2
Iron, steel, and non-ferrous metals336.8533.7447.8
Textiles, clothing, and foot wear334.7466.8456.2
Other manufactures and miscellaneous704.7977.9971.9
            Total merchandise imports                                                            v.f.d.5,587.37,044.86,923.2
                                                                                                                c.i.f.6,023.67,600.47,591.6

Principal Exports and Imports—Some of the principal exports and imports are shown by value and volume in the following table. Figures of volume are in thousand tonnes unless otherwise indicated.

ItemYear Ended June
1982x1983*
VolumeValueVolumeValue

* Provisional.

† Number.

‡ Bars, rods, plates, sheets, tubes, pipes, and all other shapes, sections, and fittings.

 tonnes(000)$(000)tonnes(000)$(000)
Meat, fresh, chilled, or frozen—Exports
    Beef and veal233.5619.9290.0792.1
    Lamb334.7710.4..904.4
    Mutton120.9145.8..88.8
            Total, incl. other items..1,551.6..1,867.9
Dairy produce—
    Skimmed milk powder135.0178.9165.5191.1
    Butter199.6556.4232.8660.5
    Cheese81.0181.579.6193.5
            Total, incl. other items..1,146.4..1,291.0
Hides, skins, and furskins..152.9..185.3
Wool281.6918.8343.21,019.3
Wood pulp421.6155.7476.4161.5
Other forest products..387.3..332.7
Fruit and vegetables..215.1..261.4
Casein54.8176.459.4199.4
Aluminium and aluminium alloys126.1206.5175.2294.8
Petroleum—Imports
    Crude1 899.7644.11 356.9410.0
    Partly refined357.7143.7220.588.5
Motorcars (unassembled)†107 946308.365 465180.8
Iron and steel‡520.7359.2485.2299.4

PRICES

Retail Prices—The following table shows monthly index numbers for the food group of the Consumers Price Index (CPI) and its subgroups. Food is the only commodity group for which prices are surveyed each month.

Prices for the full Consumers Price Index, which in addition to food covers housing, household operation, apparel, transportation, and miscellaneous items, are surveyed each quarter.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX – ALL FOOD GROUP
Base: December Quarter 1980 (= 1000)
MonthFruit and VegetablesMeat, Fish and PoultryOther FoodAll FoodPercentage change: all food group
Each Month on Previous MonthEach Month on same Month of Previous Year
     %%
1982 Jan1177113911961180+0.7+15.8
          Feb1167114812111190+0.8+14.3
          Mar1206115912201203+1.1+14.7
          Apr1236116512381221+1.5+14.5
          May1216116612501225+0.3+14.4
          Jun1249118112801252+2.2+15.9
          Jul1220117712841250−0.2+13.7
          Aug1218118912851253+0.2+12.2
          Sep1245120212851260+0.5+10.9
          Oct1209120912841256−0.3+8.5
          Nov1186120912871255−0.7+7.7
          Dec1218120012871257+0.1+7.2
1983 Jan1283119612881265+0.6+7.2
          Feb1306120112881270+0.4+6.7
          Mar1260119112861260−0.8+4.7
          Apr1268120312881265+0.4+3.6
          May1276121612891270+0.4+3.7
          Jun1293122912891276+0.5+1.9
          Jul1282124512901278+0.1+2.0

Consumers Price Index figures for all groups for the latest available quarters are set out in the following table.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX — ALL GROUPS
Base: Weighted average 25 centres, December Quarter 1980 (= 1000)
Group or SubgroupDecember Quarter 1980Quarter Ended
December 1982March 1983June 1983
Food—
     Fruits and vegetables1000120412831279
     Meat, fish and poultry1000120611961216
     Other foods1000128612871289
            All foods1000125612651270
Housing—
     Rentals1000134613611362
     Home ownership1000153915731602
            Housing1000150815391564
Household operation—
     Fuel and light1000126812721271
     Household furnishing1000124212431253
     Household supplies and services1000124912491250
            Household operation1000124812501255
Apparel—
     Clothing1000125812631304
     Footwear1000122912291259
            Apparel1000125212561294
Transportation—
     Public transport1000145514501492
     Private transportation1000131513211333
            Transportation1000133813421359
Miscellaneous—
     Tobacco and alcohol1000137813771378
     Other supplies1000127112881297
     Other services1000137314011407
            Miscellaneous1000134413551360
All groups1000133413451358

The level of prices as measured by the All Groups Consumers Price Index for the June 1983 quarter was 1.0 percent above that for the March 1983 quarter. This followed increases of 3.6, 2.7, and 0.8 percent for the third and fourth quarters of 1982 and the first quarter of 1983 respectively. Comparison with June quarter 1982 shows that over the year the level of consumer prices rose by 12.6 percent.

Producers Price Index—The Producers Price Index shows that the level of prices of inputs of goods and services (excluding labour) paid in June 1983 quarter by all industries in the economy was 6.2 percent higher than it was a year previously. This compares with a rise of 9.2 percent between the March quarters of 1982 and 1983 and is the lowest annual increase recorded since the index commenced in 1977. The following table shows the 2 latest quarters.

PRODUCERS PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1982 (= 1000)
Indexes in this series are centred on the mid-point of the period shown.
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
31 March 198330 June 1983
InputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture1001101010121071
Fishing and hunting998100010131020
Forestry and logging1006104210261088
Mining and quarrying10049981005999
Food, beverages, and tobacco99999610391013
Primary food processing100099410521015
Other food processing99610009981007
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1006100410291014
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture10029991011996
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing100199410031001
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products1010104410081000
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1018101111221011
Basic metal industries1007101410131021
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1012100110271011
Other manufacturing industries1009101110051006
Electricity, gas, and water1001100210031004
Construction1001100710051017
Trade, restaurants and hotels1001100810071019
Wholesale and retail trade1001100910061024
Hotels, restaurants, and takeaways1000100110051001
Transport and storage1003100610141016
Road transport1001100210031003
Other transport1004100910181023
Communications1000100010091000
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1003100910181027
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings1003101410061016
Community, social, and personal services1002100510101007
Central Government services1005..1015..
Local Government services1014..1024..
Private non-profit services to households1000..1001..
All manufacturing1005100610241009
All marketing1003100810171025
          All industry1004..1017..

The following table shows index numbers for the first 2 quarters of 1982. It should be noted that the index numbers relate to the price levels ruling at the mid-point of each quarter.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1979 (= 1000).
Capital AssetQuarter Ended
March 1983June 1983
Residential buildings—
    Houses, flats, garages16681680
    Hostels16131641
Non-residential buildings—
    Commercial buildings15971614
    Factories16091631
    Hospitals, rest homes16031624
    Educational buildings16041642
    Motels, hotels15871615
    Farm buildings16301632
Other construction—
    Transport ways16831696
    Pipelines15591568
    Electrical works14251443
    Earthmoving and site work16211627
Land improvements—
    Land clearing15821572
    Fencing14751481
    Irrigation and land drainage15531555
    Reclamation and river control15881601
Transport vehicles—
    Cars, less than 1600 c.c.13801448
    Cars, 1600 c.c. and over13621403
    Commercial vehicles, less than 2500 kg15261542
    Commercial vehicles, 2500 kg and over13671395
    Buses15691613
    Trailers14881499
    Motorcycles10781120
    Fishing boats16881712
    Fixed wing aircraft (light)17241920
    Helicopters17032213
Plant, machinery, and equipment—
    Agricultural tractors12661290
    Self-propelled harvesting machinery14961613
    Other harvesting and mowing machinery13711374
    Soil preparation and cultivation machinery15031505
    Other agricultural machinery and equipment15301532
    Farm motor cycles12431313
    Self-propelled construction machinery15811655
    Non-propelled construction machinery, quarrying machinery15381557
    Food and drink processing machinery15011514
    Bottling and packaging machinery15591614
    Textile machinery14331497
    Woodworking machinery14961475
    Printing and publishing equipment13331435
    Metal-working machinery14841465
    Forklifts and mobile material-handling equipment13891376
    Mechanical hoists, conveyors, etc.17591791
    Electrical distribution equipment15471597
Electric motors, up to 7 kW (1–9 hp)14721496
Electric motors, 7 kW and over (over 9 hp)13711371
Industrial engines, non-electric13811403
Airconditioning and cooling equipment15901584
Refrigerating equipment13141328
Industrial boilers and heating equipment16921715
Pumping and compressing equipment14541481
Office and shop equipment, electronic10481045
Office and shop equipment, non-electronic12451304
Office and shop furniture and fittings16171616
Duplicating and photocopying machines843837
Scales and weighing machinery11381149
Shipping and transporting containers16301631
Tanks, vats, and storage units15491549
Photographic and optical equipment13551445
Technical and scientific equipment14711527
Medical, den***, and hospital furniture and equipment15091525
Stereo equipment923866
Television receivers11401120
Peripheral data processing units12511295
Radio-telephone and telegraphic equipment13771385
Domestic-type furniture and furnishings14181447
Domestic-type appliances14431438
Domestic-type equipment and utensils14201416
Portable power tools13291374
Sport and recreation equipment14461453

More information on the methodology of the index is available from the Department of Statistics, to which any queries should be addressed.

WAGES

Nominal, Prevailing, and Effective Weekly Wage Rates Index—The following table of index numbers of weekly wage rates for adult employees is calculated from all adult rates effective at mid-quarter. It represents all industry and occupation groups. There are two principal indexes of wage rates, together with indexes of effective wage rates based on each.

The Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index measures changes in the mandatory or, in some cases, minimum rates of wages and salaries, prescribed by wage and salary determining authorities and industrial tribunals, including the Arbitration Court.

The Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index refers to the same industrial and occupational groups but measures movements in the actual wages and salaries paid as compared with movements in the mandatory or legal minimum rates applying to the same groups, as measured by the nominal weekly wage rates index. The differences in movements between the nominal and prevailing indexes show “wage drift”, that is, the extent to which actual wages and salaries have risen more than the legally required rates.

An Effective Weekly Wage Rates Index has been derived from each of these series. This effective weekly wage rates index is arrived at by dividing the nominal or the prevailing index by the corresponding consumers price index number and multiplying by 1000. Thus, it relates wages to prices.

Because of possible retrospective increases in wages or salaries in later awards, agreements determinations, etc., the more recent index numbers should be regarded as provisional.

NOMINAL, PREVAILING, AND EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEXES—ADULT EMPLOYEES
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
PeriodRates Within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration CourtRates Prescribed By Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining AuthoritiesRates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
IndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage Change
Index of Nominal Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    1980150618.6142018.0x147418.4x
    19811793x19.01705x20.0x1760x19.4x
    1982201612.5188410.5196811.8
Quarter—
    1983—March2026-1885-1974-
                June2026-1885-1974-
Index of Effective Nominal Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    198010671.210050.610441.0
    198111003.2x1046x4.1x10803.5
    19821067−3.1997−4.71041−3.6
Quarter—
    1983—March1011−0.8941−0.7985−0.8
                June1001..932..976..
PeriodRates Within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration CourtRates Prescribed By Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining AuthoritiesRates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
IndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage Change
Index of Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    1980x152218.9142017.9148618.5x
    19811809x18.9x170520.1177219.2x
    1982204212.9188410.5198612.1
Quarter—
    1983—March2051-1885-1992−0.1x
                June20540.11885-19940.1
Index of Effective Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    198010781.410050.610521.2x
    198111103.010464.110873.3x
    19821080−2.7997−4.71051−3.3
Quarter—
    1983—March1023−0.9941−0.7994−0.9
                June1015−0.8932−1.0986−0.8
Note—This table is derived from the wage rate tables in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, which should be consulted for the latest figures or any revisions to figures.

Real Disposable Income Measures—The following table measures the impact of changes in the levels of taxation and consumer prices on the purchasing power of various income groups. For further information on Real Disposable Income Indexes refer to Section 33 of this Yearbook.

PeriodRatio of Disposable to Gross Income Index*Percentage ChangeAverage Gross Income Index*Percentage ChangeReal Disposable Income Index†‡Percentage Change

* Gross income from all sources.

† In dollars of constant (1980–81) purchasing power with respect to the regimen of the Consumers Price Index.

‡ Balance of gross income after personal income tax liability is deducted.

§Lowest 20 percent of income distribution of full-time wage and salary earners.

‖ Provisional.

¶ Third lowest 20 percent of income distribution of full-time wage and salary earners.

** Highest 20 percent of income distribution of full-time wage and salary earners.

Lowest Income Group§
1982—Dec979−0.6133810.7964−4.6
1983—Mar976−0.313638.0972−4.2
            Jun‖9760.513652.9964−4.4
Middle Income Groups¶
1982—Dec9820.7134610.7973−3.3
1983—Mar9791.613728.1980−2.7
            Jun‖9813.413712.5972−2.2
Highest Income Group**
1982—Dec107111.6135611.310697.8
1983—Mar106612.613859.010788.9
            Jun‖107115.213822.810709.3

SUMMARY OF BUDGET PROPOSALS

The 1983 Financial Statement (Budget) was presented by the Minister of Finance, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, on 28 July 1983. Main points include the following:

  • Exemption from estate duty was increased from $350,000 to $450,000, and the upper limit of the gift duty scale was raised from $15,000 to $27,000 a year.

  • Family rebates were increased from $1,404 to $1,924 a year.

  • Introduction of a limited programme of Government-funded, labour-intensive projects aimed at increasing employment within the Government and private sectors.

  • Taxes on alcohol and tobacco products was increased by 8 percent.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Public Account Taxation Receipts—This table shows direct and indirect taxation and includes estimated receipts for the 1983–84 financial year.

Source: Financial Statement (Budget) and Public Accounts.
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19821983*1984

* Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

† Estimated.

‡ Sales tax on beer replaced with increased rates of beer duty from 5 August 1982.

Direct taxation—$(thousand)
    Income tax6,514,7027,455,5207,500,000
    Estate and gift duty32,38431,82030,000
    Land tax33,77034,44240,000
    Property speculation tax296-
            Total—Direct taxation6,580,8857,521,7887,570,000
Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty475,091511,844540,000
    Beer duty‡74,338149,138190,000
    Sales tax1,084,0861,211,7451,290,000
    Motor spirits duty147,202184,410225,000
    Racing duty50,99157,03960,000
Direct taxation—
    Stamp duties79,09775,73880,000
    Energy resources levy24,18540,21740,000
    Motor vehicle fees and charges46,66986,12390,000
    Mileage tax97-
    Film hire tax1,0931,17030,000
    International departure tax14,37814,721
    Domestic air travel tax8,45310,569
    Highways taxation211,553232,957240,000
            Total—Indirect taxation2,217,1452,575,6782,785,000
            Total—Taxation receipts8,798,03010,097,466x10,355,000

The functional classification of gross Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROSS GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19821983*1984

* Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

† Estimated.

N.B.—Full notes to this table will be found below the similar table in the Budget (Parl. paper B.6).

Administration—$(million)
    General administration406.1393.5442.9
    Law and order303.0325.8343.9
    Government services220.0245.3269.0
    Miscellaneous services55.263.462.8
    Stabilisation126.523.230.6
            Total1,110.81,051.21,149.2
Foreign relations—
    Defence593.7652.1709.4
    Foreign affairs142.7169.0177.5
            Total736.4821.1886.9
Development of industry—
    Landuse817.3992.81,178.4
    Fuel and power961.61,187.31,410.0
    Other industrial services423.8488.9556.4
            Total2,202.72,669.03,144.8
Education1,503.91,652.41,685.1
Social services—
    Social welfare2,991.03,700.23,901.1
    Other social services137.6135.7153.8
            Total3,128.63,835.94,054.9
Health—
    Health1,603.11,767.91,837.3
Transport and communications—
    Transport1,054.3597.5736.1
    Communications900.61,053.21,125.2
            Total1,954.91,650.71,861.3
Debt services and miscellaneous investment and financing transactions1,772.31,995.12,615.0
            Total14,012.715,443.317,234.5

The following table is a 5-year summary of the financing of Government expenditure.

INANCING OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE: A 5-YEAR SUMMARY
ItemFinancial Year (Year Ended 31 March)
1978–791979–801980–811981–821982–83
        Net Expenditure(million)
Administration603.4692.6785.8914.2832.5
Foreign relations384.7451.5577.9719.9808.2
Development of industry858.0714.2797.11,183.61,429.8
Education929.31,009.31,292.01,493.21,638.8
Social services1,853.52,175.02,589.73,042.33,744.2
Health980.11,136.21,356.31,601.21,766.1
Transport and communications279.1265.0332.6460.6495.6
Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions592.3770.6990.91,375.01,549.4
        Subtotal6,480.47,214.48,722.310,790.012,264.6
Miscellaneous financing transactions368.0372.3411.1406.5407.9
        Total net expenditure6,848.47,586.79,133.411,196.512,672.5
Financed from—
  Taxation—
    Income tax3,655.24,465.65,298.96,514.77,455.5
    Customs, sales tax, and beer duty794.61,013.91,189.21,633.51,872.7
    Highways tax159.5139.4189.3x211.6233.0
    Motor spirits tax154.2177.6139.5147.2184.4
    Other taxation226.4223.4233.9291.0351.9
        Total taxation4,989.96,020.07,050.8x8,798.010,097.5
Interest, profits, and miscellaneous receipts413.0539.8557.7580.2808.1
        Total receipts5,402.96,559.87,608.5x9,378.210,905.6
Amount to be financed from borrowing1,445.51,026.91,524.9x1,818.31,766.9
Borrowing in New Zealand1,214.91,502.4821.12,274.73,974.9
    Less repayments in New Zealand369.9591.5253.31,062.6x2,290.9
 845.0910.9567.81,212.1x1,684.0
    Plus sales (less purchases) of investments+152.6−207.0+207.0-−555.4
    Net borrowing in New Zealand997.6703.9774.81,212.1x1,128.6
    Internal surplus (+) or deficit (–)−448.3−323.0−750.1−606.2x−638.3
Borrowing overseas554.4661.11,510.52,101.42,797.5
    Less repayments overseas267.6324.0761.21,342.91,574.8
 286.8337.1749.3758.5x1,222.7
    Plus sales (less purchases) of overseas investments+157.2−9.4+4.5−149.3−580.9
    Net borrowing overseas444.0327.7753.8609.2x641.8
Cash surplus (+) deficit (–)−4.3+4.7+3.7x+3.0+3.5

Consolidated Account: Expenditure—The Consolidated Account replaced the Consolidated Revenue Account in accordance with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
198119821983
Permanent appropriations—$(thousand)
  Under Special Acts of Legislature—
    Civil List4,1454,7874,900
  Debt services—
    Interest891,4971,202,9281,475,792
    Contribution to Loans Redemption Account103,464116,171143,814
    Administration and management4,9048,11216,822
        Total—Debt services999,8651,327,2111,636,428
    Superannuation75,00489,58369,975
    Miscellaneous59,79251,54052,001
        Total—Permanent appropriations1,138,8061,473,1211,762,304
Annual appropriations—
  Administration—
    General administration—
    Accident Compensation5199105
    Audit4,3915,0705,708
    Broadcasting134155180
    Building Performance Guarantee Corporation151819
    Commission for the Environment7509951,061
    Customs22,47426,47231,015
    Inland Revenue49,34660,75267,663
    Internal Affairs63,71075,47371,641
    Legislative10,56310,38512,362
    Prime Minister's Department1,3991,6051,840
    Railways....102
    State Services Commission61,49282,22185,039
    Statistics12,89824,25516,995
    Treasury10,38412,13512,842
    Valuation10,68812,29813,300
        Total—General administration248,295311,933319,872
  Law and order—
    Crown Law1,2671,8672,201
    Justice103,107121,650130,702
    Police139,400169,374181,223
    Security Intelligence Service3,3413,8794,426
        Total—Law and order247,115296,770318,552
N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in similar tables in the Budget (Parl. paper B.6) and the Public Accounts (Parl. paper B.1 Pt I and II).
ItemYear Ended 31 March
198119821983
 $(thousand)
Government services—
  Government Printing Office33,17135,1416,545
  Works and Development142,884179,052204,130
        Total—Government services176,055214,193210,675
Stabilisation—
  Stabilisation127,639126,49423,241
        Total—Administration799,104949,390872,340
Foreign relations—
  Defence—
    Defence455,939593,647652,131
  Foreign Affairs—   
    Foreign Affairs135,199142,531168,662
        Total—Foreign relations591,138736,178820,793
Development of industry—
  Land use—
    Agriculture and Fisheries242,702328,681526,325
    Forest Service193,877236,084258,833
    Lands and Survey111,349124,426131,357
    Maori Affairs32,04531,46733,595
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation11,51415,54714,564
        Total—Land use591,487736,205964,674
  Fuel and power—
    Energy102,944178,508188,877
  Other industrial services—
    Labour169,935252,070300,753
    Scientific and Industrial Research68,87782,19294,393
    Tourist and Publicity15,48419,25419,938
    Trade and Industry50,94669,17272,963
        Total—Other industrial services305,242422,688488,047
        Total—Development of industry999,6731,337,4011,641,598
  Education—
    Education1,302,3241,503,8601,652,373
  Social services—
    Housing Corporation68,13773,77772,737
    Internal Affairs6,6017,8206,733
    Maori Affairs21,06926,42027,712
    Social Welfare2,540,5672,990,9943,700,258
        Total—Social services2,636,3743,099,0113,807,440
  Health—
    Health1,358,0261,603,1181,767,751
  Transport and communications—
    Transport130,882148,438282,632
    Works and Development23,85441,81041,762
    Communications6,6497,2134,989
        Total—Transport and communications161,385197,461329,383
    Total—Annual appropriations7,848,0249,426,41910,891,678
    Total—Ordinary payments8,986,83010,899,54012,653,982
Capital losses or gains on realisation of investments (net)684 Cr1,1326,513
Exchange differences on overseas transactions11,004 Cr74,30429,711
Unauthorised expenditure17,32350,000130
Transfer to Reserve Account-100,000308,500
        Total payments8,992,46511,123,84412,992,323
N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in similar tables in the Budget (Parl. paper B.6) and the Public Accounts (Parl. papers B.1 Pt. I and II).

National Roads Fund Income and Expenditure

ItemYear Ended 31 March
198119821983
 $(thousand)
                Income
Motor spirits duty (less refunds)120,540129,000132,786
Road user charges (less refunds)68,37082,53396,948
Mileage tax60203,223
Contributions from Consolidated Account16,00035,00034,000
Miscellaneous, including interest4,665x5,4315,579
Excess of payments over receipts--548
        Total209,635251,984273,084
                Expenditure
State highways maintenance68,14081,35695,980
State highways construction40,48945,49843,972
Local authorities subsidised works83,41299,066109,715
Administration and general16,90921,71323,414
Unauthorised243
Excess of receipts over payments6834,347..
        Total expenditure209,635251,984273,084
GENERAL FINANCE
Land Transfers
Item Year Ended 31 March
198119821983
Properties of under 2 hectares—
    Number...99 642123 29189 479
    Consideration$(m)3,247.54,884.14,095.9
    Average price per hectare$284,424x342,216372,525
Properties of 2 hectares and over—
    Number...10 64012 1699 877
    Areahectares (000)920.51 005.3840.0
    Consideration$(m)1,152.71,691.51,616.2
    Average price per hectare$1,245x1,6831,924
All properties: Total consideration$(m)4,400.36,575.65,712.1

Mortgages—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the latest 4 financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegisteredNumber Discharged
NumberAmount
  $(m) 
1981167 5772,655.2134 474
1982200 4183,545.8159 172
1983165 9993,563.6125 685

The average rate of interest on new mortgages during the year ended 31 March 1983 was 16.40 percent compared with 14.30 percent during the previous year.

Overseas Exchange Transactions—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the latest 3 March years and the latest June year.

(Source: Reserve Bank.)
ItemYear Ended 31 March
198119821983*
* See page 779 for earlier December year figures.
Receipts$(million)
  Exports—
    Meat1,486.31,732.51,637.6
    Wool998.0958.61,009.3
    Dairy products1,060.71,413.21,426.1
    Other animal products378.3407.8470.8
    Forest products574.7600.7593.3
    Other primary products332.7379.3433.8
    Manufactured exports987.51,163.11,349.4
    Miscellaneous48.652.452.6
        Total expects5,866.56,707.86,972.9
  Other current receipts1,227.01,574.51,852.1
        Total current receipts7,093.68,282.38,825.0
  Capital receipts—
    Government borrowing876.31,088.0x1,929.5
    Other official receipts285.6742.4x263.3
    Private476.8683.41,973.5
        Total capital receipts1,638.72,513.94,166.3
  IMF—
  Allocations of SDRs31.2--
        Total receipts8,763.510,796.212,991.3
  Imports—
    Government205.8285.1329.7
    Private4,892.25,754.56,154.5
        Total imports5,098.16,039.66,484.1
  Other current payments—
    Government547.6649.7841.3
    Private2,163.52,733.63,142.9
        Total other current payments2,711.13,383.23,984.2
        Total current payments7,809.29,422.910,468.3
  Capital payments—
    Government debt repayments226.5424.9815.8
    Other official payments243.068.6165.5
    Private397.0540.0689.6
        Total capital payments866.51,033.61,670.9
IMF repurchases164.2129.836.2
        Total payments8,839.810,586.212,175.4
Balance on trade transactions+768.5+668.2+488.8
Balance on invisible transactions−1,484.0−1,808.7−2,132.1
Current account balance−715.6−1,140.5−1,643.3
Official capital account balance+692.3+1,336.91,211.5
Private capital account balance+79.9+143.4+1,283.9
IMF transactions (Inc. SDRs)−133.0−129.8−36.2
Change in official overseas reserves−23.9+76.5x+1,073.3
Official overseas reserves at end of period759.7836.2x1,909.5

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Current Account Summary—The following table gives a summary of the current account of the balance of payments for the two latest March years. For definitions, explanations, etc., see Section 25b.

Item1981–82x1962–83*
CreditDebitCreditDebit
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)6,7177,1507,6177,798
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts−96−501−402−467
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)6,6216,6497,2147,332
        Balance on merchandise trade−28−117
Transportation8959781,0871,168
Travel299622305648
Insurance14301749
Other miscellaneous services233644306803
Government current transactions7815686186
Exports/imports of services1,5192,4311,8022,852
        Balance on services−912−1,050
International investment income2741,0323181,331
        Balance on invisibles−1,670−2,065
Transfers343294404241
    Balance on current account−1,650−2,019

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

Population centres, localities, and geographical features are not indexed separately, partly for reasons of space and compiling time, and partly because in the main they are included only in tables indexed under geographical classifications, e.g., cities, boroughs, counties, communities, urban areas, lakes, mountains, etc.

A

Abortion Supervisory Committee, 933
Accident Compensation—
Act, 371, 807, 867, 868–872
claims received, 871
Corporation, 283, 721, 868–872, 873, 875, 878, 882, 883, 1003
compensation paid, 871–872
levies, 365, 371
vote, 713
Accident insurance, 371, 807–808
Accidents—
aircraft, 170, 381
cases treated in hospitals, 170–171
causes of, 170–171, 878–881
compensated, 872–882
deaths from, 127, 131, 132–135, 369, 370, 381
drowning, 132–135, 883
environment of, 170–171, 881
farming, 134, 882–883
industrial, 133–134, 869, 870, 873, 875, 878, 881, 882
in home, 134, 171
mining, 134, 875
motor-vehicle, 127, 132, 133, 369–370, 878, 879, 880
poisoning, 131–133, 170, 171
railway, 170, 358, 960, 962
road, 127, 132, 133, 170, 369–370
shipping and boating, 134–135, 352
sport and recreational, 873, 881
transport, 170, 369–370
water, 132–135, 170
Accommodation, tourist, 893–895
Accounts—
national, 676–691
production, 681–688
public, 709–718
Acts (see legislation)
Administrative tribunals, 919
Adolescent dental service, 142, 149, 156
Adoptions, 120–121, 185
Adult education, 228–231
Adult Retraining Programme, 825
Advances—
bank, 758, 759
building societies, 798–800
rural, 789–793
Advertising, radio, T.V., and press, 253–255, 257
Advisory Committee on Women's Affairs, 110–111
Aerial—
photography and mapping, 324
topdressing, 393, 394, 412, 414
work operations, 380–381, 441, 442
Africa, relations with, 31, 40, 605
Age distribution of—
labour force, 817–819
persons sent to penal institutions, 275–276
population, 75, 80–81, 87, 96
unemployed, 824
women in labour force, 88–89, 581–584, 817–819, 833–835, 836–838, 984
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming, Crops, etc.)—
aviation, 380–381
clubs, 216
contracting, census of, 415–418
machinery, 399, 400, 415, 497, 505, 615
imports of, 636, 638, 639
pests and diseases, 233, 236–238, 441, 442
production, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408, 657, 658, 949–950
production account, 400, 401
production group (SNA), 683, 689–693
products exported, 563–572, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–616, 620–626, 992–993
publications, 969–970
research, 233, 235–238, 240, 241
services, 401, 403, 411
Training Council, 409
Workers Act, 865
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of, 240, 314, 407, 409–412, 414, 421, 423–425, 456, 459, 460, 463, 714, 921–922, 1004
Aid, legal, 283
Aid, overseas, 39–41, 223, 231–232
Air—
freight, 376–378, 379–380
licensing and control, 375–376
mail, 376–379, 382–383
navigational aids, 375–376
pollution, 143, 309, 314, 315
services, 339, 341, 374–382
Air New Zealand, 485, 608, 715, 736, 933, 960–962
Aircraft—
accidents, 170, 381
imports and exports of, 615, 637, 638, 640
manufacture and repair, 485, 498, 505
types in domestic services, 376
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 672
duty on, 147, 161, 646, 711, 719–720, 999, 1001
household expenditure on, 666–668
imports of, 633
manufacture of, 493, 500, 511
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council, 147, 263
Alcoholism, 147, 166
Alexander Turnbull Library, 247, 248
Alliance Textiles Ltd., 715, 736
Aluminium (See also Non-ferrous metals), 475, 478, 484, 486, 533, 545, 548, 613, 615, 960–962, 993
Ambulance services, 162
Amenities of dwellings, 531–532
Americas, relations with the, 35
Ammonia urea plant, 485, 486, 538, 962
Angling, 463, 896
Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, 298
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF), 404, 568, 569, 599
Animal health, 401, 410
Anniversary Days, 908
Antarctic, N.Z. activities in, 293, 298, 299, 889, 890, 960
Antarctic Treaty, 889, 890
Ante-natal services, 146
Antiquities, protection of, 245, 246
ANZUS Treaty, 29, 35, 293
Apiaries and apiculture, 436
Apples, 420, 426, 428–429, 654
consumption of, 671
exported, 612, 613, 626, 673, 952–953
marketing of, 573, 574
Apprentices, 91, 226, 827–829
Aquaculture (fish farming), 455, 456, 459, 461, 463
Arable farming, 393–400, 413–429
Arbitration Court, 827, 840, 841, 846, 849, 854–856, 865, 867, 935
Archaeological sites, 245, 246
Area of New Zealand, 3, 4, 303, 437
of farm land, 302, 303, 396–397
of forested land, 437
Armed Forces, 292–299, 929
housing loans for, 795
in war, 959, 960
superannuation, 195–196
Art galleries, 243–245
Artificial aids (for physical disabilities), 156–158
Arts Council, 243, 244, 265
Arts and cultural activities. 243–247, 970–971
Asbestos, 469, 476
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 31, 32, 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 696, 715, 716
Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN), 39, 293, 298, 597, 599, 619
Assurance, life, 766, 804–807, 810
Auckland Harbour Bridge, 934, 960
Audit Office, 713, 922, 1003
Australia, 34–35
communications with, 385, 386
exports to, 448, 449, 597, 600, 602, 618–621, 623–629
Free Trade Agreement with, 596, 597, 600, 644, 961
imports from, 449, 597, 600, 602, 619, 633–637
investment in New Zealand, 703–704
trade, finance, etc., 379, 563, 567, 597, 598, 600, 602, 618–621, 623–629, 633–637, 644, 645, 647, 696, 700, 702
visitors and migrants, 102, 892, 893
Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards, 226–228, 826
Aviation, 344–351
Awards in literature and art, 977–978

B

Bacon and ham curing, 492, 499
Balance of payments, 676, 694–702, 1007–1008
overseas direct investments in New Zealand, 702–704
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 702–704
Balance of trade, 601
Bananas, 575, 671
Bank notes, 756, 757, 763, 775, 782
Bank of New Zealand, 957
Banking publications, 965
Bankruptcies, 801, 901–903, 956
Banks and banking, 755–785, 956
assets and liabilities, 757–759
overseas assets of, 777–778, 954
savings, 755, 762, 763, 765, 766, 767, 768–772, 775, 956
trading, 755, 758–762, 763, 765, 767
Barley, 419, 421, 422, 612, 613, 949
Basic metal industries, 497, 504, 507, 513
production group (SNA), 685, 689–692, 694
Beans, 351
Beds, hospital, 161, 162, 164, 166
Beech forests, 438, 439, 445
Beef—
cattle, 431, 432, 434, 949
consumption of, 670, 672–673
exports of, 563, 564, 570, 572, 578, 579, 596, 598, 611, 613, 621, 672, 673, 952, 993
production of, 397–400, 402, 403, 405–407, 434
retail prices of, 654, 656
Beer—
consumption of, 672
duty on, 646, 711, 719, 720, 999, 1001
production of, 493, 500, 511
retail price of, 655
Bees and beekeeping, 238, 411, 436
Benefits, social welfare, 154–158, 159, 174–184, 525
Bentonite, 468, 469, 476
Berryfruit, 425, 427, 671, 673
Beverages, consumption of, 672
imports of, 629, 630, 633, 637, 639
Big-game fishing, 463
Bird sanctuaries, 321
Birth rate, 58, 113, 114–115, 121, 200, 944
Birthplaces of population, 81–82
Births, 58, 62, 113, 114–121, 944
ex-nuptial, 119
first, 118–119
multiple, 116
of Maoris, 113, 114
registration of, 114, 116, 120
re-registration of, 120
still, 114, 116, 117, 119, 121, 130
Biscuit industry, 493, 500, 511
Blind persons, benefits for and education of, 181
Boarding of school children, 202, 213, 215
Bonus Bonds, 769–770
Book publishing, 908
Books—
imports of, 637, 640
library, 247–252
New Zealand, 963–976
Boroughs and cities, 53, 63, 66–67, 69, 71, 72, 74, 305, 330, 331, 829
area of, 66–67
councils, 54, 738–745, 829
debt, 198, 743–744
franchise, 56
number of, 54
population, 66–67, 71, 72, 74
Borstal training, 272, 273, 277–279
Botany, publications on, 969
Bread (bakeries), 493, 500
retail price of, 654, 656
Breast prostheses, 156, 158
Breweries, 493, 500
Brides and grooms, 136, 137
Bridges and bridging, 354, 360–364
British postal orders, 384
British sovereignty, 26
Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, 244, 252, 253–254, 255, 713, 717, 736, 1003
Broadcasting, radio and TV, 252–256
Broadcasting Tribunal, 253
Budget, 999
Building and construction (see also Housing), 514–534, 657, 658, 693, 716, 717, 746, 761, 774, 803, 987
census of, 516–521, 534
finance. 517–520, 525, 526–529
persons engaged in, 517, 518, 819
production group (SNA), 685, 689–692, 694
salaries and wages in, 517, 518
of dwellings, 525, 532–533
production of, 525
costs and prices, 515, 516, 526, 527, 529
finance. 517–520, 525, 526–529
persons engaged in, 517, 518, 819
production group (SNA), 685, 689–692, 694
salaries and wages in, 517, 518
of dwellings, 525, 532–533
production of, 525
industry—
finance. 517–520, 525, 526–529
persons engaged in, 517, 518, 819
production group (SNA), 685, 689–692, 694
salaries and wages in, 517, 518
of dwellings, 525, 532–533
production of, 525
materials—
of dwellings, 525, 532–533
production of, 525
on farms, 398, 521, 522, 528
permits, 521–524, 987
price index, 659
work put in place, 524–525
Building—
Industry Advisory Council, 515–516, 934
Performance Guarantee Corporation, 516, 713, 1003
Research Association, 235, 238, 934
societies, 527, 766, 791, 797–800
Bureaufax service, 385, 386
Bursaries—
boarding, 215
teachers, 216–217, 222
university, 208, 213, 219, 220, 222, 229
Buses, 338, 340, 365, 367, 368, 374
Butter (see also Dairy produce), 404, 511, 576, 577, 670, 672, 959–962
exports of, 350, 563, 568–571, 596, 599, 606, 609, 612, 613, 623, 654, 656, 952
price index of exports, 663

C

Cabinet, 46–47, 50
Cables, overseas, 385–386
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 407
Campbell Island, 3–4, 321
Canada—
exports to, 596, 598, 602, 618, 620–622, 624–626, 629
imports from, 602, 633–637
trade, finance, etc., 36, 563, 564, 568, 596, 598, 644, 645, 696, 700, 702
visitors and migrants from, 104, 892, 893
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 129
deaths from, 126–127, 128–129, 131, 168
lung, 129, 147
site of disease, 129
Society of New Zealand, 151, 159
Canned fruit and vegetables—
consumption of, 671
production of, 492, 500, 511, 672
Capital—
consumption of fixed, 679, 680, 683–688
of Government, 388, 716–717
on mining and quarrying, 479–480
on farms, 398–400
price index, 659–660, 996–997
expenditure—
of Government, 388, 716–717
on mining and quarrying, 479–480
on farms, 398–400
price index, 659–660, 996–997
finance account, 676, 680
gross fixed (formation), 678–680, 683–693
invested in electric-power undertakings, 715, 716, 736
invested in gas industry, 556–558
overseas, invested in N.Z., 702–704, 749–751
value of land, 330
Capitalisation of family benefit, 176, 181, 525, 796
Cargo carried by air transport, 376–378, 379–380
Cargo handled at ports, 347–351
Caribbean, relations with, 36, 40, 41, 696, 701, 702
Carpets and carpet yarns, 485, 486, 493, 501, 510, 613, 614, 655
Carpooling, 542
Casein, 404, 430, 511, 563, 569, 570, 598, 609, 613, 614, 625, 626, 952–953, 993
Cassette tapes, production of, 510
Catchment authorities, 55, 311, 312, 740, 741, 744, 829
Cattle, 236, 237, 397–400, 402, 403, 405–407, 431, 432–434, 949
hides exported (see Hides, skins, and pelts)
slaughtered, 407
Cawthron Institute, 235, 239, 934
Cement—
industry, 348, 484, 496, 503
production of, 525
Census of Population and Dwellings, 57, 59, 60, 62–65, 70–74, 75–89, 92, 95–99, 112, 275, 521, 830–836, 982–984
age distribution of population, 75, 80–81, 87, 96
benefits and pensions, 183–184
country of birth, 81–82
dwellings data, 530–533
educational attendance levels, 228
employment statistics, 831, 836–837
ethnic groups, 81–82
household data, 76–79, 92
incomes of individuals, 751–754
internal migration, 82–83
major industrial, 830–833
marital status, 75, 78–79
occupations of population, 360, 830, 833–836
religious professions, 79–80
smoking habits, 147–148
tenure of dwellings, 789
transport to work, 368
Censuses, economic—
of building and construction, 516–521, 534
of cinemas, 257–259
of distribution, 581–584, 587
of farm contracting, 415–418
of fishing, 463–466
of forestry and logging, 452–454
of gas industry, 556–559
of libraries, 249–252
of manufacturing, 338, 491–511
of mining and quarrying, 478–481
of services, 159–160, 232, 257, 589–595
of transport, storage, and communication, 337–342, 359
Central Government finance (see Government finance)
Central Institute of Technology, 225, 228
Cereals, 393, 395, 419–422, 424–425, 493, 500, 511, 949
consumption of, 671, 673
imports and exports of, 615, 630
Cerebral palsy, 150
Cerebrovascular disease, 127, 130, 131
Certificates of title (land), 325
Chatham Islands, 3, 65, 209, 218, 290, 325, 344, 374, 387, 458, 461, 462, 476, 907, 957
Cheese (see also Dairy produce), 404, 511, 576, 670, 672
exports of, 350, 563, 568, 570, 598, 606, 609, 612, 613, 624, 654, 656, 673, 952, 993
price index of exports, 663
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 495, 502, 503, 507, 511, 513, 657, 658, 685, 689–693
exports of, 616, 992
imports of, 629, 631, 634, 639
production group (SNA), 685, 689–693
Chemists, 154, 158
Chicken (see Poultry)
Child health and welfare, 141, 142, 146–149, 154, 155, 173, 174, 176, 178, 180, 183, 184–189, 280–282
Childbirth accidents, etc., 127, 131, 169
Children's and Young Persons' Courts, 185, 186–188, 266, 280
Children—
adopted, 120–121, 185
allowances for, 174–179, 180–181
born, number and sexes of, 113–121, 944
deaths of (see also Infant mortality), 123–124, 129, 130–132, 133–135, 944
causes, 131–135
delinquent, 280–282, 287
dental treatment of, 141, 142, 148–149, 156
dependent, 174, 175, 178, 180–182
deprived, 184–186, 188, 189
handicapped, 150, 183–185, 209–210, 211, 215
intellectually handicapped, 183–185, 209–210, 215
involved in separation agreements, 283–285
killed on roads, 132–133, 369, 370
legal representation, 187–188
offences by, 280–282, 287
school, 201, 202, 205, 207–218
under supervision, 184–189
Children's health camps, 146
Children's homes, 174, 185, 189
China, relations and trade with, 31, 32, 599, 603, 619–627, 635
Chiropractors, 159
Churches, 79–80
marriages in, 138
Cigarettes and tobacco—
production of, 629, 630, 634, 637, 639
Cinemas, 257–259
Cities and boroughs, 53–54, 74, 198, 305, 330, 331, 738–745, 829
Citizen radio service, 387
Citizenship, 104–105
Citrus fruits, 419, 425–427
consumption of, 671
imports and marketing of, 575
Civil—
aviation, 344–351, 412
defence, 234, 90–291, 743, 925
jurisdiction, 282–283
List, 712, 1002
Clays and clay products, 468, 469, 479–481, 496, 503
Clean Air Council, 143, 315, 932
Climate, 15–24
observations for year, 21–24
Clinics—
ante-natal, 146
dental, 148–149, 156
family planning, 146
Closer Economic Relationship (CER), 35, 600, 643, 644–645, 962
Clothing—
exports, 617
household expenditure on, 666–668
imports, 632
retail prices of, 655
Clothing industry, 494, 501, 507, 510, 513, 684, 689–693, 803
Clover (see also grass seed), 425, 612, 614
Coal, 348, 467–473, 478–481, 484, 487, 535–537, 539–541, 553, 655
and petroleum products industry, 496, 503, 507
exports of, 487, 616, 631
mining, 467–473, 478–481
research, 234, 235, 238, 467, 470–472, 478
Research Association, 235, 238, 470, 478
resources, 467–473, 478–481, 540
State mines, 467, 468, 470–473, 715, 736
usage, 467, 472, 473, 547, 950–951
Coastal erosion, 313
Coastal shipping, 344
Coastline, 4, 306, 307, 440
Cocoa, 671
manufacture, 493, 500
Co-education, 202, 213
Coffee—
consumption, 672, 904
imported, 633, 637, 639
retail price of, 654, 656
Coin and coinage, 775, 776, 782
held by banks, 759
Colleges, teachers' (see teachers' colleges)
Colonisation, 26–27
Commerce Act 1975, 649
Commerce Commission, 649
Commercial radio and television, 253–254
Commission for the Environment, 307–308, 314, 322, 713, 1003
Common Agricultural Policy (EEC), 564, 598
Common Law, 266
Commonwealth, 29–30, 31, 36, 105
youth programme, 41, 261, 925
Communications, 337–342, 381–389, 657, 658
industry production group (SNA), 686, 689–692, 694
Communities, 53, 68, 69, 71, 74
Community—
and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP), 520, 528, 795
centres, 231
colleges, 91, 202, 203, 205, 206, 225, 228, 250
councils, 54–55
housing, 79, 528
service by offenders, 268, 269, 272
services, 184–185, 189, 589, 591–593, 595
Companies, 800–803, 956
finance, 761, 763, 765, 773–774, 775, 801–803
income of, 747–749, 802–804, 806–809, 811
joint stock, 800–801
overseas, 702–704, 749–751
private, 800–801
profits of, 802–803
public, 800–801
registered, 801, 956
share prices indexes, 665, 946–947
taxation of, 725, 747–749, 802
Compensation—
accidents involving, 872–882
criminal injuries, 283
Compressed natural gas (CNG), 538, 540, 544, 557
Concrete products industry, 496, 503, 517, 518, 525, 533
Concrete Research Association, 235, 238
Condensate, natural gas, 535, 538, 540, 541
Confectionery industry, 493, 500
Confinements, 118–119
Conservation (see Natural environment), 244, 302–314, 437
Consolidated Account, 142, 176
Consolidated Accounts of the Nation, 442, 676–681, 709, 710, 712–714, 717–720, 736, 1002–1005
Constitution of New Zealand, 26, 28, 42–47, 957, 958, 960
Construction (see Building, Housing)
Consumer—
Council, 650
index, 651–654, 852, 993–995
prices, 654–656, 946–947
index, 651–654, 852, 993–995
protection, 648–650
Consumers Institute, 650
Consumption of—
coal, 472, 473, 481, 535–537, 539–541, 553, 950–951
electricity, 535–537, 550, 551, 553, 554
food, 670–673
natural gas, 535–540, 549, 553, 555–559
oil, 535–538, 539–541, 553
Contact lenses, 156
Containerisation, 342, 343, 348
Convictions (court), 271–276, 945
for traffic offences, 272, 273, 274
of juveniles, 280, 282
of women, 271, 275, 276–278
Convictions in District Courts, 271–275, 945
Convictions in High Court, 271, 272, 945
Cook Islands, 14, 30, 32–34, 40, 59, 102, 195, 218, 253, 344, 375, 376, 378, 383, 384, 490, 598, 601, 603, 619, 620, 779, 958, 960
Cook Strait—
air freight services, 354
road-rail ferry service, 344, 354
submarine power cable, 550
Co-operative credit associations, 791–792
Copper ore, 474, 475, 478
Copyright, 899
Correspondence school, 146, 201, 203, 205–207, 210, 212, 213, 215, 218, 226, 228, 230, 248
Cotton fabrics, imports of, 635, 638, 639
Council for Adult Education, 229–230
Council for Educational Research, 229
Counties, 53, 63, 69–70, 71, 74, 198, 311, 330, 331, 829
area of, 68, 69–70
councils, 54, 305, 738–745
debt, 198, 743–744
franchise, 56
populations, 69–70, 74
roads and roading, 361, 364
Court of Appeal, 47, 266–267, 270, 282, 306, 871, 920, 960
Courts (see also High, District, Children's etc.), 47, 266–275, 280–285, 945
Judges of, 266–268, 272, 284, 919–920
structures and types of, 266–268
Credit card sales, 588
Cremation, 126
Crime, 267, 270, 272–275, 277, 281, 283, 287, 288, 945
Criminal—
appeals, 270
injuries compensation, 933
jurisdiction, 270–276
reformation and punishment of the, 268–270, 275–280
Crippled children (see Handicapped children)
Crops, 394–397, 400, 402–403, 409, 411, 416, 419–429, 949
Crown land, 316–318, 396
Crown Law Office, 713, 922, 1003
Cultivation, area in, 396, 397
Cultural and recreational services, 592, 594, 595
Cultural Exchange Programme, 244
Currency and banking (see Banks and banking)
Customs Department, 144, 366, 388, 607, 646, 662, 713, 922, 1003
Customs tariff and revenue, 643–647, 711, 719, 720, 999, 1001, 1003

D

Dairy—
Board, New Zealand, 343, 567, 568, 572, 580
consumption of, 670, 673
exported, 563, 567–572, 596–599, 606, 609, 612, 613, 615, 623, 624, 630, 673, 780, 951–953, 992–993
export price index, 663
inspection of, 410–411
marketing of, 563, 567–569, 570–572, 574–578
prices for, 577, 654, 656, 949–950
production of, 404–405, 410, 411, 414
cows, 404, 949
consumption of, 670, 673
exported, 563, 567–572, 596–599, 606, 609, 612, 613, 615, 623, 624, 630, 673, 780, 951–953, 992–993
export price index, 663
inspection of, 410–411
marketing of, 563, 567–569, 570–572, 574–578
prices for, 577, 654, 656, 949–950
production of, 404–405, 410, 411, 414
factories, 404, 405, 482, 492, 499, 761
consumption of, 670, 673
exported, 563, 567–572, 596–599, 606, 609, 612, 613, 615, 623, 624, 630, 673, 780, 951–953, 992–993
export price index, 663
inspection of, 410–411
marketing of, 563, 567–569, 570–572, 574–578
prices for, 577, 654, 656, 949–950
production of, 404–405, 410, 411, 414
farming, 397–399, 404, 405, 431–433, 746, 760, 949
consumption of, 670, 673
exported, 563, 567–572, 596–599, 606, 609, 612, 613, 615, 623, 624, 630, 673, 780, 951–953, 992–993
export price index, 663
inspection of, 410–411
marketing of, 563, 567–569, 570–572, 574–578
prices for, 577, 654, 656, 949–950
production of, 404–405, 410, 411, 414
machinery, 415
consumption of, 670, 673
exported, 563, 567–572, 596–599, 606, 609, 612, 613, 615, 623, 624, 630, 673, 780, 951–953, 992–993
export price index, 663
inspection of, 410–411
marketing of, 563, 567–569, 570–572, 574–578
prices for, 577, 654, 656, 949–950
production of, 404–405, 410, 411, 414
produce, 31, 492, 499, 500, 511, 949–950
consumption of, 670, 673
exported, 563, 567–572, 596–599, 606, 609, 612, 613, 615, 623, 624, 630, 673, 780, 951–953, 992–993
export price index, 663
inspection of, 410–411
marketing of, 563, 567–569, 570–572, 574–578
prices for, 577, 654, 656, 949–950
production of, 404–405, 410, 411, 414
Research Institute, 235, 238, 314, 934
Data service (Post Office), 385, 386
Daylight saving, 907
Deaf, education of, 209, 216
Death benefits, 176, 182
Death duty, estates passed for, 728–731
Death rates, 58, 113, 121–124, 126–131, 944
Maori non-Maori comparisons, 121–122
Deaths, 58, 62, 113, 115, 121–135, 944
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 123, 124
by causes, 126–127
distribution over year, 123
due to earthquakes, 12
from external causes, 23, 127, 133–135, 873, 875–878, 881–883
from industrial accidents, 870, 873, 875–878, 881–883
from road accidents, 369–370
in fires, 290
in hospitals, 167–169, 171
in psychiatric hospitals, 167
international classification, 126
maternal, 127, 132
neo-natal, 130–131
of infants, 130–132, 944
of Maoris, 113, 121, 123, 130, 131
of children, 123–124, 129, 130–132, 133–135
perinatal, 130–131
Debt—
hospital boards, 163
local government, 743–744, 756
public (see also Public debt), 756, 1002
Decimal currency, 775–960
Deer farming, 236, 238, 318, 402, 403, 434
Defence, 240, 292–300. 710, 713, 716
Council, 293
expenditure on, 294, 1000, 1004
Ministry of, 292, 293, 297, 388, 922
Degrees, university, 219–221, 224
Delinquency, juvenile, 186, 188, 189, 280–282, 287
Density of population, 73–74
Dental—
benefits (social security), 149, 156, 158
health, 141, 142, 148–150, 156
nurses, 148
research, 150
services, 142, 148–150, 156, 158, 655
Dentists, 142, 144, 149, 152, 156, 159, 746
Departments, Government, 50, 920–936
Agriculture and Fisheries, 233, 234, 236–238, 239, 240, 314, 407, 409–412, 414, 421, 423–425, 456, 459, 460, 463, 714, 921–922, 1004
Audit Office, 713, 922
Crown Law, 713, 922
Customs, 144, 366, 388, 607, 646, 662, 713, 922
Defence, 240, 292, 293, 297, 388, 922
Education, 91, 146, 147, 173, 184, 189, 201, 202, 207, 209, 210, 214, 215, 218, 228, 231, 238, 240, 261, 409, 543, 889, 922, 929
Energy, 234, 240, 388, 470, 477, 478, 649, 714, 736, 884, 922–923, 961, 1004
Foreign Affairs, 29, 39–41, 261, 345, 923
Forest Service, 240, 299, 714, 923, 1004
Government Printing Office, 713
Health, 141–162, 164, 167, 173, 174, 176, 308, 314, 315, 388, 411, 650, 884, 924
Inland Revenue. 713, 924
Internal Affairs, 102, 106, 107, 173, 186, 240, 243–245, 261, 314, 322, 463, 713, 714, 826, 924–925, 1004
Justice, 173, 189, 209, 240, 266, 268, 270, 279, 324, 328, 650, 713, 925
Labour, 91, 102, 105–107, 141, 144–145, 150, 153, 173, 174, 219, 231, 240, 388, 409, 534, 650, 714, 863, 867, 883, 925, 1004
Lands and Survey, 240, 308, 315–318, 320, 322–324, 388, 400, 520, 714, 792, 925, 1004
Maori Affairs, 91–93, 95, 173, 261, 322, 328, 400, 520, 714, 925–926, 1004
Scientific and Industrial Research, 144, 233–236, 238–240, 293, 310, 314, 424, 451, 476–478, 542, 714, 890, 907, 926–927, 1004
Social Welfare, 106, 173–174, 175, 176, 184, 186, 189, 193, 194, 209, 240, 281–283, 388, 927
Trade and Industry, 240, 487–490, 605, 607, 649–650, 714, 928, 1004
Transport, 145, 240, 274, 351, 352, 361, 367, 369, 375, 388, 412, 421, 884, 928
Works and Development, 234, 238, 240, 306, 308, 310, 313, 322, 324, 354, 361, 388, 463, 477, 478, 516, 543, 551, 713, 884, 929
Dependent children. 174, 175, 178, 180–182, 190, 191
Deportation, 108
Deposits—
interest on, 766–768
time, 759
with building societies, 798–800
with Reserve Bank, 757
with savings banks, 768–772, 956
with stock and station agents, 772–773
with trading banks, 759
Depreciation—
in domestic trade, 581–584
in manufacturing industries, 464, 466
in mining and quarrying, 479–481
Deprived children, 184–186, 188, 189
Desertion in marriage, 139
Designs, registration of, 899
Detached youth worker scheme, 261
Detention centres, 269, 272, 273, 276–278
Development Finance Corporation, 241, 489, 543, 715, 736, 785, 935
Diagnostic laboratory services, 156, 158
Diatomite, 474
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 355–356
Dietitians, 153, 162
Diplomatic representation, 936–942
Disabled Rehabilitation League, 150
Disability allowance, 177, 182–183, 190–194
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 150, 869
Disabled servicemen, 190, 191, 193, 194
Diseases—
deaths from, 126–131, 167–169
mental, 166–167
occupational, 145
treated in public hospitals, 167–169
Displaced persons, 106–107
Disputes, industrial, 947, 959–960
Dissolution of marriage, 139–140, 283
Distillate fuels, 612, 614
Distribution—
census of, 581–584, 587
by ages, 75, 80–81, 87, 96, 817–819
of labour force, by industry and occupation, 819–820, 833–836
by ages, 75, 80–81, 87, 96, 817–819
of population, 62–74, 86–87, 96
by ages, 75, 80–81, 87, 96, 817–819
District, 74
Communities, 68, 69, 71, 74
Judges of, 135, 267, 268, 272, 279
Community councils, 53–55
Judges of, 135, 267, 268, 272, 279
Councils, 53–54, 360, 740, 741, 744, 829
Judges of, 135, 267, 268, 272, 279
Courts, 47, 187, 266, 267, 268, 270, 271, 272–275, 282, 283, 534, 904, 945
Judges of, 135, 267, 268, 272, 279
high schools, 205, 213
planning, 303, 305
Road Councils, 362
Diversification of trade, 569–571
Dividends, totalisator, 731
Divorce, 139
Divorced persons, 75, 78–79, 136–137
remarrying, 136–137
Doctors. 141, 144–147, 152, 155, 157–159, 746
Dolomite, 468, 469
Domestic air travel tax, 719
Domestic assistance. 156
Domestic trade, 581–595, 990–992
Dominion status, 28, 29
Drainage boards, 55
Drama publications, 973
Drinking age, 905–906
Drowning accidents, 132–135, 883
Drugs, 143–144, 495, 503
offences involving, 267, 272–275, 287, 288
therapeutic, 143
Drunkenness, 273, 274, 275, 277, 372
Duties—
customs and excise, 643–647, 711, 719, 720, 999, 1001, 1003
lottery, 720
Dwellings (see also Houses and flats), 514–534, 788, 789, 793–797
amenities, 531–532
heating of, 532
insulation of, 533, 543, 544
materials used, 532–533
number of rooms and occupants, 530–531
tenure, 531, 789
type of, 530–531

E

Earthquake and war damage insurance, 812–813
Earthquakes, 12–14, 813, 957, 959
Eastern Europe, relations with, 599, 604, 605, 620
Economic—
aggregates, 676–708
and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), 33, 619
censuses (see censuses, economic)
pensions, 190–191
Economics publications, 965
Education (see also Schools), 200–242, 543, 944, 958, 982–984
adult, 228–231
buildings, 204–205, 521, 522, 525, 530, 717
community colleges, 202, 203, 205, 206, 225, 228
correspondence, 201, 203, 205–207, 210, 212, 213, 215, 218, 226, 228, 230
dental health, 142, 148–149
Department of, 91, 146, 147, 173, 184, 189, 201 202, 207, 209, 210, 214, 215, 218, 228, 231, 238, 240, 261, 409, 543, 889, 922, 929
expenditure on, 200, 202–204, 232, 711, 714, 717, 904, 1000, 1001
health, 141–142, 146, 147–149
international, 231–232
Maori, 90, 211–213, 214, 218
of handicapped children, 209–210, 211, 215
Pacific Islanders, 90, 207, 211, 212, 222, 223, 231
pre-school, 202, 205, 207, 209, 210, 215, 232
primary, 200–205, 207, 209, 210–212, 215, 217, 218, 228, 232, 945, 983
publications, 218–219, 966–967
road safety, 371
rural, 214–215, 216
secondary, 201–207, 209, 211, 212–214, 215, 217, 218, 225, 228–230, 232, 945, 982–984
special, 203, 205, 207, 209–210, 213, 215
technical, 201–204, 206–208, 228, 945, 982
training of teachers, 200, 202, 203, 206, 207, 210, 214, 216–217, 222, 223, 228, 231, 945, 982
university, 201, 203, 205–208, 214, 217, 219–225, 228, 230, 945, 982–984
Educational—
attainments, 207, 208, 213, 220, 222, 228, 229, 982–984
planning, 201–202, 204–205, 214, 219, 229
Research, N.Z. Council for, 229
Eels, 456, 463
Effective weekly wage rates, 851–852
Eggs—
consumption of, 670, 673
production and marketing of, 435, 575, 673
retail price of, 655
Elderly, housing of, 159, 742
Elections, general, 906–907
Electoral—
Act 1956, 43, 48
Representation Commission, 48
roll, 48, 51–52, 388, 907
Electorates, 48
Electric—
appliances in homes, 531–532
power, 388, 467, 472, 535–537, 541, 545, 547–555
boards, 55, 198, 738, 740, 741, 744, 829
capital invested in, 551
finance of, 551, 553
generation, 547, 549, 552
stations, 959–961
Electrical machinery and appliances—
exported, 613, 615, 992
imported, 632, 636, 638, 640
industry, 498, 505, 507, 685, 689–692, 694
Electricity—
consumption of, 401, 535–537, 550, 551, 553, 554
price of, 655
Electronics manufacture, 485, 498, 505
Embassies, 936–942
Emergency Protection Authority, 608
Emigration, 99–104, 986
Employers Federation, 855, 857, 962
Employers, unions of, 857, 859
Employment, 817–839
and Vocational Guidance Service, 824–825
by local authorities, 829
in building industry, 517, 518
in coal mining, 473, 479
in domestic trade, 581–584
in fishing, 464
in forestry, 451, 452, 453
in industry, 506, 507
in manufacturing, 491–499, 506–507, 508, 509
in public service (see public service employees)
index of, 708
on farms, 852, 853
placement service, 824, 825
programmes, 824, 825, 985
promotion, 824–826
surveys of, 829
Energy, 535–559
Advisory Committee, 539
conservation, 542–544
Ministry of, 234, 240, 470, 477, 478, 542, 543, 550, 551, 649, 709, 710, 714, 736, 884, 922–923, 961, 1004
pricing policy, 541
research and development, 487, 539, 544
Energy resources—
development of, 537–541
levy, 719, 1000
Engineering industries, 485
Environment—
Commission for, 923, 1003
natural, 234–236, 239–241, 301–315
Environmental—
agencies, 307–310
Council, 308–309
health, 140, 142, 143
protection by industry, 310–311
Equal Opportunities Tribunal, 898, 933
Erosion, 9, 11, 22, 440, 451
control of soil, 313, 314, 440, 451
control of coastal, 313
Estate and gift duty, 719, 726–730, 792, 999
Estates—
passed for death duty, 728–731
European Economic Community (EEC), 29, 30, 248, 563, 565, 567–569, 571, 596, 598, 602, 643, 644, 696, 700, 702, 961, 962
investment in New Zealand, 705
Excess retention tax, 725
Exchange (currency)—
control of, 757, 776, 777, 781–783
rates of, 742–743
transactions, overseas, 1006–1007
Excise duties, 643–647, 711, 719, 720, 999, 1001, 1003
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), 292, 293, 299, 455, 456, 458–460, 487, 961
Executive council, 46–47, 51, 268
Ex-nuptial infants, 119–120, 185
ages of mothers, 119
protection of, 120, 185
registration of, 119–120
Exotic forest, 307, 310, 313, 437, 438, 439, 440–450, 452
Expectation of life, 124–125
Expenditure—
defence, 294, 711, 714, 716, 1000, 1004
education, 202–204, 232, 711, 714, 717, 1000, 1004
Government (see Government Finance)
health, 142, 157–158, 159–160, 711, 714, 717, 1000, 1005
household, 667–669
local government, 363–365, 740–742
research, 240–241, 714, 1004
roads, 361, 363–364, 365, 714, 717–718
social welfare and services, 175, 176–177, 193, 194, 711, 714, 717, 1000, 1004
Export Guarantee Office, 609
Export-Import Corporation, 490, 609, 715, 736, 935
Exports and Shipping Council, 575
Exports (see also under individual products), 445, 448–450, 487, 536, 563, 564, 567, 569–572, 576, 596–606, 608, 609–629, 679, 680, 695, 697–702, 951–953, 992–993, 1007
by air, 379–380
value, 600–605, 609–610, 611, 613–629, 698, 700–702, 780, 951
volume, 611–613, 620–628
index numbers, 946
by ports, 350, 351, 628
value, 600–605, 609–610, 611, 613–629, 698, 700–702, 780, 951
volume, 611–613, 620–628
index numbers, 946
classification of, 615–618
value, 600–605, 609–610, 611, 613–629, 698, 700–702, 780, 951
volume, 611–613, 620–628
index numbers, 946
commodities exported—
value, 600–605, 609–610, 611, 613–629, 698, 700–702, 780, 951
volume, 611–613, 620–628
index numbers, 946
destination of, 596–600, 602–605, 618–629
index numbers, 946
incentive scheme, 608–609
index numbers, 946
manufactured, 484, 485, 487, 488–489, 490
index numbers, 946
prices, 662–665, 946
index numbers, 946
value of, 609–611, 613–629
volume of, 951–953
index numbers, 606, 611
Ex-servicemen—
dependents of, 190–191, 193
disabled, 190–194
pensions and rehabilitation, 190–194
External—
migration (see also emigration, immigration), 58, 59, 99–104, 891–892, 944
trade (see Trade (external), Exports, Imports, etc.,) 596–647, 606, 611, 951–953, 992–993
transactions account, 676, 681

F

Factories (see also Manufacturing industries), 482–513, 521, 522, 525, 864
Factory production, 482–513, 949
Falls, accidental, 132–134, 171, 879–881
Family—
benefits, 174–178, 180–181, 182, 184, 525, 960
capitalisation of, 176, 181, 796, 988
courts, 267, 284, 285
health, 141, 146–147
planning, 146, 159
Farm—
accidents, 882–883
index of, 661
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
advisory service, 411
index of, 661
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
area in cultivation, 396–397
index of, 661
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
capital expenditure, 398, 416, 417
index of, 661
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
employees, 398, 416, 417, 852–853
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
Employment Scheme, 398, 416, 417
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
finance, 315, 761, 772–774, 789–792
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
holdings, 396–397
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
improvement services, 415–417
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
incomes, 746–748, 750
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
industry reserves, 580
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
machinery, 399, 400, 415, 497, 505
imports of, 636, 638, 639
production of, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
produce—
consumption of, 670–673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
marketing of, 563–580
indexes of, 403
production, 949–950
indexes of, 403
settlement and assistance, 315–318
vendor finance scheme, 790
Farming, 21–23, 27–28, 393–436, 949–950
accidents, 134
arable, 393–400, 413–429
cattle, 397–400, 402, 403, 405–407, 431–434, 949
cost price indexes, 660–662
crops, 394–397, 400, 402–403, 409, 411, 416, 419–429
dairy, 397–399, 404, 405, 431–433, 746, 760, 949
deer, 318
goat, 318
rabbit, 318
sheep, 393–400, 402, 403, 405–409, 413, 414, 430–432, 433, 746, 760, 949
Fathers, ages of, 117
Federated Farmers of New Zealand, 322, 323, 409
Federated Mountain Clubs, 318
Federation of Labour, 826, 856–857, 863, 962
Feeding stuff for animals, export of, 612, 614, 615, 627
Fellmongery, 494, 501
Female suffrage, 958
Fertiliser—
imports of, 349, 630, 631, 634
industry, 235–237, 401, 412–414, 495, 502, 511
land topdressed with, 380, 381, 393, 394, 412, 414
spread from air, 393, 394, 412, 414
subsidy, 413, 414
Fibreboard, 443, 447, 448
Fibres, man-made, 483, 485, 486, 493, 500, 501, 510, 513
Fiction, selected New Zealand, 972–973
Film Commission, 244
Film-hire tax, 719
Finance—
account, capital, 676, 680
companies, 761, 763, 765, 773–774, 775
Government, 709–718, 789–797, 954–955, 999–1008
hospital board, 163–164
housing, 520, 525–526, 527–530, 534, 788, 789, 793–797
local government, 362–364, 374, 738–745, 789, 796, 797, 1005
Fines, 268, 269, 272, 273, 279, 281
Fire—
calls, 289
levies, 810
insurance, 289, 808–810
levies, 810
prevention in forests, 441
safety, 289
Service, 289–290, 743, 744
First births, 118–119
Fish—
acclimatisation, 463
catch, 455, 456–457, 458, 460–463
exported, 457–458, 462, 599, 612, 613, 615, 628, 670, 672
imported, 630
research, 234, 459, 463
retail price, 654
species, 456, 457, 461–463
value of production, 456–457, 458, 462, 463
Fishery protection, 299
Fishing and fisheries, 235, 455–466, 487, 493, 500, 657, 658, 684, 689–693, 896
big-game, 463, 896
census of, 463–466
controlled fisheries, 455, 456
co-operative ventures, 461, 487
foreign licensed, 460
Government financial aid, 460, 791–793
grounds, 455, 456, 458, 459–461
Industry Board, 455, 459–460, 466
industry production group, 411
methods, 455, 458, 461, 463, 464
vessels, 455, 458, 459, 460, 464, 791, 792
Flag, New Zealand, 910
Flats (see Houses and flats)—
pensioners', 520, 527–528
Floods and flooding, 21, 23, 360, 961
Flour, production and retail price of, 511, 654, 656
Fluoridation, 150
Food—
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 37
consumption, 670–673
household expenditure on, 666–668
imports of, 629, 630, 633, 637, 639, 992
inspection and sale of, 143, 144, 151
production, 492, 493, 499, 500, 507, 511, 513, 657, 658, 803
retail prices of, 654, 656–658
Standards Committee, 144
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 655
Footwear industry, 494, 501, 507, 510
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 29, 39–41, 231, 244, 261, 345, 710, 713, 716, 923
expenditure on, 1000, 1001, 1004
Foreign fishing vessel entry tax, 460
Foreign policy, 28–41
Foreign travel tax, 719
Forest—
beech, 438, 439, 445
conservation, 437, 439–441, 451
exotic, 307, 310, 313, 437, 438, 439, 440–450, 452
fire prevention, 441
indigenous, 307, 308, 310, 437, 438, 439–441, 443–445, 450, 452
kauri, 438, 439
parks, 441
private, 437, 442–443, 445, 446
produce exported, 448–450, 610, 612–614, 626–628, 953, 993
Research Institute, 442, 450
resources, 437–439, 443, 444
rimu, 438, 439, 445
Service, 240, 299, 307, 308, 310, 318, 320, 322, 324, 439–443, 447, 450, 451, 714, 742, 923, 1004
State, 437–442, 446, 447
utilisation, 437, 438, 440, 443–444, 484, 487
Forestry, 437–454, 484, 487, 657, 658, 684, 689–693, 716, 803, 949–950
Census of, 452–454
development and future prospects of, 452
employment in, 451, 452, 453
research, 450–451
training, 451
Franchise, central government, 48–49, 56, 958, 961
Freehold land, 316, 317, 396
Freight carried by—
air transport, 376–378, 379–380
rail, 355, 948
Freshwater fisheries, 8, 462, 463, 896
Friendly societies, 184
Frost, 19
Frozen foods—
consumption of, 671
export of, 611–614, 622, 623, 628, 672
production of, 511
Fruit—
berry, 425, 427, 671
citrus, 419, 425–427, 575, 671
consumption of, 667, 671, 673
exports of, 610, 612, 613, 625, 626, 673, 952–953, 993
imports of, 630
industry, 402, 403, 419, 420, 425–429, 492, 500, 511
marketing of, 573–574
pip, 419, 425, 426, 428, 429, 671
stone, 425, 426, 671
sub-tropical, 419, 425–427
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry. 350, 351
Fuel, light, power, household expenditure on, 668
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 629, 631, 633, 634, 638, 639
Furniture industry, 494, 497, 502, 507, 513

G

Gaming and lotteries, 264–265
Gas—
appliances in homes, 532
census of industry, 556–559
Council, 555
generation and supply, 467, 468, 472, 478–480, 558, 559
liquefied petroleum (LPG), 468
natural, 234, 467, 468, 479, 480, 486, 535–541, 544, 549, 553, 555–559
prices, 655
subsidies, 903
General—
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 35, 38, 567, 568, 570, 644
Assembly Library, 247–248
Elections, 43, 46, 48–49, 906–907
Wage Orders, 856
Generalised System of Preference (GSP), 645
Geological survey, 470, 477–478
Geology, 9–12
maps and publications, 968
Geothermal power, 535, 540, 541, 544, 547, 549, 552, 715, 736
Geysers (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 719, 727, 999
Glaciers, 6
Glass and glass products industry, 496, 503, 507
Glasshouses, production in, 424
“Gleneagles Agreement”, 31, 961
Goat farming, 236, 238, 318, 434
Gold, discovery of, 8, 27, 467, 478, 482, 957, 958
mining and production, 468, 474, 475, 548
reserve, 757, 758, 778
Government—
departments (see Departments Government)
finance, 176, 177, 200, 442, 680–683, 689–694, 709–718, 757, 763–765, 777–785, 789–797, 954–955, 999–1008
Life Insurance Office, 924, 958
Printing Office, 713, 924, 1003
securities, 715, 757, 764, 765, 768, 770, 772, 773, 797, 804, 807, 809, 811, 954
Superannuation Fund, 194–197, 388, 712, 1002
system of, 43–49
Governors-General, 293, 306, 329, 375, 756, 868, 898
powers, duties, etc., 43–44, 46, 47, 50, 52, 267, 279
Graduates, university, 216, 217, 223–224
Grain—
crops, 348, 350, 420–422, 949
milling, 493, 500
Granny flats, 528
Grants (see also subsidies)—
educational, 201–203, 208, 216, 217, 219–220, 222, 223, 225, 229, 826
from lottery profits, 159, 241
various, 310, 313
welfare services, 142, 158–159, 520, 527–529
Grapes and vineyards, 419, 420, 425, 427, 428, 575
Grass and clover seed, 422, 425
exports of, 612, 614, 952–953
Grasslands and grasses research, 233, 236–237, 393–397
Greenstone, 468, 476
Greyhound racing, 263
Groceries, retail prices of, 654–656
Gross—
domestic product, 177, 241, 491, 656, 676, 679, 682–688, 694, 706, 707
by production group, 682–688
fixed capital formation, 678–680, 683–693
national product, 365, 539, 596
Group-living quarters, 79
Guardianship of State wards, 187

H

Hail, 18
Halloysite, 476
Handicapped children, 183–185, 209–210, 211, 215
allowances for, 183–185
Harbour boards, 198, 305, 575, 738, 740, 741, 743, 744, 829
Harbour Bridge Authority, 361, 364, 829
Harbours (see also Ports), 4
Health, 141–172, 308
benefits, 154–158, 175–179, 181–184
camps, 146
child, 141, 142, 146–149, 154, 155
dental, 141, 148–150, 156
Department of, 141–162, 164, 167, 173, 174, 176, 308, 314, 315, 388, 411, 650, 884, 924
education, 141, 142, 146, 147–149, 214
environmental 140, 142, 143
expenditure, 711, 714, 717, 1000, 1001
family, 141, 146–147
finance 159–169
hazards, 145
insurance, 184
management services and research unit, 151
mental, 162, 164–167
occupational, 144–145
statistics, 150
Hearing aids, 156
Heart disease, 127–128, 147, 168
Heavy Engineering Research Association, 234, 235, 238
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 350, 563, 598, 599, 609, 612, 614, 626, 953, 993
High Commissions, 936–942
High Court, 47, 139, 152, 187, 266, 267, 268, 270–272, 279, 282, 285, 329, 871, 888, 900–901, 904, 920, 945
Judges of, 266–268, 279, 919–920
Higher Salaries Commission, 44, 935
Higher School Certificate, 208, 213, 229
Highways, 360–365, 718
taxation, 362, 711, 720, 721, 1000, 1001, 1005
Hire purchase trade, 587–588, 991
Historic reserves, 320–321
Historical, regional, and biographical works, 974–975
History of New Zealand, 25–28, 957–962
Holidays, 864, 908
Home nursing services, 156
Homes—
accidents in, 134
children's, 174, 185, 189
old people's, 159–161
Homicide, 132, 133, 170, 267, 272, 280, 287
Honey, 411, 436, 575, 673, 934
Hops and hop gardens, 395, 409, 411, 420, 425, 429
Horse racing, 262, 731
Horticulture, 233, 234, 236, 237, 238, 394–397, 400, 402, 403, 409, 411, 416, 417, 419–429
Hospital—
accommodation, 162, 164
benefits, 154–158
Boards, 55, 141, 142, 146, 150, 159, 161–162, 163, 164, 198, 738, 743
buildings, 717
districts, 161
employees, 162–163, 929
expenditure, 163–164
finances of, 160, 163–164
Hospitals (see also Patients), 159, 161–172, 189, 521, 522, 525, 530, 866
beds in, 161, 162, 164, 166
deaths in, 167–169, 171
general, 162–164
maternity, 146, 155, 162, 164
private, 155, 158, 160–162, 164
psychiatric, 155, 162, 164–167, 189, 209
public, 160–163, 167–171
staff of, 162–163
waiting lists, 162
Hostels, 521, 522, 525, 528, 530, 824
pre-release, 279
school, 213
youth, 528–529
Hotels and restaurants, 894–895
Hours of work, 864
House of Representatives, 43–47, 51–52, 267, 268, 957, 958
members of, 43–45, 48, 51–52, 906
Households, 76–79, 530, 532
age group of head, 77
employment status of head, 76–77
expenditure, 667–669
incomes of, 78, 665–667
size of, 76–79, 667, 753
survey, 665–669
type of, 76–79
Houses and flats (see also Dwellings), 514–534
census enumerations, 530–533
completed, 521
conversion to flats, 521
finance of, 520, 525–526, 527–530, 534, 788, 789, 793–797
mortgages, 526, 527, 531
price index, 526–527, 659
rental, 796–797
sale of State, 796
State, 516, 520, 521, 525, 529, 788, 789, 793–797
Housing (see also Building and construction), 514–534, 717, 788, 789, 793–797
community, 79, 528
Government capital assistance for, 520
household expenditure on, 666–668
Mortgage Guarantee Scheme, 526
of elderly, 520, 527–528, 742
rural, 520, 528
Housing Corporation, 92, 193, 388, 514, 516, 520, 525, 527, 528, 529, 534, 710, 714–716, 736, 737, 769, 793, 924, 987–988, 1004
Policy changes, 987–988
rental house construction, 529
Human Rights Commission, 898
Humidity, 19–20
Hunting and shooting, 684, 689–693, 896
Hydro-electric power, 6, 7, 28, 535, 547–550, 552, 553, 959–961
Clutha River Scheme, 717
Hydrographic survey, 299
Hygiene, 141–144

I

Ice cream, 492, 499, 670
Ilmenite, 477
Immigration, 99–108, 957–958, 986
ages of migrants, 102
policy, 104–108
Immunisation, 141, 146–147, 155
Imports, 448–450, 535–537, 539, 596–600, 602–607, 629–642, 679, 681, 695, 697–702, 781, 951, 992–993, 1007
by air, 379–380
by end use, 640–641
by ports, 349–350, 642
classification of, 629–632
licensing and control of, 607
origin of, 597, 600, 602–605, 633–637
price indexes of, 662–665
value of, 597, 600–605, 619, 629–637, 639, 640–642, 698, 700–702
volume index numbers, 606
volume of, 637–638
Incentives (production, export, etc.), 442, 895
Incomes—
assessable, 746, 747, 750, 751
average and median, 746
company, 747–749
earners in each household, 78, 753
hospitals, 160
industrial classification of, 746–751
occupational status by, 752–753
of household in household survey, 665–667
of persons, 746, 748, 751–754
of self employed, 159, 746
real disposable, 843–845, 999
Income tax, 711, 719, 721–725, 748, 750, 751, 999–1001
Indebtedness (See Debt)
Index numbers of—
capital expenditure prices, 996–997
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
consumer prices (see Consumers Price Index)
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
employment, 708
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
export prices, 662–665, 946
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
external trade, volume of, 606, 611, 662
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
farming costs prices, 660–662
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
gross domestic product, 706–707
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
import prices, 662, 664, 665
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
producers prices, 995
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
real disposable income, 843–845, 999
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
share prices, 665, 946, 947
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
terms of trade, 946
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
wage rates—
effective, 997–998
nominal, 997–998
prevailing, 997–998
wool prices, 576
Indigenous forest, 307, 308, 310, 437, 438, 439–441, 443–445, 450, 452
Industrial—
chemicals, 489, 495, 502, 507, 616, 629, 631, 634, 639
conciliation and arbitration, 855, 856, 859, 959
Conciliation Service, 855
Design Council, 490, 899–900, 935
development, 482–490
Development Commission, 486, 489
disputes, 947, 959–960
production, 482–513
relations, 840–841, 854–867
safety, 868–884
stoppages, 860–863, 947
unions, 856, 858–859
Industrial accidents, 133, 134, 869, 870, 873, 875, 878, 881, 882
deaths from, 133, 134, 870, 873, 875–878, 881–883
Industries—
bank advances to, 760–761
aids to development, 489–490
Development Commission, 607
aids to development, 489–490
manufacturing, 482–513, 950
aids to development, 489–490
overseas investment in, 703–704
Industry—
persons engaged in, 819, 949
State aid to, 710, 714, 716, 791–793
Infant mortality, 130–132, 944
Inland Revenue Department, 713, 924, 1003
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 442
Insurance, 371, 401, 557, 588, 779, 780, 804–813, 819
accident, 807–808
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
fire, 808–810
life, 723, 766, 804–807
sickness, 184
State, 810–813
Integration of private schools, 202, 212
Intellectually handicapped children, 209–210, 215
Interdepartmental Committee on Resettlement, 106
Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO), 38
Inter-industry studies, 676, 705–706
Interest—
controls on rates, 766
bank overdrafts and loans, 760
finance company loans, 773–774
mortgages, 787, 788, 794, 797, 956, 1006
savings bank deposits, 766–768, 956
on housing loans, 788, 794, 796, 988, 1006
bank overdrafts and loans, 760
finance company loans, 773–774
mortgages, 787, 788, 794, 797, 956, 1006
savings bank deposits, 766–768, 956
on local government debt, 744
bank overdrafts and loans, 760
finance company loans, 773–774
mortgages, 787, 788, 794, 797, 956, 1006
savings bank deposits, 766–768, 956
on public debt, 735
bank overdrafts and loans, 760
finance company loans, 773–774
mortgages, 787, 788, 794, 797, 956, 1006
savings bank deposits, 766–768, 956
rates on—
bank overdrafts and loans, 760
finance company loans, 773–774
mortgages, 787, 788, 794, 797, 956, 1006
savings bank deposits, 766–768, 956
stock and station deposits, 773
Interim Conservation Committee, 244
Intermediate schools, 205, 207, 210, 211, 212
Internal Affairs, Department of, 102, 106, 107, 173, 186, 240, 243–245, 261, 314, 322, 463, 713, 714, 826, 924–925, 1003, 1004
Internal migration, 82–83
International—
air services, 375, 376–379
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 38, 235
Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), 38, 696, 715, 716, 736, 783, 955, 960
Civil Aviation Organisation, 38
Coffee Agreement, 647
departure tax, 719
Development Association, 41, 784
education, 231–232
Energy Agency, 30, 537, 539, 540, 544
Finance Corporation, 696, 783, 960
investment income, 779, 780
Labour Organisation (ILO), 38, 878, 889
Monetary Fund, 38, 41, 694, 696, 699, 715, 716, 756, 777–781, 783–784, 954, 960, 1007
Subscriber Dialling (ISD), 386
Sugar Agreement, 647
Telecommunication Union (ITU), 38
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 309
Wool Secretariat, 408, 566
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 114
dairy produce, 568, 569
deaths of pre-school children, 130–132
doctors and dentists to population ratio, 152
energy consumption, 545–546
expectation of life, 125
infant mortality rates, 130–131
libraries, 249
life assurance, 804
marriage rates, 135–136
motor accident death and injury rates, 370
newspapers, 257
population, 60, 83–84
prices, 655–656
research expenditure, 241
sheep numbers, 566
telephones, 384
wool production and consumption, 566–567
Invalids' benefits, 176–178, 181, 183, 184
Investment—
by New Zealand overseas, 695, 698, 700, 701, 705
in New Zealand (overseas), 695, 698, 700–705, 782, 783
incomes, 802
societies, 797–800
unit, 489
Iron and steel—
exports of, 612–614, 617, 992
imports of, 349, 631, 635, 636, 638, 639
industry, 467, 468, 473, 475, 479, 480, 484, 489, 496, 504, 507
Iron ores and ironsands, 351, 467, 468, 473, 475, 478–480, 484, 612, 614, 631
Irrigation, 236, 238, 310, 312, 396, 399, 412–413, 790

J

Japan—
exports to, 445, 446, 448, 449, 563–567, 569, 570, 596, 597, 599, 602, 618, 619, 621–629
imports from, 597, 602, 633–637
trade, finance, etc., 31, 32, 460, 461, 563–567, 569, 570, 596, 597, 599, 696, 701, 702, 892, 893, 961
Job programmes, 824–826, 985
Joinery industry, 494, 501
Joint family homes, 529–530, 726
Judges—
District Court, 47, 195
High Court, 47, 195, 196, 919–920
Judiciary, 266–268, 920
Juries, 267–268
Justice, 173, 189, 266–285, 324
Department of, 173, 209, 240, 266, 268, 270, 279, 328, 650, 713, 925, 1003
Juvenile delinquency, 186, 188, 189, 280–282, 287

K

Kapuni gasfield, 535, 538, 540, 549, 555
Karitane hospitals, 158, 164
Kauri, 394, 438, 439
Kermadec Islands, 3, 321, 958
Kindergartens, 91, 202, 204, 205, 207, 209, 210, 232
Kiwifruit, 21, 234, 419, 425–427, 612, 613, 625
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 493, 501
Korea, relations with, 565, 599, 603, 619, 621, 622, 625, 627, 628
Kraft paper and cardboard, exports of, 613, 614, 626

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 156–158
Labour—
Department of, 91, 102, 105–107, 141, 144, 145, 150, 153, 173, 174, 219, 231, 240, 388, 409, 534, 650, 714, 863, 867, 883, 925, 1004
projections, 820
force, 491–499, 506–507, 508, 509, 817–820, 833–838, 875–878, 947, 960, 983–984
projections, 820
Lactose, 404
Lakes, 8–9, 261, 304, 307, 310, 320, 547–549
Lamb—
exported, 31, 563–565, 572, 573, 578, 596–598, 600, 612, 613, 622, 670, 672, 673, 952, 993
London prices for meat, 578
production, 393–396, 402, 403, 405, 406, 430–431
retail price of, 654, 656
Lambs—
slaughtered, 407
Land—
capital value of, 330
classification by farm types, 396, 397, 399, 400
Crown, 316–318
development, 301–331, 659, 693
public, 316–323
recreational, 306–307
Settlement Board, 316, 317–318, 934
settlement promotion, 736
surveys, 323–324
tax, 719, 726, 999
tenure, 316–318, 324–328
transfers, 324–328, 956, 1006
use, 301–331, 710, 714, 716, 1000
Use Advisory Council, 303, 304
Valuation Court (see High Court)
valuation of, 328–331, 738
Lands and Survey, Department of, 240, 308, 315–318, 320, 322–324, 388, 400, 520, 714, 792, 925, 1004
Landslips and landslip claims, 813, 961
Latin America, relations with, 36, 40, 599, 621, 623, 624, 696, 701, 702
Law (see Legislation)—
and order, 266–285, 710, 713, 716, 945, 1000, 1003
and the family, 267, 283–285
publications, 965–966
Reform Council, 266
Lawn mowers, 510, 655
Lead and zinc, 474, 475
Leasehold land holdings, 316, 317, 326, 328, 396
Leather and leather products, 494, 501, 507, 614, 617, 631
Legal aid, 187–188, 283
Legal profession, 746
Legal tender, 775
Legislation, 50
civil aviation, 375
in force in January 1983, 913–919
Legislative, 28, 43–49, 713, 1003
Letters, etc., posted, 382, 383, 948
Libraries, census of, 249–252
Library school, 249
Library services, 247–252, 742, 908
Licences—
air service, 375
drivers', 388
import, 607
motor-vehicle, 365, 366, 372
publicans', 905
restaurants, hotels, taverns, clubs, etc., 905
television, 655
transport, 367–368, 373
Licensing—
authorities (road services), 367–368
Control Commission (liquor), 904, 933, 960
trusts, 906
Licensing of—
goods and passenger services, 367–368
motor vehicles, 365–368
Life, expectation of, 124–125
Life insurance, 766, 810
Life tables, 124–125
Lighthouse service, 351–352
Lignite, 470, 471, 487, 544
Lime—
for agriculture, 412–414
industry, 496, 503
Limestone, 467, 468, 479, 481, 484
Linseed, 424
Liquid Fuels Trust Board, 539, 544, 545
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 468, 486, 487, 538, 541, 543, 544, 557
Liquor consumption, 263–264
Liquor licensing, 904–906
Livestock, 236–238, 407, 415–417, 430–436, 957, 960
Loans—
Account, 709, 715–716, 718, 736
allocation of, 736
by building societies, 798–800
by finance companies, 773–774
dates of maturity, 737
domicile of, 955
farm, 789–792
hospital boards, 163–164
housing, 520, 526–528, 774, 788–789, 793–797
of local government, 743–744
overseas, 712, 715, 733–735, 737, 955
Redemption Account, 710, 712, 716, 718, 736, 1002
redemption of, 712
rural bank, 790–793
Local Authorities Loans Board, 743, 744
Local authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local broadcasting, 253
Local Government, 53–56
advances to, 520, 527–528
Commission, 53, 55, 56, 65, 960
debt of, 743–744, 756, 772
districts, 53–54, 67, 74
employees of, 829
expenditure of, 740–742
finance of, 362–364, 374, 738–745, 789, 796, 797, 804, 807, 809, 811, 1005
franchise, 56
health and welfare responsibilities of, 142, 143
housing by, 520, 521, 527, 528
investment pool, 198–199
number of local authorities, 54–55
powers of, 53–56, 375
rates, 738, 740, 741
regions, 65
revenue of, 362–364, 374, 740, 741, 1005
roading of, 360, 362, 364, 365, 718
schemes, 54–55
subsidies and grants to, 322, 362–364, 374, 520, 527, 528, 718, 741, 742, 1005
subsidised work with, 823–824, 985
superannuation, 198, 199
urban transport operated by, 374
voting, 56
Locomotives, 355
Logging, 439, 443, 447, 451–453, 454, 934
Lotteries, 241
duty on, 720
grants, 159, 241, 243, 244, 261, 264–265
Lubricants and fuels, imports of, 992–993
Lucerne, 425, 612, 614

M

Machinery—
accidents, 879–880, 882
electrical, 498, 505, 507
exports, 613, 615
imports of, 349, 632, 636, 638–640
industry, 497, 505, 507
price index of, 660
Mail, 382, 383, 948
air, 376–379, 382–383
Maize, 419, 421, 422, 612, 613
Manganese ore, 474, 478
Manufacturing Development Council, 490
Manufacturing industries, 482–513, 657, 658, 684, 689–693, 746, 761, 774, 803, 950, 989
census of, 491–511, 989–990
coal consumed in, 467, 470, 472, 473
economic indicators, 511–513, 989
employment districts, 509–510
export earnings, 780
geographical distribution, 508–510
hours worked, 989
index of prices, 656–658
net profit, 803
overseas investment in, 703–704
persons engaged in, 491–499, 506–509, 819, 950, 989–990
wages in, 491–499, 508, 509, 512, 513, 950, 989, 990
women employed in, 492–499, 508, 509
Maori (see also Maoris)—
admissions to psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals, 165
Affairs, Department of, 91–93, 95, 173, 261, 322, 328, 400, 520, 714, 925–926, 1004
Appellate Court, 94
birth rate, 113, 114
community officers, Maori and Pacific Island, 93–94
community services programme, 93–94
Council, 93, 322
Council for Maori and South Pacific Arts, 244
death rates, 121–123, 130–131
education, 90–91, 211–213, 214, 218
Education Foundation, 89–90, 933
electorates, 48, 51–52, 906
housing, 92, 99
labour force, 88–89
Land Advisory Committees, 94
Land Board, 94
Land Court, 94, 195, 267, 268, 272
land, 26, 27, 94–95, 267, 325, 440, 550
language teaching, 211, 214, 218, 253
life expectancy, 125
Members of Parliament, 51–52, 958
population, 81, 84–95, 96, 97, 113
pre-employment classes, 91, 828–829
pupils, 90, 211–213
scholarships, 89–90, 222
Trustee, 95
unemployment, 88
wardens, 93
Women's Welfare League, 93
youths, trade training for, 828–829
Maoris (see also Maori)—
age distribution of, 87
births of, 113, 114
children attending schools, 90, 212, 213
deaths of, 113, 121–123, 130, 131
geographical distribution of, 86–87
history of, 25–27
household amenities, 92
incomes of, 89
infant mortality of, 130–131
natural increase of, 113
parliamentary representation of, 50
publications on, 967
Sex ratio of, 87
urbanisation of, 86
Maps and mapping, 324
mineral resources, 469, 475
rainfall, 18
Marginal land lending, 315
Marine pollution, 314, 352
Marital status, 75, 78–79, 136, 137
Maritime parks and reserves, 307, 321
Market gardens, 397, 398, 400, 419–420, 423, 424
Marketing, 563–595
Marriage guidance, 140
Marriages, 135–140
ages of persons marrying, 136, 137
celebrants of, 135, 137
dissolution of, 139–140
of minors, 135–138
rates, 135–138
Marsden Point Oil Refinery, 537, 545, 549, 550
Maternal deaths, 127, 132
Maternal welfare, 146, 155–157
Maternity—
benefits, 155–157
hospitals, 146, 155
leave, 864–865
Maui gasfield development, 467, 485–487, 535, 538, 540, 549, 550, 555, 961
Maui Development Ltd. (MDL), 538
Meat—
consumption of, 670, 672–673
Export Development Company, 565
export of, 350, 406, 563–565, 570, 572, 578, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–613, 615, 621–623, 672, 780, 952, 992, 993
export price index, 663
freezing and preserving industry, 27, 482, 492, 499, 761, 803
Industry Reserve Account, 580
Industry Research Institute, 235, 238, 314, 934
inspection of, 410
levy on, 565, 572, 573
marketing of, 564–565, 572, 573, 578–580
prices of, 578–580, 654, 656, 667
production, 393, 405–407, 410, 430, 432–435, 949–950
Meat Producers Board, New Zealand, 343, 406, 407, 409, 565, 572
Medical—
advertising, 142
benefits, 154–158, 175, 176
care societies, 184
Council, 151–152
practitioners, 746
research, 142, 151
Research Council, 147, 150, 151
services, 141–160
Members of Parliament, 44–45, 50, 51–52
salaries of, 44–45
superannuation of, 195–196
Mental—
diseases, 166–167
health services, 162, 164–167
Mercantile marine pensions, 192
Merchant banks, 774
Merchant navy qualifications, 351
Mercury, 474, 475
Mergers, 588–589
Metal products industry, 497, 504, 507, 513, 613–615, 617, 635, 636, 638, 639
production group (SNA), 685, 689–692, 694
Meteorological service, 14–15, 24, 299
observations for year, 21–24
Meteorology (see also Climate), 14–24
Methanol plant, 308, 538, 545, 961
Metrication, 898
Middle East—
relations with, 29–31, 40
trade with, 564, 565, 596, 597, 599–600, 604, 621–623, 633, 634
Migration, external, 58, 59, 99–104, 113, 891, 892, 944
ages of migrants, 102
internal, 82–83
occupations of migrants, 102–103
Mileage of—
railways, 353, 948
roads, 360
Mileage tax, 719, 1000, 1005
Milk—
Board, 572, 574, 575, 577, 578
consumption, 670, 672–673
dried and condensed, exports of, 612, 613, 624, 952, 993
dried and condensed, production of, 404, 430, 511
levy on, 574
marketing of, 405, 567–569, 574, 575, 577, 578
production and processing, 397–399, 404, 405, 410, 411, 492, 499
retail price of, 654, 656
subsidy, 575, 577, 578, 903
Milkfat, 404, 405, 576, 577, 949–950
Minerals and mineral products (non-metallic), 304, 310, 316, 467–481, 496, 503, 507, 513, 657, 658
imports of, 349, 629, 631, 638, 639
Miners' benefits, 175–178, 181
Mining and quarrying, 309, 310, 467, 468, 470, 472–481, 657, 658, 684, 689–693, 715, 736, 747, 761, 774, 866
accidents, 875, 958–959
census of, 478–481
persons engaged in, 473, 479, 819
State aid to, 477
value of production, 468, 481
Ministers of each Church, and marriages by, 138
Ministers of the Crown, 43–46, 50–51
Minors, marriages of, 135–138
Molybdenum, 474, 475
Monarch, the, 46
Monetary policy, 755–756, 763–767
Money orders, 383, 948
Money supply, 762–763
Mortgages, 526, 527, 531, 772, 786–789, 807, 809, 811, 956, 987–988, 1006
building societies, 527, 798–800
Housing Corporation, 526, 527, 788, 789, 793–797
rates of interest on, 787, 788, 797, 956
Rural Bank (RBFC), 789–792
sources of finance, 788, 789
Mothers—
ages of, 117–119
in ex-nuptial cases, 119
issue of, 117–118
Motor cycles, 366–368, 370, 372, 498, 505
Motor spirits—
imports of, 349, 992–993
price of, 655, 656
taxation on, 332, 646, 711, 717, 719, 721, 999, 1001, 1005
usage, 366
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 127, 132, 133, 878, 879, 880
assembly of, 498, 505
drivers' licences, 365, 366, 372
finance for, 774
imports of, 348, 349, 632, 636–640, 992–993
inspection of, 371
numbers of, 365–367
index of prices, 659
registration and licensing of, 365–366, 388
taxation, 365
value of hire purchase sales, 587–588, 991
Motorways, 360, 361, 364
Mount Cook Airlines, 374
Mountaineering, 896, 971
Mountains, 4–6, 10, 11, 262, 320, 440
Multiple births, 116
Murder, 132, 133, 170, 267, 272, 280, 287
Museums, 218, 243–246
Mussels, 455, 457, 458, 460, 461, 463
Mutton—
consumption of, 670, 672
exported, 563–565, 572, 579, 672, 673, 952, 993
produced, 405
retail prices of, 654
Mutual Assistance Programme (defence), 298

N

Naphtha, 535, 537, 555
Narcotics (see also Drugs), 144
Nassella tussock boards, 55, 934
National—
accounts, 676–691
Advisory Council on the Employment of Women, 109
Anthems, 909
Archives, 246, 925
Art Gallery and Museum, 243–246, 925
Acoustics Centre, 145
Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, 150
Council of Adult Education, 201, 933
disposable income, 676, 679, 720, 955
Development Act 1979, 306, 308
development bonds, 723, 770
Drug Intelligence Bureau, 144, 287
Film Library, 214, 218
Health Institute, 151
Health Statistics Centre, 150
Housing Commission, 516, 534
Library of New Zealand, 203, 217, 247–248, 249–251, 279, 908
Licensing Poll, 907
Marriage Guidance Council, 140
parks, 307, 318–320, 322, 323, 438
Parks and Reserves Authority, 307, 318, 934
planning, 304, 306, 332–333
Provident Fund, 194, 197–199, 388, 935
Radiation Laboratory, 145
Research Advisory Council, 239, 293, 450, 936
Roads Board, 55, 361–363, 364, 374, 388, 742, 934
Roads Fund, 361–365, 646, 709, 717–718, 719–721, 1005
superannuation, 175–177, 179–180, 182–184, 194, 197, 198, 723, 961
Trust, Queen Elizabeth the Second, 322–323
Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO), 311–312
Youth Council, 261
Natural gas, 234, 467, 468, 479, 480, 486, 535–540, 549, 553, 555–559, 961
Natural Gas Corporation, 538, 555, 556, 736
Natural increase of population, 57, 58, 62, 113–140, 944
Natural resources, 301, 302, 304, 309, 437–439, 467–481, 487
Nature Conservation Council, 309
Nature reserves, 321
Nautical schools, 351
Navigational aids, air, 375–376
Netherlands, immigration from, 102, 104, 106
New Zealand—
Aluminium Smelters Ltd., 484
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 428, 429, 573, 574
area of, 3–4, 303
Army, 292, 293, 296, 299
Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 35, 596, 597, 600, 644, 961
Authors' Fund, 243
books, 963–976
boundaries of, 3–4
constitution, 26, 28, 42–47
Council for Educational Research, 229
Council for Recreation and Sport, 323
Dairy Board, 343, 404, 405, 567, 568, 572, 580
Energy Research and Development Committee, 539, 544
Export-Import Corporation, 609, 715, 736, 935
Film Commission, 244, 265, 936
Fire Service, 289–290
Forest Products Ltd., 445, 447, 451, 484, 488
Forest Service, 260, 299, 307, 308, 310, 318, 320, 322, 324, 439–443, 447, 450, 451, 742, 923, 1004
Government Stock, 757, 764, 765, 768, 770, 772, 773
Historic Places Trust, 243, 244, 925, 935
in the Commonwealth, 29–30, 31, 36
international relations, 28–41
Japan Exchange Programme, 231
Listener, 253, 255
Literary Fund, 243, 244
Lottery Board, 244, 261, 264–265, 925, 935
Meat Producers Board, 343, 565, 572, 579, 580, 934
Milk Board, 405, 572, 574, 575, 577, 578, 580, 934
Mountain Safety Council, 261
Planning Council, 332–333
Police (see police)
population (see population)
Ports Authority, 343
Railways. 145, 241, 299, 353–359, 367, 575, 926
register of shipping, 345–346
representation overseas, 936–939
Standard Industrial Classification, 338, 400, 415, 452, 491, 511, 513, 516, 556, 581, 584, 681, 875
Steel Development Ltd., 715, 736
Steel Ltd., 467, 473, 484, 736, 962
System of National Accounts (NZSNA), 465, 656, 676–694, 846
Water and Soil Conservation Organisation, 310, 311
Water Safety Council, 261
Wheat Board, 421, 934
Wool Board, 343, 400, 408–409, 414, 565, 573, 575, 576, 580, 934, 961
Newspapers, 256–257
Newsprint—
exports of, 450, 613, 614, 628, 953
imports of, 450
production, 445, 446, 450, 484, 487, 904
Niue Island, 14, 32–34, 40, 59, 102, 195, 218, 253, 344, 383, 384, 386, 387, 490, 598, 601, 603, 619, 620
Noise control, 143, 308
Non-ferrous metals industries, 497, 504, 507
Noxious animals and weeds, 441, 442, 743
Nurseries, plant, etc., 397, 398, 400
Nursing and nurses, 142, 145, 146, 148–150, 152, 155–157, 159

O

Oats, 419, 420, 421, 422, 671, 949
Occupational—
diseases, 145
health, 144–145
safety, 883–884
therapy and therapists, 142, 150, 153, 159, 161, 162
Occupational classification of—
bankrupts, 902–903
deceased persons' estates, 730–731
migrants, 102–103
population, 88–89, 830, 833–836, 982–983
Occupied land, 303
Official Development Assistance (ODA), 39–41
Official information, 911–913
Offshore Mining Co., 538
Oil—
consumption, 535–538, 539–541, 553
drilling and prospecting, 467–469, 478–480, 537–539, 541, 961
exports of, 536
imports of, 31, 349, 535–537, 539, 629, 631, 633, 634, 638, 639, 992–993
production, 536, 540, 541
refinery, 484–485, 496, 503, 535, 537, 540, 541
usage, 535, 536, 537–538, 540, 545
Oils and fats, vegetable, 493, 500
Old peoples' homes, 159–161
Ombudsmen (Parliamentary Commissioners), 47–48, 898, 913
Onions, 420, 423, 424, 654, 671, 673
exports of, 612, 614
Opossum farming, 236, 238, 434
Optometrists and opticians, 153, 159, 655
Orchards, 395, 398, 411, 419, 420, 426–427, 428, 429
Orchestras, 244, 253, 255
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 30, 39, 232, 239, 241, 248, 308, 567, 696, 701, 702, 961
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 31
Orphans benefits, 176–178, 180, 183, 190
Orthopaedic implants (for medical disabilities), 157
Outpatients, hospital, 162
Outward Bound School, 260
Overseas—
Access Service for Information Services (OASIS), 247–252, 386
Aid Programme, 39–41, 231
companies, 702–704, 749–751, 801
debt (see Public debt)
exchange transactions, 757, 777, 778–783, 1006–1007
Investment Commission, 487
investments in New Zealand, 487, 695, 698, 700–705, 749–751, 782, 783
investments by New Zealand, 695, 698–700, 701, 705, 712
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 608, 936–942
reserves (banks), 777, 1007
securities, 778, 782–783, 954
students, 207, 222, 223, 231
telecommunications, 385–387
trade, 563–580, 596–647, 935, 951–953, 992–993
travel allowances, 781
Oysters, 455–458, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464

P

Pacific Forum Line, 34, 344
Pacific Island—
community officers, 93–94
community services programme, 93–94
Pacific Island Polynesians—
age distribution of, 96
Education Foundation, 90
dwellings of, 98–99
geographical distribution, 96
households, 99
incomes of, 98
labour force, 97–98
parliamentary representation of, 50
population, 95–99
unemployment, 97
urbanisation of, 96
Pacific Islands—
Industrial Development Scheme (PUDS), 490
Pacific orientation, 33–34, 39–41
Paint and varnish industry, 489, 495, 503, 525
Paper and paper products industry, 484, 487, 495, 502, 507, 511, 513, 657, 658, 684, 689–693
Paper and pulp—
export of, 351, 599, 610, 612, 614, 626–628, 953
Parents—
ages of, 116–117
births to, by duration of marriages, 118
previous issue of, 117–118
solo, 175–179, 180, 183, 184
Parliament, 43–52, 266, 907, 957–959
members of, 906
term of, 49
Parliamentary—
elections, 43, 46, 48–49, 906–907
functions and controls, 28, 43–49
representation, 50
salaries, 44–45
Parole system and boards, 279–280
Particle board, 443, 447, 448, 525
Passenger services—
railway, 354–355, 948
road, 365–367
urban, local authority, 374
Passengers—
commercial aircraft, 376–379
overseas, 99–101, 107, 891–894
railway, 948
Passports, 107
Patents, designs, trade marks, 899
Patients—
in psychiatric hospitals, 162, 164–167
in public hospitals, 162, 167–171
Paua, 457, 461, 462
PAYE taxation, 722, 960
Payments, balance of (see Balance of payments)
Pears, 420, 426, 428–429
consumption of, 671, 673
export of, 952–953
marketing of, 573–574
Peas, 420–423, 654, 949
export of, 351, 612, 614
Peat wax, 476
Penal institutions and system, 268–270, 276–280
Pensions—
social welfare, 174–184
Perinatal mortality, 130–131
Periodic detention, 269, 272, 273
Perlite, 468, 476
Permanent heads of departments, 920–921
Permits, building, 521–524
Personal and household services, 583
Personal safety, 868–884
Pest destruction boards, 740, 741, 744
Pests and pesticides, 233, 236–237, 314, 380, 381, 401, 411–413, 434, 441, 442, 495, 502
Petrochemical Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrochem), 538, 715, 736, 935
Petroleum (see also Motor spirit, Oil)—
Demand Restraint Regulations, 540–541
exports of, 612–614
imports of, 631, 633, 638, 639
industry, 234, 467, 468, 478–480, 487, 496, 503, 507, 537–541, 657, 658
price of, 655
products, 348, 537, 992–993
Pharmaceutical benefits, 155, 158, 176
Pharmaceutical chemists, 154, 158
Pharmaceuticals, manufacturing of, 495, 503
Phosphate rock, 476, 634, 637, 639
Physical medicine, 150
Physical welfare and recreation, 896
Physiotherapists, 142, 150, 153, 156, 159, 161, 162
Physiotherapy benefits, 156, 158
Pigmeats, 573, 672, 673
consumption of, 670, 672
prices of, 654, 656
production of, 402, 403, 405–407, 434
Pigs, 407, 431, 432, 434, 949
Pipfruit, 419, 425, 426, 428, 429, 671
Planning—
Council, New Zealand, 332–333
district, 303–305
maritime, 303–306
national, 304, 306, 332–333
regional, 303, 304, 325
town and country, 54–56, 303–306, 309, 313
Tribunal, 304, 306
Plantations, timber, 437–445
Plastics industry, 496, 503, 507
Platinum, 474
Play centres, 202, 204, 205, 207, 210, 232
Plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers, registration of, 142, 153
Plunket Society, 146, 159
Plywood and veneer, 443, 447, 448, 494, 501, 525
Podiatrists, 153, 159
Poetry publications, 971–972
Poisons and poisoning, 144, 145, 169, 171
Police, 144, 186, 235, 268, 286–288, 290, 299, 369, 375, 388, 713, 840, 866, 926, 929, 982, 1003
superannuation, 195–196
youth aid section, 186, 187
Poliomyelitis, 142, 146, 167
Political parties, 27–29, 43, 44, 906–907
Polling at general elections, 906–907
Pollution—
air, 143, 309, 314, 315
land, 313, 314
marine, 314, 352
water, 314
Polynesian Community Services Programme, 93–94
Population (see also Census), 27, 57–112, 944, 982–984, 985
age distribution, 75, 80–81, 87, 96
birthplaces of, 81–82
density of, 73–74
distribution of, 62–74, 86–87, 96
ethnic groups, 81–82
growth, 58, 70, 113
increases, 57, 58, 60–65, 85, 86, 95, 113, 944
intercensal estimates, 59–60, 63–70, 944
international comparisons, 60, 83–84
Maori, 81, 84–95
Polynesian, 81, 84–99
projections, 61–62
sex proportions of, 73, 87
shipboard, 65, 69
urbanisation of, 70–74, 86–87, 96
vital statistics, 113–140
world, 83–84
Pork (see Pigmeats)
Pork Industry Council, 573, 934
Port Agriculture Service, 411–412
Portfolios of Ministers, 50
Ports—
exports by, 628
fishing, 458–459
imports by, 642
of arrival and departure, 346–351
shipping and trade of, 445
Post Office, 241, 255, 340, 381–389, 710, 714, 717, 736, 737, 866, 926, 929, 948, 987
employees, 388
superannuation of, 195–196
Savings Bank, 526, 755, 763, 765, 766, 768, 769–770, 791, 956
Postal notes, 384
Potato Board, 574, 934
Potatoes, 420, 423–424, 612, 613, 654, 949
consumption of, 671, 673
Pottery, china, and earthenware industry, 235, 496, 503, 507, 934
Poultry, 397, 398, 400, 402, 403, 411, 431, 435, 492, 499, 575, 654, 670, 672, 673
Power stations (electricity), 473, 537, 547–550, 552–553
Pregnancy, diseases of, etc., 147, 169
Pre-release hostels, 279
Pre-school education, 202, 205, 207, 209, 210, 215, 232
Preventive detention, 268, 270, 272, 273, 275–280
Price control, 648–650
Price Surveillance Regulations 1979, 649
Prices, 648–665, 946, 993–997
capital expenditure index, 996–997
index of, 993
consumer, 651–656, 946, 947
index of, 993
export, 576, 946
export, indexes of, 662–665, 946
farming costs index, 660–662
import, indexes of, 662–665, 946
producers, index of, 656–658, 995
retail, 651–655, 993–995
share, index of, 946, 947
stabilisation of, 648–650
Primary products—
consumption of, 670–671, 673
export of, 596–600, 606, 609, 611–615, 620–625, 672, 673, 951–953
research on, 234, 236–238, 240, 241
Primary schools, 200–205, 207, 209, 210–212, 215, 217, 218, 228, 232, 945
Prime Minister's Department, 713, 926, 1003
Principal events, 957–962
Printing and publishing industry, 495, 502, 507, 803
Prison service superannuation, 195–196
Prisons and prisoners, 269, 275, 276–280, 945
Parole Board, 268, 270, 279, 280
Private—
forests, 437, 442–443, 445, 446
hospitals, 155, 158, 160–162, 164
savings banks, 526, 527, 755, 758, 763, 765, 767, 768, 770, 775, 791
schools, 201, 202, 203, 205, 207, 212, 213–215, 217, 218, 232, 945
superannuation funds, 766
Privy Council, 47
Probation of offenders, 189, 268–269, 270, 272, 273, 276, 279–281
Producers price index, 656–658, 846, 995
Production—
accounts, 681–688
building materials, 525, 949–950
clothing, 494, 501, 507, 510, 513
dairy, 492, 499, 500, 511, 949–950
farm, 233, 235–238, 240, 241, 400–408
fisheries, 456–457, 458, 462, 463
index numbers of, 403, 708
manufacturing industries, 482–513, 950
meat, 393, 405–407, 410, 430, 432–435, 949–950
pulp and paper, etc., 445–447, 449, 450, 484, 487, 495, 502, 507, 511
wheat, 420, 421, 422
wool, 407, 486, 493, 500, 510, 949–950
Projections—
labour force, 820
population, 61–62
school population, 207
Propane, 555
Provident funds, 194–199
Psychiatric health and hospitals, 155, 162, 164–167, 189, 209
Psychological services (to prisoners), 279
Public—
accounts, 247, 709–718, 999–1005
external, 712, 715, 733–735, 737, 1002
interest on, 712, 735
internal, 712, 715, 733, 734, 737, 1002
administration, publications, 964–965
external, 712, 715, 733–735, 737, 1002
interest on, 712, 735
internal, 712, 715, 733, 734, 737, 1002
debt, 711–712, 715, 732–737, 756, 955, 1002
external, 712, 715, 733–735, 737, 1002
interest on, 712, 735
internal, 712, 715, 733, 734, 737, 1002
finance (see State finance)
health, 141–160
holidays, 908
hospitals, 161–163, 167–171
lands, 316–323
Public Service, 195–196, 930–931, 959
employees, 91, 830, 929, 931
Public Trust Office, 95, 388, 900–901, 926, 958
Public works, 27, 28
railway construction, 354
road construction, 360, 362–365, 714, 715, 736, 742
Pulp and paper—
export and import of, 448–450, 599, 610, 612, 614, 626–628, 953
industry, 445–447, 472, 484, 487, 495, 502, 511, 761
Pumice, 468

Q

Quarries, 467–469, 479, 480
persons engaged in, 479
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 243, 244, 265, 322–323, 936
Queen Elizabeth II National Trust, 934

R

Rabbit farming, 236, 238
Race relations, 898
Racing taxation, 719, 731–732
Radiata pine, 438, 439, 443, 447, 450, 597, 612, 614
Radio—
advertising, 253–255
New Zealand, 218, 252, 253
private, 252, 254
time signals, 907
Radio and television, 252–256
and radio-telephone services, 387
Radioactivity, protection against, 143, 145
Radiology and radiographers, 145, 155–156, 159
Railway equipment, imports of, 637, 638, 640
Railways, 241, 338, 340, 353–359. 367, 710, 715, 717, 736, 866, 903, 926, 929, 948, 958–960, 962, 1003
accidents, 358, 960, 962
air freight service, 354
capital expenditure on, 357
employees, 358
goods traffic, 355, 948
licensing protection, 367
motive power, 355–356
passenger services, 354–355, 948
private, 358
revenue and expenditure, 355–359, 948
road-rail ferry service, 344, 353, 354, 356–358, 960–961
road services, 357, 359
rolling stock, 354
superannuation, 195–196
Rainfall, 16–18
Raoul Island, 3–4
Rates, local government, 738, 740, 741
valuation for, 328–330
Rates of exchange, 742–743
Re-afforestation, 310, 440
Real Disposable Income Index, 843–845, 999
Real estate and business services, 589, 590–594
Real gross domestic product, 706–707
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 644–646
Records (gramophone), 510
Recreation, 8, 441, 896
Recreation and Sport, Ministry of, 244, 260–265, 925
Recreation reserves, 322
Recreational accidents, 873, 881
Recreational and cultural services, 592, 594, 595
Recreational land, 306–307
Redundancy, 841
Re-exports, 610, 629
Refinery, oil, 348, 496, 503
Refrigerators, 613, 615, 655
Refugees, 106
Regional—
Authority, 54, 740, 741, 744
Councils, 54–55, 304, 306
development, 489
government, 54–55
planning, 54–56, 303, 304, 325
schemes, 54, 55
water boards, 311
Registrars, marriages before, 135, 138
Registration of—
adopted children, 120
apprentices, 827–829
births, 114, 116, 120, 388
child care centres, 185
companies, 956
deaths, 126, 388
dental technicians, 152, 932
dentists, 152
dietitians, 153, 932
electors, 49
employers' unions, 857, 859
ex-nuptial births, 119–120
friendly societies, 184
land titles, 324–328
marriages, 135, 388
medical practitioners, 151–152
mortgages, 786–789, 956
motor vehicles, 365–367
nurses, 152
occupational therapists, 153, 932
opticians, 153, 932
optometrists, 153
patents, designs and trademarks, 899
pharmaceutical chemists, 154, 932
physiotherapists, 153, 932
plumbers, 153–154
podiatrists, 153
still births, 121
Rehabilitation, 150, 190, 796, 869
League, 150
Religious professions, 79–80
Rental cars, 365
Rental units, Housing Corporation, 516, 520, 521, 522, 525, 529
Rents, 401, 521, 527–529, 531, 534, 556, 557
Representation Commission, 48
Representatives, House of, 43–47, 51–52, 957, 958
Reproduction index, 115–116
Research—
agricultural, 233, 235–238, 240, 241
coal, 467, 470–472, 478
energy, 234–236, 240, 241, 539, 544
environmental, 234–236, 239–241, 310, 315
expenditure, 240, 241
fertilisers, 236, 237
fishery, 459, 463
forestry, 450–451
geothermal, 234
grassland and grasses, 233, 236–238
industrial, 234–236, 240, 241
manufacturing, 234–236, 240, 490
medical, 142, 151
scientific and industrial, 233–242
soil, 233, 236–238
wool, 233, 235, 239, 408
Reserve Account, 710, 714, 718, 1005
Reserve Bank, 241, 388, 409, 579, 699, 755–758, 759, 762, 765–768, 773–775, 777, 778, 781–783, 801, 892, 959
assets and liabilities, 757–758
lending rate, 766
Reserves—
farm industry, 580
historic, 320, 321
nature, 321
overseas (banks), 777
public or scenic, 320–322
wildlife, 321
Resource conservation, 487–488
Resource Recovery Grants Scheme, 488
Restaurants and hotels, 583, 657, 658, 685, 689–692, 694
Retail prices, 651, 654, 655, 993–995
index numbers, 651–654
Retail and wholesale trade—
quarterly surveys, 584, 585–587, 990–992
salaries and wages, 581–584
Retailers, bank advances to, 761
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 255
Customs, 1001
electric power, 553, 555
Government (see Government finance)
local government, 362–364, 374, 740, 741, 1005
Rimu, 438, 439, 445
River boards, 55
Rivers, 6–8, 304, 311, 320, 440, 547–549
control of, 311, 313–314
Road—
accidents, 127, 132, 133, 170, 878, 879, 880
districts, 362
safety, 371, 372, 374
services, 374
transport, 338–340, 359–374, 559, 575
user charges, 273, 274, 362, 717, 1005
Roads, 338–240, 359–374
expenditure on, 360, 361–365, 714, 717–718, 742, 1005
subsidies on, 1005
taxation, 361, 362, 709, 711, 717, 720, 721, 1000, 1001, 1005
Rock lobsters, 456, 457, 458, 459–461, 462
exports of, 458, 462, 612, 613
Ross Dependency, 3–4, 303, 387, 889–890, 934, 959
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 292, 293, 297–298, 299
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 295
Royal New Zealand Navy, 292, 293, 294–295, 299
Royal Society of New Zealand, 318
Rubber and rubber products, 496, 503, 507, 630, 631, 633, 634, 637–639
Rural—
Banking and Finance Corporation, 312, 315, 460, 466, 714, 715, 736, 737, 769, 789–794, 926, 1004
education, 214–215, 216
Electrical Reticulation Council, 551, 743
housing, 520, 528
mail deliveries, 382
population, 71–73
Resource Development Zones, 791
Ryegrass, 425

S

Safety of—
ships, 866
workers, 864–866, 868–884
Salaries and wages, 997–998
in building industry, 517, 518
effective, 851–852
minimum, 840, 852
nominal, 846–849
prevailing, 849–851
in farming, 416–418
effective, 851–852
minimum, 840, 852
nominal, 846–849
prevailing, 849–851
in fishing, 464, 466
effective, 851–852
minimum, 840, 852
nominal, 846–849
prevailing, 849–851
in gas industry, 556–558
effective, 851–852
minimum, 840, 852
nominal, 846–849
prevailing, 849–851
in manufacturing industries, 491–499, 508, 509, 512, 513, 950
effective, 851–852
minimum, 840, 852
nominal, 846–849
prevailing, 849–851
in mining and quarrying, 479, 480
effective, 851–852
minimum, 840, 852
nominal, 846–849
prevailing, 849–851
in retail and wholesale trade, 581–584
effective, 851–852
minimum, 840, 852
nominal, 846–849
prevailing, 849–851
rates, 997–998
effective, 851–852
minimum, 840, 852
nominal, 846–849
prevailing, 849–851
Salaries of members of Executive Council, and House of Representatives, 44–45
Sales tax, 542, 646, 711, 714, 959, 999, 1001
Salmon farming, 462–463
Salt, 468, 477, 654
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 441
Sand and gravel, 348, 467–469, 474, 475, 477, 479–481
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 440
Sanitary services, 589, 591, 593, 594
Satellite communications, 386
Sausage casings, export of, 610, 612, 614, 626, 953
Sausage casings, production of, 492, 499
Savings—
banks, 526, 755, 762, 763, 765, 766, 767, 768–772, 775, 956
deposits with, 768–772
interest accredited, 768–771
Sawmills, etc., 443, 445–447, 494, 501
Sawn timber production, 444–445, 446, 448, 449, 487, 525
Scallops, 456, 457, 461, 462
Scenic reserves, 320
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 89–90, 222
university, 208, 213, 219, 220, 222, 223, 229
School—
buildings, 201, 203–205
ages of, 211–212
duration of attendance, 91, 213, 982–983
intended occupations of, 91, 214
roll numbers of, 200, 202, 204, 205–206, 207, 209–210, 211, 212, 215, 230, 945
transport and boarding allowances, 215
Certificate, 90, 207–208, 212, 213, 229, 230
ages of, 211–212
duration of attendance, 91, 213, 982–983
intended occupations of, 91, 214
roll numbers of, 200, 202, 204, 205–206, 207, 209–210, 211, 212, 215, 230, 945
transport and boarding allowances, 215
children, 201, 202, 205, 207–208
ages of, 211–212
duration of attendance, 91, 213, 982–983
intended occupations of, 91, 214
roll numbers of, 200, 202, 204, 205–206, 207, 209–210, 211, 212, 215, 230, 945
transport and boarding allowances, 215
committees, 201
dental service, 142, 148–149, 156
Library Service, 217, 248, 249, 250, 252
publications, 218–219
teachers (see Teachers)
Schools—
correspondence, 201, 205–207, 210, 212, 215, 218, 230, 248
curricula, 201, 202, 207–208, 210–212, 214, 218, 229
denominational, 202, 232
free textbooks for, 211, 217, 218
intermediate, 205, 207, 210, 211, 212
pharmacy, 154
primary, 200–205, 207, 209, 210–212, 215, 217, 218, 228, 232, 945
private, 201, 202, 203, 205, 207, 212, 213–215, 217, 218, 232, 945
secondary, 201–209, 211, 212–213, 228, 230, 232, 945
sizes of classes, 212
special, 203, 209–210, 213
State, 201–203, 205, 207, 210–215, 217–219, 945
technical, 201–208, 225–228, 230
Science and scientific services, 233–242
budget, 240–241
publications dealing with, 967–968
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 144, 233–236, 238–240, 293, 310, 314, 424, 451, 476–478, 542, 714, 890, 907, 926–927, 1004
Search and rescue operations, 288, 297, 299
Secondary education (see Schools, secondary, above)
Securities Commission, 801
Securities, Government, 757, 764, 765, 768, 770, 772, 773, 797
Security Intelligence Service, 299–300, 713, 1003
Seed certification, 424
Seed sowing, aerial, 381
Seeds, grass and clover, 422, 425
exported, 952–953
Seismic regions, 12–13
Seismology, 12–14
Self-employed, incomes of, 746
Separation, marital, 75, 78–79, 139, 267, 283–285
Serpentine, 468, 476
Service-coach licences, 366, 367
Services, census of, 159–160, 232, 257, 589–595
Services, community and business, 453, 746, 747, 749, 819
Services, personal and household, 583, 589–595, 746, 747, 749, 819
Sex proportions in population, 73, 87
Sexual offences, 272, 273, 277, 281, 287, 288
Share prices, index numbers of, 665, 946–947
Shearers' wage rates and amenities, 865
Sheep, 236, 237, 430, 432, 433, 949
and lambs slaughtered, 407
farming, 393–400, 402, 403, 405–409, 413, 414, 430–432, 433, 746, 760, 949
skins and pelts exported (see also Hides), 598, 609, 612, 614, 616, 626
Sheepmeats, marketing of (see also Mutton, Lamb), 563–565, 571–573, 578–580, 596–599, 612, 613, 622
Sheetmetal-working industry, 497, 504
Shellfish, export of, 458, 462
Ship building and repairing, 498, 505
Shipping, 342–353, 458, 459, 575
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, 343, 345, 715, 736, 933, 961
Ships and boats, imports of, 637, 638, 640
Shooting and hunting, 896
Shops, 581, 584, 587
trading hours, 865
Sickness benefits, 176–179, 182, 183
Silica, 468, 474
Silver, 468, 474, 475
Sixth Form Certificate, 90, 208, 213, 229
Ski-ing, 896
Skim-milk powder, 404, 568, 569, 577, 599, 612, 613
Skins (see Hides, pelts and skins)
Small Business Agency, 489, 785
Small Claims Tribunals, 650
Smelter, aluminium, 484, 545, 548, 960–962
Smoking habits, 147–148
Snow, 6, 19, 22
Soap industry, 495, 503
Social Advisory Council, 333
Social and community Services, 589, 591–593, 595
Social sciences publications, 964–965
Social welfare, 173–189, 388, 959–960
and services, expenditure on, 175, 176–177, 193, 194, 711, 714, 717, 955, 1000, 1001
benefits, 154, 155, 158, 159, 174–184, 723
Department of, 106, 173–174, 175, 176, 184, 186, 189, 193, 194, 209, 240, 281–283, 927
reciprocity with other countries, 183
Soft drinks industry, 493, 500, 511
Soil conservation, 312, 314, 310, 311
Soil erosion, 313, 314, 440, 451
Soils, 233, 236–238, 393–396, 412
Solo parents, 175–179, 180, 183, 184, 191
South-east Asia, 31, 32, 39, 40, 293, 599, 603, 619–629, 633–637, 645, 646
South Pacific—
aid, 39–41
Bureau for Economic Co-operation, 33–34, 41, 889
Commission, 33–34, 889
Forum, 33–34, 597, 598, 645, 646
Medical Research Committee, 151
Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA), 34, 598, 645
relations with, 32–34, 39–41, 293
students from, 207, 223
trade training for youths from, 828–829
trade with, 598, 603, 619, 620, 644, 645
Southern Alps, 5, 6
Sovereignty, 26, 28, 29, 42, 43
Special Character Zones, 305
Special Drawing Rights (IMF), 696, 699, 758, 778, 779, 781, 783–784, 954
Special education, 203, 205, 207, 209–210, 213, 215
Special Employment Scheme, 231
Special work employees, 985
Speed limits, 371, 372
Spirits—
consumption of, 672
duty on, 646
imports of, 637
production of, 493, 500
Sports, 260–265, 896, 971
accidents, 873, 881
Squid, 456–458, 460, 461, 464, 597
Stamp duty, 720, 727, 1000
Standard International Trade Classification (SITC), 601, 602, 609, 629, 630, 643
Standard time, 907
Standards Association of New Zealand, 490, 900
Standards Council, 900
Standards of living, international, 903–904
State—
aid to private schools, 202, 203, 232
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
coal mines, 467, 468, 470–473, 487
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
departments (see Departments, Government)
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
finance, 176, 177, 680–683, 689–696, 698–702, 789–797, 954–955, 999–1008
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
forests, 307, 437–442, 446, 447
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
highways, 360–365, 718, 1005
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
housing, 516, 520–522, 525, 529, 788–789, 793–797
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
indebtedness, 732–737, 711, 712, 715, 955
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
insurance, 810–813, 868, 871, 927
accident and fire, 812, 958
earthquake and war damage, 812–813
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
schools, 201–203, 205, 207, 210–215, 217–219, 945
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
Services, 840, 866, 929–930
Commission, 240, 713, 930–931, 1003
housing, 529
wards, 188–189
Statistical—
areas, 259, 413, 418, 420, 421, 453, 454
area and population of, 63–72, 86, 87, 96
building industry by, 518
industrial production by, 508
livestock in, 432
mining and quarrying by, 480, 481
building permits, value of, 524
dwelling completions, 524
populations of, 63–65, 71
divisions—
building permits, value of, 524
dwelling completions, 524
populations of, 63–65, 71
publications, 979–980
summary, 943–956
Statistics, Department of, 713, 927, 1003
Statute of Westminster, 28, 43 266, 959
Statutes (see Legislation)
Statutory boards and committees, 931–936
Steel, imports and exports of, 612–614, 617, 631, 635, 636, 638, 639
Steel industry, 467, 468, 473, 475, 479, 480, 484, 486, 489, 496, 504, 507
Stewart Island, 3–4, 26, 70, 290, 320, 344
Still births, 114, 116, 117, 119, 121, 130
Stock and station agents, 761, 763, 772–773, 775, 803
Stock change by production group, 693–694
Stock, New Zealand Government, 757, 764, 765, 768, 770, 772, 773, 804, 807, 809, 811
Stone fruit, 425, 426, 671
Stoppages, industrial, 860–863, 947
Storage, 337–342
Students, 205–206, 207–217, 220–223, 226–228
overseas, 207, 222, 223, 231
projected, 207
teachers' college, 206, 207, 216–217, 222, 223, 228, 945
university, 945
Studentships, 216–217
Subscriber toll dialling (STD), 384, 386
Subsidies, 413–415, 678–680, 683–688
coal gas, 555, 556
employment, 825–826
reading, 362–364, 718, 1005
on electrical reticulation, 551
on milk, 575, 577, 578
to local government, 362–364, 374, 520, 527, 528, 718, 741, 742, 1005
to National Provident Fund, 198–199
Subtropical fruit, 419, 425–427
Sugar—
consumption of, 672, 904
imports of, 350, 630, 633, 637, 639
prices of, 655–656
production, 493, 500, 511
Suicide, 127, 133
Sulphur, 468, 469, 476
imports of, 638, 639
Sunshine, 20, 21–23, 896
Superannuation, 194–199
government, 194–197, 388, 712, 1002
national, 175–177, 179–180, 182–184, 194, 197, 198, 723, 961
of Members of Parliament, 195–196
private schemes, 766
Superphosphate, 412
Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme (SMP), 413, 414, 579, 580
Surveys—
land, 323–324
of shipping, 351
transport, 364
System of National Accounts (NZSNA), 676–694

T

Tallow, 350, 610, 613, 614, 625, 953
Tanning industry, 494, 501
Tariff, Customs, 643–647
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 445, 451, 484
Taxation (see individual taxes), 709, 711, 712, 717, 719–732, 954, 999, 1000, 1001, 1005
direct (see income tax, etc.), 719, 999, 1001
exemption from, 723
incentives, 725
indirect, 678–680, 682–688, 719, 720, 999–1001
of companies, 725, 747–749, 802
rates of, 724–726
rebates of, 723, 724
Review Authority, 728
system, 721–732
Taxicabs, 338, 340, 366, 368, 370, 371, 373
Tea, consumption of, 672, 904
retail price of, 654, 656
Teacher studentships, 216–217
Teachers, 200–202, 207, 209–211, 214–217, 222, 223, 228, 866, 933
colleges, 202, 204, 206, 207, 216–217, 218, 228, 250, 717, 945, 982
kindergarten, 207, 210, 216
primary and secondary school, 200, 207, 211, 216, 217
superannuation, 195–196
training of, 91, 200, 202, 203, 206, 207, 210, 214, 216–217, 222, 223, 228, 231
Technical Correspondence Institute, 201, 206, 225, 226, 228, 230, 443
Technical education, 91, 201–204, 206–208, 228, 250, 717, 945, 982
Technology, Central Institute of, 225, 228
Telecommunications, 385, 386–388, 948
Telegraph services, 385, 386, 387, 948
Telephones and telephone services, 92, 531, 948
Television and radio, 92, 252, 253, 254–255, 256, 384, 386, 387, 510, 531
assembly, 498, 505, 510
licences, 255, 256, 655
prices of sets, 655
value of sets on hire purchase, 588
Telex (teleprinter) services, 385, 386, 387
Temperature, 19, 20–23
Tenure—
of dwellings, 531, 789
of occupied land, 396
Terms of trade, 664, 946
Territorial Forces (Army), 296
Tetanus immunisation, 146
Textbooks in schools, free, 211, 217, 218
Textiles—
exports of, 616, 617, 992
imports of, 350, 630, 631, 634, 635, 638, 639
production of, 485, 486, 493, 500, 507, 510, 657, 658, 684, 689–693
Theft, 272, 273, 275, 277, 281, 287, 288
Therapeutic drugs, 143
Thermal activity, 4, 896
Thermal generation, 547, 549, 552
Thunderstorms, 18
Timber, 437–454, 494, 501, 525, 655, 949–950
exports of, 351, 448–450, 612, 614, 627, 953
imports of, 448–450
inspection of, 442
output, 949–950
plantations, 394, 396, 397
preservation of, 448, 494, 501
resources, 437–454
Timber Preservation Authority, 448
Time service (radio), 907
Tin, 474
Tobacco—
consumption of, 672
duty on, 999
household expenditure on, 666–668
imports of, 629, 630, 634, 637, 639
industry, 395, 398, 409, 411, 429, 493, 500, 507, 511
Tokelau, 14, 32, 33, 40, 59, 195, 218, 887–889, 959
Tomatoes, 423, 424, 671
Topdressing, 380, 381, 393, 394, 412, 414, 415, 417
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 262, 935
taxation, 731
turnover on, 731
Tourism, 99, 716, 891–897
Tourist—
and Publicity Department, 714, 893, 896–897, 927–928, 1004
Hotel Corporation, 715, 736, 894, 896
industry, 891–897
Town and country planning, 54–56, 303–306, 309, 313
Town districts, 53, 63, 67–68, 71, 74, 330, 331
Town Councils, 54
Town milk supply, 405, 411, 577, 578
Tractors—
imports of, 636, 638, 639
on farms, 399, 415
Trade and Industry, Department of, 240, 421, 487–490, 607, 608, 649–650, 714, 928, 1004
Trade courses and examinations, 225–228, 826–829
Trade (domestic), 581–595, 990–992
hire purchase (see hire purchase trade)
practices, 588–589
retail, 581, 582, 584, 585, 990–992
wholesale, 581, 582, 586, 587, 991–992
Trade (external), 596–647, 935, 951–953, 992–993
agreements, 567–570, 596–600, 643–647
balance of, 601
commissioner service, 608
direction of exports, 596–600, 602–605, 618–629
origin of imports, 597, 599, 600, 602–605, 633–637
per head, value of, 601
Promotion Council, 608–609
representation overseas, 608
statistics, compilation of, 601, 602, 629, 630
terms of, 664
volume of, 606, 611–613, 620–628, 637, 638
Trade unions, 856, 858–859
Trades Certification Board, 225, 226
Trademarks, patents and designs, 899
Trading banks, 755, 758–762, 763, 765, 767
Traffic—
accidents, 127, 132, 133, 369–370, 372
air, 374–379
offences, 272, 273, 274, 275, 280, 371, 372–373
Training Programme, Young Persons, 91
Transport, 274, 337–381, 389, 657, 658, 693, 711, 714, 717, 746, 884, 895, 903, 928, 1001, 1005
and storage industry production groups (SNA), 338–342, 686, 689–692, 694
board, 55
equipment, imports of, 630, 632, 638, 640
equipment industry, 498, 505, 507, 511, 659, 761
household expenditure on, 666–668
licensing, 367–368, 373
Ministry of, 145, 240, 351, 352, 369, 375, 388, 412
of school children, 215
to work, 368
urban, 374, 740–742, 744
Travel—
and tourism, 891–897
publications, 973–974
Trawling, 458, 459–461, 464
Treasury, 308, 388, 516, 710, 713, 928, 1003
Treaty of Waitangi, 26, 42, 57, 94, 957
Trees, forest, 437–440, 443–445, 450
Tribunals, administrative, 919
Trout, 8
Trust Account, 710, 714, 718
Trust (Liquor) control, 906
Trustee savings banks, 526, 755, 763, 765–768, 771–772, 791
Tuberculosis, 167
Tungsten ore, 468, 474, 475, 478
Tunnels, railway, 354
Twins and triplets born, 116, 119
Tyres and tubes, 496, 503, 511, 638

U

Unemployment, 231, 820–824, 947, 959, 961, 962, 985
benefits, 176–179, 181–182, 183–184
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 762
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, trade with, 29, 30, 460, 461, 563–567, 569, 596, 597, 599, 605, 618, 621–625, 628, 646
Unions—
employers, 857, 859
workers, 857–858
United Councils, 54, 55, 304, 306
United Kingdom—
communications with, 382, 385–386
consumption of butter, margarine, and meat, 571, 572
dairy produce and meat imported into, 563, 564, 567, 569–571
debt domiciled in, 955
exports to, 379, 563, 564, 567, 569–572, 578, 597, 598, 602, 618, 621–627, 629
imports from, 379, 597, 602, 633–637
investment in New Zealand, 703, 704
relations with, 26, 28–30, 563–567, 569–572, 596–598, 643, 644, 696, 700, 702, 961
visitors and migrants from, 102, 892–893
United Nations, 30, 31, 33–34, 36–39, 41, 248, 298
(UNCTAD), 645
Development Programme (UNDP), 34, 37, 41
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 38, 249, 933
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 37
Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA), 37
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 955
exports to, 379, 458, 462, 563, 564, 567, 568, 596, 597, 598, 603, 618, 621–629
imports from, 379, 597, 603, 633–637
investment in New Zealand, 703–704
relations with, 35
trade, finance, etc., 563, 564, 566–569, 596–598, 644, 696, 700, 702
visitors and migrants from, 102, 892–893
Universal Postal Union (UPU), 38
Universities, 91, 201, 203, 205–208, 214, 217, 219–225, 228, 230, 958
buildings, 203, 205, 529, 717
bursaries, 90, 208, 213, 219, 220, 222, 229
entrance examinations, 90, 208, 212, 213, 219, 229
extension, 230
graduates, 216, 217, 223–224
Grants Committee, 201, 219, 231, 238, 529, 826
scholarships, 90, 208, 213, 219, 220, 222, 223, 229
staff, 207, 223–225
students (see students, universities)
Urban—
areas, 63–65, 70–74, 86, 259, 360, 364
building permit values, 524
dwelling completions, 524
drainage boards, 740, 741, 744
house and section price index, 526–527
movement, 70–72
population, growth of, 70–74
Public Passenger Transport Council, 374
renewal, 742, 795
transport, 740–742, 744
transport board, 740, 741, 744
Urbanisation—
effects of, 302, 304

V

Valuation Department, 328, 526, 738, 929, 1003
Valuation of land, 328–331, 738
Valuation roll, 328–329
Valuers' Registration Board, 331
Veal—
consumption of, 670, 672
production of, 405, 672, 673, 993
Vegetable growing, commercial, 402, 403, 419–421, 423–424, 425
Vegetables—
and fruit, canned, 492, 500, 511
and fruit, household expenditure on, 667
and fruit processing industry, 420, 423, 426–428, 492, 500, 511
consumption of, 671, 673
exported, canned, frozen, or fresh, 993
retail prices of, 654
Venereal diseases, 126, 148, 167
Vessels—
fishing, 455, 458, 459, 460, 464
wrecked, 957–961
Vineyards and grapes, 419, 425, 427, 428
Violent crime, 267, 272, 273, 277, 281, 287, 288
Visitors to New Zealand, 100–101, 107–108, 891–894
Visual and audio aids, in teaching, 218
Vital statistics, 58, 113–140, 944
Vocational guidance, 201, 219
Vocational Training Council, 409, 826–827, 935
Volcanoes, 4–5, 9–12, 234–235, 262, 958
Volunteer Service Abroad, 39
Voting—
at general elections, 49, 906–907
at licensing polls, 907
qualifications, 48–49, 56

W

Wages (see Salaries and wages)
Wage, price, and rent freeze, 649–650, 764, 841
Waitangi National Trust, 321
Waitangi, Treaty of, 26, 42, 57, 94, 957
Walkways, 323
War pensions and allowances, 184, 190–194, 723, 933, 955
Washing machines, 531
Water—
accidents, 132–135
pollution, 309, 314
Resources Council, 311, 314
resources and management, 311–313, 412, 413, 440
subsidies, 742
supply boards, 742
transport, 339, 341–353
Waterfront industry, 866–867
Commission, 145
Weather, 14–24, 896
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 380–381
Welfare (See also Social Welfare)
maternal, 146, 155–157
of workers, 864, 866
organisations, 146, 158–159, 528–529
services, 158–159
Western Europe, New Zealand's relations with, 30, 563, 566–572
Western Samoa, 32–34, 58, 102, 105, 106, 218, 376, 383, 490, 598, 619, 887, 888, 959
Westminster, Statute of, 28, 43, 266
Wetlands, 309
Whales and whaling, 25, 455
Wheat, 420, 421, 422, 671, 949
Research Committee, 421, 934
Whey butter, 404
Whitebait, 463
Wholesale—
prices, 656
trade (see Retail and wholesale trade), 581, 582, 586, 587, 991–992
Widows and widowers—
benefits, 176–179, 180, 183, 184
remarriages of, 75, 78–79, 136–137
war pensions, 190, 191, 193
Wigs and hairpieces, 157–158
Wildlife, 321
management reserves, 321, 925
refuges, 321
reserves, 321
sanctuaries, 321
Winds, 15–16
Wine, consumption and price of, 263, 264, 493, 500, 672
Winemaking industry, 234, 419, 427, 428, 637
Women—
deaths of, in childbirth, 127, 132
employment in manufacturing, 492–499, 508, 509
in labour force, 88–89, 581–584, 817–819, 833–835, 836–838, 984
incomes of, 89, 98, 751–754
legislation affecting, 111
offences by, 271, 275, 276–278
parliamentary representation of, 50
police, 287
Women's Advisory Committee of the Vocational Training Council, 110–111
Women's Appointment File, 110
Wood and wood products industry, 494, 501, 507, 511, 513, 657, 658, 684, 689–693
Wood preservation, 448, 494, 501
Wood pulp—
exports and imports of, 448–450, 612, 614, 616, 627, 953, 993
production of, 445–447, 449, 450, 484, 487, 495, 502, 511
Wood-chip industry, 445, 614
Wool—
Board, New Zealand, 343, 408–409, 565, 573, 575, 576, 580, 961
export price index, 576, 663
exports, 350, 563, 565–567, 596, 597, 599, 600, 606, 609, 612, 614, 620–621, 780, 951, 993
Income Stabilisation Account, 576, 580
levy, 408, 576
marketing of, 408–409, 565–567, 573, 575, 576
prices for, 407–409, 576, 949–950
production, 403, 407–409, 486, 493, 500, 510, 949–950
Research Organisation, 235, 239, 314, 409, 934
scouring, 493, 500
Testing Authority, 409
Woollen mills, 486, 493, 500, 567, 803
Work accidents (see Industrial accidents)
Work permits, 107
Workers—
Educational Association, 230
Working—
conditions, 863–867
hours, 864
life expectancies, 838
Works and Development, Ministry of, 185, 234, 238, 240, 306, 308, 310, 313, 322, 324, 354, 361, 388, 463, 477, 478, 516, 543, 551, 713, 884, 929, 1003, 1005
World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development), 2.23, 550
World Health Organisation (WHO), 38, 126, 130, 132, 143, 150, 878, 889
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), 38
World population, 83–84
Wrecks, 352, 957–961

X

X-ray services, 155–156

Y

Young people, legal representation, 187–188
Young people, working conditions of, 865–866
Youth Aid Section, New Zealand Police, 186, 187, 288
Youth hostels, 528, 529, 824, 825
Youth Hostels Association, 260
Youth Initiatives Fund, 261
Youth Services Distribution Committee, 261, 265

Z

Zinc and lead, 474, 475
Zoology publications, 968–969